DESIGN OF DRINKING WATER TREATMENT

PLANT FOR ARNI UNIVERSITY

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by
SUKHSHAM SHARMA AACI0044A/09
VIPUL KERNI AACI0046A/09
AMAN SHARMA AACI0047A/09
AJAY VERMA AACI0048A/09
TARUN PURI AACI0050A/09

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

CIVIL ENGINEERING








ARNI SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY


ARNI UNIVERSITY:: KANGRA

JUNE 2013
ii


ARNI UNIVERSITY: KANGRA

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report DESIGN OF DRINKING WATER PLANT
FOR ARNI UNIVERSITY is the bonafide work of SUKHSHAM
SHARMA (AACI0044A/09), VIPUL KENRI (AACI0046A/09), AMAN
SHARMA (AACI0047A/09), AJAY VERMA (AACI0048A/09) and TARUN
PURI (AACI0050A/09) who carried out the major project work under my
supervision.



SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr. BHARANIDHARAN B Mr. DAVINDER SINGH
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT ASSOCIATE DEAN






EXTERNAL EXAMINER INTERNAL EXAMINER SUPERVISOR

iii

ABSTRACT

This project presents a review on design of drinking water treatment plant
including the design of for sedimentation, filtration, chlorination, aeration etc.
The main work of this project is to check the WHO standards for drinking
water, to check whether water is suitable for drinking purposes or not. If it is not
so then various treatment methods are used for maintaining the standards of
water. The application of modern water treatment processes had a major impact
on water-transmitted diseases, and these processes provide barriers or lines of
defense between the consumer and waterborne disease. This project provides an
overview of the drinking water treatment processes. The most common
treatment process train for surface water supplies is conventional treatment,
which consists of disinfection, coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation,
filtration, and disinfection. The safe drinking water requires a holistic approach
that considers the source of water and treatment processes. Depending on water
quality influent, each unit can be optimized to achieve the desired water quality
effluent, both in design and operation stages. A typical water treatment plant has
the combination of processes needed to treat the contaminants in the source
water treated by facility. The presence of unbeatable organic or mineral
substance causes some problems in obtaining drinking water. Understanding
these phenomena requires taking into account the physical and chemical natures
of the water to be treated.





iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


We express our sincere and heartfelt thanks to the MANAGEMENT and the
CHANCELLOR and PRO CHANCELLOR for providing all the necessary
facilities and support required for carrying out this project successfully.

We thank our Vice Chancellor Dr. S.K. KAUSHAL for his care and
guidance which helped us in completing this project in time.

We express our sincere thanks to our Associate Dean Mr. DAVINDER
SINGH and Head of the Department Mr. B.BHARANIDHARAN for their
valuable suggestions and encouragement throughout this project.

We also express our sincere thanks to the TEACHING and NON-
TEACHING STAFF of our department, who had showed a keen interest at all
stages of our work and provided us with the required help.

We gratefully acknowledge the help rendered by our UNIVERSITY
LIBRARIAN and his Staff for providing us with the necessary books and
references.

Finally our unfailing gratitude is to our PARENTS and FRIENDS for
their love and affection, which kept us on wheels to do the work energetically
and successfully.




v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT iii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS xi
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 GENERAL 1
1.2 WATER SOURCES 3
1.2.1 Hydrological cycle terms 3
1.3 SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER 4
1.4 WATER QUALITY 5
1.5 POTABLE WATER 7
1.6 REQUIREMENT FOR WATER 7
1.7 NEED FOR TREATMENT 8
1.7.1 Water borne diseases 8
2. LITRATURE REVIEW 10
2.1 OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT 18
3. WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS 19
3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER 19
3.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 20
3.2.1 Turbidity 20
3.2.2 Colour 21
vi

3.2.3 Taste and odour 21
3.2.4 Temperature 21
3.3 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS 22
3.3.1 PH 22
3.3.2 Acidity 22
3.3.3 Alkalinity 22
3.3.4 Hardness 23
3.3.5 Chlorides 23
3.3.6 Sulphates 23
3.3.7 Iron 24
3.3.8 Solids 24
3.3.9 Nitrate 24
3.4 WATER TREATMENT METHODS 26
3.4.1 Aeration 27
3.4.2 Types of aerators 27
3.5 SETTLING 28
3.5.1 Purpose of settling 28
3.5.2 Principle of settling 29
3.5.3 Types of settling 29
3.5.4 Types of settling tanks 29
3.6 COAGULATION AND
FLOCCULATION
30
3.6.1 Flocculation 30
3.6.2 Mechanism of flocculation 31
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3.6.3 Coagulation in water treatment 31
3.7 FILTRATION 32
3.7.1 Filtration mechanism 32
3.7.2 Filter material 32
3.7.3 Types of filter 33
3.7.4 Principle of slow sand filter 34
3.7.5 Slow sand Vs rapid sand filter 35
3.8 DISINFECTION 36
3.8.1 Methods of disinfection 36
3.8.2 Forms of application of chlorine 37
4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 39
4.1 TO DETRMINE TOTAL HARDNESS
OF WATER SAMPLE
39
4.2 TO DETERMINE ALKALINITY OF
WATER SAMPLE
40
4.3 TO DETRMINE PH VALUE OF
WATER SAMPLE
40
4.4 TO DETEMINE CHLORIDE CONTENT
IN WATER SAMPLE
41
4.5 TO DETRMINE THE TOTAL
DISSOLVED SOLIDS IN WATER
SAMPLE
42
4.6 TO DETERMINE DISSOLVED
OXYGEN IN WATER
43
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 45
5.1 RESULTS OF CHEMICAL TEST 50
viii

5.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 53
6. DESIGN OF DRINKING WATER
TREATMENT PLANT
54
6.1 WATER QUANTITY ESTIMATION 54
6.2 FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF
DEMAND
54
6.3 DESIGN PERIOD AND POPULATION
FORECAST
55
6.4 DESIGN DETAILS 56
6.5 DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANK 58
6.6 DESIGN OF RAPID SAND FILTER 59
6.7 DESIGN FOR CHLORINATION 60
6.8 DESIGN OF COAGULATION TANK 60
7. CONCLUSION 62
REFERENCES 63

ix

LIST OF TABLES


TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
3.1 PHYSICAL STANDARADS OF DRINKING
WATER
25
3.2 CHEMICAL STANDARDS FOR
DRINKING WATER
25
3.3 FUNCTIONS OF WATER TREATMENT
UNIT
26
4.1 DETERMINATION OF PH 41


x

LIST OF FIGURES


FIGURE NO. TITLE OF FIGURE PAGE NO.
1.1 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE IN NATURE 4
3.1 CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF RAPID
SAND FILTER
34
3.2 OPERATION OF RAPID SAND FILTER 36
3.3 WATER TREATMENT STEPS 38
3.4 WATER TREATMENT PLANT 38


xi

LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

BCM Billion cubic meter
CPCB Central pollution control board
WHO World health organization
GIGO Garbage in garbage out
NTU Nephelometric turbidity unit
JTU Jackson turbidity unit
DBP Disinfection by product
ETSW Extended terminal sub fluidization wash filter
FPA Flavor profile analysis
TDS Total dissolved solids
EDTA Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid
SSF Slow sand filter
EBT Erichrome black T
BOD Biological oxygen demand
DI Deionization
RO Reverse osmosis

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Water is a precious commodity. Most of the earth water is sea water. About
2.5% of the water is fresh water that does not contain significant levels of
dissolved minerals or salt and two third of that is frozen in ice caps and glaciers.
In total only 0.01% of the total water of the planet is accessible for
consumption. Clean drinking water is a basic human need. Unfortunately, more
than one in six people still lack reliable access to this precious resource in
developing world.
India accounts for 2.45% of land area and 4% of water resources of the world
but represents 16% of the world population. With the present population
growth-rate (1.9 per cent per year), the population is expected to cross the 1.5
billion mark by 2050. The Planning Commission, Government of India has
estimated the water demand increase from 710 BCM (Billion Cubic Meters) in
2010 to almost 1180 BCM in 2050 with domestic and industrial water
consumption expected to increase almost 2.5 times. The trend of urbanization in
India is exerting stress on civic authorities to provide basic requirement such as
safe drinking water, sanitation and infrastructure. The rapid growth of
population has exerted the portable water demand, which requires exploration of
raw water sources, developing treatment and distribution systems.

The raw water quality available in India varies significantly, resulting in
modifications to the conventional water treatment scheme consisting of
aeration, chemical coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and
disinfection. The backwash water and sludge generation from water treatment
plants are of environment concern in terms of disposal. Therefore, optimization
2

of chemical dosing and filter runs carries importance to reduce the rejects from
the water treatment plants. Also there is a need to study the water treatment
plants for their operational status and to explore the best feasible mechanism to
ensure proper drinking water production with least possible rejects and its
management. With this backdrop, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB),
studied water treatment plants located across the country, for prevailing raw
water quality, water treatment technologies, operational practices, chemical
consumption and rejects management.

Water to be supplied for public use must be potable i.e., satisfactory for
drinking purposes from the standpoint of its chemical, physical and biological
characteristics. Drinking water should, preferably, be obtained from a source
free from pollution. The raw water normally Available from surface water
sources is, however, not directly suitable for drinking purposes. The objective of
water treatment is to produce safe and potable drinking water. Some of the
common treatment processes used in the past includes Plain sedimentation,
Slow Sand filtration, and Rapid Sand filtration with Coagulation-flocculation
units as essential pretreatment units. Pressure filters and diatomaceous filters
have been used though very rarely. Roughing filters are used, under certain
circumstances, as pretreatment units for the conventional filters. The treatment
processes may need pretreatment like pre-chlorination and aeration prior to
conventional treatment. The pretreatment processes comprising of Coagulation
and Flocculation have been discussed under the main title of Rapid Sand filters.
Detailed discussion on all such aspects as well a recommended unit operations,
is given in the Manual on Water Supply and Treatment (1999 Edition) Ministry
of Urban Development.



3

1.2 WATER SOURCES
Before we discuss the types of treatment it is easier to first understand how the
source of water arrives.

1.2.1 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE TERMS
Precipitation: The process by which atmospheric moisture falls on to the
land or water surface as rain, snow, hail or other forms of moisture.
Infiltration: The gradual flow or movement of water into and through
the pores of the soil.
Runoff: Water that drains from a saturated or impermeable surface into
stream channels or other surface water areas. Most lakes and rivers are
formed this way.
Evaporation: The process by which the water or other liquids become a
gas.
Transpiration: Moisture that will come from plants as a byproduct of
photosynthesis.
Condensation: The collection of the evaporated water in the atmosphere.

Once the precipitation begins water is no longer in its purest form. Water will
be collected as surface supplies or circulate to form in the ground. As it
becomes rain or snow it may be polluted with organisms, organic compounds,
and inorganic compounds. Because of this, we must treat the water for human
consumption.


4



Fig 1.1 Hydrological cycle in nature

1.3 SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER
A clean, constant supply of drinking water is essential to every community.
People in large cities frequently drink water that comes from surface water
sources, such as lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. Sometimes these sources are close
to the community. Other times, drinking water suppliers get their water from
sources many miles away. In either case, when you think about where your
drinking water comes from, it's important to consider not just the part of the
river or lake that you can see, but the entire watershed. The watershed is the
land area over which water flows into the river, lake, or reservoir. In rural areas,
people are more likely to drink ground water that was pumped from a well.
These wells tap into aquifers--the natural reservoirs under the earth's surface
that may be only a few miles wide, or may span the borders of many states. As
with surface water, it is important to remember that activities many miles away
from you may affect the quality of ground water. Your annual drinking water
5

quality report will tell you where your water supplier gets your water. Your
water will normally contain chlorine and varying amounts of dissolved minerals
including calcium, magnesium and sodium, chlorides, sulphates and
bicarbonates, depending on its source. It is also not uncommon to find traces of
iron, manganese, copper, aluminium, nitrates, insecticides and herbicides
although the maximum amounts of all these substances are strictly limited by
the regulations. These are usually referred to as 'contaminants'. Most of these
substances are of natural origin and are picked up as water passes round the
water cycle. Some are present due to the treatment processes which are used
make the water suitable for drinking and cooking. The water will also contain a
relatively low level of bacteria which is not generally a risk to health.

1.4 WATER QUALITY
Samples of raw and treated water will be taken at regular intervals for analysis.
In a large Waterworks with its own laboratory, sampling will almost certainly
be carried out daily, since the effluent analysis constitutes the only certain check
that the filter is operating satisfactorily and the raw water analysis provides
what is possibly the only indication of a change in quality that might adversely
affect the efficiency of treatment. In case of small plants with no laboratory
facilities, an attempt should be made to conduct sampling on regular basis. Field
testing equipment may be used to measure water quality.

Water is colorless, tasteless, and odorless. It is an excellent solvent that can
dissolve most minerals that come in contact with it. Therefore, in nature, water
always contains chemicals and biological impurities i.e. suspended and
dissolved inorganic and organic compounds and micro organisms. These
compounds may come from natural sources and leaching of waste deposits.
However, Municipal and Industrial wastes also contribute to a wide spectrum of
both organic and inorganic impurities. Inorganic compounds, in general,
6

originate from weathering and leaching of rocks, soils, and sediments, which
principally are calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium salts of bicarbonate,
chloride, sulfate, nitrate, and phosphate. Besides, lead, copper, arsenic, iron and
manganese may also be present in trace amounts. Organic compounds originate
from decaying plants and animal matters and from agricultural runoffs, which
constitute natural humic material to synthetic organics used as detergents,
pesticides, herbicides, and solvents. These constituents and their concentrations
influence the quality and use of the natural water resource. Primary water
quality criteria for designated best classes (for drinking water, outdoor bathing,
propagation of wildlife & fisheries, irrigation, industrial cooling) have been
developed by the Central Pollution Control Board. The presence of
contaminants and the characteristics of water are used to indicate the quality of
water. These water quality indicators can be categorized as:
Biological: bacteria, algae
Physical: temperature, turbidity and clarity, color, salinity, suspended
solids, dissolved solids
Chemical: pH, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, nutrients
(including nitrogen and phosphorus), organic and inorganic compounds
(including toxicants)
Aesthetic: odors, taints, color, floating matter
Radioactive: alpha, beta and gamma radiation emitters
Groundwater is often high in mineral content and can contain dissolved gases
such as methane and hydrogen sulphide. Surface water comes from two very
different sources: rivers, and lakes. Surface waters in their natural state are
potentially unsafe for human consumption because they are constantly exposed
to contamination from human, animal, industrial wastes, and from natural
sources such as soil, vegetation, and algae. Rivers can be a difficult source of
water to treat as the turbidity can change rapidly and dramatically. Lakes are
7

less prone to changes in turbidity as suspended matter tends to settle to the
bottom, however, ice cover can cause degradation along with taste and odor
problems in water quality. All natural waters contain some turbidity and color.
Turbidity is caused by very finely divided particles held in suspension. This
gives the water a cloudy appearance. Color is caused by dissolved and colloidal
particles, a result of organic or inorganic material in the water.

1.5 DEFINITION OF POTABLE WATER
Potable or drinking water can be defined as the water delivered to the
consumers that can be safely used for drinking, cooking, and washing. A
certification by licensed professional engineer specialized in the field is no
longer sufficient. The public health aspects are of such importance and
complexity that the health authority having jurisdiction in the community now
reviews inspects, samples, monitors, and evaluates on continuing basis the
water supplied to the community using constantly updated drinking water
standards. Such public health control helps to guarantee a continuous supply of
water maintained within safe limits.

1.6 REQUIREMENTS OF WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE
It should be colourless and sparkling clear. It must be free from solid in
suspension and must not deposit a sediment on standing.
It should be of good taste, free from odour.
It should be reasonable soft
It should be plentiful and cheap.
It should be free from disease producing bacteria.
It should be free from objectionable dissolved gases, such as sulphuretted
hydrogen.
It should be free from harmful salts.
8

It should be free from objectionable minerals such as iron, manganese,
lead, arsenic, and other poisonous material.
It should not lead to scale formation.
It should be free from radioactive substances such as radium, stronsium
etc.

1.7 NEED FOR WATER TREATMENT
Due to increased number of micro-organisms, pathogens and harmful bacterias,
There is a need of water treatment which includes many water treatment
methods for purification purposes. These harmful micro-organisms leads to
many water borne diseases.

1.7.1 WATER BORNE DISEASES
Water borne diseases are those diseases which are caused due to ingestion of
water contaminated by human or animal excrement, which contain pathogenic
microorganisms. Water borne diseases include cholera, typhoid, amoebic and
bacillary dysentery and other diarrheal diseases. In addition, water borne
diseases can be caused by the pollution of water with chemicals that have an
adverse effect on health.
The chemicals included are
Arsenic
Fluoride
Nitrates from fertilizers
Carcinogenic pesticides (DDT)
Lead (from pipes)
Heavy Metals
Various water borne diseases are listed below
Cholera
9

Typhoid
Bacillary dysentery
Infectious hepatitis
Giardiasis
To make water free from these harmful bacteria and pathogens we need to treat
water for drinking purposes.












10

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

The main aim of water treatment and drinking water distribution is the
protection of health. Another important aim is to ensure access to the high-
quality drinking water. Epidemiological studies also suggest that drinking water
can be significant source of calcium. Calcium rich mineral water provides over
one-third of the recommended dietary of this mineral in adults. However
receiving calcium is important at all ages, but the need for Ca2+ is higher
during childhood, fetal growth, pregnancy and lactation (Azoulay et al., 2001).
Upwards of 99 % of total calcium is found in bones and teeth, where operate
like important structural component. Others calciums functions belong to
metabolic processes, where serve as signal for basic physiological processes, for
example vascular contraction. It influences on blood coagulation, because
cooperation in transformation fibrinogen on fibrin. Calcium ions influence
muscles contractions and nervous transmission. Calcium ions also are very
important on activation and elimination of various hormones secretion (e.g.
insulin), as well various enzymes (Melicherk and Melicherkov, 2010).
Based on the World Health Organization (WHO) findings, next to fluoride, for
calcium and magnesium are evident the strongest health benefits associated with
their presence in drinking-water (Cotruvo et al., 2009, Nordin 2010).
Japanese chemist Kobayashi described the relationship between water
hardness and the incidence of vascular diseases in 1957. His claims were based
on epidemiological analysis. Higher mortality rates from cerebrovascular
diseases in the areas of Japanese rivers with more acid (i.e. softer) water were
compared to those with more alkaline (i.e. harder) water used for drinking
purposes (Koek, 2000).
11

The contributions of drinking water to nutritional status also depend on water
consumption. It is highly variable depending on behavioural factors and
environmental conditions. Individuals with the greatest relative consumption of
water include infants, residents in hot climates, and individuals engaged in
strenuous physical activity. Consumption of moderately hard water containing
typical amounts of calcium and magnesium (1.62.2 mmol.l1) provides an
important incremental percentage of their daily intake. Moreover, hard water
(>2.2 mmol.l1) can reduce the losses of calcium, magnesium and other
essential minerals from food during cooking. If low mineralized (01.6
mmol.l1) water is used for food and beverage production, reduced
concentrations of Ca and Mg, and other essential elements would also occur in
those products (Monarca et al., 2009, Polek et al., 2010).
The reason of low mineral content in source water is that water is formed in the
poor soluble mineral geological structures. If the content of dissolved inorganic
salts in nature water is very low, it is necessary to supplement them in the
process of water treatment technology. Water treatment can affect the content of
minerals, and thus the total intake of calcium and magnesium. Recarbonization
process aims to increase water hardness (calcium and manesium content
increases) and is appropriate for very soft water treatment. Very soft water is
corrosive to plumbing resulting in the damage of the systems and potentially
increases content of metals such as copper and lead in drinking water.
Endurance of water facilities is determined by their resistance to corrosion. In
order to limit the corrosion of steel and concrete pipes, it is desirable to acid
neutralizing capacity must be reached 1.4 to 2.1 mmol.l1. In this value is
applied inhibitory effect of calcium, bicarbonate and carbonate ions, which
means that the inner surface of the pipe begins to create protective carbonate
layer (Cotruvo et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2002; Olejko, 1999).
12

The main aim of this contribution was to analyze raw surface source water
quality and prepared drinking water quality. The procedure of lab-scale
verification of recarbonization process using lime and carbon dioxide was
chosen. The lime reacts with CO2 to form calcium bicarbonate. Another aim
was to investigate the influence of recarbonization process on efficiency of
water treatment processes in lab-scale.
Rietveld et al. and Bookslooper et al. reported that although drinking water
treatment plants are already functioning for more than a century and in the last
decades the operation has become more complex. Because of more stringent
regulations, the plants efficient or effective use of your water treatment plant
have to produce water of a better quality and, therefore different treatment
processes are placed in series to meet the guidelines. Because of frequent job
rotation and increased automation, experienced operators who are able to
interact with the processes are nowadays scared. Therefore, it is impossible to
compensate with the complexity of the operation.
Optimization of Conventional Drinking Water Treatment Plant: As a
treatment train, conventional drinking water Optimization of conventional
drinking water treatment plant compounds of many series stages and units
(coagulation-flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection), which on
each unit should be optimized on its design, process and operation.
Banff et al. defined optimization of conventional drinking water treatment plant
means to attain the most efficient or effective use of your water treatment
plant which consist of some principles, there are; achievement of consistently
high quality finished water on a continuous basis; and the importance to focus
on overall to interact with the process of plant performance, instead of focusing
too much on individual processes. Approaches to conventional drinking water
treatment plant optimization should be mostly common sensed, be organized
13

and get into the facts first. Systematic gathering of information about plant
performance are need, such as: data trending and analysis, check plant design
criteria against actual track chemical dosing versus performance, field
measurements and visual observations. The data trending and analysis should
remind of the GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out) principles and also correlate
to plant operating parameters trends against each other to look for valuable
information.
Rietveld et al. reported that in drinking water pumps, it is particular importance
to determine the water quality indicators for good operation. In the reported
research the objective was to focus on the instantaneous mixing and static
mixers which can lose target water quality parameters and direct indicators for
the performance. In the operational practice of drinking water treatment,
however, derived indicators are often used. In softening, for example, pH is
measured in the effluent as an indicator for performance, while the main
purpose of softening is to decrease the calcium concentration. Specific
questions and issues to be addressed by the model were linked to the different
interest group.
Optimization of Coagulation and Flocculation: Water is treated with
compounds that make small suspended particles stick together and settle out of
the water. Flocculation refers to water treatment processes that combine or
coagulate small particles into larger particles, which settle out of the water as
sediment.
Banff et al. also presented that optimization of coagulation and flocculation
should be have many considerations, such as: chemical dosing trends,
coagulation and flash mixing, colloid stability, selecting and evaluating
coagulant, operational and design factors affecting trends optimization
consist of; understand how chemical dosing impacts plant performance and
14

look for over-or under-dosing, which it track to relation between; raw water
turbidity versus coagulant dose, raw and coagulated water pH and alkalinity
versus. Insufficient air loading is set 15 min total. Fourth, maximum coagulant
dose and clarified water turbidity versus coagulant dosage.
Franceschiet al. and Zularizam et al. reported that in some cases, the addition
of mineral salts or organic compounds causes the agglomeration of these
particles, allowing their elimination by decantation or filtration in most water
treatment plants, the minimal coagulant concentration and the residual turbidity
of the water are determined by the Jar-Test technique. In their paper a
systematic study of the influence of raw water quality and operating conditions
on the effectiveness of the coagulation-flocculation process using aluminum
sulphate is presented.
In the other research, Husseinet al. reported that the main possible applications
of ozone are preoxidation, intermediate oxidation and final oxidation.
Generally pre-ozonation decreases color, turbidity, tastes and odors. This
treatment is generally used to enhance the coagulation. Preozonation and
coagulation processes were optimized for total organic carbon removal and
bromate control.
Optimization of Sedimentation/Clarifier: Water is passed through a settling
basin or clarifier allowing time for mud, sand, metals and other sediment to
settle out. This particle conglomerate is removed from the water prior to
filtration.
Banff et al. presented that optimization of sedimentation/clarifier it should
be presented by many conditions, there are; consistently result less than 2 NTU,
stable when faced with rapidly changing water quality conditions, produces
sludge of consistent quality, sedimentation: 0.5-1% of Total Solid (TS).
Common causes for poor clarifier performance are: density currents due to
15

temperature variation within basins, excessive operating loading rates, entrained
air-incidental flotation, poor hydraulics due to uneven inlet flow splitting.
Optimization of Filtration: Water is passed through a dual media (sand and
anthracite) filter, which removes many remaining pollutants. Many water
treatment facilities use filtration to remove all particles from the water.
Banff et al. presented that a good filter performance should be presented by
many conditions, such as; consistently less than 0.3 NTU, particle counts
less than 50 particles/mL, long and predictable filter runs (24+hours), minimal
premature particle breakthrough. Poor performance can be difficult to rectify,
but many issues can be resolved with simple fixes. He also presented that
good filter design should be presented by many conditions, most efficient
media design has largest media at the top and the finest at the bottom, however,
backwashing immediately re-classifies bed to place the finest grains at the
surface, therefore use multi-media to mimic this effect, with coarse grains in the
top layer to trap solid sand finer layer below for polishing.
In the other research James reported that the increased passage of particles and
microorganisms through granular media filters immediately following
backwashing is a common problem known to the water treatment community
as filter ripening or maturation. While several strategies have been
developed over the years to reduce the impact of this vulnerable period of the
filtration cycle on finished water quality, this research involves a recently
developed filter backwashing strategy called the Extended Terminal Sub
fluidization Wash Filter (ETSW). Their research concludes that optimality of
the coagulation process was also shown to influence magnitude of filter
ripening particle passage. Extended Wash, generally falling out of favour, but
common in Terminal Sub fluidization Wash on filtration is a method of
terminating the backwash cycle with a sub fluidization.
16

Optimization of Disinfection: Chlorine is added to the water to kill and/or
inactivate any remaining pathogens. Fluoride is added to prevent tooth decay
and a rust inhibitor is added to preserve the pipes that deliver the water to
homes and businesses. Water is often disinfected before it enters the distribution
system to ensure that potentially dangerous microbes are killed.
Nikolaou et al. and Chaiket et al. reported that occurrence of disinfection by-
products (DBPs) in drinking water has been an issue of major concern due to
their adverse health effects. Application of disinfection processes during water
treatment leads to the formation of disinfection by-products. The development
and optimization of analytical methods for the determination of Disinfection by
Products in water are key points in order to estimate human exposure after water
treatment.
In the other research Huseyin et al. reported that much attention that the
purpose of intermediate oxidation is to degrade toxic micro pollutants and to
remove chlorinated by-product precursors.
Remarks for Optimization of Water Treatment Plant: Based on many
articles which discuss about optimization of particles of water treatment plant,
their researches have given us the basic scientific informations. From
Franceschi et al, we could conclude on flocculation-coagulation process that;
optimization of the residual turbidity needs to retain only a few parameters
as opposed to the optimization of minimally added Aluminium Sulfate
concentration.; there is an antagonistic influence of the different parameters
on the two studied responses turbidity and aluminium sulfate so it is impossible
to simultaneously optimize both of them. We also could conclude from Huseyin
et al. that after pre-ozonation, alum coagulation was applied and it was found
that pre-ozonation enhanced the efficiency of alum coagulation; however
Bromate removal was insignificant at the optimum alum concentration.
17

James found that Extended Terminal Sub fluidization Wash (ETSW) on
filtration was shown to remove significantly greater quantities of backwash
remnant particles thereby reducing the magnitude of filter ripening turbidity and
particle count spikes. Optimum Extended Terminal Sub fluidization Wash flow
rates were determined for deep-bed anthracite and granular activated carbon
filters herein by monitoring filter effluent turbidities. Extended Terminal Sub
fluidization Wash was found to be equally effective for biological and
conventional deep-bed anthracite filters.
This paper discusses dissolved air flotation (DAF) applied to drinking water
treatment. It was first applied to drinking water treatment in the late 1960s in
Scandinavia and South Africa. The process is particularly efficient in removing
low density particles and flocs. DAF is a good clarification process for treating
supplies of low to moderate turbidity, and those containing algae and natural
color. It has found increasing favor over sedimentation processes for treating
these type supplies, and it is now widely used world-wide. The DAF reactor has
two functions, to provide collisions or contact opportunities between air bubbles
and flocs, and to provide removal of the floc-bubble aggregates. The paper
describes bubble properties, bubble suspension concentrations, and bubble
characteristics, and contact zone model. Model variables are discussed
beginning with the role of pretreatment coagulation chemistry and flocculation
for successful bubble attachment and collisions of flocs with bubbles. The
importance of bubble size and concentrations is addressed and the separation
zone modeling is also summarized. Rise velocities of floc-bubble aggregates are
compared to separation zone theory and hydraulics. Some applications are
presented on the removals of algae and protozoa pathogens by DAF, and on
recent trends of designing DAF plants with short flocculation times and high
hydraulic loadings.

18

2.1 OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT
1. Water must be distributed in sufficient quantity and pressure at all times.
2. Storage capacity at the source as well as at intermediate points of the
distribution system, should maintain the water pressure and flow within
the conventional limits.
3. Maintenance of distribution system must be planned, implemented and
controlled at the same optimum level contemplated for the design,
construction and operation of the treatment facilities and the projection of
the water source.
4. Contaminants must be eliminated or reduced to safe level to minimize
menacing waterborne diseases and formation of long-term or chronic
injurious health effects.
5. Water quality cannot be monitored without adequate laboratories
facilities.



19

CHAPTER 3
WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

3.1 CHRACTERTICS OF WATER
The raw or treated water is analyzed by testing their physical, chemical and
bacteriological characteristics:
1. Physical Characteristics
Turbidity
Colour
Taste and odour
Temperature

2. Chemical characteristics
pH
Acidity
Alkalinity
Hardness
Chlorides
Sulphates
Iron
Solids
Nitrates

3. Bacteriological Characteristics:
Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it indicates the
degree of pollution. Water polluted by sewage contains one or more species
20

of disease producing pathogenic bacteria. Pathogenic organisms cause water
borne diseases, and many non pathogenic bacteria such as E.Coli, a member
of coliform group, also live in the intestinal tract of human
beings. Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more resistance to
adverse condition than any other group. So, if it is ensured to minimize the
number of coliforms, the harmful species will be very less. So, coliform
group serves as indicator of contamination of water with sewage and
presence of pathogens.
The methods to estimate the bacterial quality of water are:
Standard Plate Count Test
Most Probable Number
Membrane Filter Technique
3.2 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
Various physical properties of water are discussed below
3.2.1 Turbidity
If a large amount of suspended solids are present in water, it will appear turbid
in appearance. The turbidity depends upon fineness and concentration of
particles present in water. Originally turbidity was determined by measuring
the depth of column of liquid required to cause the image of a candle flame at
the bottom to diffuse into a uniform glow. This was measured by Jackson
candle turbidity meter. The calibration was done based on suspensions of silica
from Fuller's earth. The depth of sample in the tube was read against the part per
million (ppm) silica scales with one ppm of suspended silica called one Jackson
Turbidity unit (JTU). Because standards were prepared from materials found in
nature such as Fuller's earth, consistency in standard formulation was difficult to
achieve. These days turbidity is measured by applying Nephelometry, a
21

technique to measure level of light scattered by the particles at right angles to
the incident light beam. The scattered light level is proportional to the particle
concentration in the sample. The unit of expression is Nephelometric Turbidity
Unit (NTU). The IS values for drinking water is 10 to 25 NTU.
3.2.2 Colour
Dissolved organic matter from decaying vegetation or some inorganic materials
may impart colour to the water. It can be measured by comparing the colour of
water sample with other standard glass tubes containing solutions of different
standard colour intensities. The standard unit of colour is that which is produced
by one milligram of platinum cobalt dissolved in one litre of distilled water. The
IS value for treated water is 5 to 25 cobalt units.
3.2.3 Taste and odour
Odour depends on the contact of a stimulating substance with the appropriate
human receptor cell. Most organic and some inorganic chemicals, originating
from municipal or industrial wastes, contribute taste and odour to the water.
Taste and odour can be expressed in terms of odour intensity or threshold
values.
A new method to estimate taste of water sample has been developed based on
flavour known as 'Flavour Profile Analysis' (FPA). The character and intensity
of taste and odour discloses the nature of pollution or the presence of
microorganisms.
3.2.4 Temperature
The increase in temperature decreases palatability, because at elevated
temperatures carbon dioxide and some other volatile gases are expelled. The
22

ideal temperature of water for drinking purposes is 5 to 12 C - above 25 C,
water is not recommended for drinking.
3.3CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
Various chemical characteristics of water are discussed below
3.3.1 pH
pH value denotes the acidic or alkaline condition of water. It is expressed on a
scale ranging from 0 to 14, which is the common logarithm of the reciprocal of
the hydrogen ion concentration. The recommended pH range for treated
drinking waters is 6.5 to 8.5.
3.3.2 Acidity
The acidity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize bases. Acidity of
water may be caused by the presence of uncombined carbon dioxide, mineral
acids and salts of strong acids and weak bases. It is expressed as mg/L in terms
of calcium carbonate. Acidity is nothing but representation of carbon dioxide or
carbonic acids. Carbon dioxide causes corrosion in public water supply systems.
3.3.3 Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralise acids. It is
expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium carbonate. The various forms of
alkalinity are (a) hydroxide alkalinity, (b) carbonate alkalinity, (c) hydroxide
plus carbonate alkalinity, (d) carbonate plus bicarbonate alkalinity, and (e)
bicarbonate alkalinity, which is useful mainly in water softening and boiler feed
water processes. Alkalinity is an important parameter in evaluating the optimum
coagulant dosage.

23

3.3.4 Hardness
If water consumes excessive soap to produce lather, it is said to be hard.
Hardness is caused by divalent metallic cations. The principal hardness causing
cations are calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous and manganese ions. The
major anions associated with these cations are sulphates, carbonates,
bicarbonates, chlorides and nitrates. The total hardness of water is defined as the
sum of calcium and magnesium concentrations, both expressed as calcium
carbonate, in mg/L. Hardness are of two types, temporary or carbonate hardness
and permanent or non carbonate hardness. Temporary hardness is one in which
bicarbonate and carbonate ion can be precipitated by prolonged boiling. Non-
carbonate ions cannot be precipitated or removed by boiling, hence the term
permanent hardness. IS value for drinking water is 300 mg/L as CaCO
3
.
3.3.5 Chlorides
Chloride ion may be present in combination with one or more of the cations of
calcium, magnesium, iron and sodium. Chlorides of these minerals are present
in water because of their high solubility in water. Each human being consumes
about six to eight grams of sodium chloride per day, a part of which is
discharged through urine and night soil. Thus, excessive presence of chloride in
water indicates sewage pollution. IS value for drinking water is 250 to 1000
mg/L.
3.3.6 Sulphates
Sulphates occur in water due to leaching from sulphate mineral and oxidation of
sulphides. Sulphates are associated generally with calcium, magnesium and
sodium ions. Sulphate in drinking water causes a laxative effect and leads to
scale formation in boilers. It also causes odour and corrosion problems under
aerobic conditions. Sulphate should be less than 50 mg/L, for some industries.
24

Desirable limit for drinking water is 150 mg/L. May be extended upto 400
mg/L.
3.3.7 Iron
Iron is found on earth mainly as insoluble ferric oxide. When it comes in
contact with water, it dissolves to form ferrous bicarbonate under favourable
conditions. This ferrous bicarbonate is oxidised into ferric hydroxide, which is a
precipitate. Under anaerobic conditions, ferric ion is reduced to soluble ferrous
ion. Iron can impart bad taste to the water, causes discolouration in clothes and
incrustations in water mains. IS value for drinking water is 0.3 to 1.0 mg/L.
3.3.8 Solids
The sum total of foreign matter present in water is termed as 'total solids'. Total
solids are the matter that remains as residue after evaporation of the sample and
its subsequent drying at a defined temperature (103 to 105 C).Total solids
consist of volatile (organic) and non-volatile (inorganic or fixed) solids. Further,
solids are divided into suspended and dissolved solids. Solids that can settle by
gravity are settleable solids. The others are non-settleable solids. IS acceptable
limit for total solids is 500 mg/L and tolerable limit is 3000 mg/L of dissolved
limits.
3.3.9 Nitrates
Nitrates in surface waters occur by the leaching of fertilizers from soil during
surface run-off and also nitrification of organic matter. Presence of high
concentration of nitrates is an indication of pollution. Concentration of nitrates
above 45 mg/L causes a disease methemoglobinemia. IS value is 45 mg/L.

25


Table 3.1 Physical Indian standards for drinking water

Parameter
Desirabletolerable
limits
If no alternative source
available, limits extends upto
Turbidity (NTU unit) <10 25
Colour (Hazen scale) <10 50
Taste and odour Un-objectionable Un-objectionable

Table 3.2 Chemical standards for drinking water
Parameter Desirable-
tolerable limit
If no alternative source
available, limits exceeds upto
Ph 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2
Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 500-1500 3000
Total hardness(mg/l) as
CaCO
3
200-300 600
Chlorides (mg/l) as Cl 200-250 1000
Sulphates (mg/l) as SO
4
150-200 400
Fluorides (mg/l) as F 0.6-1.2 1.5
Nitrates (mg/l) as NO
3
45 45
Calcium (mg/l) as Ca 75 200
Iron (mg/l) as Fe 0.1-0.3 1.0
26

The typical functions of each unit operations are given in the following table
Table 3.3 Functions of water treatment unit

Unit treatment Function (removal)
Aeration, chemical use Colour, odour, taste
Screening Floating matter
Chemical methods Iron, manganese etc
Softening Hardness
Sedimentation Suspended matter
Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of colloidal matter
and bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter
Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, organic matter,
reducing substance

3.4 WATER TREATMENT METHODS
There are various water treatment methods for the purification of water. Some
of these methods are discussed as below.



27

3.4.1 AERATION
Aeration removes odour and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen
sulphide and due to algae and related organisms.
Aeration also oxidise iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen
content in water, removes CO2 and reduces corrosion and removes
methane and other flammable gases.
Principle of treatment underlines on the fact that volatile gases in water
escape into atmosphere from the air-water interface and atmospheric
oxygen takes their place in water, provided the water body can expose
itself over a vast surface to the atmosphere. This process continues until
an equilibrium is reached depending on the partial pressure of each
specific gas in the atmosphere.
It removes hydrogen sulphide, and hence odour due to this is also
removed.
It decreases the carbondioxide content of water and thereby reduces its
corrosiveness and raises it ph value.
It is also used for mixing chemicals with water, as in the aeromix process
and in the use of diffused compressed air.

3.4.2 TYPES OF AERATORS
Gravity aerators
Fountain aerators
Diffused aerators
Mechanical aerators
1. Gravity aerators
In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that a large
area of water is exposed to atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.

28

2. Fountain aerators
These are also known as spray aerators with special nozzles to produce a
fine spray. Each nozzle is 2.5 to 4 cm diameter discharging about 18 to 36
l/h. Nozzle spacing should be such that each m3 of water has aerator area
of 0.03 to 0.09 m2 for one hour.
3. Diffused aerators
It consists of a tank with perforated pipes, tubes or diffuser plates, fixed
at the bottom to release fine air bubbles from compressor unit. The tank
depth is kept as 3 to 4 m and tank width is within 1.5 times its depth. If
depth is more, the diffusers must be placed at 3 to 4 m depth below water
surface. Time of aeration is 10 to 30 min and 0.2 to 0.4 litres of air is
required for 1 litre of water.
4. Mechanical aerators
Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either
submerged or at the surface.
3.5 SETTLING
Solid liquid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two
phases
Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank
(overflow).
Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank
(underflow).

3.5.1 PURPOSE OF SETTLING
To remove coarse dispersed phase.
To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
29

To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process / tricking
filters.

3.5.2 PRINCIPLE OF SETTLING
Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than
that of water tend to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is
retarded by offering storage.
Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling
tank is called the detention period.

3.5.3 TYPES OF SETTLING
Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually without
interaction with neighboring particles.
Type II: Flocculent Particles Flocculation causes the particles to
increase in mass and settle at a faster rate.
Type III: Hindered or Zone settling The mass of particles tends to settle
as a unit with individual particles remaining in fixed positions with
respect to each other.
Type IV: Compression The concentration of particles is so high that
sedimentation can only occur through compaction of the structure.

3.5.4 TYPES OF SETTLING TANKS
Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously.
The intermittent tanks also called quiescent type tanks are those which
store water for a certain period and keep it in complete rest. In a
30

continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only reduced and the
water is not brought to complete rest as is done in an intermittent type.
Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan. Long
narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are generally preferred to
the circular tanks with radial or spiral flow.

3.6 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
Colloidal particles are difficult to separate from water because they do
not settle by gravity and are so small that they pass through the pores of
filtration media.
To be removed, the individual colloids must aggregate and grow in size.
The aggregation of colloidal particles can be considered as involving two
separate and distinct steps:
i. Particle transport to effect interparticle collision.
ii. Particle destabilization to permit attachment when contact
occurs.
Transport step is known as flocculation whereas coagulationis the overall
process involving destabilization and transport.
3.6.1 FLOCCULATION
Flocculation is stimulation by mechanical means to agglomerate destabilised
particles into compact, fast settleable particles (or flocs). Flocculation or gentle
agitation results from velocity differences or gradients in the coagulated water,
which causes the fine moving, destabilized particles to come into contact and
become large, readily settle able flocs. It is a common practice to provide an
initial rapid (or) flash mix for the dispersal of the coagulant or other chemicals
into the water. Slow mixing is then done, during which the growth of the floc
takes place.
31

Rapid or flash: mixing is the process by which a coagulant is rapidly and
uniformly dispersed through the mass of water. This process usually
occurs in a small basin immediately preceding or at the head of the
coagulation basin. Generally, the detention period is 30 to 60 seconds and
the head loss is 20 to 60 cms of water. Here colloids are destabilised and
the nucleus for the floc is formed.
Slow mixing: brings the contacts between the finely divided destabilized
matter formed during rapid mixing.

3.6.2 MECHANISM OF FLOCCULATION
Gravitational flocculation: Baffle type mixing basins are examples of
gravitational flocculation. Water flows by gravity and baffles are
provided in the basins which induce the required velocity gradients for
achieving floc formation.
Mechanical flocculation: Mechanical flocculators consists of revolving
paddles with horizontal or vertical shafts or paddles suspended from
horizontal oscillating beams, moving up and down.

3.6.3 COAGULATION IN WATER TREATMENT
Salts of Al(III) and Fe(III) are commonly used as coagulants in water and
wastewater treatment.
When a salt of Al(III) and Fe(III) is added to water, it dissociates to yield
trivalent ions, which hydrate to form aquometal complexes
Al(H
2
O)
6
3+
and Fe(H
2
O)
6
3+
. These complexes then pass through a series
of hydrolytic reactions in which H
2
O molecules in the hydration shell are
replaced by OH
-
ions to form a variety of soluble species such as
Al(OH)
2+
and Al(OH)
2+
. These products are quite effective as coagulants
as they adsorb very strongly onto the surface of most negative colloids.
32

Commonly used coagulants are aluminum sulphate or alum, chlorinated
copperas, ferrous sulphate and lime, magnesium carbonate, sodium
aluminate.

3.7 FILTERATION
The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure, and may contain some
very fine suspended particles and bacteria in it. To remove or to reduce the
remaining impurities still further, the water is filtered through the beds of fine
granular material, such as sand, etc. The process of passing the water through
the beds of such granular materials is known as Filtration.

3.7.1 FILTERATION MECHANISM
There are four basic mechanism
Sedimentation:The mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of
gravity and the associate settling velocity of the particle, which causes it
to cross the streamlines and reach the collector.
Interception: Interception of particles is common for large particles. If
a large enough particle follows the streamline that lies very close to the
media surface it will hit the media grain and be captured.
Brownian diffusion: Diffusion towards media granules occurs for very
small particles, such as viruses. Particles move randomly about within
the fluid, due to thermal gradients. This mechanism is only important for
particles with diameters < 1 micron.
Inertia: Attachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move fast
enough to travel off their streamlines and bump into media grains.
3.7.2 FILTER MATERIALS
Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The
size of the sand is measured and expressed by the term called effective
33

size. The effective size, i.e. D
10
may be defined as the size of the sieve in
mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand by weight will pass.
The uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is
measured and expressed by the term called uniformity coefficient. The
uniformity coefficient, i.e. (D
60
/D
10
) may be defined as the ratio of the
sieve size in mm through which 60 percent of the sample of sand will
pass, to the effective size of the sand.
Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits
the filtered water to move freely to the under drains, and allows the wash
water to move uniformly upwards.
Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthrafilt is used as
filter media. Anthrafilt is made from anthracite, which is a type of coal-
stone that burns without smoke or flames. It is cheaper and has been able
to give a high rate of filtration.

3.7.3 TYPES OF FILTER
Slow sand filter: They consist of fine sand, supported by gravel. They
capture particles near the surface of the bed and are usually cleaned by
scraping away the top layer of sand that contains the particles.
Rapid-sand filter: They consist of larger sand grains supported by
gravel and capture particles throughout the bed. They are cleaned by
backwashing water through the bed to 'lift out' the particles.
Multimedia filters: They consist of two or more layers of different
granular materials, with different densities. Usually, anthracite coal,
sand, and gravel are used. The different layers combined may provide
more versatile collection than a single sand layer. Because of the
differences in densities, the layers stay neatly separated, even after
backwashing.
34



Fig 3.1 Cross sectional view of rapid filter
3.7.4 PRINCIPLE OF SLOW SAND FILTER
In a slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a combination
of processes: sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and
bacteriological action.
During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and
physical-chemical processes. The resulting accumulation of sediment and
organic matter forms a thin layer on the sand surface, which remains
permeable and retains particles even smaller than the spaces between the
sand grains.
As this layer develops, it becomes living quarters of vast numbers of
micro-organisms which break down organic material retained from the
water, converting it into water, carbon dioxide and other oxides.
35

Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the
raw water as it passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed
sand just below. The purification mechanisms extend from the filter skin
to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the surface of the filter bed, gradually
decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water becomes purified and
contains less organic material.
When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter will work
efficiently and produce high quality effluent which is virtually free of
disease carrying organisms and biodegradable organic matter. They are
suitable for treating waters with low colors, low turbidities and low
bacterial contents.

3.7.5 SLOW SAND FILTER VS RAPID SAND FILTER
Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm
in depth while in RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is
slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90 cm.
Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and
uniformity coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. In RSF the effective size
ranges between 0.35 to 0.55 and uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to
1.8.
Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/sq.m of
filter area while in RSF it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/sq.m of filter
area.
Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas
RSF are quite flexible for meeting reasonable variations in demand.
Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained from SSF.
However, water may be disinfected slightly to make it completely safe.
Disinfection is a must after RSF.
36

Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 cm
thick layer is done to clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is agitated and
backwashed with or without compressed air.
Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to
1.2m is the final limit when cleaning is required. For RSF 0.3m is the
initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5m is the final limit when cleaning is required.

Fig 3.2 Operation of rapid sand filter
3.8 DISINFECTION
The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing
bacteria in it. These bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe for
drinking. The process of killing these bacteria is known as Disinfection or
Sterilization.

3.8.1 METHODS OF DISINFECTION
Boiling: The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by boiling it for a
long time. However it is not practically possible to boil huge amounts of
water. Moreover it cannot take care of future possible contaminations.
37

Treatment with Excess Lime: Lime is used in water treatment plant for
softening. But if excess lime is added to the water, it can in addition, kill
the bacteria also. Lime when added raises the pH value of water making it
extremely alkaline. This extreme alkalinity has been found detrimental to
the survival of bacteria. This method needs the removal of excess lime
from the water before it can be supplied to the general public. Treatment
like recarbonation for lime removal should be used after disinfection.
Treatment with Ozone: Ozone readily breaks down into normal oxygen,
and releases nascent oxygen. The nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidising
agent and removes the organic matter as well as the bacteria from the
water.
Chlorination: The germicidal action of chlorine is explained by the
recent theory of enzymatic hypothesis, according to which the chlorine
enters the cell walls of bacteria and kill the enzymes which are essential
for the metabolic processes of living organisms.
3.8.2 FORMS OF APPLICATION OF CHLORINE
Chlorine may be applied to water in one of the following forms
As bleaching powder or hypochlorite
As chloramines
As free chlorine gas
As chlorine dioxide

38


Fig 3.3 Water treatment steps



Fig 3.4 Water treatment plant
39

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

4.1 TO DETERMINE TOTAL HARDNESS OF GIVEN WATER
SAMPLE
The apparatus required and procedure for the determination of hardness of water
is discussed below.

4.1.1 Apparatus required
Conical flask
Burette
Pipette
Beaker measuring flask
0.01 M EDTA solution
Buffer solution of p
H
10 0.1
Erichrome black T
Given water sample

4.1.2 Procedure
Take 25 ml of unknown hard water in a conical flask.
Add 5 ml of buffer solution and 5 drops of Erichrome black-t
indicator.
Continue until colour of solution turns wine red.
Titrate the solution against EDTA so that the colour changes from
wine red to blue.
Repeat the titration for two concordant readings.


40

4.2 TO DETERMINE ALKALINITY OF THE GIVEN WATER SAMPLE
The apparatus required and procedure for the determination of alkalinity of
water is discussed below.

4.2.1 Apparatus required
0.2 N HCL solution
Phenolphthalein solution
Methyl orange solution
Burette
Pipette
Conical flask
Sodium carbonate
4.2.2 Procedure
Take 25 ml of the sample solution in titration flask.
Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
Titrate this sample against HCL solution until the pink colour
caused by phenolphthalein just disappears.
Note down this reading as phenolphthalein shows the end point.
Now add 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator in the same
solution.
Continue the titration until the yellow colour changes into orange.

4.3 TO DETERMINE THE pH VALUE OF GIVEN WATER SAMPLE
When measuring pH with pH paper, dip the end of a strip of pH paper intoeach
mixture you want to test. After about two seconds, remove the paper, and
immediately compare the color at the wet end of the paper with the color chart
provided with that pH indicator. When measuring pH with pH meter, dip the
end of electrode of pH meter into each mixture you want to test. Write down the
41

pH value and color. Always use a clean, unused strip of pH paper for each
mixture that you test.
TABLE 4.1 Determination of pH
Indicator Acid (color
change)
Base (color change) pH range
Methyl orange Red Yellow 3.1-4.4
Methyl red Red Yellow 4.2-6.3
Bromothymol Blue Yellow Blue 6.0-7.8
Phenol red Yellow Red 6.4-8.0
Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink 8.0-9.8
Thymol Blue Red Yellow 1.2-2.8
Alizarin Yellow Yellow Red 10.1-12.0


4.4 TO DETERMINE THE CHLORIDE CONTENT IN GIVEN WATER
SAMPLE
The apparatus required and procedure to determine chloride content in water is
discussed below.
4.4.1 Apparatus required
Burette
Pipette
Conical flask
Standard silver nitrate(

50
) solution
Potassium chromate(K
2
CrO
4
) indicator
42

4.4.2 Procedure
Take 25 ml of distilled water in a conical flask and add at least 5
drops of potassium chromate indicator. Slowly add standard
solution of AgNO
3
from the burette and the volume of the
solution is noted down as end point. When yellow colour starts
changing to red. Repeate this titration for concordant readings.
Take 25 ml of water sample in a conical flask. Add 5 drops of
freshly prepared K
2
CrO
4
solution. Titrate it against AgNO
3

solution until the light yellow colour starts changing to red and
the red colour persists. Repeate this titration till two concordant
readings are obtained.

4.5 TO DETERMINE THE TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS IN WATER
SAMPLE
The apparatus required and procedure for determination of dissolved solids in
water is discussed below.
4.5.1 Apparatus required
Silica and porcelain crucibles
Beakers
Measuring cylinders
Filter papers
Weighing balance
4.5.2 Procedure
Take 50 or 100 ml of water sample in a weighed crucible or
beaker.
Place the sample in an oven and evaporate to dryness at 98
0
C.
Then dry the evaporated sample for at least one hour at103
0

105
0
C.
43

Cool the crucible in desiccators and weight it.

4.6 TO DETERMINE THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN PRESENT IN
WATER SAMPLE
The apparatus required and procedure for the determination of dissolved oxygen
present in water is discussed below.

4.6.1 Apparatus required
Measuring cylinder
Pipette with elongated tip
Conical flask
BOD bottle
Funnel
Burette stand
4.6.2 Chemicals required
Alkaline iodide azide
Starch indicator distilled water
Manganous sulphate
Sulphuric acid
Sodium thiosulphate (0.025N)
4.6.3 Procedure
Take two 300mL stoppered BOD bottle and fill it with sample to
be tested. Avoid any kind of bubbling and trapping of air bubbles.
Take the sample collected from the field. It should be collected in
BOD bottle filled up to the rim.
Add 2mL of manganese sulphate to the BOD bottle by inserting
the calibrated pipette just below the surface of the liquid.
Add 2mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent in the same manner.
44

Squeeze the pipette slowly so no bubbles are introduced via the
pipette.
If oxygen is present, a brownish-orange cloud of precipitate or
floc will appear.
Allow it to settle for sufficient time in order to react completely
with oxygen.
Add 2mL of concentrated Sulphuric acid via a pipette held just
above the surface of the sample.
Carefully stopper and invert several times to dissolve the floc.
At this point, the sample is fixed and can be stored for up to 8
hours if kept in a cool, dark place.
Rinse th burette with sodium thiosulphate and fill it with sodium
thiosulphate. Fix the burette to the stand.
Measure out 50mL of the solution from the bottle and transfer to
an conical flask.
Titration needs to be started immediately after the transfer of the
contents to the conical flask.
Titrate it against sodium thiosulphate using starch indicator. (Add
3-4 drops of starch indicator solution).
End point of the titration is first disappearance of the blue colour
to colourless.
Note down the volume of sodium thiosulphate solution added
which gives the dissolved oxygen in ml.
Repeat the titration for concordant values.
In these ways we performed chemical test on water sample, to check whether
water is suitable for drinking purpose or not. The discussion about the results
obtained by performing these experiments is done in next chapter.
45

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 RESULTS OF CHEMICAL TEST OF WATER SAMPLE USED
Hardness of water sample = 400 mg/l
Total dissolved solids = 700 mg/l
pH value of water sample = 6.5
Chlorides in water = 300 mg/l
Alkalinity of water sample = 105 mg/l
Dissolved oxygen in water = 21.88 mg/l
5.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The results obtained from the laboratory experiments on water sample are
discussed below.
5.2.1 pH
The pH value of a water source is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. The pH
level is a measurement of the activity of the hydrogen atom, because the
hydrogen activity is a good representation of the acidity or alkalinity of the
water. The pH scale, as shown below, ranges from 0 to 14, with 7.0 being
neutral. Water with a low pH is said to be acidic, and water with a high pH is
basic, or alkaline. Pure water would have a pH of 7.0, but water sources and
precipitation tends to be slightly acidic, due to contaminants that are in the
water. The pH scale is logarithmic, which means that each step on the pH scale
represents a ten-fold change in acidity. For example, a water body with a pH of
46

5.0 is ten times more acidic than water with a pH of 6.0. And water with a pH of
4.0 is 100 times more acidic than water with a pH of 6.0.
5.2.2 pH ADJUSTMENT
There are several methods that can increase the pH of water, before disinfection.
The pH is commonly increased using sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide,
but a better way of dealing with low pH is to use calcium and magnesium
carbonate, which not only will increase pH levels, but will also make the water
less corrosive and both calcium and magnesium are of health benefits as
opposed to sodium.
5.3 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)
TDS stands for total dissolved solids, and represents the total concentration of
dissolved substances in water. TDS is made up of inorganic salts, as well as a
small amount of organic matter. Common inorganic salts that can be found in
water include calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium, which are all
cations, and carbonates, nitrates, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates, which are
all anions. Cations are positively charged ions and anions are negatively
charged ions.
5.3.1 TDS TREATMENT
Water treatment facilities can use reverse osmosis to remove the dissolved
solids in the water that are responsible for elevated TDS levels. Reverse
osmosis removes virtually all dissolved substances, including many harmful
minerals, such as salt and lead. It also removes healthy minerals, such as
calcium and magnesium, and ideally such water should be filtered through a
magnesium and calcium mineral bed to add the minerals to the water. The
mineral bed also increases the pH and decreases the corrosive potential of the
water. With TDS, the treatment process must deal with a number of different
47

mineral compounds or salts. The available treatment processes for TDS while
effective, are relatively more expensive than treatment for other water quality
problems, such as iron removal. Of the available treatment processes for TDS,
reverse osmosis (RO) and deionization (DI) units are the only ones capable of
treating the entire household supply. Because deionized water is also corrosive,
DI units are not recommended for whole-house use. Where only the taste of the
water is of concern, point of- use devices are another means for treating TDS.
These are small treatment units which use distillation, deionization, reverse
osmosis, or ultra filtration to treat only enough water for use in drinking and
cooking. They are limited to a production of from 10 to 15 gallons of water per
day.
1. Reverse Osmosis (RO): RO units remove TDS by forcing the water, under
pressure, through a synthetic membrane. The membrane contains microscopic
pores which will allow only molecules of a certain size to pass through. Since
the molecules of dissolved mineral salts are large compared to the water
molecules, the water will squeeze through the membrane leaving the mineral
salts behind.
A properly operated RO unit is capable of removing 90 percent of the dissolved
mineral salts from a water supply. A pre-filter is usually required to protect the
membrane from abrasion. The membrane cartridges require periodic
replacement.

2. Distillation: Distillation units are better known as stills. They are
manufactured from heat-resistant glass or stainless steel. Stills work by heating
small amounts (less than 2 gallons) of water to produce steam. The steam is
then collected and condensed back into water. The dissolved mineral salts will
not vaporize and are left behind in the heating chamber. Stills require frequent,
rigorous cleaning to remove the baked-on mineral salts. The flat taste from
48

boiling the water can be reduced by pouring the water back and forth between
two containers to aerate it.

3. Deionization (DI): Deionization units are available as small, wall-mounted
cartridges containing ion exchange resins. When water passes through the
cartridge, the dissolved minerals salts are retained in the resin, producing
mineral-free water. The DI cartridges have a limited life. They will usually
show a color change in the resin to indicate when they should be replaced.

4. Combination Point-of-Use Devices: These are multi step treatment systems
designed to fit under the kitchen sink. They use a pre-filter, RO membrane or DI
cartridge, and a carbon polishing filter top produce up to 15 gallons of water per
day. The treated water is stored in a small pressure tank and piped to a special
faucet on the sink. Each of the treatment steps is in a cartridge form.
5.4 CHLORIDES
Chlorides, not to be confused with chlorine, are in nearly all water supplies.
They are usually associated with the salt content and the amount of dissolved
minerals in water. The recommended limit for chlorides is 250 milligrams per
liter (mg/1). This is the concentration in water where most people will notice a
salty taste.
5.4.1 CAUSES
Chlorides are soluble mineral compounds that are dissolved by the water as it
filters through the earth. The amount of chlorides in water is determined by the
type of rock sand soils it has contacted. In coastal areas, the leaking of sea water
into a well can also because of increased chlorides. Water supplies having high
concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) may also contain elevated
chloride levels as part of the TDS. As much as 50 percent of the TDS may be
49

due to chlorides. Human and animal wastes contain a high concentration of
chlorides. If a sudden, large increase in the chloride content is noticed, or if the
well water begins to taste salty, then samples should be taken to see if the well
has been contaminated.

5.4.2 EFFECTS
The presence of chlorides in drinking water is generally not considered to be
harmful to humans or animals. The most noticeable effect of high chlorides is a
salty taste. If a water softener is being used, the taste will be even more
pronounced. In mineralized waters (high TDS), chlorides contribute to the
corrosion of household appliances and domestic plumbing by preventing the
formation of protective oxide film son exposed surfaces. The average life of
water heaters has been estimated to shorten by one year for every 100 mg/l
chloride over the first 100 mg/I.

5.4.3 TREATMENT
Chlorides cannot be easily removed from drinking water. Of the available
treatment processes, reverse osmosis (RO) and deionization (DI) are capable of
effectively treating the entire household supply. However, both are relatively
expensive. Because deionized water can also be corrosive, DI units are not
recommended for whole-house use. If the taste of the water is the only concern,
the treatment methods described below are available as point of-use devices. A
point-of-use device is a small treatment unit that will produce between 10 and
15 gallons of water per day for drinking and cooking. The device is usually
located near the kitchen sink.

1. Reverse osmosis (RO): RO units remove dissolved minerals by forcing the
water, under pressure, through a synthetic membrane. The membrane contains
microscopic pores that will allow only molecules of a certain size to pass
50

through. Since the molecules of dissolved mineral salts are large compared to
the water molecules, the water will squeeze through the membrane leaving the
mineral salts behind. A properly operated RO unit is capable of removing 90
percent of the dissolved mineral salts from a water supply. A pre-filter is usually
required to protect the membrane from abrasion. The membrane cartridges
require periodic replacement.

2. Distillation: Distillation units are better known as stills. They are
manufactured from heat-resistant glass or stainless steel. Stills work by heating
small amounts (less than 2 gallons) of water to produce steam. The steam is
then collected and condensed back into water. The dissolved minerals will not
vaporize and are left behind in the heating chamber. Stills require frequent,
rigorous cleaning to remove the baked-on mineral salts. The flat taste from
boiling the water can be reduced by pouring the water back and forth between
two containers to aerate it.

3. Deionization (DI): Deionization units are available as small, wall-mounted
cartridges containing ion exchange resins. When water passes through the
cartridge the dissolved mineral salts are retained in the resin, producing mineral-
free water.
The DI cartridges have a limited life. They will usually show a color change in
the resin to indicate when they should be replaced.

4. Combination Point-of-Use Devices: These are multistep treatment systems
designed to fit under the kitchen sink. They use a pre-filter, RO membrane or DI
cartridge, and a carbon polishing filter top and produce up to 15 gallons of
water per day. The treated water is stored in a small pressure tank and piped to a
special faucet on the sink. Each of the treatment steps is in a cartridge form.
51

5.5 HARDNESS
Hard water is one of the most common water quality problems in the United
States. In the past, hardness was measured by the amount of soap that had to be
added to water to produce lather. It is now measured as the concentration of
dissolved calcium and magnesium compounds (expressed as calcium
carbonate). There is no firm dividing line between hard and soft water.
However, for most household uses, a hardness of between 50 and 150
milligrams per liter (mg/1) is acceptable. Hardness may sometimes be expressed
as grains per gallon (gpg) instead of mg/l. 1gpg are equal to 17.1 mg/l.
5.5.1 CAUSE
The amount of naturally occurring calcium and magnesium compounds
dissolved by the water as it filters through the earth will determine its hardness.
Hardness varies with location and the types of minerals and rocks in the earth.

5.5.2 EFFECTS
Despite all of the problems it causes, hard water is not considered to be a health
hazard. Moderate amounts of hardness are desirable because of the protective
coating it produces on exposed metal surfaces. Excessively hard water,
however, will cause a hard, chalky scale (boiler scale) to form when the water is
heated. Water heaters are especially affected by hardness. The boiler scale will
accumulate on the heating elements, reducing their heating capacity, and
eventually causing them to burn-out. Hard water will form a white, powdery
residue on plumbing fixtures, and will cause spots on dishes. Because calcium
and magnesium compounds are not very soluble in coldwater, ice made from
hard water may contain white particles. Vegetables cooked in hard water may
be tough. More soap must be added to a hard water to produce lather. With very
hard water, soap will form a sticky curd, which is difficult to remove from
fabrics and containers.
52

Laundry washed in hard water will be stiff and dingy. Hair becomes dull and
limp when washed in hard water.

5.5.3 TREATMENT
The minerals that cause water hardness can be removed by a water softener.
Water softeners use an ion exchange process to replace the calcium and
magnesium that cause hardness with an equivalent amount of sodium, which
does not contribute to water hardness. With use, all of the sodium in a softener
will eventually be replaced by calcium and magnesium. When this occurs, the
softener must be regenerated to maintain its softening ability. In regeneration,
the softener is filled with a concentrated salt solution. The sodium in the salt
solution replaces the calcium and magnesium in the softener, restoring it to its
original condition. Most manufacturers offer either a manual or an automatic
regeneration cycle in their softeners. Ion exchange softeners produce water with
near zero hardness. Because a moderate amount of hardness is desirable, some
individuals choose to soften a portion of the water and blend it with unsoftened
water to produce a final hardness of 50 to 100 mg/1.

In cases where the water hardness exceeds 200 mg/1 or where elevated levels of
chlorides are present, softening may produce a salty taste in the water. In these
instances, a by-pass line can be installed from before the softener to a kitchen
faucet; or a point-of use treatment device can be used (see below).If excessive
iron and manganese are present, it may be necessary to remove these metals
prior to softening. While water softeners will remove small amounts of iron and
manganese, excessive amounts will foul the water softener. As a rule of thumb,
the total amount of iron and manganese should not exceed 1.0 mg/l for every
140 mg 1 (8 gpg) of hardness.

53

1. Point-of-Use Devices: Where the taste of the water or the increased amount
of sodium due to softening is a concern, a point-of-use device may be used to
produce a limited amount of water per day for drinking and cooking. These
devices are small, multi-step treatment system designed to fit under the kitchen
sink. They produce up to 15 gallons per day of treated water. The treated water
is stored in a small pressure tank, piped to a special faucet on the sink. Each of
the treatment steps is in a cartridge form and requires periodic replacement.

2. Laundry Water Softening: Water for laundry may be softened in the
washing machine by using a group of chemicals known as non-precipitating
water softeners. This group includes borax, washing soda, trisodium phosphate,
and ammonia. Always follow the manufacturers instructions in using these
chemicals. Under no circumstances should these chemicals be used for
softening drinking water.













54

CHAPTER 6
DESIGN OF DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PLANT
6.1 WATER QUANTITY ESTIMATION
The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply
scheme has to be designed requires following data:
1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in liters per day per head)
2. Population to be served.
=
6.2 FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND
Average Daily per Capita Demand
= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 Population)
If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to
meet the fluctuations.
Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs
are generally more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal
variation.
Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on
Sundays and Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.
Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During
active household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and
four to eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken.
During other hours the requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire
breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied during
55

short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly
supply.
So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand.
To meet all the fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution
pipes must be properly proportioned. The water is supplied by pumping directly
and the pumps and distribution system must be designed to meet the peak
demand. The effect of monthly variation influences the design of storage
reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design of pumps and service
reservoirs. As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.
Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand
Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand
= 1.5 average hourly demand
= 1.5 Maximum daily demand/24
= 1.5 (1.8 average daily demand)/24
= 2.7 average daily demand/24
= 2.7 annual average hourly demand
6.3 DESIGN PERIODS & POPULATION FORECAST
This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the estimated
requirements of the future. The future period for which a provision is made in
the water supply scheme is known as the design period
Design period is estimated based on the following:
Useful lives of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc.
Expandability aspect.
Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial,
commercial developments & migration-immigration.
56

Available resources.
Performance of the system during initial period.
6.3.1 POPULATION FORECASTING METHODS
The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are given below.
The particular method to be adopted for a particular case or for a particular city
depends largely on the factors discussed in the methods, and the selection is left
to the discretions and intelligence of the designer.
1. Arithmetic Increase Method
2. Geometric Increase Method
3. Incremental Increase Method
4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
5. Simple Graphical Method
6. Comparative Graphical Method
7. Ratio Method
8. Logistic Curve Method
6.4 DESIGN DETAILS
1. Detention period: for plain sedimentation: 3 to 4 h, and for coagulated
sedimentation: 2 to 2.5 h.
2. Velocity of flow: Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal flow).
3. Tank dimensions: L: B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L= 30 m (common)
maximum 100 m. Breadth= 6 m to 10 m. Circular: Diameter not greater
than 60 m. generally 20 to 40 m.
4. Depth 2.5to 5.0 m (3 m).
5. Surface Overflow Rate: For plain sedimentation 12000 to 18000
L/d/m
2
tank area; for thoroughly flocculated water 24000 to 30000 L/d/m
2

tank area.
57

6. Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.
Standard design practice of Rapid Sand filter:
1. Maximum length of lateral should not less than 60 times its diameter.
2. Spacing of holes = 6 mm holes at 7.5 cm c/c or 13 at 15 c/c.
3. C.S area of lateral should not less than 2 times area of perforations.
4. C.S area of manifold is equal to2 times total area of laterals.
5. Maximum loss of head is equal to 2 to 5 m.
6. Spacing of laterals is equal to 15 to 30 cm c/c.
7. Pressure of wash water at perforations should not greater than 1.05
kg/cm
2
.
8. Velocity of flow in lateral is equal to 2 m/s.
9. Velocity of flow in manifold is equal to 2.25 m/s.
10. Velocity of flow in manifold for wash water is equal to 1.8 to 2.5 m/s.
11. Velocity of rising wash wateris equal to 0.5 to 1.0 m/min.
12. Amount of wash water is equal to 0.2 to 0.4% of total filtered water.
13. Time of backwashing is equal to10 to 15 min.
14. Head of water over the filter = 1.5 to 2.5 m.
15. Free board = 60 cm. Bottom slope = 1 to 60 towards manifold.
Note: Q = (1.71 b h
3/2
) where Q is in m
3
/s, b is in m, h is in m. L:B = 1.25 to
1.33:1





58

6.5 DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANK
6.5.1 NECESSARY DATA REQUIRED FOR SEDIMENTATION TANK
DESIGN
1. Quantity of water to be treated per day = 1.5 million liters
2. Detention period = 2 hours

Raw water flow per day = 1.5 million liters
Detention period = 2 hours
Volume of tank = flow detention period
= 1.5 10
3
(224)
= 125 m
3
Assume depth of tank = 3m
Surface area of tank = (1253)
= 41.66 m
2

L/B = 2 (assumed)
L = 2B
2B
2
= 41.66
B = 4.5m
L = 2B
L = 9.0 m

Hence surface overloading (flow rate) =
1.510
41.66
6


= 36005.76 l/d/m
2



59

6.6 DESIGN OF RAPID SAND FILTER
6.6.1 NECESSARY DATA REQUIRED FOR DESIGN
1. Population = 100,000
2. Average rate of demand = 120 litres per head per day
Maximum daily demand = 100,000 120 1.5 = 108000 liters
Let us assume an average filtration rate of 2500 liters per hour per m
2
of filter
area.
Therefore, area of filters =
100000
2500 24
= 1.8 m
2

Let the size of each filter unit be 3 m 2 m
No. of units required =
1.8
3 2
=0.3
Design of filters units
Let us assume that 3% of filtered water is used for washing of filter every day
Filter water requirement per day = 1.03 1.5 = 1.545 Mld
Again, let us assume that 30 minutes are lost every day in washing the filter.
The quantity of filtered water required per hour =
1.545
(240.5)
= 0.0657 Ml/hour
Again let us assume that an average filtration rate of 3000 liters/h/m
2
of filter
area
Therefore filter area A =
0.0657 100000
3000
= 2.191 m
2

Let L=
4
3
B and let there is 2 filter units, two being the minimum number to be
provided
Then 2(
4
3
) = 2.191
From which B = .289 m
Keep B = 3 m and L= 4 m for each filter unit giving total area
A = 2 3 4 = 24 m
2


60

6.7 DESIGNS FOR CHLORINATION
6.7.1 NECESSARY DATA REQUIRED FOR DESIGN
1. Population=100000
2. Average rate of demand = 120 litres per head per day
3. Chlorine consumed per day = .09 kg/day
4. Residual chlorine after 10 minutes = 0.2 mg/l.
Water treated per day = 120 100000 1.5 = 108000 litres
Chlorine consumed per day = .09 kg = .09 1000000 mg/day
Therefore, chlorine used per litre of water =
.091000000
108000
=0.83 mg/l
Also, residual chlorine = 0.2 mg/l
Therefore, chlorine demand = 0.83-0.2 = 0.63 mg/l

6.8 DESIGN OF COAGULATION CUM SEDIMENTATION TANK:
6.8.1 NECESSARY DATA REQUIRED FOR DESIGN
1. Population = 100,000
2. Average rate of demand = 120 litres per head per day
Maximum daily demand = 100,000 120 1.5 = 108000 liters
Assume detention period = 2 hours
Therefore, quantity of water to be treated during an assumed detention period of
4 hours =
108000
24
2 = 9000 cu-m.
Hence, capacity of tank required = 9000 cu-m.
Assuming an overflow rate of 1000 litres/hr/m
2
of plan area, we get
q
b.l
=1000
Where q =
108000
2
= 54000 lires/hr.
Plan area =b.l
=

1000
= (540001000) = 54 m
2
.
61

Using the width of tank as 6 m, we get
Length of the tank =
54
6
= 9 m.
Hence, use a tank of 9 m 6 m 2 m.






















62


CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

From the results of chemical analysis performed with the samples of drinking
water follows that produced water can be characterized as a very soft. Hence it
could be summarized that potable water should meet physical, chemical,
bacteriological, and radionuclide parameters when supplied by an approved
source, delivered to a treatment and disinfection facility of proper design,
construction and operation and in turn delivered to the consumers through a
protected distribution system in sufficient quantity and pressure. Water
purification is the removal of contaminants from untreated water to produce
drinking water that is pure enough for the most critical of its intended uses,
usually for human consumption. Substances that are removed during the process
of drinking water treatment include solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi,
minerals such as iron, manganese and sulphur, and other chemical pollutants
such as fertilizers. Measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the
treatment of the water, but to its conveyance and distribution after treatment as
well. It is therefore common practice to have residual disinfectants in the treated
water in order to kill any bacteriological contamination during distribution.
World Health Organisation (WHO) guidelines are generally followed
throughout the world for drinking water quality requirements. In addition to the
WHO guidelines, each country or territory or water supply body can have their
own guidelines in order for consumers to have access to safe drinking water.


63

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