1

TABLE OF CONTENT
BIL TITLE PAGE
1. Abstract/ summary 2
2. Introduction 3-4
3. Aims/ objectives 4
4. Theory 4-7
5. Procedures 7-9
6. Apparatus 10
7. Results 11-12
8. Discussions 13-14
9. Conclusions 14-15
10 recommendations 15
11 References 15
2

ABSTRACT
From this experiment, we need to prepare soap and compare its properties to that of a synthetics
detergent. Before that, we must prepare the stock solution of soap and detergent. The name of
synthetic detergent that we use is Dynamo. To prepare the stock solution, we dissolve 2 g of soap
and 2 g of liquid water in 100 mL of boiling water, distilled water. Then, we determine the pH of
both solutions. For stock soap solution, the pH is 11.10 and for the stock detergent solution, the
pH is 8.38. Then, we prepare three test tubes and label. Add 4 drop of oil in each test tube. Test
tube 1: distilled water, test tube 2: stock soap solution, and test tube 3: stock detergent solution.
After five minutes, a single layer formed in the test tubes 2 and two layer formed in test tube 1
and 3. Besides that, in detergent, the nonpolar fatty acids group are replaced with alkyl or aryl
sulfonic acid (ROSO3H) that giving the hydrophobic (nonpolar) end. The salt of the sulfonic
acid (sulfonate) group forms the hydrophilic end of the molecule. From theory, aryl and alkyl
sulfonates do not form insoluble salts in the presence of mineral salts. Hardness water is caused
by presence of mineral salts such as Ca, Mg and Fe. The mineral salts react with soap to form
insoluble precipitate. From our results, test tube 1 and 2 are form precipitate.
For the mineral salts in the detergent, there is no precipitate formed because alkyl and aryl
sulfonates do not form insoluble salts in the presence of the typical hard water ions. From our
observation, we get the same results with the theory. Emulsification occurred in the three test
tubes which is a single layer formed. In acidic solution, stock soap form insoluble precipitate and
for the stock detergent, there is no precipitate formed because it soluble in acidic. The number of
drop of acid in stock soap is 7 drops and for the stock detergent is 2 drops.
In comparison of the cleaning abilities of soap and detergent, we observe that the pure Dynamo
give a cleaner than soap and water after the cloth strips has been soaked in tomato sauce. It is
because the presence of different in polar group. We can say that the synthetic detergent is more
effective solution to remove out all the dirty.








3

INTRODUCTION
The making of soap was believed to be first invented by the Babylonians in 2800 BC and the
Phoenicians around 600 BC. In the early history, soap was used for the purpose of cleaning
textile fibres such as wool and cotton in preparation for the dyeing process instead of personal
hygiene. Our ancestors from old days figured out the layer of grease on garments which will
obstruct the application for the dyeing process.
Soap was named after Mount Sapo, according to a Roman legend, was a place where the Romans
performed a ritual of animal sacrifing. Ironically, the fats of the animals that got mixed with
wood ashes was then washed downhill where the women discovered that the mixture aided their
cloth wasing activities.
Eugene Chevreul was the person responsible for the founding of chemical nature of soap and the
modern soap-making begun in the 19
th
Century.
In todays progressive world of science and technology, soap is manufactured much like it was
back then, where fats and oils are technically heated with the presence of a strong base
(commonly sodium hydroxide pr potassium hydroxide) to produce fatty acid salts and glycerol in
a process termed as saponification. As a matter of fact, the salt of a fatty acid is the soap, which
is a soft and waxy material that brush up the ability for cleaning purpose of water. A positive ion,
usually Na
+
or K
+
, and a negative ion usually the anions of long-chained carboxylic acids
yielded by hydrolysis of either animals or vegetables fats.
The presence of double bonds (unsaturated) with fatty acids materials, or soap tends to decrease
its melting point and thus, the compounds are in liquid state at room temperature. Technically,
vegetable fats are relatively unsaturated and liquid under the ordinary conditions, whereas
animals fats are relatively more saturated and solid or semi-solid at the same temperature.
Double bonds are said to lower the melting point of a fatty acid chain because its cis-
conformation produces a bent chain which does not easily adhere to a neighbouring by a Van der
Waals attraction. Hence a lower temperature is required for these materials to form a solid crystal
lattice.
However, during World War 1, the first synthetic detergent has been produced, mainly because
of the urge to find another cleaning agent that would react in hard water.
A variety of detergent can be found today, which generally contain surfactants, a builder, and
other additives such as bleaching agents and enzymes. The surfactants are the parts that are
responsible for the cleaning properties of that particular detergent. Some of them maybe ionic,
cationic or even non-ionic. The builders indeed are compounds responsible for removing the
corresponding calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.
4

However, there are two detergent which may not be as it may concern, mostly that contains
phosphates. Such detergents will end up in wastewater and cause excessive growth of algae and
other aquatic plants. When those die, bacteria that present in the dead matter consume oxygen
which result in the lack of oxygen left for the fish and other aquatic lives.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this experiment are to prepare soap and compare its properties to that of a
synthetics detergent.
THEORY
Most organic acids are weak acids. Soap is the salt of a weak acid. Consequently, hydrolysis
occurs to some extent when soap dissolves in water. Soap solution tends to be slightly alkaline
(basic) due to partial hydrolysis of the acid (Eq.3).
Eq. 3:


The cleansing action of soaps results from two effects. Soaps are wetting agents that reduce the
surface tension of water, allowing the water molecules to encounter the dirty object. They are
also emulsifying agents. Dirt frequently consists of a grease or oil along with other organic
species. In general, organic compound are nonpolar. Water is a polar species. These two
substances are not dissolving in each other because of their dissimilar characteristics (the Like
Dissolves Like rule). Soaps cross the boundry between polar and nonpolar because they contain
a polar hydrophobic (water-hating) end and a polar hydrophilic (water loving) end as shown in
Figure 3.2.






Figure 7-2: Molecular structure, a) a line drawing, b) of sodium stearate. In a line drawing, all carbon and hydrogen
atoms are omitted at the intersection of each line as a shorthand method of drawing molecule. It is understood that
the C and H atoms are part of the molecule.
5

Because soaps have both polar and nonpolar region in the molecule, they are soluble in both
polar and nonpolar species. The hydrophobic (nonpolar) portion of soap is soluble in nonpolar
compound like grease and oils. The hydrophilic (polar) end dissolves in water. Soap molecules
surround the grease and oils and break them up into microscopic droplets can remain suspended
in the water. These suspended microscopic droplets are called micelles (Figure 3-3). Micelles
contain very small amounts of oil or grease in their center. Thus the oil or grease has been
dissolved in water forming an emulsion, one form of a suspension in water.








Figure 7-3: Formation of micelles
Water supplies in certain areas are acidic as a result of acid rain or pollution, or hard due to the
dissolved mineral content. Both acidic and hard water reduce the cleansing action of soap.
Soap is the salt of a weak acid. In the presence of a stronger acid, the sodium salt is converted to
an insoluble organic acid (Eq.7-4).


(Equation 7-4)



Hard water contains dissolved Ca
2+
and Fe
3+
ions from the minerals that the water passes over.
Normally, soaps made from sodium and potassium fatty acid salts are soluble in water. However,
6

in the presence of these metal ions, the Na+ and K+ soluble salts convert to insoluble Ca
2+,
Mg
2+,

and Fe
3+
salts (E.q.7-5).



(Equation 7-5)
In either acidic or hard water, the soluble soaps form insoluble salts that becomes a scummy
ring on bathtubs and black areas on shirt collars. The cleansing ability of soap is reduced because
soap molecules are removed from solution. There are several techniques used to circumvent the
problems generated by hard water. Water can be softened via removing hard water ions from
solution using ion exchange techniques or by adding water-softening agents, such as sodium
phosphate (Na
3
PO
4
) or sodium carbonate (Na
2
CO
3
). Water softening agents react with the Ca
2+,
Mg
2+
, and Fe
3+
, removing them from water (Eq. 7-6 and 7-7) and preventing the reaction of
these ions with soap (Eq. 7-4 and 7-5).


Equation 7-6

Equation 7-7
Syndets is a short for synthetic detergent. Thus Syndets was design to overcome the soap
with hard water. Syndets differ from soaps in that the nonpolar fatty acids groups are replaced
with alkyl or aryl sulfonic acid (ROS03H). The alkyl or aryl sulfonic acids have long chains of
carbon atoms giving the hydrophobic (nonpolar) end. The salt of the sulfonic acid (sulfonate)
group forms the hydrophilic end of the molecule. The difference in polar groups is one of the key
distinctions between soap and a synthetic detergent. Syndets form micelles and cleanse in the
same manner as soaps. Two examples of synthetic detergent are shown in Figure 7-4.



7



Figure 7-4: Examples of synthetics detergent
Because sulfonic acid is a stronger acid than carboxylic acid, Syndets do not precipitate in acidic
solutions. Furthermore, alkyl and aryl sulfonates do not form insoluble salts in the presence of
the typical hard water ions. Thus, synthetic detergents remain soluble in both acidic and hard
water.
Detergents have similar molecular structures and properties as soap. Although the cleansing
action is similar, the detergents do not react as readily with hard water ions of Ca, Mg. There are
many substances in the detergent such as surfactants that reduce the surface tension of water.
Besides that, enzymes are used to digest protein, fats, carbohydrate in stains or to modify fabric
feel. Then, the function of oxidants is for breaking down organic compound.

PROCEDURES
Part A: Soap preparation
1. 12.5mL of vegetable oil is placed in a 250mL Erlenmeyer flask. 10mL of ethanol and
12.5mL of 6M sodium hydroxide solution are added to the flask. The mixture is stirred
using a stirring bar to mix the contents of the flask. The alcohol is carefully smelled by
wafting it towards our nose.
2. The 250mL flask is heated in a 600mL boiling water bath.
3. The mixture is stirred continuously during the heating process to prevent the mixture
from foaming. If the mixture should foam to the point of nearly overflowing, the flask is
removed from the boiling water bath until the foaming subsides, then heating is
continued. The mixture is heated for 20-30 minute or until the alcohol odor is no longer
detectable.
4. The paste-like mixture is removed from the water bath and the flask is cooled in an ice
bath for 10-15 minutes.
5. While the flask is cooling, the vacuum filtration apparatus is assemble . the vacuum flask
is secured to a ring stand with a utility clamp to prevent the apparatus from toppling aver.
6. A piece of filter paper is weight to the nearest 0.001g and the mass is recorded. The filter
paper is placed inside the Buchner funnel. The paper is moistened with water it fits flush
in the bottom of the funnel.
7. Once the flask has cooled, 75mL of saturated sodium chloride (NaCl) solution is added
to the flask to salt out the soap.
8

8. The water at the aspirator is slowly turned on. The mixture from the flask is poured into
the Buchner funnel. Once all of the liquid has filtered through the funnel, the soap was
washed with 10mL of ice cold water. The suction filtration is continued until all of the
water is removed from the soap.
9. The soap is removed from the funnel and pressed between two paper towels to dry it. The
filter paper and dried soap are weighed, and the mass is recorded to the nearest 0.001g
and the mass of the soap determined by difference and the mass is then recorded.


Part B: Comparison of soap and detergent properties, precipitation and emulsification
1. A stock soap solution is prepared by dissolving 2g of soap in 100mL of boiling, distilled
water. The mixture is stirred until the soap has dissolved and allows the solution to cool.
2. Step 1 is repeated using 2g of synthetic detergent (e.g, Dynamo). Determine the pH of
each solution using pH meter when both solution are cool.
3. Three test tubes are labelled 1, 2, and 3. 4 drops of mineral oil are dropped to each test
tube. 5 mL of distilled water is added to test tube 1. 5 mL of stock soap solution is added
to test tube 2. 5 mL of stock synthetic detergent to test tube 3.
4. Mix each solution by shaking and let stand for three to five minutes. Note which of the
solution, if any, emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer.
5. The mixtures are poured into the waste container. Clean and dry the three test tubes.
6. Three test tubes are labeled 1, 2, and 3. 2 mL of stock acid solution is placed in each of
the three test tubes. 2 mL of 1% CaCI
2
soultuion is added to test tube 1. 2 mL of 1%
MgCI
2
solution is added to test tube 2. 2 mL of 1%FeCI
2
solution is added to test tube 3.
Shake each test tube to mix the solutions. Record the observation.
7. 4 drop of mineral oil is added to each of the test tubes in step 6. Shake each test tube to
mix the solutions and let the solutions stand for three five minutes. Note which of the
solutions, if any, emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer.
8. Step 6-7 is repeated using 2 mL of stock detergent solution.
9. Note which of the solutions emulsifies the oil by forming a single layer.
10. The mixtures are poured into the waste container. Clean and dry the test tube.
9

11. 5 mL of stock acid solution is placed in cine clean test tube and 5 mL of stock detergent
solution in a second test tube. 1 drop of 1 M HCI is added at a time to both solutions until
the pH in each test tube is equal to 3. (Use pH mere to measure). Count the number of
drops of acid added to each mixture.
12. 1 drops of mineral oil is added to each test tube in step 11. Shake the test tube to mix the
solution.
Comparison of the abilities of soap and detergent
1. Clean, dry, and label three beakers. 20 mL of stock soap solution (from step 1 in section
7.4.3) in the 1
st
beaker. 20 mL of a commercial liquid dynamo.
2. Three cloth test strips obtained that have been soaked in tomato sauce and place one strip
in each of the beakers. Place one cloth strip in beaker 1 (from above), one cloth strip in
beaker 2, and one cloth strip in beaker 3. Repeatedly stir each solution with a stirring rod
for 5 minutes.
3. The cloth strips are removed from the soap and detergent solution and squeeze out the
excess water. Visually compare each cloth strip to determine their relative cleanliness.
Record the observation.












10

APPARATUS
List of chemicals:
Mineral oil
Distilled water
Boiling water
Soap
Synthetic detergent (Dynamo)
1% CaCI
2
solution
1%MgCI
2
solution
1%FeCl
2

1 M HCI
Tomato sauce
List of apparatus:
Beaker
pH meter
test tube
dropper
stirring rod
cloth test strip





11

RESULTS
SOAP PREPARATION
Mass of filter paper (g) 0.006
Mass of filter paper + soap (g) 23.5189
Mass of soap recovered (g) 23.5129

Comparison of soap and detergent properties
Brand name of synthetics detergent Dynamo
pH of soap solution 11.10
pH of synthetics detergent solution 8.38

System Emulsification occurred
Distilled water Two layers
Soap Single layer
Detergent single layers

Stock soap
System Observations Emulsification occurred
CaCI
2
Precipitate occur No
MgCI
2
Precipitate occur No
FeCI
2
Precipitate occur No




12

Detergent
System Observations Emulsification occurred
CaCI
2
No precipitate Yes
MgCI
2
No precipitate Yes
FeCI
2
No precipitate Yes


Amount of drops observation Emulsification
occur
Stock soap 7 drops Precipitate Yes-single layer
Detergent 2 drops No precipitate Yes-single layer


Comparison of the cleaning abilities of soap and detergent
Observation
Distilled water Clean
Stock soap solution Cleaner
Stock detergent solution Cleanest

Cloth stripe that soaked in detergent is the cleanest among the three. So that the detergent has
the highest cleaning ability compared to soap and distilled water.




13

DISCUSSION
After conduct this experiment, we are able to prepare soap and compare its properties to that of a
synthetic detergent. For the first experiment which is to compare the properties of soap and
detergent (precipitation and emulsification). We need to prepare stock soap solution and stock
synthetic detergent. The brand name of synthetic detergent is Dynamo. To prepare that solution,
we have to dissolve 2 g of soap and 2 g of liquid Dynamo in 100 mL of boiling water (distilled
water). After the solutions cool, we determine the pH of each solution. From the results, the pH
of stock soap solution is 11.10 and the pH of stock synthetic detergent is 8.38. Both of solutions
are alkaline.
Comparison of soap and detergent properties: - precipitation and emulsification.
Then, we prepare three test tubes which are 1, 2, and 3. Test tube 1: add 5 mL of distilled water.
Test tube 2: add 5 mL of stock soap solution. Test tube 3: add 5 mL of stock synthetic detergent.
Next, we add 4 drops of mineral oil to each test tube. After shaking within five minutes, we can
see that, emulsification occurred in test tube 2 and 3 which is forming a single layer. For test tube
1 , emulsification are not occurred because the two layers are formed. Saponification is a one of
the organic chemical reactions which is a preparation of soap. This method involves heating fats
and oil and reacting them with liquid alkali to produce soap and water. It means that this is a
process of neutralization of fatty acid with alkali. From the results, emulsification is not occurred
in test tube 1 because the reaction is between water and oil. As we know, oil is not soluble in
water. So, water cannot remove the oil or grease from the fabric. Emulsification should be
occurred in test tube 2 and 3 because soap molecules attach readily to both nonpolar molecules
(such as grease and oil) and polar molecules (such as water). In soap structures, there is an ionic
end and hydrocarbon end. Ionic end is soluble in water while the hydrocarbon ends attract oil or
grease. In detergent, there is a nonpolar end which is alkyl and aryl sulfonic acids. So, oil is a
nonpolar and interacts with each other. A surfactants are an important substance because it may
reduce the surface tension of the water. It also can dissolve oil or grease and wet the surface.
Next, we prepare three test tubes (1,2 and 3). Place 2 mL of soap solution in each of the three test
tubes. Then, place 2 mL of 1%CaCI
2
solution to test tube 1, 2 mL of 1% MgCI
2
solution to test
tube 2, and 2 mL of 1% FeCI
2
solution to test tube 3. Shake all the test tube for 10 minutes. After
10 minutes, we can see that precipitate is formed in the test tube 1,2 and 3. For the discussion, it
a precipitate form in three test tube because it contains some mineral salt; calcium, magnesium
and iron. These mineral salts may cause the hardness in water. These mineral salts react with
soap to form an insoluble precipitate
After observe the precipitation, we add 4 drops of mineral oil to each of the test tubes. We shake
for five minutes. After five minutes, there are two layer occurred in test tube 1, 2 and 3. It means
that the emulsification is not occurring for three test tubes. The precipitate still forms at the
14

bottom of the test tube. For test tube 1, 2 and 3, emulsification are not occur because the salts
(calcium, iron and magnesium) are not react with soap to form insoluble precipitate. It very hard
to dissolve the oil in the hardness water.
Next, we replace a stock soap solution with a stock detergent solution. Then we add the same
chemical (CaCI
2
, MgCI
2
and FeCI
2
). From the results, we can see that there is no precipitate
formed for the three test tubes. Although detergent have similar molecular structures and
properties as soap. Although the cleansing action is similar, the detergents do not react as readily
with hard water ions of Ca and Mg. So, precipitate will not formed. In detergent, the nonpolar
fatty acids group are replaced with alkyl or aryl sulfonic acid (ROSO3H) that giving the
hydrophobic (nonpolar) end. The salt of the sulfonic acid (sulfonate) group forms the hydrophilic
end of the molecule. From theory, aryl and alkyl sulfonates do not form insoluble salts in the
presence of mineral salts. After add the mineral oil, we can see that there is a single layer formed
in the all test tubes. That means the emulsification occurred. Surfactants in the detergent act to
dissolve the oil and reduce the surface tension of water.
Prepare a 5 mL of stock soap solution and stock detergent solution in cine test tubes. We need to
add one drop by one drop of 1 M HCI to the test tube until the pH is equal to 3. From the results,
the number of drops of acid added to stock soap solution is 7 drops and for the stock detergent
solution; 2 drops. The precipitate occurred in the stock soap solution. After mineral oil is added,
we can see that both test tubes form a single layer. As we known both soap and detergent are
alkaline. The stock soap solution need 7 drops of acid to achieve pH 3 and for stock detergent, it
need 2 drops of acid to achieve pH 3. It is because the soap is more alkaline than detergent.
Comparison of the cleaning abilities of a soap and detergent
For this section, we can determine their relative cleanliness. Three cloth strips are placed in
different solution which is distilled water, stock soap solution and stock detergent solution(pure
liquid Dynamo). From the results, a cloth strip that placed in pure liquid Dynamo is cleanest, in
stock soap solution is cleaner, and in distilled water is clean.
CONCLUSION
After conduct this experiment, we can conclude that detergent have high abilities to remove oil,
grease and other substance such as sauce tomato. Soap is also a good cleaning agent, but its
effectiveness is reduced when use in hard water. Hardness in water is caused by the presence of
mineral salts - mostly those of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), but sometimes also iron (Fe)
and manganese (Mn). The mineral salts react with soap to form an insoluble precipitate.
Detergents have similar molecular structures and properties as soap but the detergent do not react
as readily with hard water ions. In detergent, the nonpolar fatty acids group are replaced with
alkyl or aryl sulfonic acid (ROSO3H) that giving the hydrophobic (nonpolar) end. The salt of the
sulfonic acid (sulfonate) group forms the hydrophilic end of the molecule. From theory, aryl and
15

alkyl sulfonates do not form insoluble salts in the presence of mineral salts. The important
substance in detergent is surfactants. It can dissolves grease and oil and reduce the surface
tension of water. From the results, there is some error occur during prepare the solution. It can be
seen when there is no precipitate form in the solution that contains Ca and Mg. From the theory,
mineral salts such as Ca and Mg will react with soap to form insoluble precipitate.
Emulsification occurs when the hydrocarbon ends attract oil and ionic end is soluble in water.
RECOMMENDATIONS
There are a few recommendations that will significantly produce better observations which will
not deviate from the theoretical observations.
Firstly, the experiment should at least be repeated twice in order to get more accurate
observations. The observations might be more convincing if the average is taken.
Secondly, any pH reading must be conducted at same temperature for pH is varying at different
temperatures. Avoid contact with any chemical reagents involved. Thus, wash hands before
leaving the laboratory.
REFERENCES
Laboratory manual, CHE 485 Faculty of Chemical Engineering, UiTM.
Yahoo and google search engine (keyword: soap and detergent)
www.sciencedirect.com
www.wikipidea.com