The ideal transformer

Ideal transformer circuit diagram

Consider the ideal, lossless, perfectly-coupled transformer shown in the circuit diagram at right having
primary and secondary windings with N
P
and N
S
turns, respectively.
The ideal transformer induces secondary voltage E
S
=V
S
as a proportion of the primary voltage V
P
= E
P

and respective winding turns as given by the equation
,
where
- V
P
/V
S
= E
P
/E
S
= a is the voltage ratio and N
P
/N
S
= a is the winding turns ratio, the value of these
ratios being respectively higher and lower than unity for step-down and step-up transformers.
- V
P
designates source impressed voltage,
- V
S
designates output voltage, and,
- E
P
& E
S
designate respective emf induced voltages.

Any load impedance connected to the ideal transformer's secondary winding causes current to flow
without losses from primary to secondary circuits, the resulting input and output apparent power therefore
being equal as given by the equation
.

Combining the two equations yields the following ideal transformer identity
.

This formula is a reasonable approximation for the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and
winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.
The load impedance is defined in terms of secondary circuit voltage and current as follows
.
The apparent impedance of this secondary circuit load referred to the primary winding circuit is
governed by a squared turns ratio multiplication factor relationship derived as follows
.

Induction law
The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field and
second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is
developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.
Referring to the two figures here, current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The
primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, usually
iron,
[c]
so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils. Any
secondary winding connected load causes current and voltage induction from primary to secondary
circuits in indicated directions.


Ideal transformer and induction law
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which
states that:

where V
s
= E
s
is the instantaneous voltage, N
s
is the number of turns in the secondary coil, and d/dt is
the derivative
[d]
of the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and the
area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the
transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary.
Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal
transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the above two equations gives the same voltage ratio and turns ratio relationship
shown above, that is,
.
The changing magnetic field induces an emf across each winding. The primary emf, acting as it does in
opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the counter emf. This is in accordance with Lenz's
law, which states that induction of emf always opposes development of any such change in magnetic
field.
As still lossless and perfectly-coupled, the transformer still behaves as described above in the ideal
transformer.
Polarity


Instrument transformer, with polarity dot and X1 markings on LV side terminal
A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or terminal markings to define
the relative polarity of transformer windings. Positively-increasing instantaneous current entering the
primary winding's dot end induces positive polarity voltage at the secondary winding's dot end.
The real transformer
Real transformer deviations from ideal
The ideal model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real transformers:
Core losses collectively called magnetizing current losses consisting of:
Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the transformer
core
Eddy current losses due to joule heating in core proportional to the square of the
transformer's applied voltage.
Whereas the ideal windings have no impedance, the windings in a real transformer have finite
non-zero impedances in the form of:
Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings.
Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in
primary and secondary reactive impedance.
Leakage flux
Main article: Leakage inductance


Leakage flux of a transformer


Notes
1. ^ "The turn ratio of a transformer is the ratio of the number of turns in the high-voltage winding
to that in the low-voltage winding", common usage having evolved over time from 'turn ratio' to
'turns ratio',
2. ^ As each ideal transformer winding's impressed voltage equals its induced voltage, induced
voltages are omitted for clarity in the next four equations.
3. ^ Transformer winding coils are usually wound around ferromagnetic cores but can also be air-
core wound.
4. ^ The expression d/dt, defined as the derivative of magnetic flux with time t, provides a
measure of rate of magnetic flux in the core and hence of emf induced in the respective
winding.
5. ^ ANSI/IEEE C57.13, ANS Requirements for Instrument Transformers, defines polarity as the
'designation of the relative instantaneous directions of the currents entering the primary
terminals and leaving the secondary terminals during most of each half cycle', the word
'instantaneous' differentiating from say phasor current.
6. ^ Transformer polarity can also be identified by terminal markings H0,H1,H2... on primary
terminals and X1,X2, (and Y1,Y2, Z1,Z2,Z3... if windings are available) on secondary terminals.
Each letter prefix designates a different winding and each numeral designates a termination or
tap on each winding. The designated terminals H1,X1, (and Y1, Z1 if available) indicate same
instantaneous polarities for each winding as in the dot convention.
7. ^ A standardized open-circuit or unloaded transformer test called the Epstein frame can also be
used for the characterization of magnetic properties of soft magnetic materials including
especially electrical steels.
8. ^ Transformer hum's fundamental noise frequency is two times that of the power frequency as
there is an extension and a contraction of core laminations for every cycle of the AC wave and a
transformer's audible hum noise level is dominated by the fundamental noise frequency and its
first triplen harmonic, i.e., by the 100 & 300 Hz, or 120 & 360 Hz, frequencies.
[34]

9. ^ For example, the delta-wye transformer, by far the most common commercial three-phase
transformer, is known as the Dyn11 vector group configuration, Dyn11 denoting D for delta
primary winding, y for wye secondary winding, n for neutral of the wye winding, and 11 for
relative phase position on the clock by which the secondary winding leads the primary winding,
namely, 30 leading.
10. ^ While the above formal definition, derived from standards such as IEEE C57.12.80, applies to
large transformers, it is not uncommon in colloquial, or even trade, parlance for small general-
purpose transformers to be ref