Offshore Pipeline Construction Volume Two

E N G I N E E R I N G C O N S U L T A N T S
Offshore
pipeline
construction

Course notes

2
All information contained in this document has been prepared solely to illustrate
engineering principles for a training course, and is not suitable for use for engineering
purposes. Use for any purpose other than general engineering design training
constitutes infringement of copyright and is strictly forbidden. No liability can be
accepted for any loss or damage of whatever nature, for whatever reason, arising from
use of this information for purposes other than general engineering design training.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means whether electronic, mechanical, photographic or otherwise,
or stored in any retrieval system of any nature without the written permission of the
copyright holder.

Copyright of this book remains the sole property of:

Trevor Jee Associates
26 Camden Rd
Tunbridge Wells
Kent
TN1 2PT
England

Trevor Jee Associates 2006

3
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume One
PREFACE............................................................................. 7
Layout ....................................................................................................................... 9
S LAY ................................................................................. 11
Expectation ............................................................................................................. 13
What is S-Lay?........................................................................................................ 14
S-Lay Vessel Types ................................................................................................ 15
S-Lay Process.......................................................................................................... 22
Market and Vessels ................................................................................................. 43
Welding and NDT................................................................................................... 57
Procedure.........................................................................................................................57
Methods ...........................................................................................................................63
Defects.............................................................................................................................69
NDT.................................................................................................................................70
Insulated Lines ........................................................................................................ 76
Lay Curve Control .................................................................................................. 80
J LAY.................................................................................. 87
Expectation ............................................................................................................. 89
What is J-lay?.......................................................................................................... 90
J-lay Vessels............................................................................................................ 91
J-lay projects ......................................................................................................... 107
J-lay Sequence ...................................................................................................... 111
J-lay Performance ................................................................................................. 116
Rapid Pipe Welding .............................................................................................. 120
Mechanical Connectors......................................................................................... 124
OFFSHORE PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION

4
Drilling Rig ........................................................................................................... 130
BUNDLES......................................................................... 135
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 137
Track Record......................................................................................................... 140
Bundle Design....................................................................................................... 141
Bundle Fabrication................................................................................................ 148
Towhead Structures............................................................................................... 151
Towing Methods ................................................................................................... 155
Insulation & Heating Systems............................................................................... 163
Re-usable & Deepwater Bundles .......................................................................... 169
Advantages of Bundles ......................................................................................... 174
FLEXIBLES...................................................................... 181
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 183
Introduction........................................................................................................... 184
Unbonded flexibles ............................................................................................... 193
Load-out ........................................................................................................................193
Pipe lay..........................................................................................................................196
J tube pull ......................................................................................................................201
End pull-ins....................................................................................................................203
Riser installation............................................................................................................205
Umbilical cables.................................................................................................... 208
Bonded hoses ........................................................................................................ 212
Manufacture...................................................................................................................212
Installation .....................................................................................................................215
REEL LAY........................................................................ 219
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 221
What is Reel-lay?.................................................................................................. 222
Reel Lay Process................................................................................................... 226
Reel-Lay Market & Vessels.................................................................................. 240
Special Considerations.......................................................................................... 248
Technical Analyses ............................................................................................... 252
LANDFALLS .................................................................... 265
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 267
Pull ashore............................................................................................................. 270
Pull offshore.......................................................................................................... 274
Directionally drilled landfalls ............................................................................... 278
TIE-INS............................................................................. 287
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 289
Introduction........................................................................................................... 290
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Flanged connection by diver ................................................................................. 292
Hyperbaric welding............................................................................................... 323
Diverless tie-ins .................................................................................................... 333

Volume Two
PRECOMMISSIONING..................................................... 353
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 355
Introduction........................................................................................................... 356
Gauging and Flooding........................................................................................... 358
Hydrotesting.......................................................................................................... 364
Dewatering............................................................................................................ 369
Air and Vacuum Drying........................................................................................ 373
Testing of valves and controls .............................................................................. 375
MANAGEMENT................................................................ 377
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 379
Law ....................................................................................................................... 380
Quality Assurance................................................................................................. 385
Health Safety and Environment ............................................................................ 393
Commercial risk management .............................................................................. 403
H S E................................................................................. 409
Health.................................................................................................................... 411
Safety .................................................................................................................... 415
Environment.......................................................................................................... 422
SURVEY........................................................................... 433
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 435
Introduction........................................................................................................... 436
Survey methods..................................................................................................... 438
Geophysical surveys ......................................................................................................438
Geotechnical surveys.....................................................................................................444
Visual surveys................................................................................................................447
Survey Operations................................................................................................. 452
SEABED MODIFICATION................................................ 465
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 467
Sweeping............................................................................................................... 468
Rock removal ........................................................................................................ 473
Protection .............................................................................................................. 479
Rock dump............................................................................................................ 487

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Concrete Mattresses .............................................................................................. 493
Protective structures.............................................................................................. 497
Crossings............................................................................................................... 501
TRENCHING..................................................................... 507
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 509
Introduction........................................................................................................... 510
Ploughing.............................................................................................................. 511
Jetting.................................................................................................................... 517
Cutting................................................................................................................... 523
Cable trenching ..................................................................................................... 528
Trench Transitions ................................................................................................ 535
Backfilling............................................................................................................. 536
DIVING&ROV................................................................... 543
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 545
Introduction........................................................................................................... 546
Diving & Equipment ............................................................................................. 549
Physiology .....................................................................................................................549
Saturation diving............................................................................................................557
Surface diving and hard suits.........................................................................................569
Market............................................................................................................................572
Remotely Operated Vehicles ................................................................................ 580
Types .............................................................................................................................580
Tools..............................................................................................................................587
Specialist ROVs.............................................................................................................589
Deck equipment .............................................................................................................598
Market............................................................................................................................602
DECOMMISSIONING....................................................... 607
Expectation ........................................................................................................... 609
Introduction........................................................................................................... 610
Legislation............................................................................................................. 615
Decommissioning in-situ ...................................................................................... 620
Cleaning.........................................................................................................................621
Product removal.............................................................................................................623
Trenching.......................................................................................................................624
Recovery ............................................................................................................... 627
Re-use ................................................................................................................... 633
PROFILES........................................................................ 637
ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS................................... 659
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & REFERENCES ................... 667
ANSWERS........................................................................ 683

PRECOMMISSIONING

PRECOMMISSIONING

355
EXPECTATION

EXPECTATION
Understand the processes of
Pigging,
Gauging and
Flooding of line
Know the hydrotest procedure and how to
find leaks
Understand the need for dewatering and
drying of line prior to it entering service

Here we examine the precommissioning stage of a pipeline construction project. This
stage involves the pipeline being tested to ensure its integrity and then having the
product introduced to the pipeline system. The processes of pigging, gauging and
flooding the line prior to hydrotest are presented. The hydrotest procedure is
discussed along with the methods available to determine leaks in the system. Finally,
the dewatering process and the need to dry the line are described.


356
INTRODUCTION

This section addresses pre-commissioning, by which we mean the flooding, testing
and dewatering of a pipeline ready to receive product.
The presentation reflects the sequence of precommissioning events normally seen in
practice. They fit between completion of pipelay and startup of the pipeline.

However, trenching and tie-in also need to be fitted in during the same period, giving
rise to a number of possible overall sequences of events.

WHAT IS PRECOMMISSIONING?
Purpose is to prepare pipe for operation
Convince client that line is fit for purpose
Main steps
Remove construction debris
Check pipeline bore
Perform hydrotest
Dewater pipe
Dry pipe if a gas line

PRECOMMISSIONING

357
WHO DOES IT?
Copipe (PSL Group, took over Chorley)
PII Technomarine (now part of GE Energy)
Weatherford
McAlpine
BJ Services
Green Hydrotest
Val Hydrotest
LGS
Halliburton

A number of specialist contractors are used to undertake pre-commissioning work.

They may also supply compressor rigs earlier during the laying operations as part of a
buckling contingency system. This can be then used during the final handover to the
client.


358
GAUGING AND FLOODING

Vent valve D
and gauge
Mainline trap
valve B
Pig signaller
Trap
kicker
valve C
Mainline
bypass
valve A
Door
Launch
tray
F
l
o
w
Flow
PIG LAUNCHER AND RECEIVER (CATCHER)
Pig

Under normal operation, valves A, B and C are left open and the pig launcher door is
kept closed. When a pig is to be launched, the valves B and C are closed and the vent
valve D is used to release gas pressure. The door is opened and the pig pushed into
the trap. Valve D is shut again. The door resealed and valve C cracked open again
until the trap pressure equalises with that of the pipeline. Valve C is closed and valve
B opened. The pig can be launched by opening valve C again and then gradually
closing valve A. A pig signaller indicates passage of the pig. Once the pig is in the
main pipeline, valves A, B and C are fully opened again for normal operation.

For pig receipt, a similar unit (called a pig catcher in USA) is used except that the pig
signaller is on the other side of valve B to indicate that the pig has been caught.

The photographs show a typical landline pig launcher and a subsea unit supplied by
Pipeline Engineering (www.pipelineengineering.co.uk) to installation contractor
PRECOMMISSIONING

359
Subsea 7. This operates at a depth of 130 m (426ft) in Essos Jotun field in the North
Sea (Norwegian sector).

It is a 150 mm by 250 mm (6in by 10in) subsea class 1500 vertical pig launcher with
receiver facilities. The unit can launch or receive both conventional and intelligent
pigs. It has full subsea capabilities including a soft landing system and ROV
operations compatibility.

The unit consists of three sections: a manifold interface, the protection head and pig
launcher. The manifold section is bolted to the subsea manifold and includes three
pedestals for the Soft Landing System. When the launcher/receiver is not in use, the
protection head is used to protect the manifold from damage and corrosion. It is
fitted with hydraulic quick connect/disconnect collett connectors and a control panel
to allow removal and connection of the head by ROV.

The pig launcher assembly, which is kept either onshore or on the barge until
required, is fitted with three pig release fingers and three baskets capable of launching
and receiving three conventional pigs or one intelligent pig respectively. The pig
launcher and receiver is designed in accordance with BS 5500, permanent pipework
to Det Norske Veritas (DNV), and the launcher/receiver structure to DNV and
NORSOK.

FLOODING
Bi-Di
Pinger for location
Bypass port
Breaks up and sweeps
out debris in suspension
Prior to trenching
After burial for landlines
Treated water
Deoxygenator
Biocide
Corrosion inhibitors
Fluorescent dye
Drives pigs forward
Suspension rubber cups
Pipe wall
Metal or plastic body
Bypass jets
Flow
Debris

The pipeline is flooded with treated seawater using a bi-directional pig. The purpose
of using a Bi-Di pig is that it can, if necessary, be driven in the reverse direction if it
does become blocked with debris or stuck at a dent. This pig has the additional
function of sweeping out debris and dust. The pinger acts as a sound source in case
the pig needs to be located or tracked.

It may be fitted with bypass ports to allow some flow past the pig to keep debris in
suspension in front of it, rather than accumulating into a plug.


360
It is run prior to trenching the line to increase self weight and permit repairs should
defects be detected. Landlines are pigged following trenching because of safety
concerns during pressure testing.

The pig is driven using seawater that is treated to prevent it causing corrosion of the
line. It is typically deoxygenated and contains corrosion inhibitors, biocides and a
fluorescent dye to assist in detecting any leaks. Some chemicals may not be added
initially, because of environmental concerns.

When arctic landlines are flooded, either hot water with methanol can be used or even
hot oil. This is to prevent freezing during the hydrotesting but may prove more
difficult to dispose of and runs the risk of environmental discharges if the line leaks.

PUMPS
Reciprocating/positive displacement pumps
Volume measurement
Hydrotest pressure capability
Monitor and record
volume and pressure
versus time

Monitoring flow volumes and pressure versus time is vital in determining when to
expect the pig to arrive, and in helping to locate it if lost. For example, a pressure
blip might occur on contact with a dent.

PRECOMMISSIONING

361
GAUGING
Performed using a gauging pig
Aluminium disk slightly smaller than bore
DNV 97%
US in (12.7 mm)
Inspect for damage confirm minimum bore
Disk saved as proof
Indicates blockage
Dents require repair
Front disk
Shows debris height

The size of minimum bore is confirmed using a gauging pig. This is fitted with an
aluminium disk that is slightly smaller than the design diameter of the pipeline. If
there are no indications of damage on the edges such as scores or bent areas, this
indicates a clear bore. The disk can be removed and saved as positive evidence by
the client.

Rather unusually, the pig shown in the photograph has an additional disk at the front.
This would provide indication of the height or size of any debris detected.

Inspection of the disk will indicate whether any significant blockages are in the line.
If so, then the damaged section would have to be found and repaired. One way of
finding the damage is to run the pig again with an accelerometer attached to a
recorder. This will pick up the girth weld beads as it moves down the pipe. When
the pig hits the debris or damage, a characteristic spike of acceleration is recorded.

Other defects found might include weld icicles at the girth welds and pipe impact
damage due to anchor handling during lay.


362
SUBSEA PIGGING UNITS
Controls launch of pig train
and flooding of pipe
Combined with pull head
Preloaded with pigs
Combined pull head and multiple pig launcher

The above subsea pigging unit from PSL allows the diverless flooding and pigging of
the pipe.

The combined pulling head and pig launcher for the Claymore line holds a number of
pigs for the initial pre-commissioning. Each can be fired individually to flood and
prove the bore.

INTELLIGENT PIG RUN
Baseline record of pipe wall
Magnetic flux pigs

PRECOMMISSIONING

363
Though not always undertaken, good practice now suggests that an intelligent pig run
be undertaken to provide a baseline record of the pipe wall and any surface defects.

Intelligent pigs are normally run at intervals of 5 or 10 years to detect corrosion.
Knowing the initial condition helps in determining future inspection frequency.

The picture above shows the PII magnetic flux pig. In the picture you can see the
magnetic brushes and the finger-like arrays of magnetic flux detectors. The rest of
the pig contains power and data storage facilities. It is used to detect internal and
external corrosion defects in oil and gas pipelines. Variants are available to detect
both axially-oriented and hoopwise-oriented cracks.

Typical speeds of intelligent pigs are from 0.3 to 5 m/s (1ft/s to 16 ft/s). If the
product flow is faster than this, it is normal to include a bypass system to permit the
pig to travel slower than the oil. Head losses for pigs are typically less than 1 bar (15
psi).

GAUGING AND FLOODING - SUMMARY
Gauging
Use gauge pig to confirm minimum bore
Establish presence of dents or debris
Flooding
Fill pipeline with water to enable hydrotest
Any questions?

Once the pipeline has been installed, a gauge pig is sent through to confirm that the
minimum bore has been achieved and there are no dents or debris in the line.

Once gauged, the pipeline is flooded with water. The water is then pressurised to
hydrotest the pipeline and confirm its strength.


364
HYDROTESTING

HYDROTESTING
Pressurise all parts of system repeat tests
Code dependent
1.5 times maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) or
design pressure (or 90% hoop stress) for 24 hours
Time for latent defects to reveal themselves
1.25 times for 8 hours in USA
Gas lines may exceed yield wall (105%) for stress relief
Risers
Separate strength test to a higher pressure
Increased safety (wall thickness) adjacent to personnel
Tie-in joints
If all components of pipeline have been strength tested
then leak test at 1.1 times MAOP for 3 to 6 hours

The purpose of hydrotesting is to prove the strength of the pipe. The reason for using
water is to minimise the energy contained in the pipeline in case there is a failure
(which could be far more catastrophic in a pneumatic test). The hydrotest may be
carried out on individual sections and components of the pipeline. There may be
many repeat tests at each stage prior to and following trenching of a subsea pipeline
then once again after burial.

Hydrotesting should be distinguished from leak testing, which is at a lower level of
pressure and simply proves that the joints between the assembled components seal.
This is usually carried out on the complete pipeline after all tie-ins have been
completed.

A satisfactory result usually signals contractual end of pipelay activity.

PRECOMMISSIONING

365
The hydrotest pressure on the pipeline is set to 1.5 times MAOP, or 90% of hoop
stress (whichever is less). The test is held for 24 hours.

This is for two reasons:
to ensure that small leaks are detected
in the past, some failures have been shown to be time-dependent and have
occurred within the 24-hour period

Once the pipeline, the spoolpieces, the risers, the valves and the pig traps have all
been strength-tested individually, the pipeline is assembled and leak-tested to 1.1
times MAOP for 3 to 6 hours, or as long as it takes to prove that all assembly joints
are sealing.

HYDROTESTING FLEXIBLES
API 17J
Factory acceptance test
24 hours
1.5 x design pressure
Fresh water with stainless
armour wire
Gradual reduction in pressure
Offshore leak test
6-8 hours
1.1 x design
Repaired structural damage
1.25 x design

API 17J defines the pressure testing requirements for flexibles. They follow a similar
pattern to rigid lines except that the strength test is the factory acceptance test, ie it is
done on completion of manufacture of the flexible, before it is installed.

The factory acceptance test is at 1.5 times the design pressure, and is held for 24
hours after an initial settling down period. Fresh water is normally used, particularly
where there is a 316L stainless steel liner which can suffer chloride stress corrosion
cracking when subject to seawater. Some manufacturers will increase the initial test
pressure by (say) 4% so that the minimum pressure during the 24 hour period remains
above 1.5 x design pressure, despite slight relaxation of the layers and variations due
to temperature.

There will be a gradual reduction in pressure with all flexible lines because the water
permeates through the lining. So a limit is set on both time and pressure.

Once installed, the flexible is leak tested to 1.1 x design pressure for 6-8 hours.
Practical constraints often dictate that this test is done with seawater. This can be
accommodated even with 316L liners, so long as the seawater is removed promptly
and completely afterwards. One reason for the shorter duration and lower pressure of

366
the leak test is to guard against extrusion of the polymer liner into the gaps in the
pressure vault layer.

If damage has occurred during installation and repairs have been undertaken, then the
flexible must be retested to 125% of the design pressure at this stage.

TEST EQUIPMENT
Exclusion area apart from operator
BS 8010-2.8
HSE guidance note GS4
Safety in pressure testing
Small bore connectors
Likely source of leak
Weld sealed
Flood and pressurise line
Monitor head loss
Assess air content
Correct for temperature and expansion fluctuations
Extrapolated
T
h
e
o
r
e
t
i
c
a
l

P
/
V

p
l
o
t
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

l
i
n
e
Volume of air
Volume of
water added
Pressure
head

The hydrotest operation should be carried out by trained personnel within an
exclusion area in case anything should occur. This is one reason that air tests at high
bar ratings are now discouraged. Lines may have a rating of 200 bar (2.9 ksi) or
more.

The basics of pressure testing are covered in Section 8 of BS 8010-2.8.

Safety considerations whilst dealing with unproven pressurised vessels are detailed in
the HSE guidance note GS4.

A common source of apparent failure of pipelines is the very test equipment itself.
Small bore screwed connectors are often welded tight to prevent minor leaks.

The pipeline is flooded and pressurised and the head monitored. An assessment is
made of air content by extrapolating the measured trace back to the lower axis.

For land lines, corrections need also to be made for diurnal temperature effects,
which cause the pipe wall to expand.

PRECOMMISSIONING

367
FINDING A LEAK
Check tie-in connections
If in the body of pipeline:
ROV or aircraft (helicopter) finding dye slick
Acoustic detection of noise from leak
Set remote plug and test against in systematic
pattern
Difficult with multiple
leaks and with
trenched pipe

If the pressure does not hold, the rate of decay (given the volume of the pipeline) will
point to how big the leak is. The obvious points to check first are all the flanges and
tie-ins. With those eliminated, it is a matter of finding the leak in a pipeline.

The slide lists various approaches:
Run an ROV along the pipe looking for the fluorescent dye, and perhaps also
carrying an acoustic detector to listen for the noise of the leak.
Fly the route and look for a slick: sometimes the dye has an oily element which
can be seen, or picked up due to its fluorescence.
If neither of these is successful (as could well be the case if the pipeline is
buried), then it is necessary to run a remote set plug in a search pattern. It would
be set at the half way point and one side of the pipeline pressured up. If it held,
then the leak would be in the other half, and the plug would be set at the quarter
point in that half, and the process repeated until the area of the leak could be
found.
An alternative is for the remote set pig to detect the direction of flow of the
leaking water.
The process becomes still more complex when there is more than one leak.


368
PIG HOME TRACKER

As an alternative to a pinger, the above shows the Pig Home Tracker system (from
PSL), where the pig carries a transponder allowing its position on the Earths surface
to be determined using GPS.

HYDROTESTING - SUMMARY
Confirms
Strength of the pipe
Leak-tightness of flanges and tie-ins
Any questions?

Hydrotesting is the pressurising of the water-filled pipeline to a pressure greater than
the normal operating pressure. The purpose is to confirm the strength of the pipeline
and to check for leaks at vulnerable locations, such as flanges and tie-in points.
PRECOMMISSIONING

369
DEWATERING

DEWATERING
Direction of pigs trains
Dewatering of process lines
Dewatering of sour gas lines or
high purity sales gas lines to national transmission system
Nitrogen Methanol
Methanol/
water mix
Oil or Gas
Hydrotest
water
Fresh
water
Nitrogen
Hydrotest
water
Fresh
water
Methanol
or gel
Methanol/gel
water mix
Oil line Hydrotest water
Dewatering of oil trunk lines to terminal or refinery

Dewatering is removing the water from the pipeline. The pipeline is dewatered after
all hydrotesting and leak-testing activities have been carried out.

Where the pipeline is used for oil, it may be sufficient to use a single pig together
with a separator tank at the terminal facility.

The above diagram shows a commissioning train of high-seal mechanical pigs with
slugs of methanol between them.

Immediately following the first pig, a slug of fresh water flushes any salt from the
line.

The first slug of methanol will pick up water left behind on the pipe wall, and will
become diluted.

370
The second and third slug will leave a small amount of hydrate-inhibited water on
the pipe wall.

A slug of nitrogen behind the methanol separates it from the production oil or gas
which drives the train.

This situation is sufficient for most purposes:
Oil lines (and other liquid lines)
Two phase lines
Gas/condensate production lines

Where a high product purity is needed, or a very low dew point (as in high purity
sales gas for the national transmission system, or in sour gas lines), then the pipe also
needs to be dried. In these cases, the train will be driven by nitrogen instead of oil or
gas.

Another alternative is for aqueous gels to be used instead of methanol.

NITROGEN SUPPLY
Nitrogen skid requires separate
supply of nitrogen in tanks
Deoxygenating
and drying unit

A nitrogen skid is required to store liquid nitrogen, vapourise it, and pump it up to
line pressure.

Where supplies of nitrogen are difficult to obtain or where large volumes are
required, one alternative may be to use deoxygenated air. This is of a similar
modular size containing the oxygen separator and drying units but does not require
the supply of costly nitrogen in remote areas of the world.

Occasionally in Nigeria and other remote regions, hot air has been used instead of
nitrogen. However, this causes the same safety concerns as air (rather than hydro)
testing.

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371
DISPOSAL OF TEST WATER
Disposal of test water
Aeration and neutralisation of additives
Recovery of methanol for processing
Separator tanks for oil/water/methanol mix

It is necessary to safely dispose of the test water following use.

This is usually fed back to the sea once the additives have been neutralised with
additional chemicals.

Hydrogen peroxide or sodium bisulphide detoxifies the biocide. Aeration removes
the effects of the oxygen scavenger.

The methanol/water mix can be run into separator tanks for recovery and processing.

As the product arrives, separator tanks are used to remove any remaining water from
the oil.


372
DEWATERING - SUMMARY
Cannot mix product with hydrotest water
Use pig train to introduce slugs of
methanol or gel
Absorb water and dry the line
Final pig followed by product or nitrogen
Sufficient in itself for oil and most gas lines
Any questions?

Dewatering is the process of removing the hydrotest water from the pipeline, in
preparation for flooding the line with product. The water and product are separated
by a pig train, within the pig train are slugs of drying chemicals. As the pig train
passes along the line, these absorb the water and so dry the pipeline ready for receipt
of the product.

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373
AIR AND VACUUM DRYING

AIR/NITROGEN DRYING OF PIPELINE
Foam pig swabs absorb & push water out
Warm desiccated gas (air or nitrogen)
Nitrogen preferred for hydrocarbon lines (safety)
Reduction in outlet hygrometer readings
Indicates reduction of dew point
Completion of drying
Typically a differential of 5C (9F) between inlet and outlet
Usually completed within
a few days even for large
diameter trunk lines

Foam pig trains may initially be run to act as swabs, removing any condensed water
from the walls and push any liquid out in front of them.

Then warm dry gas is delivered to the inlet. Either air or nitrogen is used. The latter
is an inert gas so has the advantage for hydrocarbon lines in that we can safely
introduce gas without fear of explosion.

The picture shows BJ process air drier unit. This can deliver -73C (-100F)
dewpoint air which is used to achieve extremely low dewpoints during pipeline
drying.

As the differential dew point readings reduce, the drying process is completed. It is
common to achieve a final dewpoint of -20C (-4F).

This is a rapid process, but which may be followed by additional vacuum drying.

374
VACUUM DRYING
Export gas lines only
Follows nitrogen drying
0
0
30
Drying Time
(days)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
M
i
l
l
i
-
B
a
r
)
L
o
g
a
r
i
t
h
m
i
c

S
c
a
l
e
1E3
A B C D
A - Pump down phase
B - Vapourisation/evacuation phase
C - Dehumidification/vacuum purging phase
(check for ice crystal formation allow to re-melt)
D - Vacuum release & return to atmospheric pressure

Vacuum drying means attaching vacuum pumps to one or both ends of the pipeline
and drawing a vacuum. It is only used for gas lines where water vapour would be a
problem.

If you reduce the pressure above water, you also reduce its boiling point. An
example of this is that mountaineers find that water boils at less than 100C (212F)
at altitude, and consequently boiled eggs take longer to cook.

Inside the pipeline, the pumps reduce the pressure to the point where water will boil
at (say) 4C (39F), or whatever the ambient temperature is. The drawdown curve
flattens as the water vapour comes off.

The finishing process involves stopping the pumps and checking whether the pressure
rises. As the pipeline reaches that of the seawater, further vacuum will freeze ice
crystals on the inside of the wall. Thus the air will initially appear to be fully dried.
However, by releasing the vacuum slightly, these crystals will melt. Only when all
the water is converted to vapour and removed from the system will the graph
stabilise.

It only works where the line has already been dried using other means. Puddles of
water take a very long time to clear. If necessary at pig traps, valve chambers etc, it
may be possible to enter the line and remove standing water using squeegees.

The process can last for 4-12 weeks, depending on the pipeline size and length.

For this reason and the costly delays, it is avoided wherever possible.

PRECOMMISSIONING

375
TESTING OF VALVES AND
CONTROLS

TEST VALVES AND CONTROLS
Final stage
Confirm all valves and controls are working
May require use of ROV or diver

The main pre-commissioning activity is to de-water the pipeline. For gas trunk lines,
this would be done with a train of pigs, perhaps with gel or methanol between them.
The line would then be vacuum-dried to remove all traces of water before the
introduction of export-quality gas.

Such a procedure would not be necessary with two-phase flowlines or an oil trunk
line, where the likelihood is that the water would be displaced by a pig train driven by
the production.

The remaining activity within pre-commissioning is to test and prove the valves and
control systems.


376
PRECOMMISSIONING - SUMMARY
You should now:
Understand the processes of pigging,
gauging and flooding of line
Know the hydrotest procedure and how to
find leaks
Understand the need for dewatering and
drying of line prior to it entering service
Any questions?

Here we have examined the precommissioning stage of a pipeline construction
project. This stage involves the pipeline being tested to ensure its integrity and then
having the product introduced to the pipeline system. The processes of pigging,
gauging and flooding the line prior to hydrotest were presented. The hydrotest
procedure was discussed along with the methods available to determine leaks in the
system. Finally, the dewatering process and the need to dry the line were described.

MANAGEMENT

MANAGEMENT

379
EXPECTATION

EXPECTATION
Understand the main aspects of the
following:
Law
Legal environment applicable to pipeline construction projects
QA
Quality assurance system to make the work happen as
planned
HSE
System to protect Health, Safety & Environment
Commercial
System to assess & guard against commercial risk

In this section on Management, we address four main topics, as given above.


380
LAW

ACTS
UK
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
Petroleum and Submarine Pipeline Act 1998
US
Outer Continental Shelf Act
River and Harbor Act, 1899
Federal Power Act, 1920

There are two main UK Acts which set the legal environment for pipeline
construction.

The Health and Safety at Work Act covers the safety aspects and is promulgated by
the Health and Safety Executive.

The Petroleum and Submarine Pipeline Act covers the commercial side, and is used
with regard to consents for the construction and operation of pipelines.

For landfalls, there are additional legal matters to consider, such as interfaces with the
Crown Commissioners (who own the beaches) and Local Authorities or local
landowners.

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381
In the US, the listed acts empower the Department of Interior, the Department of
Transportation and the US Army Corp of Engineers as detailed in the following
slides.

UK REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
DTI
Department of Trade and Industry
Planning and resource management
Consent to build and operate
HSE
Health and Safety Executive
(Offshore Safety Division)
Safety of people
Day to day inspection and enforcement of
regulations

To match the Acts, there are two regulatory authorities in the UK - the DTI and HSE.

The Department of Trade and Industry is responsible for planning and resource-
management. They give consent to build and operate pipelines. Essentially, this is a
commercial role seeking to exploit the resources in the North Sea.

The Health and Safety Executive is responsible for the safety of people under the
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.


382
US REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
Mineral Management Services (MMS)
Department of Interior
Federal landowner & regulator
Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS)
Department of Transportation
Federal regulator
States
Louisiana - 1 marine league (3 naut. miles)
Texas - 3 marine leagues (9 naut. miles)

The regulators in the US are the MMS and the OPS for federal waters. The MMS is
responsible for the exploitation of oil and their scope will include the production
facility and any process equipment on the facility. The OPS is responsible for the
pipeline system from the first/last flange beyond the process equipment.

In nearshore regions, developments and pipelines will come under the control of the
state authorities.

MARITIME AUTHORITIES
UK
The Maritime & Coastguard Agency
The Marine Accident Investigation Branch
US
Coastguard
Corp of Engineers

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383
In addition, offshore construction will interface with the Coastguard and, in the US,
the Corp of Engineers.

Should there be an accident to a ship, then the MAIB would also become involved.

OVERVIEW
HSE QA Commercial
(doing it safely) (managing job) (making a profit)
CORPORATE POLICY AND PROCEDURES
SETUP PROJECT PLANS
IMPLEMENT DO PROJECT AND AUDIT
FEEDBACK LESSONS LEARNED

We are now going to look at QA, HSE and Risk Management. Before going into
details, let us look at an overview of how they fit together. They all interlink and
follow a similar pattern.

The overall pattern is that a Construction Contractor will have corporate policies and
procedures in place. These record (respectively) what he does and how he does it.
They embody the lessons learned from his previous work, and the experience of his
workforce.

When a bid comes in, he will develop a plan specific to that job.

On award, he will put that plan into effect, and will have an audit loop to see if it is
on track.

Once finished, he will reflect on what happened and incorporate the lessons learned
back into his corporate procedures.

The above pattern applies to the three elements (Safety, QA, and Commercial risk),
which parallel each other throughout. Let us now examine how this works.


384
LAW - SUMMARY
Government bodies set laws covering the
construction and operation of oil and gas
pipelines
Need awareness of these laws when
undertaking pipeline projects
Any questions?

When undertaking pipeline construction projects, it is necessary to be aware of the
laws specified by the relevant government body.

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385
QUALITY ASSURANCE

QA
What is QA? Any views
Policy and Procedures
Quality Plan
Improvement

This section will address Quality Assurance throughout pipeline construction. As per
the previous slide, this will work from the corporate level of policy and procedures,
through to the project level of quality plans and quality control, and then look at the
feedback/self improvement loop.

Quality Assurance in laymans terms is delivering what you promise, being able to
prove it, and learning from your mistakes (getting things right first time).

The quality management system is the way you manage a project. It is not some
external add-on to police the project manager!


386
Continual improvement of
the quality management system
ISO 9001 QA PROCESS APPROACH
Customers
(and other
interested
parties)
Requirements
Input
Resource
management
Management
responsibility
Key
Value-adding activities
Information flow
Product
realisation
Product
Customers
(and other
interested
parties)
Output
Measurement
analysis and
improvement
Satisfaction
BEANS

Any activity, or set of activities, that uses resources to transform inputs to outputs can
be considered as a process. For organisations to function effectively, they have to
identify and manage numerous interrelated and interacting processes. Often, the
output from one process will directly form the input into the next process. The
systematic identification and management of the processes employed within an
organisation and particularly the interactions between such processes is referred to as
the process approach.

The diagram above demonstrates this process approach which ISO 9000 recommends
be adopted in order to manage an organisation. This illustration shows that interested
parties play a significant role in providing inputs to the organisation. Monitoring the
satisfaction of interested parties requires the evaluation of information relating to the
perception of interested parties as to the extent to which their needs and expectations
have been met. The figure does not show processes at a detailed level.

Quality policy and quality objectives are established to provide a focus to direct the
organisation. Both determine the desired results and assist the organisation to apply
its resources to achieve these results. The quality policy provides a framework for
establishing and reviewing quality objectives. The quality objectives need to be
consistent with the quality policy and the commitment to continual improvement, and
their achievement needs to be measurable. The achievement of quality objectives can
have a positive impact on product quality, operational effectiveness and financial
performance and thus on the satisfaction and confidence of interested parties.

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387
QUALITY POLICY
To ISO 9001
Example contents
Company profile
Policy and objectives statements
Organisation
Responsibility and authority
Policies
It is the policy of this company to listen to
client requirements and reflect these in our
proposed scope of work etc.

The Quality Policy is a corporate document set out (normally) by a Director in line
with the requirements of ISO 9001.

It sets out what the Company is, what it is seeking to achieve, how it is organised and
who is responsible.

It then specifies the policies such as the example given above. Policies comprise a
few general statements. They are brought down to earth in the procedures, which
state how these things are done.


388
QUALITY PROCEDURES
Client interface
Subcontractor interface
Technical work
Welding and NDT
Survey and positioning
Reeling
Lay curve control, etc
Records and document numbering
Nonconformance, preventive and corrective
action

Corporate procedures will be organised to suit the needs of the Company. However,
they are likely to cover the above subjects.

Their content will be along the lines of a definition of the scope of the procedure, a
step by step guide on how to do it, and possibly a flow diagram.

Work instructions provide detail on how a particular operation or service must be
carried out in order to achieve consistent and repeatable quality.

Work instructions must include the acceptance criteria applicable to that product or
service. Where it is identified (for instance, during final inspection) that the product
or service fails to meet the defined criteria, a non-conformance report must be raised
and corrective action taken before the product or service can be released to the
customer for use. Preventative action must also be taken to ensure that a recurrence
of the same non-conformance cannot occur.

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389
QUALITY PLAN
Written for each project covering:
Responsibilities
Audit
Document control
QC plan

When a job comes in it is necessary to focus the procedures on that job. The Quality
Plan does this. It normally reiterates policy and cross-references the corporate
procedures. The meat of it is then to define the following:

Responsibilities of the people who will be on the project, from project director to
project manager, engineers, inspectors, auditors, etc.

An audit schedule defining what is to be audited and when, in order to see if the
project is on track.

Document control for the project, particularly the interface with the document
control systems of client and subcontractors.

Quality control plan: a step by step plan, going through from start to finish of the
job, identifying what controls (checks, inspections, approvals, responsibilities)
are needed at each point.


390
QUALITY CONTROL PLAN FLOWCHART
1 Contract review
2 Preparation of
project procedures
5 Develop temporary works /
design documents
3 Submit to
client
3A Review
/ Amend
4 Source / order
proprietary materials &
equipment
8 Obtain F L materials and
carry out WPQTs and WQTs
6 Placement of subcontracts
9 Pipe welding
Visual inspection
NDT
Mechanical tests
9A Accept /
Reject
7 Develop installation
engineering / equipment
documents

This and the following slide show parts of the QC Plan flowchart of an actual
contract.

This section covers initiation and inspection for pipeline welding. Each node is
numbered for identification.

The implementation phase takes the above plan and makes it happen.

MORE OF THE FLOWCHART
49 Post
trenching survey
50 Submit to
client for review
48 Post lower pipes
within cofferdam
51 Backfill pipes
within cofferdam
53 Extract
cofferdam piles
56 Hydrotest
landline (option)
57 Reinstate
primary dunes
52 Remove back
anchor wall
54 Install cathodic
protection system
55 Test and
commission CP system
55A
Accept /
Reject
56A Accept /
Reject

MANAGEMENT

391
This section covers restoration of a landfall site following lowering of the pipe in a
cofferdam through dunes.

FEEDBACK LOOP
Job close-out
Lessons learned
Amend procedures
Management of change

Implementation rarely follows the exact plan and, with hindsight, one would often
have taken a different approach. Part of this is automatically captured in the
experience of the people working on the job. However, in order to feed into the more
general and more permanent corporate memory, it is important to feed the lessons
learned back into procedures.

All changes, either at work instruction level or at corporate procedure level, must be
properly managed by recording and implementing the change to ensure that the latest
issue is available for subsequent use.

Where a quality management system is certified by an accredited body (e.g. LRQA as
complying with the applicable part of the ISO 9000 system), it must be periodically
audited by the third party to ensure its on-going compliance. Additionally, all of the
elements of the quality management system must be audited internally, preferably by
the owners of the system, at least once every 12 months.


392
QA - SUMMARY
Quality Assurance systems specify policies
and procedures
Ensure sufficient quality of the product
Any questions?

Quality Assurance (QA) systems enable companies to work towards improving the
quality of their product and ensuring the product meets the requirements of the
customer. The product could be a pipeline system.

MANAGEMENT

393
HEALTH SAFETY AND
ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT
Purpose:
to avoid accidents
Also called safety management system
Policy and Procedures
Project safety and environmental plan
Implementation
Feedback

The purpose of the HSE system (typically called a safety management system) is to
avoid accidents, both to people and to the environment.

HSE management follows the same pattern as QA in terms of starting with corporate
procedures, developing a project plan, implementing it and looking for feedback.


394
SETUP AND PROCEDURES
Reporting accidents
Risk assessments
Diver safety
Marine vessel procedures
Company safety advisor
(responsible for audit)
Board
(accountable for accidents)
Project manager
(responsible for safety)

The set-up for safety needs to report back outside the project. A generic arrangement
is shown in the diagram above, with the Project Manager being responsible for safety
on the project, and a competent Company Safety Advisor auditing him. Both of them
report back to the board (normally to two different Directors), who will be
accountable if there is an accident.

Also above are examples of (corporate) safety procedures, which in our experience
are normally recorded separately from the quality management system.

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395
PROJECT SAFETY PLAN
Objectives
Avoid accidents
Scope
Define limits of job
Responsibilities
Training
Who needs what
Site safety support
Visits, meetings, posters
Risk assessment, MAPD
Accident reporting
HSE and local interfaces
Project specific
paragraphs on:
Signs
Lifting
Welding
NDT
Coatings
Chemicals
Power
Trenching
Diving etc

The above slide sets out typical contents of a project safety plan.

IMPLEMENTATION
Living document
Safety officer on site
Safety audits
Security regime
Deliberate and accidental breaches
Reporting of LTA (lost time accidents)
Major Accident Prevention Document (MAPD)
Major accident response drills
Risk assessment through HAZOP

During the project, the whole team will be made aware of safety and their
responsibilities. They will be reminded and audited by the Project Safety Officer,
who will also record any LTAs (Lost Time Accidents), and will handle the interface
with the HSE.


396
MAPD
Under pipeline safety regulations, 1996
Introduced following Piper Alpha
Major accident prevention document
Write during design
Periodic review to keep updated
Have documents to prove
You have identified major hazards
You have taken adequate steps to reduce risks (both
probability and consequence of hazard)
You have an adequate system for dealing with major
accidents

In reaction to the Piper Alpha disaster in 1988, the pipeline safety regulations of 1996
required a Major Accident Prevention Document (MAPD) for pipelines, much
along the lines of the platform safety case.

The MAPD will be drafted by the pipeline designers. It will form part of the safety
management system during construction, and will then be handed on to the Operator.

The MAPD requires the pipeline operator to identify major hazards and take adequate
steps to reduce the risks arising from them. By risks, we mean both the probability of
an accident occurring and the consequence of that accident.

These documents must be in writing, kept up to date, and available to the operator.

They also have to include an emergency procedure for dealing with major accidents.
As part of the MAPD requirements, it may be necessary to carry out a drill to
simulate an accident, and to see the response.

One vital tool in the safety armoury is risk assessment to spot hazards and mitigate
against them.

Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is a tool used by engineers at the
equipment and systems design stage. A hazard and operability study (HAZOP) and
value engineering (VE) respectively are tools used to identify and eliminate
unacceptable risks and to ensure that fitness for purpose is achieved within
commercially-acceptable limits.

A team (typically of 6-8 people) from various disciplines is required to achieve a
productive assessment.

MANAGEMENT

397
Risk = probability x consequence
Usually 6 x 6 x 6 box
Numerical values
for each
Bird flu
High
consequence
(death rate)
Mid band
probability
High cost
BOSTON CUBE
Probability of failure
C
o
n
s
e
q
u
e
n
c
e

o
f

f
a
i
l
u
r
e
C
o
s
t

o
f

h
a
z
a
r
d
e
l
i
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
Completely safe but
uneconomic design
Hazard must
be removed
H
i
g
h
Low
L
o
w
High
H
i
g
h
L
o
w

Risk is normally defined as the product of probability of an event occurring and the
consequences of that event. A simple Boston cube is illustrated, which gives a means
of presenting and comparing levels of risk. The third axis adds the cost of removal of
risk in monetary terms.

The consequence of failure is often determined in money terms with a price being put
on each life lost.

The probability of an event happening is usually determined by the use of event fault
trees, reliability block diagram or Markov methods, where reliability values and
Boolean logic calculate the likelihood of failure.

A failure that has a high probability of occurring and a high consequence would be
considered high risk.

For most systems, risks in the high risk regions must be removed by design. Even
those in the low risk squares should be removed if the costs of doing so are low.

The modern risk assessment approach uses fully detailed systems with more boxes
than shown, numerically quantifying the likelihood levels for each axis. Perhaps
these would have six bands the lowest being something likely to occur at least once
per year, and the highest being an event occurring less frequently than every 10 000
years.

Knowing the consequence of failure, we can determine the appropriate or target level
for the probability of failure.

A current example of assessment may be the bird flu which might become infections
by person to person contact. Such pandemics occur perhaps every 100 years: the last
was the Spanish flu after the first world war causing more deaths than during the war
itself. Estimates of bird flu is that it may kill 1 in 4 (or some sources think 3 in 4).
This is much more than for the black death in Europe in the middle ages.


398
So we have a consequence of death of 1 in 4 (High) and a probability of 1 in 100
years (Mid-band) although currently it is highly likely. However, the cost of
removal of the risk is very high with destruction of domestic and wild fowl, even
before it mutates into a contagious form. Costs of supplying everyone with the
preventative Tamiflu or developing a true antiviral drug once it does mutate are
extremely high.

Different governments are undertaking the difficult task of risk assessments using
their best estimates for each with slightly imperfect data.

HAZOP
Hazard and operability assessment
Assemble group, define procedure
Brainstorm risks using key words
More, less, faster, slower, reverse
Access, escape, fails, continues
Weather, night, visibility
Third party,etc
Assess risk and mitigation
Report and follow up

A HAZOP is a way of risk-assessing a process (e.g. lifting an item onto the seabed).
The technique is to assemble a group, some from the project and some with external
expertise. This group will review the proposed procedure, will break this up into
manageable sections and will then brainstorm using suitable prompt words as above.

Ideas of what could go wrong are then assessed in terms of their risk (their likelihood
and consequence - low, medium or high in each case). This is risk assessment.

Actions are then agreed to prevent the failure occurring, or to forestall the
consequences.

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399
HAZOP TABLE AND ACTION SHEET
Deviation N D7 9LPGH1 Deviation Impact damage
Cause Dropped load onto fire-fighting pumps/supply cables
Consequence Potential loss of fire-fighting water supply.
Safeguards Operator training and procedures. Protective cover slabs designed to
withstand loads. Limitation of crane lifting within area
Mitigation None identified
Hazard category 2, 3
Deviation N D8 9LPGH1 Deviation Fire/Overheating
Cause Fire beneath LPG tank
Consequence Loss of strength in tank wall leading to rupture and ignition of LPG
Safeguards Flammable liquid prevented from gathering beneath tank due to slope
of plinth. Provision of automatic sprinkler system to cool tank. Daily
inspection to ensure no debris stored within compound which is liable
to catch fire.
Mitigation None identified
Hazard category 1, 2, 3
Action N A3 9LPGH1 On A Designer Due 29 Feb 2003
Description Quantify the gas production rate and ventilation air-exchange rate in
the culvert. Compare this with the flammable limit. If it exceeds the
flammable limit, consider providing gas detection system in the
culvert.
Deviation N D9 9LPGH1 Deviation Explosion/Detonation
Cause Leak from flange, gas build-up in culvert system
Consequence Structural damage to foundations. Loss of adjacent pipework.
Potential loss of fire-fighting water supply.
Safeguards Maintenance. Operator training and procedures
Mitigation Robust design of culvert. Alternative fire-fighting supply available
within 15 minutes
Hazard category 1, 2

The HAZOP would consider an individual node or section of the design (in this
case numbered 9LPGH1), and set out exactly what documents were presented, the
key words considered and members of the team (both full time and part time). Any
exclusions would be noted at the front of the report.

In the fictitious example above, three deviations have been examined. The
consequences have been described. Note the use of potential. This aids the
assessment of risk at a subsequent stage.

A safeguard prevents an initiating event.

Examples of safeguards:
Design codes and materials specifications of a system
Regular EMIT (examination, monitoring, inspection and testing) will prevent a
leak due to incorrect materials being used
Installation of load cells and a cut-out (not an alarm) on a crane or hoist to ensure
that it is unable to lift any loads greater than the design load.

However, there is no safeguard that could be put in place to prevent an external
hazard (such as vehicle or aircraft impact, or a seismic event).

A mitigator reduces the consequences following a failure having occurred.

Examples of mitigators:
A properly designed bund which will prevent liquor leaking from a pipe to spread
too far
A sump alarm which will alert operators that the leak has taken place
Designing a building to withstand a vehicle impact which will reduce the effects
on plant within, such as critical pumps or safety-related pipework.

A hazard category is agreed by the team depending on the consequences to loss of
life, damage to equipment, loss of production.


400
Actions to find out further information must be placed on a team member present at
the meeting. These actions must be closed out by a set date at the HAZOP review
meeting or defined as on-going to be resolved prior to commissioning.

HAZID
HAZard IDentification
HAZID methods
HAZOP I
HAZOP II
FMEA (failure modes & effects analysis)
Walkdowns
Checklist
Optioneering (Kepner-Tragoe) or value engineering study
Fault tree analysis
Reliability diagram analysis
Need complete up-to-date drawings/specs
Need SQEP members of teams

There are many methods of identifying and removing hazards. Some of the arsenal
of tools are listed above. Different methods are appropriate for different purposes.
No one method can be applied to all. It is likely that a combination of methods will
be used to complete on a safety evaluation.

A hazard and operability study (HAZOP) combined with value engineering (VE) are
tools used to identify and eliminate unacceptable risks and to ensure that fitness for
purpose is achieved within commercially-acceptable limits. Failure modes and
effects analysis (FMEA) is a tool used by engineers at the equipment and systems
design stage.

What all these methods have in common is the need to use an up-to-date and full set
of drawings, procedures and specifications, which are particular to the node being
examined. The session should not attempt to cover too much ground. The drawings
should provide such information as, Does this pipeline contain a caustic liquid? or
Is this cabling part of the safety system?. The members of the study team should be
Suitably Qualified and Experienced Personnel (SQEP), with expertise in the different
aspects of the system or process being assessed.

For example, you would need a Designer to explain how the safety factors have been
built in to the system; the Author of the procedure to explain how the system is
designed to operate; and, most importantly, a User to explain the normal system of
working on the site. A Safety Engineer is required to advise the team on perceived
risks. Other system-specific members would also attend different types of HAZID
study.

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401
EXTRACT FROM RISK ASSESSMENT PLAN
Note: Called Job Safety Analysis in USA

FEEDBACK
The feedback from lessons learned during
the project should be documented and
incorporated into future procedures and
safety plans to ensure continuous
improvement


402
HSE - SUMMARY
Heath, Safety and Environment policies and
procedures
Ensure safe working practices for employees
Limit damage to environment
Risk assessment
Identify risks and hazards
Implement systems to prevent failure or limit
consequences
Any questions?

Policies and procedures should be implemented to improve the Health, Safety and
Environment in which employees are required to work. The procedures should
ensure safe working practices for employees and minimise the risk of damage to the
environment.

Risk assessment methods are used to identify potential risks and hazards associated
with any particular task within a project. When the risks have been identified, then
procedures can be implemented that either prevent failure or minimise the
consequences in the event of a failure.

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403
COMMERCIAL RISK
MANAGEMENT

COMMERCIAL RISK MANAGEMENT
Purpose: secure a profit
Identify at tender stage using a risk log
Manage throughout project using a risk
register
Originally a decision made internally
Gut feeling for commercial risk
Now client asks contractor to manage risk
Open book philosophy

All projects face risks which may have an adverse effect on the outcome of the work.
The identification, assessment and control of such risks is fundamental to the
successful completion of a project in safety, commercial, technical and contractual
terms.

Operators are now starting to expect that risks are managed in a structured process
and risk-management procedures are therefore required to ensure that:

Risks are identified, understood and recorded at tender stage.
Risks associated with a project are identified, quantified, recorded and ultimately
either mitigated, eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels.


404
There are many ways of undertaking this risk-management process, but one that has
been developed for a Contractor is outlined in the following slide.

COMMERCIAL RISK LOG
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION HIGH MEDIUM LOW COMMENTS
Customer Size, standing, previous
experience
Unknown Known, one-off Existing or
good record
Market
opportunity
and
competition
Level of return Below
normal
Normal Above
normal
Contract terms Conditions of contract Unfamiliar,
clients own
Standard or
known client
form with
acceptable
revisions
Standard
Technology Within existing experience
or new
Developing,
evolutionary
Known within
the industry
Established
and familiar
with
company
Resource Equipment and facilities All external Limited
internal
availability
All internal

As soon as the bid documents are received, the tender coordinator, or tendering
manager, undertakes an initial review of the various sections including the scope of
work, contractual and commercial conditions and then completes a Risk Log
Proforma.

This proforma lists the key parameters requiring classification for all major aspects of
the work being tendered.

For each item/category listed, the level of risk or uncertainty can be considered either
high, medium or low. Comments to clearly describe specific risk items in more detail
are also included.

As an example, 5 of the 16 categories from a typical risk log are shown in the above
overhead.

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405
ACTIONS DURING TENDER PERIOD
Risks more clearly defined
Solutions developed and risks engineered
out
Cost allowances made to cover risks
Clarification and qualifications raised
Started by bid manager and handed to
project manager as a living document

At contract award, the first draft of a Risk Register is produced and issued to the
Project Manager at a contract handover meeting.

The risk register identifies, prioritises, mitigates and manages the resolution of risks
during the project execution. It starts with the risks that have been identified on the
risk log and is a living document that should be regularly reviewed and updated
throughout the life of a project.

The key areas on the risk register are:

Reference number and category provides details of the risk area.
Description of risk and impacts provides a brief summary of the risk and details
all impacts and consequences to the project if the risk occurs.
Action plan/risk action owner provides a brief summary of the actions under
consideration to mitigate the risk and identifies the individual with direct
responsibility for completing the action plan.
Ranking priority provides a subjective assessment of the risk in terms of
likelihood and impact of the risk occurring.
Cost impact an order of magnitude of the cost to the project if the risk occurs.
Status states whether risk item either ongoing or closed.

An example of 3 items from a typical risk register are shown on the following
overhead.


406
COMMERCIAL RISK REGISTER
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION ACTION PLAN RISK
ACTION
OWNER
PRIORITY
1=HIGH
5=LOW
COST
IMPACT
STATUS
Contract
terms
High LDs for
late completion
5 days allowed in
tender sum.
Internal progress
meeting held every
week to review
procedures and
resources required
PM 2 50K per day Ongoing
Technology Number of
weld repairs on
13% chrome
line
Change welding
equipment
Weld
Eng
3 50K Closed
Resources Availability of
nominated
DSV for tie-ins
in accordance
with work
schedule
Maintain weekly
contact with sub-
contractor.
Investigate
availability of
alternative vessels
Sub Con 4 200K for
additional
mobilisation
Ongoing

The above simple table focuses minds on where profit can be lost. It does this by
identifying who owns the risk, how much priority should be given to it and the
possible costs if failure occurs. Clarifications of clients requirements may allow
refinement of the cost impact. Feedback from the team will allow identification of
possible risk removal stratagems and their financial impact.

As decisions are taken to close each risk by changing the equipment or other means
of engineering them out, the risk status changes from ongoing to closed.

This table is usually reviewed weekly, with old items deleted and new items added, as
they are identified. The client will normally receive a copy under the open book
approach.

Where
LD = liquidated damages
PM = project manager
Weld Eng = welding engineer
Sub Con = subcontractor
DSV = dive support vessel

MANAGEMENT

407
REPORTING
Reporting
Feedback lessons learned for next project

Risk-management reporting provides an integral part of the project management
process, not only during tender preparation and project execution, but also for project
close-out when the information can be fed back for implementation of
actions/recommendations in future tenders.

COMMERCIAL - SUMMARY
Commercial risk management is the
managing of risks in a structured process
Purpose is to secure a profit
Implement systems to
Identify, understand and record potential risks prior
to tender
Mitigate, eliminate or reduce consequences
throughout project
Any questions?

The primary commercial objective of any project is to make a profit. To do this it is
necessary to identify, understand and record the potential risks prior to tendering.

408
Commercial risk management systems should then provide the methods for managing
the potential risks in a structured process. They should include systems to mitigate,
eliminate or reduce the consequences of these risks throughout the project.

MANAGEMENT - SUMMARY
Management disciplines - Law ; QA; HSE; Risk
Quality Assurance
corporate policy and procedures
quality plan for project
implementation and feedback
HSE
corporate policy and procedures
safety plan for project
implementation, including preparation of MAPD and risk-
assessment
feedback to ensure improvement
Commercial risk management
identify and control risks using a risk log and risk register
feedback for future projects

The above slide summarises the key elements of four management disciplines
encountered during pipeline construction projects.

H S E

H S E

411
HEALTH

ILL HEALTH
Often no immediate signs
Not contemporaneous with cause
Ill health may take years to develop
Work force is transient
Difficult to identify causal link
Reluctance to wear PPE in hot conditions
Some ill effects only recently identified

It is easy to identify when safety issues occur. An injury can quickly be linked to a
particular accident.

However, poor health can be the result of many years of working on a number of
different barges. It is often difficult to pin down the exact cause of a chronic illness.
Especially in tropical conditions, there is a tendency to wear light clothing (shorts)
and avoidance of using personal protection equipment (PPE) such as gloves, which
could result in dermatitis or skin cancers sometime in the future. Diligence on
ensuring proper protection is required.

The causes of some of the following ill health effects have only recently been
identified.


412
CONTACT HEALTH PROBLEMS
Muscular/skeletal strain and injuries
Poor stance/manual lifting/repetitive tasks
Hand-arm vibration (HAV) - white finger
Tool handling
Internal grinding/welding repairs
Dermatitis
Caused by wet concrete and coating materials
95% HCl used to remove tack welding scars
Blood/lungs/internal organs
Caused by fumes from welding or coating
Carcinogens such as asphalt
Phosphoric acid/chromates used to degrease pipe

The above gives the main health issues associated with offshore laybarge
construction.

Many of the tasks on the firing line require unusual stance to gain access to the weld
around the pipe. The need to keep the laybarge in operation 24 hours a day means
that operators repeat exactly the same movements time and again, causing damage to
muscles, tendons, joints or bone.

Cleaning and repair of welds means prolonged use of grinders but the use of impact
tools to fix coating shutters can also cause vibration damage especially to the hands
and arms. A classic symptom is vibration white finger, now known as HAV. The
new UK HSE limits for this are set in terms of exposure action values (EAV) and
exposure limit levels (ELL). The EAV is set at 2.5 m/s and is a daily limit above
which employers are required to take action to control exposure. That is, by limiting
the exposure time, equipment can impart more than the EAV limit for a short time
each day. The ELL of 5 m/s is also an average which must not be exceeded in a day.
Note that some tool manufacturers tests for their equipment severely underestimates
the vibrations transmitted to the hand when actually in use. It is advisable to double
the manufacturers quoted values for tools.

Wet concrete can cause severe burns to the skin. Initial contact can feel like a tickle.
During this time, the nerves are lost and if the cement is not cleaned off quickly, the
flesh can be eaten away down to bone in a single shift. However, in the long term,
sensitivity of the skin can be lost. Sometimes, strong hydrochloric acid is used to
remove tack welding scars. This too can eat away at the body if spilt or over many
years, the fumes can deteriorate the capacity of the lungs.

Welding operations and the many chemicals used to rapidly cure coatings give off
fumes which can damage lungs or internal organs via the blood. Exposure to this can
result in chronic (long term) or instantaneous injury.

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413
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
Hearing loss
Noisy environment
Eye damage
Welding flash
Radiation
NDT shine
General stress
24-7 operations/shift work
Diving operations
Guidance
DNV RP H101 and DNV F107

Laybarges are noisy and chronic hearing loss can result. In general, any noise above
90 decibels risks injury to the ears. The louder the noise, the shorter exposure needed
for damage. Higher tones are the first to be lost.

Welding flash can cause temporary or even permanent injury to the vision.

Radiographers need to ensure protection against shine or exposure to X or gamma
rays.

General stress can result from the nature of continuous operation of the laybarge and
shift working.

We have not repeated the health issues associated with diving here. But they include
deterioration in lung capacity and necrosis of bone.

Guidance on health issues associated with offshore pipeline installation is given by
the DNV publications above.


414
HEALTH - SUMMARY
Short term contracts
Long cumulative period at risk or time to develop
Immediate damage handling equipment
Risk from chemicals used
Specific risks to welders, divers, NDT
operators
Not an issue for third-parties
Any questions?

The usually short term nature of contracts may result in cumulative damage over a
number of contracts. However the operator may not show any signs of health
deterioration for some years.

Where there is an immediate reduction in health, this may be from handling
equipment or materials or breathing in fumes.

In addition, there are known problems specific to operators undertaking particular
tasks.

Those at risk are the barge crew rather than third parties, such as fishermen.

H S E

415
SAFETY

SAFETY- LAYBARGE OPERATIONS
Lifting
Pipe storage and handling
Working at height
Falls (J-lay flexible towers, reels) - dropped objects
Welding
Fumes - sparks - hotwork
Coating
Fumes - accelerators - splashes - spills - hotwork
Loss of tension
S or J laybarge - adjacent welders or coaters
Reel barge
High tension in drum - energy release - clockspring

Safety considerations associated with laybarge operations include the risks associated
with transport and storage of pipes both in the stockpiles on land and in the stillages
onboard the support craft and laybarges. Swinging of these large items during
transfer can cause injury to personnel involved in these operations.

Operators need to work at height on laybarges. For example, in the J-lay and flexible
towers or during pipeline storage/packing on a reelbarge. Objects can be dropped
from heights onto the deck or even from deck down to divers on the seabed.

During welding operations, there are risks associated hot work as well as with the
fumes and sparks given off. This includes chips and sparks from grinding off slag
and weld repair work.

Protective coating is designed to cure within a single 6 or 8 minute cycle time. The
effects of chemical fumes (especially from the accelerators used) need to be assessed.

416
When asphalt or hot bitumen is applied, there will be additional risks from the hot-
working and possible spills and splashes.

With such workers operating very near to the pipeline (in S lay and J lay), they are at
risk if the tensioners fail. Similarly, the high energy stored on a reel drum can be
released suddenly if a weld or the tensioners should fail. Any workers in the vicinity
would be placed at risk.

SAFETY- CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
Bundles
N
2
in carrier - explosion - adjacent plant & personnel
Trimming (diving) and towing (wire parting)
Hydrostatic/pneumatic (air) testing
Explosive failure - small fittings burst - limit access
Site clearance of munitions - CDM duties
Diving operations
Depth, operating time, decompression limitations
Gas mixture, emergency supply in bell
Dropped objects, chemical contamination, marine life
Above water or subsea tie-ins
Cold work - flanges - loss of tension in flexibles

For bundles, the main additional hazard is associated with the high pressure in the
carrier. A rupture of this thin walled pipe (8 mm to 12 mm) could be caused by
adjacent plant operations or personnel who would be placed at risk. After launch,
divers are used to trim the bundle to a neutral buoyancy. Tow wires could part during
launch, tow or laydown.

Most pipelines are tested to 1 times the operating pressure. Because of a number of
pneumatic test failures in the US some 30 years ago, it is common to limit the
possible explosive damage by specifying the use of hydrotesting. However,
explosive failure of the small fittings (valves, gauges and pipework) used for this
means that it isstill sensible to limit access to the test personnel only.

During site clearance, the Construction (Design and Management) regulations require
an assessment to be made for munitions. These are the UK implementation of the
requirements of the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work based on the EC
directive on construction (92/57/EEC). In many areas of the seabed (eg North Sea,
Red Sea, Philippines, Sakhalin), navies have lost or deliberately dumped old mines
and explosives which may need to be swept from the lay corridor.

Diving operations are particularly potentially dangerous. The diver is limited to the
time and the depth which a particular mixture permits him to dive. However, the dive
is often limited by time needed for decompression. Emergency breathing mixture
supplies kept by the diver, his assistant or in the bell also need to be assessed. But
divers can also be injured by dropped objects, contamination on his suit (for example,
H S E

417
diesel fumes), which are not able to be dispersed in the habitat or in the bell. Marine
life of various species can be attracted by the lights. Even remains of jellyfish in his
mouthpiece has been known to cause divers injury.

Simple cold work operations at tie-ins can present difficulties with the handling of
heavy bolts and flanges. Flexibles need to be held under tension during connection.
Underwater, the same considerations apply for divers handling heavy equipment.

SAFETY- CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
Landfalls
Sheet pile installation (working at height)
Cofferdam or back anchor soil failure
Wire parting
Pig trap
Proximity to operating production facilities
Within restricted safety zone
Possible release of gas (ignition or H
2
S)
Other third party activities
Plus all normal marine operations
Fire, collision, grounding, sinking, anchor or wire loss
Made worse because of frequent transfer of
personnel and equipment at sea

Where a pipeline comes ashore, the sheet piling for the cofferdam and back anchor
requires care both during installation and design. Collapse of the cofferdam due to
soil pressures may occur if struts and walings are inadequate. During the pull itself,
the low factors of safety in the wires may cause them to part. It is also common to
site the pig trap near the emergency shutdown valve (ESDV), which separates the
offshore from landline. These should always be operated following the laid-down
procedure. Worldwide, there is approximately one death each year associated with
pig traps.

Because pipelines come close to live platforms (within the 500 m restricted zone) or
other pipelines, there is always the possibility of release of gas or oil, resulting in fire
or explosions. Release of poisonous H
2
S in contaminated gas is debilitating even in
very small quantities. Typically, levels above 10 ppm cause a respiratory hazard (this
is below the 20 ppm level that commercial alarms will sound), and a 30 minute
exposure to 500 ppm or more may prove fatal. Other third party operations on the
platform or in support/safety vessels may also cause safety risks which require careful
consideration prior to lay operations.

In addition to the above, the normal risks associated with vessels at sea should be
considered. These include fire, collision with other vessels, grounding in shallow
waters nearshore, loss of the anchor during moving operations or parting of the wire
can cause injury to the vessel operatives. Because personnel and equipment is
transferred between vessels or helicopters at sea (whereas with normal shipping, this
would be done in port), additional risks are inherent with pipelaying.

418

SAFETY - PIPELINE OPERATION
Through and end-life activities
Daily operations
Chemical dosing
Sphering/pigging
Verification of pressures and gauge readings
Internal inspection
Intelligent pigging - pig traps
External inspection
Survey using ROV, ROTV or divers
Maintenance of valves or buckle/dent repair
Decommissioning

During the life of the pipeline, a number of operations will be carried out by the
owners. We will not cover these in detail but some of these may have attendant
safety risks, which are worth noting for installation of adjacent pipelines.

The line may be dosed on a continual or batch process with chemicals. These may be
injected at the wellhead using a small piggyback line. Some lines are flushed using
spheres or pigs. Continued monitoring of pressures and gauges must be carried out to
ensure the line does not burst and release its inventory (contents).

Approximately once every five or ten years, an intelligent pig run is undertaken to
ensure that internal corrosion is not removing too much of the wall. Again, pig traps
are used to capture these instruments.

Externally, a survey is also undertaken to ensure that there are no unexpected spans
or loss of coating or anodes. This is undertaken using survey vessels and ROTVs
where possible. In shallow waters, a diver may be used.

Maintenance of subsea valves or repairs to damaged sections of pipelines may
involve construction activities as detailed before for tie-ins.

Finally, the decommissioning of a line will involve many of the same activities
needed to install it in the first place.

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419
SAFETY - THIRD PARTIES (FISHERMEN)
Spans uneven seabed - otterboards snags
Pipeline rupture or sinking of trawler
North Sea - bury lines 300 mm (12in) - risk to pipeline
US - bury lines nearshore > 300 mm (12in) - risk to vessel
Mounds, lumps of clay, berms or trenches
Soft mud in repaired anchor scars and depressions
Snagging or muddying of trawls - loss of gear
Protective structures
Overtrawlable or fisher friendly approaches
Munitions
Drawn towards pipelines - disposal
Rock dump - caught in or damage to nets
125 mm (5in) - larger or smaller - maintain stability

When pipelines are laid on the seabed, there a is risk that the otterboards (trawl doors)
may snag on a span. Fishermen will tend to tighten up on the warp wires and haul in
their gear on the swell, in order to releases it. Two possible effects may result: either
the pipeline will buckle and possibly rupture or the trawler may pull itself under.

Because of separate incidents and different seabed conditions, different regulations
have been applied around the world. In the North Sea, the Westhaven was snagged
on a span of a large diameter line; because of an unusual rigging arrangement, it
capsized with the loss of all hands. Small diameter lines on a hard, sandy or clayey
seabed are perceived to be at risk from the large trawlers that operate in the area - so
they are normally buried. However, in the Gulf of Mexico, the seabed is soft mud
and the vessels are generally small, mom-and-pop, shrimp boats. One of these hit a
large diameter pipe which ruptured, enveloping the trawler in flame and loss of crew.
For this reason, larger diameter pipes (which do not self bury) are required to be
trenched nearshore where these boats operate. In the Persian Gulf, some areas of the
seabed are closed to fishing. However, vessels can snag on any unevenness on the
seabed. In some instances, trawlermen have been employed to repair the disturbance
by dragging a chain between two boats. The hollows left by trawl scars can fill with
soft mud which itself can muddy or snag boards or nets.

Protection structures over wellheads or valves can be either designed as overtrawlable
or fisher friendly. This means that they will stop a boat in its tracks but will permit
it to easily back track and recover the gear undamaged. The latter is preferred by
some enlightened fishing organisations.

Munitions tend to be drawn towards a pipeline during its life by trawling operations.
The net releases the item of ordnance as the trawl gear lifts over the pipe. Fishermen
are sometimes employed to clear such items by dragging nets alongside the pipeline.
Safe detonation or disposal is then the responsibility of the pipeline operator.


420
With rock dump protection to lines, fishermen tend to dislike stone of a similar
diameter to the net mesh size. This is around 125 mm; the stone breaks or wears
away the net. It is preferable to have stone smaller (goes through net without
damage) or larger (which is not picked up in the first place). However, a check is
needed on the resulting stability of the stone protection, and on the likelihood of it
filling a net, causing capsize of a small boat.

SAFETY RELIABILITY INFORMATION
OREDA
Offshore reliability database
PARLOC
Database for loss of containment
Section on pipelines
Concawe
Hydrocarbon liquids only

There are a number of sources which aid in assessing safety risks associated with
pipelines.

Among these are the offshore reliability database (http://www.sintef.no/static/
tl/projects/oreda/), which details failure frequencies for offshore equipment. The
pipeline section of the PARLOC database from the www.hse.gov.uk site describes
collated incidents in the North Sea.

The www.concawe.be site covers oil pipelines in Western Europe only.

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421
SAFETY - SUMMARY
Laybarge operations for pipelines
Bundles, flexible and reel assembly sites
CDM requirements
Associated installation activities
Diving, protection installation and commissioning
Pipeline operation through life
Third-parties at risk
Databases of incidents
Any questions?

Safety hazards exist both at sea (on the laybarge) where operators are assembling the
pipelines, and onshore at construction sites and quaysides. The latter may have more
severe safety regulations.

Incidents also occur whilst commissioning or installing associated equipment. Some
activities such as diving require particular procedures to avoid incidents.

The through life nature of safety must now be considered. It must be possible to
operate and maintain the pipeline with equipment fitted at installation stage.

Safety of third parties must be considered and a number of databases are available (by
subscription) to assess the likelihood of incidents occurring.


422
ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENT - NEARSHORE & LANDFALLS
Damage
Loss of amenity
Turbidity of water
Flooding behind beach - death of vegetation such as
mangroves
Local inhabitants / sportsmen / anglers /
yachtsmen / surfers / beach walkers
Amelioration measures
Provision of wildfowl ponds at Point of Ayr (Wales)
Cleanup of historic pollution at Baku (Caspian)
Leave the area better than we find it

At the landfall or nearshore, the damage that occurs is generally loss of amenity or
deterioration in the clarity of the water. If the landfall site is not able to withstand
storms without overtopping, then flooding of the adjacent land may occur with death
to vegetation (mangroves) or increased salinity of brackish ponds.

The general approach to ameliorate matters with the locals and summer visitors is to
provide improvements to the area.

This has taken the form of wildfowl pond or clean up of earlier pollution. However,
discussion with the local inhabitants may demand different solutions for each
particular landfall. We should aim to improve the site from its original condition.

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423
ENVIRONMENT - OFFSHORE
Damage - disruption of seabed
Silt/turbidity damage to spawn or nursery areas
(open gravel)
Anchor scars/lumps of clay/soft mud in holes
Berms/trenches causing loss or muddying of nets
Pipeline itself may be a barrier to fish and decapods
Loss of permanent fish traps and nets
Fishermen
Approaches differ
Japan - owners of sea - buy area or time
US/UK/Norway/Canada - pay compensation for loss of net -
notify claims - decline to pay out for second loss in same area
Russia - recognise damage will occur - improvements to other
areas (same species if possible)

Damage offshore can be classified as disruption to the seabed. This means that
fishermen cannot trawl as previously or they may suffer a reduction in stock levels or
loss of permanent fish traps. We will look at these in detail later.

Different countries have different approaches to the environmental damage that is
inevitable with pipelay operations.

In Japan, the fishermen have ownership of the seabed in the same way as a farmer
owns his fields. Here, pipeline owners need to buy an area or rent time for the
laybarge to cross the fishing grounds. Specific spawning periods of the year could
then be avoided.

In most countries, the approach is to pay compensation to the fishermen for snagged,
damaged or lost nets. Alongside this, the fishermen are informed of the location of
spans, snags and subsea structures. It is common that second claims in known
problem areas are then dismissed. Effectively, the oil companies are buying areas
of the seabed along their routes.

Russia recognises that some environmental deterioration is inevitable. The approach
taken is to provide improvements to fish spawning grounds, nurseries in other areas.
It may take the form of fish ladders at river dams but normally, the improvement
should be for the same species that has suffered damage.


424
ENVIRONMENT IMPACT LEGISLATION
MARPOL 2004
Common approach with tankers and ships
Covers
Oil and noxious or harmful substances
Limited discharge
Sewage and garbage
Disinfected and macerated to achieve BOD
Air quality now added to list
Caspian
Zero discharge approach
Everything returned to port
Additional tanks
Bunding to deck

An international agreement has been developed for discharges from ships. Normally,
this can be adopted for pipelay activities. The MARPOL convention can be found at
the International Marine Organisation website: www.imo.org.

It strictly limits the discharge of oil and noxious or harmful substances. In some
areas such as the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean, Black, Baltic and Red Seas
additional restrictions apply. Sewage and garbage should be chopped up finely using
macerators, disinfected and discharged slowly to achieve an acceptable biological
oxygen demand (BOD). With the large numbers of personnel onboard laybarges
compared to tankers, this may require an onboard sewage treatment works. Material
which cannot be discharged (such as boxes and tin cans) must be stored on board and
taken back to port. The quality of air has now (19 May 2005) been added to the list
of discharges. This covers nitric oxides (NOx) and sulphur oxides (SOx) from fuel
oils, the release of halons and chloroflurocarbons (CFCs), which deplete ozone and
incineration of contaminated packaging and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

However, in certain closed seas such as the Caspian, this is not appropriate. A zero
discharge policy is adopted to prevent further pollution. Extra tanks are used to
enable everything to be brought back to port. Accidental spills from the scuppers are
prevented by the use of deck bunding and drains to tanks.

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425
ENVIRONMENT - PIPELINES & EQUIPMENT
Pipelines
Crossings by fish/lobster/crab - differential sex ratio
Spans / mounds along pipe permit crossing
FAD or barrier? - artificial reef - enhancement
Surveys
Sound pollution from sonar equipment
Mammals - hearing loss - deep sub-bottom surveys
Pipeline survey - use of chirpers rather than boomers
SPT/CPT/vibrocores - minor disruption
Pipelay vessels/tugs/supply craft/helicopters
Sound/anchor wire noise & scars - similar to ships
Light - attracts squid away from fishermen
Dropped debris - zero discharge approach

Pipelines in themselves have been accused of separating populations of fish or
decapods. Tests in tanks using partly buried or fully exposed pipelines have shown
lobsters or crabs reluctant (or unable) to cross pipelines. With crabs, the relative size
difference between males and females can result in the ratios being different on either
side of the tank. However, the tank tests may give misleading results in that the
creatures were induced to cross a short section of bare or coated pipeline using
attractants. Normal pipelines have frequent spans or partly buried sections with
mounds either side. These provide convenient crossing points. Indeed, a pipeline can
enhance the bio-diversity of the seabed and act as a fish attractive device (FAD).
This is well known to fishermen who frequently trawl along pipelines. They also
tend to act as an artificial reef once some growth occurs on the concrete coating and
may increase biodiversity.

Surveys send sound waves to the seabed. These can affect marine life. In particular
deep sub-bottom surveys using explosions are thought to cause hearing loss or
disorientation in whales. Many groundings are blamed on seismic surveys. For
pipeline installation, we are interested in only the upper few metres of the seabed so
can use chirpers rather than pingers or boomers. These do not have the high energy
sound waves that cause fish damage. Direct measurement of soil properties causes
very local minor disruption. Even for deep hydrocarbon surveys, the Scientific
Committee on Antarctic Research study showed the risk to marine mammal
populations posed by an individual air-gun survey was likely to be small. Evidence
from areas that are heavily surveyed by marine seismic vessels, such as the Gulf of
Mexico and the continental shelf around the British Isles, shows that whales remain
abundant even during surveys, though they tend to keep away from the vessels that
are actually conducting them.

With pre-lay seabed modification, care needs to be taken to avoid creating a plume of
silt from sandwave removal during disposal. Blasting undoubtedly causes death of
fish and should be used with caution. However, dredgers and drill equipment
themselves are inherently noisy and can disrupt fish life.


426
The cumulative effects of pipelay and support vessels are noisy and have been
measured at between 160 dB to 180 dB. Sound can travel long distances (10 km or
more) especially within a shallow bay. It should be remembered that the sea itself is
noisy: ambient levels have been measured at 114 dB. The 24 hour operations of
laybarges require lights which can attract squid and other creatures such as birds,
turtles and fish. Divers, ROVs and ploughs are also equipped with lights. A zero
discharge approach is used to avoid any objects such as wire or cans being dropped
from the laybarge.

ENVIRONMENT - SOIL ALTERATION
Seabed modification
Sandwave removal - plume from suction dredgers
Blasting - sound pollution - fish death
Cutter suction dredging (landfalls) - noisy operation
Directional drilling (landfalls)
Muds - non-toxic with food grade thickeners
Clay - turbidity - problem with corals and spawn beds
Jetting
Eductors (large diam) - turbidity 3 km down current
Thin layer smothering of seabed - similar to trawlers

During sandwave removal, the smaller particles of silt may create a plume that
pollutes the water. This normally occurs when the suction dredger disposes of the
removed soil on the seafloor. This can be done back down the suction tubes to
minimise the depth of water affected. It can easily be appreciated that blasting of the
seabed can kill fish in a wide area. But the sound from vessels involved in all these
activities can disrupt marine creature movement. A typical cutter suction dredge used
at landfalls is estimated to produce 170 dB.

Directional drill muds are based on bentonite, a naturally occurring thixotropic clay
that is non-toxic. It thickens up and supports the surrounding soil, keeping the hole
open. To this small amounts of thickeners are added. These are often food grade, so
are also not toxic. However, if the clay particles get mixed in the seawater, they can
produce a plume that does affect corals and spawning beds. The effects are described
on the following slide.

Similarly, when large diameter lines are jetted into silts, it is necessary to use
eductors that side cast the soil and can create a plume reaching up to 3 km (2 miles)
down current of the machine. Because the area affected is so wide, only a thin layer
is formed when the plume clears. This can be likened to the effect of plumes created
by many passes of trawlers.

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427
ENVIRONMENT - TRENCHING & PROTECTION
Trenching - barrier to trawl
Berm 25, trench 35 to 30
Many years to recover
Soft deposits in trench
Rock dump
Snagging/damage to nets
Turbidity plume - pre-wash stone
Micro-organisms with marine sand

With ploughs in clays or sands, there are two berms or windrows of soil either side of
a trench (perhaps as deep as 3 m). The berms tend to have side slopes of around 25
in sand but in finer materials, it can produce lumps which resemble sculptors clay.
The trench itself has side slopes of up to 35. Both of these do affect the ability of
trawlers to cross the pipe route and may not change much for many years unless the
seabed is mobile. Even when the trench is naturally backfilled, the deposits may
remain softer than over the rest of the seabed, causing muddying of the otterboards or
nets.

Rock dump can cause snagging of nets as discussed earlier. However, in laying the
stone (particularly with side dump), there is a risk of creating a plume of smaller
particles. This can be avoided by pre-washing the stone at the quarry. Occasionally,
sand berms are used to improve insulation (Gannet bundles). If this is marine sand,
then the risk of micro organisms transfer to a new site should be considered.


428
ENVIRONMENT - COMMON ISSUES
Blanketing of spawning and nursery gravel
beds or coral smothered by silt
Consequential loss of food for higher predators
Larvae or whale krill
Filter feeders starve
Clogging of fish gills
Prevention of burrow formation by invertebrates
Accidents at sea/leaking flanges - oil spills
Ship impacts with marine mammals (whales)
Employ trawlers - guard/restoration/cleanup
Pay compensation for loss of gear/grounds
Common fund

As can be seen, a number of different activities can result in a plume of silt being
deposited over the seabed.

Some species of fish need to lay their eggs in clean gravel, which provides well
aerated water to let them hatch and grow. If silt covers these beds, the larvae die and
are not then available as food for higher predators such as filter feeders or even
whales. Corals can also be killed if smothered by a layer of silt.

Fish can even drown if the silt clogs their gills. Other species may be prevented
from burrowing into a sandy seabed if there is a blanket of silt that falls into any
holes formed.

All pipelay activities involve the use of laybarges, tugs, ships and supply boats, any
of which may be involved in a collision. Although most of these vessels do not hold
large quantities of oil, any spillage will affect the environment. Leaks can also occur
from flanges or ruptured pipelines due to damage.

Vessels may impact with marine mammals causing their death. This is of particular
concern at the Sakhalin developments, where the Western North Pacific Grey Whale
is down to approximately 40 breeding females.

Many of our activities will disrupt the seabed. As a sweetener, it is common to
employ fishing boats as guard vessels, for overtrawling trials, removal of debris in the
pipeline corridor or to restore the undulations in the seafloor to preinstallation
conditions.

Pipeline owners will pay compensation for damage to nets along their line. This may
be due to stone dump or debris which has accumulated along the route (even when it
is not from the original installation). Where blame cannot be pinned on any
particular pipelay operation, it is usual to have a common fund able to pay fishermen
for loss of gear.

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429
ENVIRONMENT - HYDROTESTING
Filtered seawater to 50 mm
Biocide
Tetrakis hydroxymethyl phosponium sulphate
(THPS) at 150 to 500 ppm or
Gluteraldehyde at 250 ppm or
Solid quaternary amine at 300 ppm
THPS is best for environment
Oxygen scavenger
Ammonium bisulphate at 100 ppm or
Sodium bisulphate at 100 ppm
Dye
Fluorescein or
Rhodamine B at 40 ppm

Because we actually discharge hydrotest water to the sea, it is worth examining what
additives we may encounter.

During hydrotesting of offshore lines, filtered seawater is used. Seawater is readily
available and by careful filtering, it is possible to avoid silty mud being deposited
inside the pipeline.

It is common to add a biocide to kill any bacteria (especially sulphate reducing
bacteria (SRB)) that may be present. The proportion is dependent upon how long the
water is to remain in the line. THPS at a dose of 150 ppm is sufficient for up to 90
days. Higher dosing as above may be used for longer periods up to 2 years (delayed
commissioning).

To avoid internal corrosion (rust), an oxygen scavenger is added.

If leaks are suspected, a dye for is used for tracing them.

Note that this is not a complete list of additives that might be used worldwide. All
doses given above are by volume and are guidance only.


430
ENVIRONMENT - HYDROTEST DISCHARGES
Permit to discharge required
Biocide
Neutralise using hydrogen peroxide for THPS
or sodium bisulphate for Gluteraldehyde
Oxygen scavenger
Neutralise using aeration - surface spraying
Leak detection dyes
Not biodegradable so use only with permission
Scour at discharge point
Salinity
Temperature
Micro-organisms

A permit to discharge the hydrotest water is needed, with an environmental
assessment of potential damage that might occur. In the US, this is granted by the
EIA at www.eia.doe.gov.

The biocide and oxygen scavenger are neutralised using appropriate means, leaving
the water itself relatively environmentally innocuous. Many of these biocides
biodegrade naturally in water.

At present the commonly used dyes are not biodegradable and suppliers are currently
testing suitable substitutes. The approach should be that dye is only used where a
leak is suspected. Even then, alternative methods should first be considered, such as
diver inspection of flanges using cling film (Saran wrap or PolyVinyliDene Chloride
- PVDC) and instruments to detect the sounds of leak. Dispensation should be gained
for use of dyes from the appropriate regulatory authority.

Care needs to be taken to avoid scour of the seabed during discharge.

Normally, problems with changes in salinity, temperature or transference of micro-
organisms will not be a problem. Distances are generally too short for the latter and
the salinity and temperature will be similar at both ends of a pipeline.

However, care is needed with these aspects in areas such as the Caspian Sea, where
the environment is already fragile.

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431
ENVIRONMENT - SUMMARY
Landfalls and inshore waters
Disturbance to seabed sediments
Different approaches worldwide
Legislation
Sound due to supply and survey vessels
Particular problems with trenching
Pre-commissioning
Any questions?

Although with care most environmental damage can be avoided or at worst
minimised, there are particular problems at landfalls and to fishermen.

Most problems arises from disturbance to the seabed sediments by anchors or
trenching activities.

Different legislation and approaches are used worldwide, from purchasing seabed
from owners to compensating fishermen for loss of gear or damage to nets.

Care must be taken to minimise sonic equipment energy and disturbance from
helicopters and supply boats.

During pre-commissioning, we need to avoid the use of chemicals as much as
possible.


432
H, S AND E - SUMMARY
Health
Safety
Environment
Any questions?

Each of the above aspects has its own considerations.

Whilst proper considerations to procedures can ensure good health of the team,
careless operators may suffer injury through lack of safety.

In this age of environmental concern, third-parties can suffer loss and ultimately
cause delays, fines and cost overruns should lack of attention to detail in the
procedures.

SURVEY

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435
EXPECTATION

EXPECTATION
Know the main survey methods
Know the survey equipment used and the
data that can be obtained
Know which survey operation to perform at
each stage in the installation of the pipeline

We introduce the main methods of surveying the seabed for the installation of subsea
pipelines. The typical survey equipment and the information that can be obtained
from the main survey methods are described. The surveying procedures are
discussed and the correct survey operation is identified for each of the main stages of
the pipeline installation.


436
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Surveys are for finding information about:
the seabed along the pipeline route
the as-built condition of the pipeline
the pipeline status during construction
Three types of survey:
Geophysical
Geotechnical
Visual

The three types of survey and the methods used are described in this section.

A fourth type of survey, Metocean, is carried out as part of the of pipeline design
stage. It is concerned with currents and tides likely to be acting on the pipeline
during its lifetime. It is fully covered in our design course.

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INTRODUCTION
Prior to construction:
Route survey
During construction, the following are carried out:
Pre-lay survey
Pipelay survey
As-built/hydrotest survey
Post-trench survey
Post-burial survey


438
SURVEY METHODS

Geophysical surveys

Reconnaissance of potential hazards
Seabed bathymetry
Sub-bottom profile
GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY

A geophysical survey plots the shape of the seabed (its contours) and those of the soil
layers underneath. In the case of a pipeline route survey, we are really only interested
in the very top layer, or down to about 3 metres if we are trenching or dredging.

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439
SURVEY TOOLS
Tool Frequency Amplitude Directionality
Swathe bathymetry High Low Downward
Sidescan sonar High Low Sideways and
downwards
Sub-bottom profile (pinger) Medium High Omni
Deep sub-bottom profile
(boomer)
Low High Omni

All of the geophysical survey tools use sound waves to develop an image of what is
being surveyed. The basic differences are the frequency, amplitude and directionality
of the sound waves.

High frequency, low amplitude waves are used in sonar applications investigating
seabed surface features and bathymetry. Swathe bathymetry uses a downward-
pointing beam and is good for measuring depths accurately. Sidescan sonar directs
the sound beam sideways and downwards, detecting obstructions such as wrecks or
pinnacles which may snag anchor wires.

Low frequency, high amplitude waves are used in pinger and boomer applications for
investigating sub-surface features. Pingers are used for pipeline surveys, while the
lower-frequency boomers are used for examining the deeper rock layers.


440
SWATHE BATHYMETRY
Medium resolution
Single beam echo sounder
Hull mounted
750 m ( mile) wide swathe
Best resolution
8 m (26ft) footprint size
High resolution
Multi-beam
Towed close to seabed
Much narrower swathe

Bathymetry (water depth and seabed profile) is determined using echo sounders.
Multi-beam systems towed close to the seabed can be used to produce 3-D images of
the seabed.

Different methods are used, depending on the width and the resolution of the survey.
The greater the distance between the seabed and the sensor, the wider the survey
corridor but the lower the resolution. For example, with a 750m wide swathe, the
sonar can pick up objects down to 8m across.

For high-resolution surveys, the sensor is mounted on an ROV which is flown along
the route a few metres above the seabed.

The sensors provide a huge amount of data that then has to be post-processed and
smoothed (cleared of noise). Maps of the route are then produced.

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441
SRD BATHYMETRY VIDEO


442
SIDESCAN SONAR
Used to find seabed profile, wrecks,
wellheads, rock outcrops
Towed fish

Sidescan sonar techniques use a towed fish such as that shown in the picture above.
They are based on sonar, whereby the device emits a sound pulse and listens for the
echo. It interprets the strength, time and direction of the echo to give a picture of the
seabed sufficient in detail to gauge contours, wellheads, rock outcrops, wrecks and
other similar features. It is even possible, with practice, to distinguish different types
of seabed such as sand, gravel or shells.

SUB-BOTTOM PROFILER
General purpose pinger
Seabed structure of top 10 - 20 m (33 - 66 ft)
Sufficient for trenching and
foundation piles of bundle towhead structures
Looking for reflector horizons
Acoustic signature and magnetometer

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443
In addition to the sonar devices, chirpers, pingers and boomers can be used to
penetrate the seabed and get reflections from the soil layers beneath it.
Understanding the patterns of soil layers beneath the surface can help predict the soil
types at the surface, with the minimum number of data points from geotechnical
surveys. Magnetometers are used to detect metal objects buried under the seabed.

AUV
Autonomous
Underwater Vehicle
(AUV)
Un-tethered ROV
Does not require
support vehicle at
close proximity

AUVs are un-tethered ROVs that are programmed with the survey route, launched
from the support vessel and then recovered at the end of the survey.

The geophysical survey information is then downloaded from the AUV. The benefit
is in the detail and speed of the survey, and the fact that the support vessel does not
have to be close to the vehicle.

For pipelines that are reasonably close to land, the AUV does not even require a
support vessel, as it can be launched and recovered from land.


444
Geotechnical surveys

GEOTECHNICAL SURVEYS
Sample and test seabed soils
Use Cone Penetrometer (CPT) and/or
vibrocores or gravity corers

Geotechnical surveys establish the nature of the soil along the pipeline route. They
typically use a cone penetrometer tester (CPT), as shown in the picture above. This is
a small device dropped onto the seabed with a coiled probe which is forced into the
seabed. On its way in, it measures the pressure at its tip and friction on its side. By
cross-referring to calibration data, these features can be used to determine whether the
soil is sand or clay and what strength or friction angle it has.

The results of the CPTs are also used to confirm and strengthen the sub-bottom
profile survey.

Vibrocores are taken on sandy seabeds, but on clay a gravity corer would be used.
These instruments take a sample of the seabed, which can be analysed later in a
laboratory.

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445
Types of soil or rock at or below seabed
Thickness of layers
Engineering characteristics - strength,
density, porosity
CPT

From the measurements of friction and tip resistance, the above-mentioned data can
be interpreted.

VIBROCORE
Samples a column of soil
Analysed on site and back in laboratory

A typical vibrocore would be 5 to 10 m long (16 to 33 ft) and about 0.1 m (4 in) in
diameter.


446
Vibrocoring is the state-of-the-art sediment sampling methodology for retrieving
continuous, undisturbed cores. Vibrocorers can work in up to 5000 m of water and
can retrieve core samples up to 12 m (40ft) in length.

The principle behind a vibrocore is the development of high-frequency, low
amplitude vibration that is transferred from the vibrocore head, down through the
attached barrel or core tube. This vibrational energy liquifies sediments, enabling the
core barrel attached to the vibrocore unit to penetrate into the liquified sediments.

A core-catcher is attached to the end of the barrel, which holds the sediment inside
the barrel when withdrawn.

A variety of vibrocore units are available. Some are small, lightweight and portable;
others are large, heavy units that can only be deployed from large vessels.

Note the feet of the vibrocore are an open cruciform which is good for sandy seabeds.
In soft clays, a fully plated base may be used. In this case, the dynamic crane loading
may be great when the added mass of water is added. The solution is to lower the
vibrocore on its side and rotate upright when at the seabed.

GUIDELINES FOR SAMPLE FREQUENCY
Route feature CPT sample interval
Untrenched sections 1 5 km (0.6 3 miles)
Trenched sections
(offshore)
0.5 1 km (0.3 0.6 miles)
Trenched sections
(shore approach)
0.3 0.5 km (0.18 0.3 miles)
Soil transitions zone 0.3 0.5 km (0.18 0.3 miles)
Features (pock marks,
iceberg scars, etc)
3 per feature
Pipeline crossings 2 per crossings

CPT sampling density along the pipeline route has traditionally been at 1 km
spacings. The Guidance Notes on Geotechnical Investigations for Marine Pipelines,
produced by the Pipeline Working Group of the Offshore Site Investigation Forum
gives a more logical approach to sampling density.

This table illustrates the recommended sampling intervals. In areas of very soft clays
or unstable slopes, the intervals should be decreased.

The exact locations for each CPT sample would be selected by examining the sub-
bottom profile.
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447
It is useful to undertake vibrocores immediately adjacent to a CPT sample.
Undisturbed soil tests carried out on the vibrocore samples may then be used to
correlate some of the CPT samples.

Intermediate grab samples are useful in areas of sand or gravel.

Where there are piled wyes, tees, wellheads or manifolds, it is necessary to undertake
at least one deep CPT and vibrocore to determine the ground conditions.

Visual surveys

VISUAL SURVEY
On-line visual monitoring during operation
Visual identification and record of As-Built
features
Methods
ROTV
ROV
Diver

Visual survey is provided by video cameras and lights mounted on a vehicle or on a
divers helmet.


448
ROTV
Remotely Operated Towed Vehicles
Controlled survey height
above seabed
Fin pitch operated from
vessel through umbilical
Speedy survey of large
areas of seabed
Deploying BRUTIV

Use of ROTVs is now the main source of pipeline route survey information.

By flying the equipment at a controlled height above the seabed, it is possible to
rapidly obtain topological and pipeline span data. The operator on the vessel is able
to change the pitch of the fins through the data umbilical cable.

The BRUTIV (Bottom-Referenced Underwater Towed Instrumented Vehicle) can be
towed at a speed of several knots just a few metres above the seafloor. to obtain
continuous colour video imagery along transect lines several kilometres long.

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449
ROV
Can be used for most survey work
Low survey speed ~ 0.26 m/s (0.5 knots)
Hercules 600
fitted with
survey mountings

The ROV can be used for most of the surveys mentioned earlier, and additional
equipment can be fitted for geotechnical surveys along the pipeline route. It also has
the benefit of the video camera to observe any anomalies.

Bathymetric equipment to obtain depth data and provide seabed contours for the pipe
route can be fitted.

Sidescan sonar surveys ascertain the presence of obstructions on the seabed and, in
conjunction with shallow seismic surveys, can provide information as to the nature of
the seabed materials.
Shallow seismic surveys provide the depth of overburden laying on top of rock.

As mentioned earlier, for sidescan sonar, the height at which the ROV is flown will
dictate the width of the survey corridor.


450
ROV
In addition to visual/video record can give
detailed sonar images
Vertical
cross-section
Vertical
profile

ROVs can be equipped with high-resolution sonars that produce a cross-sectional
image of the pipe and the seabed. By producing these images at close spacings along
the pipeline, an image of the axial profile can be produced.

This is a typical output from a trench profiler, showing a cross-section through the
pipe and a vertical profile of the pipe and seabed.

DIVER SURVEY
To cover small areas in high detail
Ideal for approaches to platforms and
subsea developments
Where ROTVs and ROVs cant go:
very shallow water
splash zone

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451
Diver surveys are the least common of the surveys we have listed, but have specific
applications for areas in which ROVs cannot operate.

Diver surveys provide high detail for a small area, and benefit from having the diver
at the survey location to comment on any aspects that are highlighted.

SURVEY METHODS - SUMMARY
Geophysical
Determine shape of seabed (contours)
Swathe bathymetry, side-scan sonar, sub-bottom profiler
Geotechnical
Determine nature of soil
Cone penetrometer (CPT)
Vibrocores
Visual
Real-time monitoring of operations
Diver, ROTV or ROV
Any questions?

There are three methods of surveying the seabed prior to pipeline installation.

Geophysical surveys to determine the shape of the seabed along the pipeline
route.

Geotechnical surveys to determine the nature of the soil

Visual surveys enable the real-time monitoring of the operation. Examples could
be the remote viewing of a pipeline installation or rockdump.


452
SURVEY OPERATIONS

SURVEY OPERATIONS
Route survey
Pre-lay survey
Pipelay survey
As-built/hydrotest survey
Post-trench survey
Post-burial survey

Surveys are needed at several points during pipeline construction. We will examine
what is needed at each stage.

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453
SURVEY VESSEL
Seaway Surveyor

The Seaway Surveyor is a typical survey vessel.

Dimensions: 65.7 x 11.0 x 6.1m
Max. speed: 14 knots
Thrusters: 15
A-frame capacity: 15 tonnes
Accommodation: 41 persons

ROUTE SURVEY
Geophysical and geotechnical surveys of
route options
Identification of obstructions and problems -
help select final route
Geotechnical data for pipeline foundation
and trenching feasibility


454
During the pipeline design phase, a geophysical and geotechnical route survey will be
performed on the prospective route options. This survey will identify seabed
features, obstructions and soil types/properties which will be used to help select the
final route.

Sonar used to find seabed profile, wrecks,
wellheads, rock outcrops
Survey width should include entire pipelay
corridor
Pipelay from an anchored vessel will
increase survey width
PRE-LAY SURVEY

The pipeline route should already have been decided from the data obtained during
the route survey (normally a low detail, wide survey that allows a number of routes to
be investigated).

The installation contractor takes the proposed pipeline route coordinates and then
asks the survey contractor to carry out a pre-lay survey. This survey concentrates on
the requirements of the installation operation and any limitations of the pipelay
vessel. Hence, it is limited to the pipelay corridor and is more detailed than the
previous route survey.

If debris or wrecks are found, then slight deviations in the route can be made, as long
as they stay inside the route corridor as detailed in the pipeline works authorisation.

If pipelay is being carried using an anchored vessel then a wider corridor is surveyed
to provide data that is used in the anchor spread designs. This can include some
geotechnical surveys along the route.

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455
DEBRIS
Side scan
sonar of a
wreck

The above slide shows the side scan sonar image of a wreck that was found during
the pre-lay route survey for the Draugen Gas export pipeline in the Norwegian sector
of the North Sea.

The pipeline route ran northwest to southeast and crossed over the centre of this
wreck. Therefore, the pipeline route had to be altered to give the wreck sufficient
clearance.

SEABED DEBRIS
Sidescan sonar images


456
The above photographs shows typical debris that might be found along the route.

A recent pipeline in the Mediterranean Sea was installed successfully but when the
as-laid survey team returned, they encountered a small sunken fishing boat touching
the side of the pipe.

TROLL-OLJERR PIPELINE SURVEY VIDEO

This shows the Troll-Oljerr pipeline route survey and an overview of the offshore
pipeline design and construction techniques.

Very tight tolerances were achieved on the pipelay operations. These were down to
2 m or 3 m (6ft or 10ft) horizontally for certain sections rather than the normal
5 m (16ft) with a vertical survey tolerance of 0.2 m (8in) in 500 m (1640ft) of
water. This was achieved using seabottom transponders monitored over a year.

Spans were permitted to remain where current speeds permitted.

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457
PIPELAY SURVEY
Pipeline monitoring for:
Buckles
Coating damage
Loss of anodes
Touchdown monitoring to give:
Pipeline coordinates
Touchdown distance

The main task of the survey spread during pipelay is to monitor the pipeline at the
touchdown point of the pipestring. This is done with an observation ROV, also fitted
with a GPS transponder to provide the coordinates of the touchdown point, making
sure the pipeline is being laid to the correct route.

The pipeline is monitored for any signs of buckles, coating damage or the loss of
anodes.

The distance of the touchdown point from the lay vessel is also constantly monitored,
and the lay vessel is informed of any changes in this distance which may indicate
unwarranted changes to the pipelay configuration.

Depending on the seastate and type of soil, the visibility can be very low, meaning
the ROV will have to fly very close to the pipeline.


458
AS-BUILT SURVEY
Determines whether pipeline is laid in
accordance with Installation specification
Highlights areas of remedial works prior to
trenching operation (if applicable)
Checks location of any leaks during
hydrotest

The as-built survey is carried out to make sure the pipeline has been laid in
accordance with the pipelay specification, and also to pinpoint any leaks during the
hydrotest.

Any remedial works needed will be highlighted from the as-built survey and may
have to be carried out before the hydrotest operation.

Any leaks are spotted using the observation capabilities of the ROV to find the dye
that is injected into the pipeline during the filling operation.

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459
POST-TRENCH SURVEY
Sometimes called Out-Of-Straightness
Survey - OOSS
Highlights areas of post-trench remedial
works such as:
greater than allowable spans
greater than allowable bending
Can be used to calculate potential areas of
upheaval buckling
Data has to be smoothed

The post lay survey provides the three-dimensional co-ordinates of the pipeline and
gives the surrounding seabed depth. From this data, the shape of the as-laid pipeline
can be assessed for spans, excessive overbends and areas likely to buckle due to
operational temperature and pressure.

The raw survey data is a scatter of points around the actual pipeline axis which then
have to be post-processed or smoothed before the data can be used for post lay
assessments. Care has to be taken when carrying out the post-processing, as areas of
potential problems can be smoothed out completely to give a false impression of the
straightness of the pipeline.


460
SURVEY DATA POST PROCESSING
What is the true shape of the pipeline?
Raw Survey Data
-139
-137
-135
-133
-131
-129
-127
-125
-123
-121
-119
0 20 40 60 80 100
KP
P
i
p
e

D
e
p
t
h
Chainage

The above slide shows a fabricated piece of survey data to highlight some of the
problems associated with raw survey data. The spread of data is known as the survey
noise and some surveys are so noisy they cannot be smoothed. The scatter is due to
the tides and movement of the vessel or ROV, and it needs to be corrected so that the
true shape of the pipeline is known.

The first section has not been corrected for a change in the water level due to tidal
conditions, causing a discontinuity at KP 0.1. The section between KP 0.6 and KP
0.8 is effectively missing.

Between these sections, we do not know what the pipeline route is, so we have to
approximate it.

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461
SMOOTHED DATA
Two options: conservative and unconservative
Smoothed Survey Data
-139
-137
-135
-133
-131
-129
-127
-125
-123
-121
-119
0 20 40 60 80 100
KP
P
i
p
e

D
e
p
t
h
Chainage

The pipeline route has a number of options through the raw data as shown above,
with the first section corrected for tidal variations.

The red line shows the most conservative estimate of the pipeline route with regard to
upheaval buckling, and the blue line shows the least conservative route through the
data.

POST-BURIAL SURVEY
Determines whether pipeline is buried in
accordance with burial specification
Gives depth of cover/burial
Rock-dumped pipelines require pipetracker
Ferrous component of rock dump


462
As the name suggests, this survey is carried out after the burial operation, either by
mechanically backfilling or rock dumping to give the height of cover above the
pipeline.

There will be a minimum cover height (and possibly a maximum) in the burial
specification, and locations where that amount of cover has not been achieved must
be recovered or rock dumped.

If a pipeline has been rock-dumped, its position has to be determined using a
pipetracker, a magnetic device which detects the pipe-steel. Care needs to be taken
when processing the data, as most rock-dump contains ferrous deposits which will
also give a reading on the pipetracker.

SURVEY OPERATIONS - SUMMARY
Surveys required for following activities
Route - Geophysical and geotechnical data for route
planning
Pre-lay - Identify obstructions along route
Pipe-lay - Monitor pipeline during installation
As-built - Identify leaks during hydrotest
Post-trench (Out-of-straightness) - Check for
excessive spans and bending
Post-burial - Ensure correct level of burial
Any questions?

The following different survey operations will be carried out at various stages in the
pipeline installation:

Route - Establish geophysical and geotechnical data for route planning
Pre-lay - Identify hazards and obstructions along route prior to pipe-lay
Pipe-lay - Monitor pipeline during installation
As-built - Identify leaks during hydrotest
Post-trench (Out-of-straightness) - Check for excessive spans and bending
Post-burial - Ensure correct level of burial

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463
SURVEY - SUMMARY
You should now:
Know the main survey methods
Know the survey equipment used and the
data that can be obtained
Know which survey operation to perform at
each stage in the installation of the pipeline
Any questions?

We have introduced the main methods of surveying the seabed for the installation of
subsea pipelines. The typical survey equipment and the information that can be
obtained from the main survey methods were described. The surveying procedures
were discussed and the correct survey operation was identified for each of the main
stages of the pipeline installation.


464

SEABED MODIFICATION

SEABED MODIFICATION

467
EXPECTATION

EXPECTATION
Understand the activities required to prepare
the pipeline route for pipelay
Activities covered in this module being
Sandwave sweeping
Rock removal
Know what can be done to protect the
pipeline once it has been laid

We examine the activities required to prepare the pipeline route for pipelay and what
can be done to protect the pipeline once it has been laid.

Seabed preparation may also include the following operations:

Shore approaches - see Landfalls module
Seabed preparation for pipeline start-up and laydown
Removal of debris (e.g. wrecks, munitions, abandoned anchors and chains)


468
SWEEPING

SWEEPING
When pipeline route runs through sandwave
field:
Risk of long spans and high stresses
Risk of exposure if sandwaves are mobile
Options if risks unacceptable:
Pipeline re-route
Sweep sandwaves to reduce pipeline stresses, span
and exposure risks

The design and construction of trunklines through sandwave areas can present major
technical challenges and have an important input to the cost-effectiveness and long-
term safety of some pipelines. Sandwave fields exist primarily in the Southern North
Sea and waves can be up to 10m high. They tend to travel in a uniform direction.

Detailed surveys and engineering design are necessary to achieve the best balance
between the amount of pre-sweeping required and the extent of trenching to ensure
long-term pipeline integrity.

In some instances, methods to improve the design by reducing the potential for free
spans and the associated impact on construction costs have to be evaluated. Some of
these methods can include:

Evaluation of a pipeline re-route.
Undertaking detailed on-bottom stress analysis.
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469
Consideration of strain-based acceptance criteria.
Investigation of seabed movement and erosion patterns.
Evaluation of CAPEX and OPEX risks.

Re-routing pipelines through sandwave troughs can avoid traversing large sandwaves,
and thus eliminate substantial pre-sweep dredging, therefore reducing the potential
for exposure after trenching.

When the final route has been selected, further analysis has to be performed to
optimise the on-bottom pipe profile and define pre-sweep and trenching details for
construction. Long-term stability of sandbanks and sandwaves is generally unknown
and presents both CAPEX risks during construction (natural back-filling of pre-
dredged trench) and OPEX risks associated with intervention works if the pipeline
becomes exposed and freespans are generated.

SANDWAVE SWEEPING
Pre-sweep dredging usually by trailing
suction hopper dredger
Sandwaves are
formed:
in shallow seas
with strong tidal
currents ~0.6 m/s
(1.2 knots)

Pre-sweep dredging of sandwaves along the selected pipeline route is undertaken
using trailing suction hopper dredgers.


470
TRAILING SUCTION HOPPER
Operating depth in excess of 100 m (300ft)
Accurately positioned drag head
Material lifted to
surface for disposal
elsewhere
HAM 318 - with twin drag heads

Trailing suction hopper dredgers will trench through sandwaves and other
obstructions, and can operate in depths in excess of 100 metres. The drag head on the
dredger is accurately positioned using sophisticated electronic equipment and the
progress is continuously monitored to ensure that the designed profile is obtained.

WATER INJECTION DREDGER
Jetprop and Jetflow - alternative to trailing
suction hopper for offshore applications
Water jet system cuts trench and displaces
soil to either side
2 m (6ft) depth per pass
10 m to 15 m (30ft to 50ft)
in width
Flow down tube
Sand blasted from trench

The new Jetflow and Jetprop excavation systems (Underwater Excavation Limited /
PSL Energy Services / International Dredging) has been developed to give lower cost
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and more efficient trenching of pipeline landfalls and offshore trenches than
conventional trailing suction hopper dredging.

It is a propeller-driven system designed to distribute material evenly to each side of
the trench, leaving a clean and deep trench. Using a 10 bar pressure in sand layers,
jet-flow technology can achieve a 2 metre deep trench at first pass, and a bottom-
width of 10 to 15 metres. In clay, a 1.5 metre deep trench can be produced during the
initial pass.

It is installed on the drag head of a conventional trailing suction hopper, although it
does not use the suction hopper in the usual way. The vessels hopper remains
empty, as its pumps are used to generate a powerful water jet through the suction
pipe. No material is taken on board the dredger. The digging force of the jets is
much greater than with conventional systems. The reportedly good results are
realised by the combination of fine nozzles and twin main jets, located at each side of
the jet-flow head, distributing material evenly beyond each side of the trench.

The Jetflow system can also be used to remove rock dumped over pipelines.

SANDWAVE SWEEPING
Dredged
areas
Original
seabed
Predicted
as laid BOP
KP (m)
Pipeline then lowered by a further 2 m during burial

The figure above shows the profile along a 1500 m (5000ft) section of the
Interconnector pipeline. The original seabed with five major static sandwaves is
clearly shown, together with the as-dredged profile. The predicted profile of the
pipe is also shown (by courtesy of Brown & Root).

The dredging operation is normally undertaken one to two weeks ahead of the pipe
laybarging activities. Once the pipeline is on the seabed, it is surveyed to ensure that
there are no excessive freespans before the post-trenching operations commence.


472
SWEEPING - SUMMARY
Sandwaves naturally occur on seabed
North Sea - up to 10 m (30 ft) wave heights
Need to install pipeline at sufficient depth
Otherwise risk of spans and loss of burial protection
Sweeping is process of removing peaks of
the sandwave
Suction hopper dredger
Water injection dredger
Any questions?

The North Sea is an area where sandwaves are commonly encountered. The waves
can be up to 10 m (30ft) in amplitude. They then pose a serious problem if the
pipeline is to be buried and its burial maintained throughout the design life.

Sweeping is a method of reducing the height of the sandwaves to a level that enables
a trenching machine to then lower the pipeline below the lowest trough of the
sandwaves.

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ROCK REMOVAL

ROCK REMOVAL
When rock is encountered on the route there
are a number of options:
Reroute pipeline (as for Corrib)
Heavy dredger (for soft rock)
Rockdump to provide smooth bed
Rock anchors
Drilling and blasting

When rock is encountered on a proposed subsea pipeline route, there are a number of
potential methods of overcoming the problem, as shown above. One option is re-
routing the pipeline, diverting around rock outcrops so that the pipeline is laid on
sedimentary materials. This method is proposed on the inshore sections of the Corrib
sealine.


474
HEAVY DREDGER
May be possible to cut rock using heavy
dredger
Mechanical cutter
Bucket dredger
used at Milford Haven to cut
trench 8 m deep

Depending upon the strength, texture and extent of the rock, a subsea trench for the
pipeline can be formed without resorting to blasting, by using heavy dredging
equipment. At Milford Haven, a bucket dredger excavated a pipeline trench up to 8
metres deep in a water depth of 30 metres.

Dipper dredgers are also used to excavate rock in shallow water.

ROCK DUMP
Rock-dump to build causeway over rock
e.g. Cormorant pipeline, Shetland
approaches

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Dump rock-fill materials on the seabed above the height of the rock outcrops to form
an underwater causeway to lay the pipeline on at an acceptable profile. After the
pipeline is installed, it is covered with more rock to provide stability and protection.
This technique was used for the Cormorant pipeline on its approach to the Shetland
Islands, where more than 300,000m of rock was dumped.

ROCK ANCHORS
Where rock runs close below surface
i.e. cannot trench
Sand
Drill pipe
Grout
Saddle
Rock
Seabed

When the rockhead is at, or near, seabed level and an acceptable profile can be
obtained without removing extensive quantities of rock, the line can be laid directly
on the seabed. It will then require either rock anchors to stabilise it in position, or
rock dump to provide protection and stability. In this type of situation, underwater
trenching machines with rock cutters have also been used to pre-form a suitable
trench.


476
DRILLING AND BLASTING
Most successful technique
All rock types tills through granites
Slow (and therefore costly)
Rock debris removed by dredging
Drill rigs arranged
to suit production
needs
Jackups in high
currents

When rock has been encountered, the route cannot be altered and it is too hard to
dredge directly, the contractor has to resort to other methods to form an underwater
trench.

Drilling and blasting is the most successful technique but it is time-consuming and
therefore costly. Conditions vary widely from substantial layers of glacial till-type
overburden, to the hardest Scottish granites.

Drilling barges can be used in shallow waters to cut a trench in hard rock such as
granite. A pattern of holes are made and charges inserted. These are then detonated
milliseconds apart to blast and displace the excavated rock in one operation.

The depth of water and the exposure of the site also has a major impact on the type of
equipment to be utilised for each particular project. Drill barges with a varying
number of rigs to suit the production requirements (see overhead) are the preferred
support vessels. In fast-flowing and exposed locations, jack-up platforms have to be
used.

The rock is drilled in a pre-established pattern and each hole packed with explosives.
In a subsea trench, a multi-row delayed-firing sequence is used to loosen the rock,
which is then removed by dredger.

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SHAPED CHARGES
Used for small areas
Placed directly onto seabed
Rock material blasted out of trench
Not as effective as drilling
No specialist barge needed
Environmental issues
Marine life
Blast directed downward
shatters rock
1 m (3ft) dia

If small quantities of shallow rock have to be removed, shaped charges can be
placed directly on the seabed. These explosives are contained in a weighted canister
with an internal conical shape. When the explosives are fired, the material is
displaced from the trench, avoiding the need for subsequent dredging.

These charges are obviously not as efficient as drilling and blasting but can save high
mobilisation costs.

The use of shaped charges avoids expensive drilling but also have severe detrimental
effects on marine life.

One incident in the west of Ireland caused damage to surrounding property. The
initial explosions used 100 kg (220 lb) charges to remove a 4 m (13ft) depth of rock
from a trench. This was subsequently increased in charge weight, first to three times,
then five times, as it was perceived that the rock was stronger than expected. The
final blast took out the office windows.


478
ROCK REMOVAL - SUMMARY
Methods available for pipe installation in
areas of rock
Reroute pipeline, e.g. Corrib
Heavy dredger
Rockdump to provide smooth bed
Rock anchors
Drilling and blasting
Any questions?

The above options are available if the pipeline route encounters rocky terrain.

If the rocks cannot be removed, then the pipeline may need re-routing around the
rocky outcrops. An example of this was the route selection for the Corrib
pipeline.
Heavy dredgers may be capable of cutting a trench through the rock.
If the pipeline is to pass over small areas of rock, then it may be possible to
provide a smooth mound, as opposed to the jagged rock, by placing a bed of finer
rockdump over the rock.
Rock anchors can be used to fix the pipeline in place if the rock head is covered
with a layer of sand.
Rock can also be drilled and blasted to remove it. However, these processes are
time consuming and underwater blasting has serious environmental concerns.

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PROTECTION

PIPELINE PROTECTION
Introduction to protection
Codes
Hazards
Protection methods

This section looks at the methods available for protecting pipelines and how the
protection is installed.


480
CODES
DNV Standards
Offshore Standard OS-F101

Offshore Standard OS-F101 provides general pipeline construction criteria and
guidance on design, materials, fabrication and installation, testing, commissioning,
operation and maintenance of submarine pipelines.

HAZARDS
Dropped objects
Platform supply
Drilling and well work-over
Trawling
Anchors
Ships foundering
Special precautions in shipping channels
Cannot bury lines deep enough to avoid anchors
Munitions
Use of dragged beam as rake along route

These are the potential hazards. The first three are described in the following slides.

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Wrecks are a very high load, low probability incident against which we cant
protect. There have only been two incidents in the North Sea of ships wrecking
pipelines by impacting with them in shallow water. Special protection is usually
provided in shipping channels but are expensive for pipelines on the general
seabed because of the lengths required.
Munitions are again a high load, low probability incident which is not protected
against. In the North Sea, munitions do occasionally turn-up close to pipelines,
probably dragged there by trawls. The SNIPS pipeline in the Irish Sea runs
through a known munitions dumping ground and removal of munitions is a
regular activity. There were also problems during the laying of the Malampia
pipeline in 2001 when war munitions were found causing major delays.

DROPPED OBJECTS
Platform supply
Container
Drill pipe
Scaffold pole
Drilling and work-over
Drill collar
BOP stack

Dropped objects are a potential hazard in the vicinity of installations or where vessels
are working over or close to flowlines. This is often a design condition.

Energies range from less than 1 kJ for a scaffold pole to 50 kJ for a drill collar.

The damage caused by a dropped object will depend not only on the magnitude of the
impact energy, but also in the way the energy is dissipated (whether the load is
locally or globally absorbed). For example, a scaffold pole travelling at high velocity
may puncture a protection structure, because all the energy is absorbed at the point of
impact; whereas the impact from a dropped container may be absorbed globally
through a structure with little or no damage.


482
TRAWLING
Impact of otter doors, beams, clump weights
Pullover
Hooking

Trawling activity routinely interferes with pipelines at all locations along the pipeline
length. This is therefore a design condition for any pipeline that is not buried, with
typical impact from otter trawls being 20 kJ, and 35 kJ from beam trawls.

EFFECTS OF TRAWL GEAR
Effect Failure
mode
Remedy
Impact Dent Coating
Pullover Buckle Trench
Hooking Gear loss Inform

There are three main interaction effects due to trawl gear passing over pipelines.

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The first is the impact when the gear first comes into contact with the pipeline. This
is similar to a dropped object impact and can result in a dent. The main protective
measure against it is to apply a coating to the pipe.

The second effect is the pullover force as the gear is pulled over the top of the
pipeline. This can drag the pipeline and bend it, and in extreme cases can result in a
local buckle. The remedy for this would be to trench the pipeline to get it out of the
way of the trawl gear.

The third effect is hooking of fishing gear on the pipeline. In other words, the gear
passes under the pipeline and becomes entangled to the point where it comes fast.
For small diameter lines, when the fishing vessel pulls hard it will lift the line and
release the gear, so there is no permanent entrapment of the gear. The implication is
that the design of the flowline needs to accommodate accidental lifting of the line by
half the trawlboard length.

For larger diameter lines (12 to 16 and above) the vessel may not be able to lift the
pipeline sufficiently before the warps break, and this tends to be more of a problem
for the fishermen than the pipeline.

TRAWL GEAR PROTECTION
Generally coating and trenching
Large diameter lines
Left unburied in North Sea
Requires burial in Gulf of Mexico (smaller trawlers)
Specific localised protection required for:
crossings
spools
valves and fittings

Localised protection requirements are:

At crossings - rockdump or grout bags used to fill gaps beneath pipe to prevent
hooking of trawl gear
Spools - rockdump, mattresses or, if movement is required, tunnels to give trawl
and dropped object protection
Valves and fittings - usually dedicated protection structure for vulnerable
components


484
DRAGGING ANCHORS
Impact small
Sustained high load
Dent and bending damage
Soft measures to protect
Normally not a pipeline design case
except in shipping channels
Wide berm of armour
stone protection
Path of anchor
Anchor chain

There have been a number of incidents of vessels dragging anchors onto pipelines,
even in exclusion zones. This event is accidental, ultimately resulting from human
error. The magnitude of loads is very high.

This is not normally a design condition unless the pipeline crosses shipping channels.

Here, the pipeline is buried to a sufficient depth and protected by a wide enough
cover of large armour stone to ensure that the anchor will be lifted over before it hits
the pipe. The width of rock may be 16 m to 20 m (50ft to 65ft) over a 3 m (10ft)
deep trench.

In Hong Kong, a pipeline crossing a major shipping route was covered with thickness
rock dump for 16 km (10 miles). This is, however, exceptional and required 16
million tonnes of rock.

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PROTECTION METHODS
Can be done in a number of different ways:
Rock dumping
Man-made protection devices
Concrete mattresses
Spool protection structures
Valve protection structures
Have to make sure that installing the
protection does not damage pipeline!

Having trenched the pipeline, it is sometimes necessary to backfill it (for protection
or thermal insulation).

Backfilling means replacing the soil so that the pipeline becomes buried. There are
four main ways of doing this, which are presented here in order of escalating cost:

Natural backfill
Mechanical backfill
Rock dumping
Fabricated protection devices

Historically, large-diameter pipelines were not covered after lowering, as this task
was undertaken with jet-sledges and the only backfill came from deposition of
seabed material that was thrown up during the operation, or normal seabed deposition
over time. In the late seventies, the Danish authorities insisted that a section of the
Ekofisk to Emden pipeline be covered, as that was what was defined in the
specification. This was the first time rock-dump was used for an offshore pipeline.


486
PROTECTION - SUMMARY
Common hazards to protect against
Dropped objects
Trawl gear
Anchors
Protection methods
Rock dump
Trench then bury
Man-made devices
Any questions?

The common hazards that can result in damage to a pipeline and protection methods
that can be used to prevent the damage are summarised above.

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ROCK DUMP

ROCK DUMP USING A FALL PIPE
Fall pipe
Used for placing
rock along lines
Efficient use
of rock to form
windrow of
protection
Washed rock
to prevent
turbidity

One method of protection is to rock dump.

In the picture above, Rollingstone (Tideways DP rock dump vessel) works on the
Wintershall offshore stabilisation project through a fall pipe.


488
SIDE DUMP VESSELS
General coverage
of a wide area
Scour prevention
Around platforms
and jackups
Not generally used
for pipelines
Poor control of berm
profile costly in rock
Shallow water in
trenches

Side and bottom dumping vessels are used for scour prevention around shallow water
installations .

The above picture shows the DP stone dumping vessel HAM 601 rock side dumping
near a platform.

FALL PIPE
Accurate placement
$200 000 per km
($322 000 per mile)
Water depths of more
than 1000 m (3300ft)
DP vessels equipped to
monitor path of pipeline
ROV to monitor results
Rock impact onto pipeline
negligible terminal velocity

The precision placement of rock using the fall pipe technique, to protect and stabilize
subsea pipelines and structures, is common practice.
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The support vessel is dynamically positioned and carries up to 18,500 tonnes of rock.
The rock is loaded at designated quarries with quayside facilities, and then the vessel
sails directly to the pipeline site. The vessel is equipped with pipe-tracking packages
and an active spider for subsea navigation. This equipment is integrated through a
survey suite to ensure that the fall pipe follows the pipeline as it moves along the
route. A separate ROV also operates from the vessel to monitor the results of the rock
dumping.

Typically, a digger loads gravel from the hold onto a conveyor system, which drops it
down a fall pipe . The fall pipe runs from the ship down to close to the seabed. The
end position is remotely controlled to shape the rock berm.

Rock dump vessels can operate in water depths of more than 1000 m.

The fall pipe technique is usually used for accurately placing high-density rock as a
protection over subsea pipelines. However, it can also be used to place sand and
gravel over existing pipelines and bundles to improve their insulation capability.

VAN OORD FALLPIPE ROV - MEDUSA
Medusa ROV
Controls fallpipe position
Accurate positioning of
rocks on seabed

The above figures show the Medusa ROV used on Van Oords rock dump vessel,
Rocknes. The ROV is a 300 kW rock dump ROV designed and built by the
Engineering Business Ltd. (EB). It is located at the bottom of the flexible fallpipe.
Thrusters on the ROV manoeuvre the end of the fallpipe to give accurate positioning
of the fallpipe exit point. This enables accurate control of the location of rock
placement on the seabed. It is designed to precisely direct rocks onto the seabed in
water depths up to 1200 m.


490
ACZ ROCK DUMP VESSEL - ROCKNES
Built 2001
Dynamic positioning
Flexible fallpipe
800 m dumping depth
Diameter 1.1 m
Dumping capacity
2000 tonnes/hour
Survey equipment to
confirm coverage

The Van Oord ACZ Rocknes rock dump vessel was constructed in 2001 in Hamburg,
Germany. It was designed as a flexible fallpipe vessel and bulk carrier. It had an
overall length of 166 m and beam of 24.5 m with a deadweight of 25000 tonnes. The
vessel used a Kongsberg Simrad dynamic positioning system, utilising six thrusters
and a main engine with a top speed of 14 knots. The flexible fallpipe diameter was
1.1 m and had a dumping depth of 800 m. The dumping capacity was up to 2000
tonnes/hour. At the base of the fall pipe was an ROV that utilised four 75 kW
thrusters to allow accurate rock placement.

The vessel also carries an array of survey equipment such as scanning sonar and
underwater cameras. This equipment is used to monitor that placement of rocks and
confirm that the correct level of coverage has been achieved. The survey data is then
passed onto the client as evidence.

Unfortunately, on Monday 19th January 2004, the vessel capsized in a Norwegian
Fjord with the loss of at least 3 of the 30 crew members with 15 still missing. An
investigation into this incident continues.

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TIDEWAY ROCKDUMP VIDEO

This video details the rock dumping capabilities of the Rollingstone vessel operated
by Tideway. The vessel utilises a class 2 dynamic positioning (DP) system with 6
thrusters. The DP system eliminates the need for anchors and tugboats to hold the
vessels station which enables it to safely work in close proximity to offshore
structures. The Rollingstone has a loading capacity of 12000 tonnes and can
accurately place rock on the seabed at 1000 tonnes per hour in depths of up to 1000 m
(3281 ft).

The vessel dumps the rock to the seabed through a fall pipe with a ROV connected to
the seabed end. The ROV utilises four 300 kW thrusters to position the end of the
fall pipe relative to the vessel and pipeline and so enable accurate placement of the
rock over the pipeline. The ROV also carries survey equipment consisting of
cameras, pipeline trackers and scanning profilers to ensure the rock is being placed in
the required location. The survey information is instantly accessible to the operators
and client representatives on the vessel, which enables them to quickly assess that the
correct level of protection is being achieved.

Shown in the video is the assembly of the fall pipe and deployment of the ROV
through a moonpool in the ships hull which allows the vessel to operate in adverse
weather conditions. The fall pipe and ROV incorporate an active heave compensated
system which allows the end of the fall pipe to be accurately controlled by
compensating for vessel movement at the sea surface in bad weather. Also detailed
in the video is the design of the fall pipe, which is made-up of closed pipe segments
to enable the delivery of fine gravel for pipeline coverage without it being washed out
of the pipe, as can be the problem with cage-type fall pipe designs.


492
ROCK DUMP - SUMMARY
Controlled delivery of rock to seabed
Stabilise the seabed
Provide level foundations
Cover permanent subsea equipment to give
protection
Two types of rock dump delivery
Side dump
Fall pipe
Any questions?

Rock dumping is the process where quantities of small rocks are transferred to the
seabed under controlled conditions from vessels on the sea surface. The rock may be
required to stabilise areas of the seabed (i.e. prevent scour), provide a level
foundation for facilities such as Gravity Based Structures and provide a protective
layer of permanent subsea equipment, such as pipelines.

There are two methods of rock dumping. One is where large quantities are dumped
from the side of the transport vessel. The other is to deliver the rock through a chute
in small amounts. The second method gives greater accuracy on placement of small
amounts of rock.

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CONCRETE MATTRESSES

CONCRETE MATTRESSES
Concrete linked on polypropylene ropes
Two types
Log
Flex in 1 direction
Over pipeline
Segment
Flex in 2 directions
Over bends and
tie-ins (junctions)
Blocks vary from m to 1m (1ft to 5ft) high
Removable for inspection concerns with rope
deterioration

This shows a segmented mattress.

Suppliers of stabilisation mattresses include:

Seamark Systems
Seabed Scour Control Systems

Sizes of blocks are dependent upon the current velocity and stability.

Although they can be removed for inspection, there are concerns regarding the
strength of the polypropylene at the connections between the blocks after a number of
years flexing on the seabed. When lifted, they may fall apart onto the pipeline !


494
MATTRESSES
Installed from
DSV or MSV
crane lift
Installed using a
handling frame
Problem issues
alignment
coverage

These are the most common forms of fabricated protection as they can be purchased
off the shelf and are relatively quick to install. In addition to the link-lok
mattresses, as shown in the previous slide, there are a number of alternative designs.

The method of installing them is very similar.

One particular advantage of matresses is that they can be easily removed for
subsequent tie-in works or alterations to the pipeline system.

These are normally installed from a DSV or MSV using a lifting frame and ROVs or
divers to enable them to be positioned accurately over the pipeline.

The seabed at the edges of mattresses or covers may have to be stabilised to prevent
scour using scour mats, also positioned using an ROV or divers.

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ASPHALT MATTRESS INSTALLATION

This illustrates a mattress about to be installed using a purpose built handling frame.

CONCRETE MATTRESSES - SUMMARY
Common method for providing local
protection for subsea structures
Prevent scour
Protect from impacts
Stabilise pipelines in the event of concrete coating
loss
Cost effective for short pipeline lengths and
small areas
Any questions?

Concrete mattresses are an off-the-shelf solution of protecting subsea structures.
They can be positioned around the structure to prevent seabed scour. They can
protect structures and pipelines from impacts with dropped objects and trawl gear.


496
They become cost effective when the areas requiring protection are small, as they can
be installed from Diver Support Vessels, which have relatively lower day-rates and
can undertake other operations at the same time. For larger areas requiring protection
it may be more cost-effective to use rock dump.

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PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES

PROTECTION STRUCTURES
Spool covers
Valve protection covers
Protection over subsea
cooling loops
Spool covers
Tunnel sections
Allow pipe movement
Steel or concrete
Panels filled in later to
aid lowering operations

The top picture shows pre-cast concrete tunnel sections for spool protection.

Protection covers are fabricated with lifting eyes and are lifted straight into position
from the DSV.

They can be fabricated in the shape of the spool to be protected, which is beneficial
for L or Z-shaped tie-in spools.

In the bottom picture, the tunnel units are some 3 m (10ft) high, by 10 m (30ft) long,
by 6 m (20ft) wide, weighing 30 to 50 tonnes.

An alternative is to place a lightweight steel structure over the pipeline and then
pump concrete into the structure. This avoids heavy offshore lifts.


498
PROTECTION STRUCURES
Valve or manifold
protection covers
Open, grated or plated
Usually steel or
concrete
GRP has also been
used
monocoque
structures
Access required for
maintenance

SUBSEA PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES
Conventional pyramidal well protection
(overtrawlable)
Shell Cocoon wellhead
protection
(fisher-friendly)

Composite materials can be used for many protective subsea structures including
wellhead and valve protection.

The main value to be gained from the use of composites is weight saving, which can
enable substantial savings in installation cost by enabling the use of lower-cost lift
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499
vessels, or to enable the protective structure to be attached to the flowline during pipe
installation.

The fabrication cost is competitive with that of conventional steel and concrete
technology.

The lower material modulus of GRP may impose limitations for some structural
applications, for example templates.

COMPOSITE PROTECTION STRUCTURE
Lightweight
composite
Installed during laying
Light enough for stinger
Shallow water for
Liverpool Bay
developments
Provides controlled environment
for valves

Composite materials were used to provide protection for four pipeline valves in the
flowlines for the Liverpool Bay development.

Here, the lightweight nature of composites provided savings in total installed cost by
enabling the protective structure to be attached to the flowline during pipe laying.


500
PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES - SUMMARY
Purpose built structures to give specific
levels of protection
Include
Spool covers
Valve and manifold covers
Manufactured from
Steel, concrete and composite materials
Any questions?

Protective structures are purpose built structures, designed to give specific levels of
protection from certain types of probable hazards. Examples of frequently used
protective structures are spool, valve and manifold covers. The structures can be
manufactured from steel, concrete or composite materials, depending on cost and
design requirements.

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CROSSINGS

CROSSINGS
Common
requirement for
protection
Need to provide:
physical separation of
pipelines
bury spans produced
by pipe passing over
other
provide impact
protection

Plan of a typical North Sea development showing multiple pipeline crossings.


502
CROSSINGS
Build supports
concrete sleepers or steel fames
mattress stacks
grout bags
Rock dump
to provide protection
alternative is to position large inflatable grout bags
Differential settlement in soft sediments

Separation between pipelines is usually a minimum of 300 mm (12in) to allow
for any settlement. The US practice is to demand greater separation at 450 mm
(18in).
The supports for the bridge are installed prior to installation of the new pipeline
If existing pipeline can be lowered, it can save a number of supports and rock
dump
Grout bags can be post-installed to overcome any excessive free spans
To avoid rock dump, an inflatable sewn bag can be placed over the crossing and
then filled with cement grout

Concerns have been raised at the ends of rock dump (for the new and existing
pipelines) in soft sediments where differential settlement may occur, causing
overstressing of the wall.

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CROSSINGS - SUMMARY
Provide physical separation between
crossing pipelines
Use concrete sleepers, mattress stacks, grout bags
Issues to consider
Burial of spans
Provide sufficient impact protection
Can use rock dump or inflatable grout bags
Any questions?

Crossings are the points where one pipeline has to pass over an existing pipeline.
These are a common problem in congested locations.

The requirement of a crossing is to provide a minimum separation between the two
pipelines. This can be achieved by using concrete sleepers, mattress stacks or grout
bags to raise the newly installed pipeline above the existing pipeline at the crossing
location.

Issues to consider when designing a crossing are the prevention of spans forming and
providing sufficient impact protection from trawling equipment. Protection is usually
achieved by rock dumping the crossing location or by using inflatable grout bags.


504
MALAMPAYA SEABED MODIFICATION - VIDEO

The video shows some of the aspects of seabed modification carried out as part of the
foundations preparation for the Malampaya project.

The Malampaya project involved the installation of a Concrete Gravity Structure
(CGS) in 43 m (141 ft) of water and a 500 km (311 mile) pipeline to shore. Seabed
preparation at the site of the CGS installation was done by covering the seabed with
rock. The CGS was constructed on land and towed out to location, then sunk to the
seabed and stabilised with more rock. The video also covers the installation of the
pipeline and the placement of rock over the pipeline for both protection and
stabilisation.

SEABED MODIFICATION

505
SEABED MODIFICATION - SUMMARY
You should now:
Understand the activities required to
prepare the pipeline route for pipelay
Know what can be done to protect the
pipeline once it has been laid
Any questions?

We have examined the activities required to prepare the pipeline route for pipelay and
what can be done to protect the pipeline once it has been laid.


506

TRENCHING

TRENCHING

509
EXPECTATION

EXPECTATION
Know the methods of trenching pipelines
and the associated equipment
Be able to select the correct trenching
method for different seabed soil types
Appreciate the need for a transition zone
between untrenched and trenched pipe
Understand the methods available for
backfilling trenches

Here we introduce the concept of trenching pipelines. The main methods of
trenching are outlined and examples of the equipment used in each method are
provided. The effectiveness of each trenching method in different types of seabed
soil and the need to consider the transition zone between sections of trenched and
untrenched pipe are detailed. Finally, the methods of backfilling the trench are
discussed.


510
INTRODUCTION

Lowering the pipeline below the natural
seabed level for protection or stability
3 methods are used
Plough
Jet
Cut
Backfill to cover
pipeline
INTRODUCTION

Trenching means removing the soil under the laid pipeline so that it falls below the
natural seabed level. This is called post trenching.

There are three methods of trenching: ploughing, jetting and cutting.

In some instances, the trench can be pre-formed, using either dredging equipment or a
plough, before the pipeline is installed. This is called pre-trenching.
The trench can be backfilled with imported material or allowed to fill naturally to
cover the pipeline.

The picture shows a pipeline plough.

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511
PLOUGHING

PLOUGHING

The picture above shows a typical pipeline plough. It has skids at the front (left hand
side) and plough shares at the back.

Offshore, the plough is lowered over the pipeline with the shares open. (It splits in
half down a vertical plane and opens about a hinge at the top of the plough). The
pipeline is picked up by rollers at the back and the shares are closed underneath.

Tugs then pull the plough forward via a warp attachment at the front. The shares dig
in and produce a triangular trench under the pipe into which it falls as the plough
moves forward.


512
PLOUGHING OPERATION

This overhead shows a typical post trenching operation, using a split-share plough in
water depths of up to 400 metres.

PLOUGHING SPREAD
Ploughing spread is one DSV/MSV ($90,000
per day) and one or two tugs ($25,000 per
day each)

The plough spread comprises a DSV or MSV and tugs. The DSV/MSV transports
the plough to site, lowers to and recovers from the seabed and provides any diver
support necessary for these operations. The plough will be controlled from this
TRENCHING

513
vessel. As high pull loads are often required, one or two tugs are used to tow the
plough, or alternatively a heavy-duty workbarge.

SAIPEM PL 2 PIPELINE PLOUGH
Final pass
trench fully excavated
remaining spoil deposited over windrows
First pass
trench partly excavated
mouldboards push soil to side

This plough is capable of forming a trench up to 2 metres deep and can be pulled by a
host vessel or barge with a maximum bollard pull of 300 tonnes.

TECHNIP-COFLEXIP MULTI-PASS PLOUGH


514
As illustrated by this picture, pipeline ploughs are often large, and therefore the
lowering of the plough onto the pipeline is a critical operation.

PLOUGH PERFORMANCE
Soft clay 800 m/hr
Stiff clay 100 to 200 m/hr (S
u
~400 kPa)
Loose sand 500 m/hr
Med/dense 75 m/hr
Dense sand 20 m/hr
V. dense sandrefusal
Chalk/rock variable, rough trench
Maximum water depth - 400 m for pipelines

Typical values for plough performance are given in the table above. The plough is
capable of working on nearly all types of soil, including friable chalk and rock.

The major difficulty that it encounters is in very dense sand where the permeability is
low. The reason for this refusal in dense sand is that, as the plough tries to cut and
lift a segment of the sand, it requires water to fill the void created. In low
permeability sand, the water cannot reach that site and a hydraulic lock results.

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515
PLOUGH ISSUES
Dense sand
Boulder clay
Large forces to tow warps
Deep water
Multiple passes

There are several issues to consider when ploughing is an option.

Dense sand can give rise to problems, as noted earlier. The plough locks into the
seabed and refuses to move. This is caused by the inability of water to pass through
the sand. Water injection and vibration of the plough shares has been tried on some
ploughs.

Boulder clay may cause the plough to deviate when a boulder is encountered. This
can give rise to problems later, as it may result in an out-of straightness in the as-laid
pipe, and therefore make it prone to upheaval buckling.

The towing warps are transmitting large forces that could easily cause damage if they
were transmitted to the pipe. As a result, a bridle arrangement is used to try to ensure
that the forces are transmitted to the plough in the correct (forward) direction, and
that the plough does not go sideways into the pipe.

In deep water, the warps are too flexible to allow controlled progress. The plough
will tend to stop at obstructions, wait until the warp tension rises sufficiently to pull
the plough forward again, then jerk forward quickly, release the tension and stop
again.

The positioning of a plough over a deepwater pipeline is also difficult.

Ploughs need a virgin seabed for their skids in order to orientate the plough share. As
a result, they cannot do multiple passes over the top of spoil heaps, so the full depth
must be achieved in one pass.

Multi-pass ploughs are available. These deflect the spoil beyond the trench to leave a
reference portion of flat seabed adjacent to the trench.


516
PLOUGHING - SUMMARY
Ploughs produce a trench into which the
pipeline is positioned
Towed from a surface vessel
High pull loads may require several vessels
Care to be taken when lowering plough
Efficiency is dependant on soil conditions
Difficulty in controlling plough in deepwater
Any questions?

Ploughs can be used to create a trench into which the pipeline is positioned for
protection. They are towed behind a surface vessel. However, the loads required to
tow the plough may be large and so one vessel may be insufficient. It is also
common to have a Diver Support Vessel to monitor the ploughing activity with an
ROV and provide diver support if required.

Ploughs are often very large structures and so great care must be taken when lowering
them to the seabed to prevent damage to the pipeline. Their effectiveness is also
dependant on the soil conditions, as refusal can generate very large towing forces.
There are also issues regarding the control of ploughs when used in deepwater, that
may render them an ineffective means of trenching the pipeline.

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517
JETTING

JETTING EQUIPMENT
Two approaches
Large pumped units with eductor pipes
Pumps on barge at surface with hoses to machine
Electrical cables driving subsea pumps
Capable of cutting soft clays
Excavates material so leaves open trench
Small machines fluidises sand with no eductors
Requires sandy seabed to operate
Backfills whilst burying


518
JETTING SLED

This overhead shows Saipems Diverless Jet Sled DJS1, which is capable of lowering
pipes of up to 60 inch diameter into a trench of up to 6 metres in depth.

Deployment system - DJS1 is deployed from the host vessel and lowered over the
trench with positioning being facilitated by the real time sonar and video systems.
Remotely operated jet tools can be opened out clear of the pipeline during
deployment and recovery.

Jet trenching - Trenching is carried out, making use of two separate systems to cut the
trench and remove the spoil High-pressure water from surface supply pumps is
delivered to nozzles located on the sled claws to break the seabed soil. A separate
suction system removes the spoil via eductors using a venturi fed water lift eduction
system.

Trench depth control - The depth of the trench may be altered during trenching by
changing the height of the hydraulically actuated jet legs. The maximum trench
depth achievable in a single pass is dependent on soil type and trenching speed.

TRENCHING

519
JETTING SPREAD
Jet sledge spread is a flat-bottom barge with
water jet pumps or electric supply ($70k per
day) and an anchor handling tug ($15k per
day)

The jetting spread comprises of a dedicated barge, together with an anchor-handling
tug and the jetting machine with a high-pressure water or electric supply.

SAIPEM UK ZEEPIPE TRENCHING VIDEO

The video shows how trenching was accomplished during the Zeepipe in the southern
North Sea.

High pressure jets attached to sledges were used to fluidise the sand.

520
JET SLEDGE PERFORMANCE
Soft clay 400 m/hr
Firm clay 100 to 200 m/hr
Stiff clay refusal
All sands 400 m/hr
Chalk/rock refusal
Maximum water depth - 300 m

The jet sled is primarily intended for use in granular soil conditions, although it is
also effective in soft to firm clays. It has the advantage that multiple passes can be
made along a pipeline to achieve a required depth in difficult soils. It may be the
preferred system in some clays, where pull loads for a plough become prohibitively
high.
.
Disadvantages of the system are that in loose sands the trench can collapse and
become very shallow. Also, in variable soil conditions, spans can be created where
some sections of seabed are more rapidly dispersed than others.

The above table gives some general performance characteristics in a range of soils.

Although normally restricted to about 300 m, Van Oord/Ham have reportedly
achieved 2000 m in favourable conditions.

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521
JETTING ISSUES
Staying straight in variable soils
No spoil
Cobbles
Trench collapse
Shallow trench angles in fine soils
Changes in soil type
Blasting hole in seabed

Jetting machines sometimes have problems cutting a straight line in variable soils, as
they work best in consistent conditions.

For example, if one is on full pressure to excavate some clay and moves into an area
of soft sand, it could excavate a large, unwanted crater in seconds.

The soil is whipped away and dispersed, so is not available as backfill. Backfill may
be provided by the sled doing a second pass to undercut the sides of the trench,
causing it to fall on top of the pipe.

If the soil contains cobbles, then these will accumulate in the bottom of the trench,
protecting the seabed underneath and prohibiting a second pass.

In some soils, it is possible that the trench will collapse before the pipe touches down,
leaving the pipe improperly trenched.

Such trenches are less effective in hydrodynamic shielding, and may be ineffective in
protecting against trawl gear.

Also, as discussed later, if the soil remains in a fluidised state and the pipeline is not
sufficiently heavy, the pipeline can float up in the trench.


522
JETTING - SUMMARY
High pressure water jets used to liquefy
seabed in localised area
Suction system removes spoil which can be
used for backfill
Can make multiple passes and is useful in
clay
Difficulty maintaining trench walls in loose
soils
Any questions?

The jetting system utilises a tracked machine that incorporates high pressure water
jets that liquefy the seabed soil and create a trench into which the pipeline is lowered.
The jetter can then make a secondary pass and backfill the trench with the spoil to
bury the pipeline.

One advantage of the jetting system is that it can make multiple passes to achieve a
deeper trench than the ploughing system. It is also useful for clay type seabed soils,
which would be difficult to plough. A disadvantage is that in loose soil types, it can
be difficult to maintain the trench wall between the time of jetting and the time of
positioning the pipeline.

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523
CUTTING

MECHANICAL CUTTER
Digging Donald
Uses sensors to avoid contact with the
pipe

As the name implies, the mechanical cutter is a device that drives along the pipeline
with mechanical teeth or buckets, excavating a trench. The above picture shows the
Digging Donald - a trench vehicle with two chainsaw arms reaching under the pipe.

This vehicle uses a series of sensors to ensure that the cutters do not come into
contact with the pipe.


524
MECHANICAL CUTTER
Giano
Driving wheels
clamp around
pipe
Cutter contact
with pipe not
possible

This picture shows the Sonsub Giano, a new mechanical cutting system.

MECHANICAL CUTTER SPREAD
Mechanical cutter spread on specialist
support vessel ($100,000 per day)
Trenchsetter and Digging Donald

The mechanical cutter spread uses a specialist support vessel to deploy and control
the cutter vehicle.

TRENCHING

525
TALON TRENCHER
Cutter and jetter
on ROV for deep
water flowlines

In deep water it becomes difficult to plough due to the length and flexibility of the
towing warps. Devices such as the Talon Trencher, pictured above, have therefore
been developed. These consist of jet cutters mounted under an ROV (remotely
operated vehicle).

CUTTER PERFORMANCE
Soft clay 300 m/hr (but may sink or skid)
Stiff clay 100 to 200 m/hr
Loose sand 200 to 300 m/hr
Med/dense 200 m/hr
Dense sand 100 m/hr
V. densesand 75 m/hr
Chalk/rock variable high tooth wear


526
Again, cutters can be used in most types of soil. Their particular bte noire is to cut
through chalk or soft clay where boulders or flint embedded within the soil tend to
break or blunt the teeth on the cutters.

CUTTER ISSUES
Tooth damage in flinty soils
Cutter near pipe
Weight /traction of vehicle in soft soils
Good shape of trench

Cutters may have problems cutting through chalk or soft clay where boulders or flint
embedded within the soil tend to break or blunt the teeth on the cutters. This
necessitates regular recovery of the machine to the support vessel.

It is important to remember that there is a very efficient cutter in close proximity to
the pipe. If the cutter goes off course, it could very quickly damage the pipe.

It should be noted that this is only a small risk as the cutters have safety systems.

Cutters are heavy vehicles and may have problems in soft soils. They need to be
correctly ballasted so that they have enough weight to get good traction, but not so
much that they may sink into the soil.

Finally, cutters give a good trench shape and are even capable of cutting a slot, if the
soil conditions are right.

TRENCHING

527
CUTTING - SUMMARY
Cutters excavate trenches by mechanically
removing the soil
Give good trench profiles
Can produce a slot in certain soil conditions
Need to ensure no contact between cutter
and pipe
Some issues with soil conditions
Vehicle may sink in soft soils
If soils contain rock then cutter teeth may be blunted
Any questions?

Cutters are Remotely Operated Vehicles that incorporate mechanical cutters that
excavate a trench. They can give good trench profiles and in certain soil types can
actually produce a slot into which the pipe can be positioned. Care must be taken to
ensure the cutters do not contact the pipe. There will usually be cutter monitoring
systems to ensure this does not happen.

Cutters have some issues regarding the soil conditions. In soft soils, the heavy cutter
may sink and become inoperable. Also if the soils contain rock fragments, these can
blunt the cutter teeth and reduce the efficiency of the cutter.


528
CABLE TRENCHING

CABLE TRENCHING
Cables buried by similar means
Plough, jet or cut
Vulnerable to damage
Trench and bury in same operation when possible
Duplex cables may suffer damage so require two operations
Cutting in rock also may use two passes
Soil strength tested prior to burial along whole route

Cables are buried using similar approaches but with their own specialised equipment.

Since cables are vulnerable to damage, it is common to trench and bury them in a
single operation.

The force required to trench is now normally determined accurately prior to the actual
burial operations.

TRENCHING

529
GLOBAL MARINE GRAPNEL
Additional continuous soils measurement
Undertaken prior to ploughing
Fluke depth up
to 1.1 m (3.6ft)
Correlated with
clients survey
Variation in
soil properties
Determines
Soil strength
Burial depth
Bollard pull

It is now common for the cable lay contractor to re-examine the soils along the whole
route prior to laying the cable.

The existing clients soils report is used and the values compared.

From this, it is possible to determine the soil strength as it varies along the route, so
the optimum burial depth and bollard pull are determined.

It avoids unexpected changes in ground conditions which could cause snatching of
the burial equipment and breaking of the cable itself.


530
SOIL MACHINE DYNAMICS PLOUGHS

Soil Machine Dynamics specialise in the design and manufacture of vehicles and
support equipment for operation on the seabed.

The plough shown in the slide above is one of the latest generation of SMD cable
ploughs which include a 500kW (700hp) patented jetting system for enhanced deep
cable burial up to 3m, combined with a tow force capability of 80 tonnes.

SOIL MACHINE DYNAMICS PLOUGHS

The slide shows a cable plough capable of forming a trench up to 1.5 m (5ft) deep.
TRENCHING

531
TRACKED JETTING MACHINE

This picture illustrates a tracked jetting machine for cables. With this system, the
water jets are located in the jetting head on the articulated arm.

CABLE TRENCHING MACHINE

The above overhead shows the outline of a trenching machine, operated by Technip-
Coflexip, that is suitable for simultaneously laying and trenching cables and small-
diameter flexibles in rock and coral. Trench depths of up to 1.5 m (5ft) can be
obtained.

532
FLEXIBLE TRENCHING MACHINE

The above overhead shows trenching machine TM9, operated by Technip-Coflexip,
that is suitable for simultaneously laying and trenching flexibles and cables.

CUTTER-TRENCHER ROV
SMD Trenching ROV

Soil Machine Dynamics have also manufactured a 400 HP cable maintenance and
trenching ROV for use in deep water.

TRENCHING

533
CABLE TRENCHING - SUMMARY
Additional survey to confirm soil properties
Similar burial methods as for pipelines
Deeper depths achievable by plough and jet
ROVs smaller for deepest water
Backfill in same operation when possible
Duplex and some rocky seabeds
Any questions?

Because cables are particularly vulnerable to damage during installation, it is now
common to confirm the variation in soil strengths along the whole route prior to
ploughing.

Similar methods of burial are used as for pipelines, but deeper water depths can be
accommodated with ploughing and jetting. ROVs for cables can be much smaller
than the specialist tools used for pipelines.

Wherever possible, the cable is backfilled in a single operation with the trenching.
The exceptions being for duplex lines and sometimes in rock.


534
TRENCHING METHODS - SUMMARY
Machine Used on
Degree of
burial
Propulsion
Pipelines Open trench
Plough
Cables Self buried
Pulled
Jetting
machine
Pipelines, cables
Usually self-
bury
Pulled,
tracked, ROV
self swimming
Cutter
Pipelines, cables,
flexibles
Usually self-
bury, open V
Tracked, ROV
propulsion
(rollers)

The above slide gives a comparison of the different types of trenching system.

TRENCHING

535
TRENCH TRANSITIONS

TRENCH TRANSITIONS
Section between trenched and untrenched
sections of pipeline
Normally found at:
Start and end
Mid-line spools or tie-ins
Crossings of other lines
Seabed
Transition length
Plan
Elevation Cross-
section

The trench transition is where the pipeline enters and exits the trench, and where the
trenching operation starts and finishes.

Trench transitions occur close to the pipeline ends or at mid-line expansion spools
etc. where the pipeline is tied into an expansion spool, riser or manifold at the normal
seabed level.

The transition is normally at a gradient of 50:1 but, depending on the buckling
potential of the pipeline, this may have to be greater.

The important aspects to consider during the trenching operation are:
Prevent overstressing of the pipe during the start and end of trenching (lifting the
pipeline to install the trenching device causes high bending stresses).
Soil types and the number of required passes to achieve the correct trench depth.

536
BACKFILLING

BACKFILLING
Can be done in different ways:
Backfill of seabed material
Rock dumping
Rock dumping is addressed in a different
section

Having trenched the pipeline, it is sometimes necessary to backfill it (for protection
or thermal insulation).

Backfilling means replacing the soil so that the pipeline becomes buried. There are
three main ways of doing this, which are presented here in order of escalating cost:
Natural backfill
Mechanical backfill
Rock dumping

Historically, large diameter pipelines were not covered after lowering, as this task
was undertaken with jet-sledges and the only backfill came from deposition of
seabed material that was thrown up during the operation, or normal seabed deposition
over time. In the late seventies, the Danish authorities insisted that a section of the
Ekofisk to Emden pipeline be covered (to comply with what was said in the
specification). This was the first time rock-dump was used for an offshore pipeline.
TRENCHING

537

BACKFILLING
Natural backfill
Free
May take some time
Mechanical backfill
Carried out using a backfill plough or cutter
Volume of seabed material being backfilled is hard to
control
Normally aim to give greater height than that
specified to achieve minimum
Expensive to carry out remedial works after demob
of the trenching spread

Natural backfill means leaving the pipe in the trench and waiting for tide and waves
to wash the soil into the trench and to fill it over the pipe.

This has the advantage of being free, and the disadvantage that it may take some time
and is only feasible in certain areas like the Southern North Sea, which have
sufficiently high sediment transport.

Natural backfill would be very slow in the Central North Sea and negligible in the
Northern North Sea.

The next level up is to use a mechanical backfill plough to push the soil from the
sides of the trench, or spoil heaps, back over the pipeline.

The height of mechanical backfill is hard to control when using a backfill plough.


538
TECHNIP BACKFILL PLOUGH

The above slide shows a backfill plough. The skids at the front are set to run on the
sides of the trench and the shares at the back of the plough force the spoil heaps back
into the trench.

SAIPEM BACKFILL PLOUGH

This shows an illustration of Saipems BPL2 backfill plough, which was used on the
Goldeneye project in the North Sea.

TRENCHING

539
It measures 22 m long x 21 m wide when in operation, and weighs 95 tonnes.

FLOTATION
Pipeline flotation is an issue
1.Pipeline in trench 2. Backfill soil fluidises
as pushed into trench
3. Pipeline floats on
fluidised soil

Flotation is an issue when backfilling a trench. Loose soils may fluidise during
backfilling.

The specific gravity of the fluidised soil will typically be in the range 1.4 to 1.6. If
the specific gravity of the pipeline is less than this, it will float on the soil as
illustrated above.


540
TECHNIP VIDEO OF FLOTATION TEST

This video shows a practical demonstration of a pipeline floating in fluidised soil.

BACKFILLING - SUMMARY
Backfill trench to protect pipeline
Three methods available
Natural backfill
No cost
Not immediate
Mechanical backfill
Hard to control amount of backfill
Issues with flotation
Rockdump
Most costly method of backfill
Can accurately control coverage
Any questions?

The trench is backfilled to give the pipeline the required coverage for protection.
There are three main methods of backfilling the trench, these are shown above along
with some advantages and disadvantages.

TRENCHING

541
TRENCHING - SUMMARY
You should now:
Know the methods of trenching pipelines
and the associated equipment
Be able to select the correct trenching
method for different seabed soil types
Appreciate the need for a transition zone
between untrenched and trenched pipe
Understand the methods available for
backfilling trenches
Any questions?

We have introduced the concept of trenching pipelines. The main methods of
trenching were outlined and examples of the equipment used in each method were
provided. The effectiveness of each trenching method in different types of seabed
soil and the need to consider the transition zone between sections of trenched and
untrenched pipe was detailed. Finally, the methods of backfilling the trench were
discussed.


542

DIVING&ROV

DIVING&ROV

545
EXPECTATION

EXPECTATION
Know the capabilities of divers and the
required support equipment
Know the various types of ROV available
Required support equipment, available tooling and
operational capabilities
Know the different ROV launch and
recovery systems
Be aware of the ROV market and their
availability when planning ROV operations

The operations of Diving and Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs) are introduced.
Diving operations and their capabilities and limitations are examined, along with the
health and safety requirements and support equipment required for safe diving
operations.

The issues of ROV operation are presented. Information is provided on the various
types of ROV available and the different operational capabilities, support equipment
and available tooling. The different methods of launching and recovering ROVs
from vessels are examined. Finally, an overview is given for the ROV market,
detailing the leading companies and the different options available to companies
looking to make use of ROV systems.


546
INTRODUCTION

This section considers diving and ROV operations in support of pipelay. It sets the
scene with regard to the types of task that may be required, the market for these
services, and the factors that influence whether the tasks are done by ROV or divers.

We then go on to look at ROVs, diving operations and support vessels in more detail.

Please note that survey activities have already been covered, so are not repeated, and
pipeline operations and repair activities are addressed in our advanced Subsea
Pipeline Integrity Management course.

TYPES OF DIVING AND ROV
Diving
Surface
Saturation
Hard suit
ROV (Remotely
operated vehicle)
Eyeball
Workclass
Specialist machines

Free-swimming sports diving has some aspects in common with commercial diving.
However, the latter type requires an umbilical from the surface to supply gas, heat,
communications and perhaps hydraulic power for tools.
DIVING&ROV

547
Surface or saturation diving can be carried out from the surface using a range of
different gas mixtures. Such diving requires long periods of decompression after
each operation in order to avoid some of the deleterious effects of gas entering the
body under pressure at depth. The decompression period is a function both of
working time and depth. It effectively limits the maximum operating depths. To
extend the usefulness of a dive team, saturation diving may be carried out where the
team stay compressed for a week or more: they only need to decompress once at the
end of operations. A third dive method, little used in the pipeline industry, is a hard
suit which enables the operator to stay unpressurised at depth (effectively a shirt-
sleeve environment).

There are three main classes of ROV. All have lights and cameras to enable the
pilots on the surface to operate them. The simplest and smallest is the eyeball ROV,
which is used for inspection work. Some of these have simple manipulator arms for
recovery of small tools etc. The workclass ROV may be thought of as a tractor to
which various tools or survey equipment can be attached. They generally have a pair
of manipulator arms: the simpler left one will hold onto grasp handles and the right
will push, pull or rotate. There are also specialist ROV based machines that can
trench pipelines or keep a rock-dumping hopper on location.

PIPELAY SUPPORT TASKS
Pipelay stinger checks
Initiation and laydown preparation
Touchdown monitoring
Route survey
Installation of PLEMs and valves
Tie-ins, hot taps
Hyperbaric welding
Precommissioning
Lost pipe retrieval
Most tasks
done by
ROVs

Diver survey operations are covered in the survey section.

Some other diving operations for pipeline construction operations are listed above.

Divers must be used for inspection and maintenance in areas not accessible by ROV,
such as in shallow water (shore approach) and the splash zone around platforms,
where their thrusters do not operate efficiently.

Divers can carryout unexpected maintenance tasks, whereas ROVs may require pre-
planned special access ports. This is especially true for emergency operations, where
the flexibility of a diver is paramount.


548
WHY USE DIVERS?
Drivers:
Complex tasks
Need of flexibility
Concerns:
Health and Safety
Water depth limit
Cost
Underwater
welding

The main factors influencing whether divers are used are as follows:
More complex operations (e.g. a hot tap) are likely to be more efficiently
performed by divers. ROV work is generally planned in advance.
There are Health and Safety issues to consider for divers. These have moved the
Norwegian government to push not to use divers. However, these regulations are
being relaxed.
If the water depth is much beyond 200 m, diving becomes problematic and the
system needs to be designed to be diverless.
Where either divers or ROVs could be used, cost is normally the decider.

Diving safety has improved out of all recognition over the years, as has diving
equipment.

As an aside, you would not expect to see wet welding on a pipeline: the weld cools
quickly due to the water quenching and cannot attain the fracture toughness (fatigue
resistance) required. Therefore, welds on pipelines need to be done using a
hyperbaric environment or, in diverless depths, need to be replaced by mechanical
attachment techniques.

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DIVING & EQUIPMENT

Physiology

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
How deep?
How long?
4 effects concern us:
Oxygen toxicity
Nitrogen narcosis
Decompression sickness (the bends)
Hypothermia
Factors
Gas mixture
Surface or saturation dive

What are the main diving limitations?

The physiological effects of breathing pressurised gases at depth provide limits on the
depth and time available for work at the seabed.

In the short term, there are three effects that divers may be subject to as a direct
consequence of pressurised gas mixes. Hypothermia is a consequence of the low
ambient temperature and whether the diver is using helium.

We need to examine the gas mixture and the type of operation; whether a surface or a
saturation dive.

550
PRESSURE
Ambient water pressure
Increases by 1 bar (1 atmosphere)
for every 10 m (32 ft) in depth
Gas must be at same pressure as ambient
Differential pressure large
Chest muscles are weak
Lungs collapse
pth 30m
4 bara

Water is dense and ambient pressure rapidly increases with depth.

Chest muscles are too weak to cope with more than a very small differential pressure.
This means that the gas breathed by divers must be balanced almost exactly with the
ambient water pressure.

When swimming, we can dive below the surface because we do not try to breath in.
If we were to use an extra-long snorkel, our lungs would collapse because of the
differential pressure.

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551
HENRYS LAW
Henrys Law states:
Concentration of dissolved gases in blood
is proportional to partial pressures in the
breathing gas
The amount of any given gas that will dissolve
in a liquid at a given temperature is a function
of the partial pressure of that gas in contact
with the liquid

The concentration of dissolved gases in the blood is proportional to partial pressures
in the breathing gas. The following slides detail the consequences of this law when
diving and how to calculate safe gas mixtures for divers.

PARTIAL PRESSURE
What are partial pressures?
Equal to proportion of gas x pressure
A measure of the volumetric concentration of gas
molecules
Surface
1 bar abs
30 m (99 ft) depth
4 bar abs
4 ATA
Nitrogen Partial
Pressure = 0.8
Oxygen Partial
Pressure = 0.2
Nitrogen Partial
Pressure = 3.2
Oxygen Partial
Pressure = 0.8

We define partial pressure as the proportion of a particular gas multiplied by the
pressure at depth. It is a measure of the volumetric concentration of gas molecules.


552
At the surface, the normal air pressure is one bar (1 atmosphere). The proportion of
oxygen is around 20% with the rest of air being made up of other gases such as
nitrogen. So the partial pressure of oxygen is given as 0.2.

At 30 m depth, the same ratio of gases apply, but the pressure increases to 4 bar abs
(3 bar gauge), and the air molecules are compressed. The partial pressure of oxygen
therefore reaches 4 x 20% = 0.8.

OXYGEN TOXICITY
SAFE
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HYPOXIA
CNS OXYGEN
TOXICITY
O
2
Partial Pressure Limits
Safe
Limited survival
Fatal

The first major danger with gas is oxygen toxicity. We can safely breath oxygen over
a wide range of partial pressures. Normally we breath air at a partial pressure of 0.2.
However, if partial pressures become too large or too small then we find the oxygen
becomes toxic.

The left hand of this chart, shows the effect of lack of oxygen, such as up Everest,
which leads to Hypoxia. At the right-hand side, we show the effects of air diving,
where the partial pressure of oxygen is high and there becomes a risk of Central
Nervous Systems (CNS) oxygen toxicity. At the centre, it shows that it is quite safe
to breath 100% oxygen at the surface.

Providing divers do not exert themselves too much, they can withstand a partial
pressure of O
2
of up to 1.6. This is the equivalent to 8 bar abs pressure or 70 m water
depth. (However, it should be noted that commercial air dives would never go this
deep in practice.)

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553
OXYGEN TOXICITY
Severest effect
Oxygen enters bloodstream
Consequences
Severe convulsions
Resulting in drowning
Deeper diving
Reduce oxygen content

Oxygen toxicity is the severest physiological effect in diving.

As the excess of oxygen enters the bloodstream, it causes severe convulsions and
results in the death of the diver by drowning.

If we need to go deeper, then the oxygen content must be reduced. We cannot reduce
the ambient pressure at depth: therefore the proportion of other gases must be
increased.


554
NITROGEN NARCOSIS
N
2
molecules are big
Slow to enter body
Can go above 3.2 bar abs for short periods
Effects likened to alcohol inebriation
Occurs at pN
2
greater than 3.2 bar abs
~30 m (99 ft) if breathing air
Deeper diving
Reduce nitrogen content in breathing mixture
Replace nitrogen with helium

Nitrogen narcosis is not as critical as oxygen toxicity but serious nevertheless.

It has the effect on the diver of being slightly drunk. It occurs at a partial nitrogen
pressure greater than 3.2 bar abs. This is the equivalent of around 30 m water depth
if breathing air.

Because nitrogen molecules are big they are slow to pass through the membranes of
the lungs. It is thus possible to briefly dive deeper with few ill effects. (However,
nitrogen molecules are also slow to leave the body when surfacing, causing other
problems.)

If deeper diving is required, then the proportion of nitrogen in the mix is reduced by
introducing helium replacement. We thus end up with a tri-mix of oxygen, nitrogen
and helium.

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555
DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS
Decompression
Pressure is reduced
N
2
does not pass easily though body membranes
Dissolved nitrogen forms bubbles in blood
Bubbles grow as diver surfaces
Bends effects = many, including death
Need to decompress slowly
Dissolved nitrogen can escape through lungs
If bends occur, prompt surface recompression
Helium similar but smaller molecule

As mentioned, nitrogen molecules are large. As a diver decompresses and the
ambient pressure reduces, they tend to form bubbles in the blood rather than pass out
of the body through the lungs.

This is also known as the bends, and the effects are many. This may show as lack of
balance if the bubble is in the ear, or aching joints where the nitrogen lodges in
porous bone tissue. The effects may manifest days later. In the extreme, death can
result. Chronic effects may be caused by osteonecosis where gas bubbles enter the
bones and they deteriorate over many years.

To avoid build-up of nitrogen, divers decompress slowly following published navy
tables. These dictate for each depth and length of dive, just how long and at what
depths the diver must wait, as he resurfaces.

Where bends are suspected, the diver must be quickly recompressed fully in a dry
chamber on board the vessel. The increased pressure collapses the bubbles again, and
the diver can then go through the full decompression sequence to enable the nitrogen
to be released safely.

The same effect occurs with helium. However, this is a smaller molecule, which is
quicker to come out of the body.


556
GAS MIXTURES
Mix O
2
N
2
He Max
Depth
Air* 20% 80% - 30 60 m
(99 to 197 ft)
Nitrox 40% 60% - 30 m
(99 ft)
Trimix 5% 55% 40% 180 m
(590 ft)
Heliox* 5% - 95% 270 m
(886 ft)

Air and Heliox mixtures are the commonest used for commercial diving.

Air mixtures can reach 60 m, although normally it is limited to 30 m because of the
working time limitation at depth.

Nitrox has higher percentage of oxygen in order to reduce the risk of bends. This
limits its use to shallower water because it increases the dangers of oxygen toxicity.
By substituting some of the oxygen in the Trimix with helium, this danger can be
reduced while still keeping the nitrogen percentage low. The Heliox mix replaces all
of the nitrogen (and some more of the oxygen) with helium, so permitting even
greater depth.

Although Heliox mixtures can potentially reach 270 m, the normal commercial diving
limit is 200 m.

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557
Saturation diving

SATURATION DIVING
Diver lives at pressure
for up to 28 days
Decompression time
3 to 4 days
Breaths Heliox
Saturation bell & habitat
Extends performance:
Ultimate depth : ~400 m
Practical limit : 200/300 m
Maximum dive work : 8 hr

Saturation diving is a technique developed by the US Navy in the late 1950s. It
permits divers to remain at high pressures for weeks or months without having to
often undergo decompression and waste the divers time.

Researchers discovered that when a diver is underwater for a long time - days or
weeks, for example - the time needed to decompress reaches a maximum and stable
point.

The diver becomes saturated and no longer accumulates additional gas such as
nitrogen or helium. In other words, decompression time for a diver who has been
underwater for one day may be the same as for a diver who has been down for a
week.

Commercial saturation diving requires the divers to live in saturation conditions for
up to 28 days. The last 3 to 4 days of this period is needed for decompression
(depending on depth).

They use a bell to reach the seabed and can work for up to 8 hr at a time. Then they
transfer and spend 16 hr in a habitat at the surface but under pressure. This work is
very tiring and divers tend to spend most of the 16 hr off-shift time sleeping.

The ultimate depth for this type of diving is around 400 m (1300 ft) but there is a
practical limit of between 200 m and 300 m (656 ft and 984 ft).

It is possible to use hydrogen (Hydrox) in place of helium to extend diver
performance further, to 500 m (1 640 ft) plus, but this is not used commercially.


558
SATURATION DIVING BELL

WORKING SHIFT
Shift
8 hours
Requirements
Umbilical to supply
Breathing mixture
Heat - hot water
Lights/camera
Communications
ROV eyeball - safety
At depth - dive companion
Topsides - dive control
Setting up transfer from bell to habitat

The typical working shift for a saturation diver is 8 hr.

Whilst working he will require an umbilical connected to the bell (and another from
the bell to the surface). This will supply the breathing mixture of gases along with a
hot water pipe to keep him warm. He carries lights and a camera on his helmet so
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559
that work can be monitored and a range of communications cabling for the camera
and voice. Sometimes, hydraulic power is supplied for tools.

It is now commonplace for a small eyeball ROV to be used to monitor the work from
a different angle from that of the helmet camera. In some parts of the world, this is a
mandatory safety requirement. Since the major dive operators work world-wide, this
is now considered in their documentation as just part of the standard package.

Divers will always work with a dive companion or two. This too is part of the safety
regime. The companion monitors the diver for effects such as oxygen toxicity, which
reduces the divers ability to recognise that something is wrong.

Sometimes three divers are allowed to work at depth: with one in bell monitoring two
working together.

In the topsides habitat, the dive controller will also monitor conditions of the divers
and conditions inside the bell.

Living accommodation
Compression/
decompression
chamber
Bell
Food
hatch
Transfer
passage
SATURATION DIVING SYSTEM
Compress in habitat
Change to heliox
Transfer via bell
Medic

The photograph shows a saturation diving system for up to 12 divers. Sometimes two
bells are used to speed transfer to and from the seabed.

At the start of operations, the divers enter the compression chamber from outside and
are pressurised to depth. The breathing mixture is gradually changed to heliox.

At the start and end of each shift, the divers transfer between the chamber and the bell
through the air-locked passage, always keeping the same breathing mixture and
pressure.

Food is transferred from the galley to the habitat through a safety-locked hatch
system, and is brought up to the habitat gas/pressure conditions.


560
Should a diver require a medic, then one can be transferred into the habitat though the
compression chamber. He too will require the 3 to 4 days decompressing to return to
ambient conditions.

SATURATION CHAMBERS

The diving system is incorporated within the hull of the support vessel. This unit is
located adjacent to the moon pool to enable transfer from the bell.

BARGE SATURATION SYSTEM
Mobile saturation dive system
Bell access from side of barge
Alternative to
moon pool

DIVING&ROV

561
This overhead shows a mobile saturation diving spread on a construction barge.

SATURATION CONTROL
Control centre
within habitat
Full life-support
system
Constant
monitoring and
control
of atmosphere
Control of de-
pressurisation

Information from various systems such as pressure and environmental controls are
displayed on the central control unit, which can be monitored and operated by two
people.
The environmental control system is capable of continuous elimination of carbon
dioxide, moisture and odours, as well as temperature and humidity control.
The gas system can automatically or manually pressurise and depressurise the
chamber with various gases over a wide range of pressures. To supply a breathable
atmosphere (a mixture of air, oxygen and helium), each chamber is connected to the
gas reservoir via decompression valves. The concentrations of gas components can
also be controlled.


562
DECOMPRESSION FACILITIES
Also required for surface dives
6 divers
150 m

Emergency decompression facilities are also required for surface diving operations.

DSV Bergen Viking is equipped with a DNV-certified saturation diving system for
six divers, rated to 150 m (492 ft).

The system comprises the following main components:
diving control
regeneration and workshop containers
A-frame handling system
diving bell and winch container for bell handling
decompression/rescue/transfer chambers
HP and LP air compressors
umbilical basket and bell guiding system installed in and above the moonpool

DIVING&ROV

563
HYPERBARIC LIFEBOAT
Emergency transfer from habitat
Floating pressurised chamber
Self contained gas system

In the event that the mother vessel has to be abandoned, or the area of the diving
system is threatened, there must be a facility for evacuating the saturation divers
under pressure.
This capability is provided by a hyperbaric lifeboat, shown in the slide above.

Lifeboat: Harding Safety MCD 7.9 m (26 ft)
Hyperbaric Chamber: Gas bottle 50 L - 200 Bar
Air bottle 50 L - 200 Bar
Medical Lock View
Port Engine Ventilation Lifting Hook
Automatic Load Release


564
MODULAR SATURATION SYSTEM
Fits side of different vessels
Ease / speed of installation
Lower mob/
demob cost
6 divers

Mobile Saturation Diving System:

A complete mobile saturation diving system for 6 divers, consisting of the following
main components:

Diving control container
Work-shop container
Regeneration container
A-frame handling system
Winch container for bell handling
Diving bell
Decompression rescue chamber
Vertical wet pot (transfer chamber)
HP air compressor
LP air compressor
Umbilical basket
Umbilical guide system

DIVING&ROV

565
MAIN BELL AND DIVER UMBILICALS
Non-collapse gas
Gas
Gas
Hot water
Main bell umbilical
Tracking
Diver umbilical
Gas
Pneumo
Hot water
Gas

Main Bell Umbilical

1 x HFG0108 " NB Flexlite gas hose
1 x HAF0312 " NB Armaflex non collapse gas hose
1 x HFG0112 " NB Flexilite gas hose
1 x HFH0112 " NB Flexilite hot water hose
1 x power cable, comprising 34 x 2.5 mm cores
1 x comms/video cable, comprising 3 x 75 ohms coaxial cables, 18 x 1.0 mm
screened twisted pairs and 17 x 0.75 mm cores
5 x HFG0104 " NB Flexilite gas hoses
Polyethylene monofilament overbraid
Polyurethane sheath with circular vents to allow drainage

Finished diameter: 106 mm
Theoretical break load: 8.0 Tonnes

Divers Umbilical

1 x HFG0110
5
/
8
" NB Reflex gas hose
1 x HFG0108 " NB Flexilite hot water hose
1 x HFG0106
3
/
8
" NB Flexilite gas hose
1 x HFG0102
1
/
8
" NB Flexilite tracking hose
1 x HFG0104 " NB Flexilite pneumo hose
1 x comms/video cable, comprising 2 x 0.50 mm screened twisted pairs
1 x mini-TV cable, comprising 1 x 1.34 mm screened twisted pair, 1 x 0.50 mm
screened twisted pair, 1 x 0.22 mm twisted pair, 1 x 1.34 mm conductor, 1 x 75
ohms coaxial cable

Finished diameter: 52 mm


566
NATIONAL HYPERBARIC CENTRE

The National Hyperbaric Centre (NHC), located in Aberdeen, was set up to provide a
facility for the research, development, testing and demonstration of high and low
pressure applications for industry.

Designed essentially for subsea simulation, the NHC has developed into a facility that
encourages and enables engineering developments in both high and low pressure
technology.

The Centre also houses a deep sea simulation facility, which can emulate subsea
conditions to a depth of 1000 m (3 280 ft. Incorporating other pressure chambers
gives emulated depth to 3000 m (~10 000 ft).

The facility can also be adapted for use to simulate high altitude conditions to a
height of 50 000 m (~160 000 ft).

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567
DIVING HAZARDS
Short and long term health effects
Respiratory and circulatory risks
Umbilical loss small tank on back
Hypothermia
Chemicals/jellyfish in seawater
On exposed skin in water
Breathing from dive suit in bell
Physical injury
Tool handling or dropped objects
Marine life interference
Lights attract
Environmental concerns spotters
Reliance on 3
rd
parties topsides

Commercial diving has long been considered one of the more dangerous occupations
associated with offshore construction. Divers are exposed not only to the possibility
of drowning, but also to a variety of occupational safety and health hazards such as
respiratory and circulatory risks, hypothermia, low visibility and physical injury from
the operation of heavy equipment under water. In the case of loss of the umbilical
line, a small tank is held on the divers back with 10 minutes of air. Sometimes re-
breathers can be used as emergency systems for short periods.

Chemicals or diesel in the water have attacked exposed skin or caused breathing
problems if brought back into the diving bell on the suit or equipment. Jellyfish
tentacles have been known to enter the suit through the filter system for hot water.

The type of dive, the length of dive, the frequency of dive, and the type of operation
increase the already high risk of the work. Additional hazards are associated with the
actual work of underwater cutting and welding, materials handling and other types of
work utilising hand and power tools.

Marine life which may stop diving operations include sharks, sea turtles, manatees,
monkfish and even small burrowing fish have pestered divers that got too close to
their nests. Lights used by divers attract fish. Even when the diver is not under risk
of personal injury, diving disturbance causes environmental concerns: these may
require sonic pingers to keep sealife away. A recent trend in the Gulf of Mexico is
the need for spotters or mammal watchers to protect the sealife from diving
activities!

A major hazard is the total reliance a diver has on his surface control team for his life
support (breathing mixture and hot water supply).

As a result of these risks, there is a move towards more use of ROVs for many tasks,
even in shallow water.


568
HYPOTHERMIA
Seabed temperatures 5C (39F) or less
Continuous hot water supply
Diver loses heat quickly
When operating
In saturation dive bell
Effect exacerbated
by helium use
Even in habitat
Bell emergency
equipment

Hypothermia or loss of heat from the body is caused by close contact with very cold
sea temperature of 5C or less. The diver is kept warm by ensuring a continuous
supply of hot water to under garments fitted with small bore flexible piping.

The diver loses heat even when in the dive bell. The effect is made worse when the
divers are using helium as part of their mix as this gas permits the heat to be
transferred quickly from the lungs. This applies also during time spent in the topside
habitat.

The emergency bell equipment shown here has a heat recovery mask. It is designed
to be used should the saturation dive bell lose power or heating because of accidental
umbilical rupture.

DIVING&ROV

569
Surface diving and hard suits

SURFACE DIVING
Shallow water
Air, Nitrox or Trimix
Short work duration
May use a mini-bell to increase working time
Depths
Air
Ultimate: 60 m (197 ft)
HSE: 20 minutes bottom time at 51 m (173 ft)
Nitrox
Ultimate: 30 m (98 ft)

Surface diving, where the diver returns to ambient atmospheric conditions between
dives, is carried out in shallow water. A mini-bell may be used to facilitate transfer to
the seabed.

Work can only be carried out in short durations because of decompression
requirements. The time spent on work has to take into account the time needed for
decompression stops on the return back to the surface.

Where air is used for breathing, the practical working depth is limited by the required
working time at depth.

In practice, the working depth is typically between 20 m and 30 m (65 ft and 98 ft).


570
SURFACE DIVING BELLS
Air Diving Bells
For surface diving only
Used for travel
to/from seabed
Do not extend dive times

Air diving bells can be used to transfer divers to and from the seabed. They are a
simplistic design, similar to an upturned bowl, it is not a pressurised diving bell. The
bell is only useful for shallow water work and is used to allow the diver to remove his
mask if necessary. It can be used in emergencies to give the diver a temporary
habitat. It also saves the divers energy when being lowered or lifted to depth.

HARD SUIT
Newt Suit
Thruster-propelled
One atmosphere vehicle
Articulated joints
Diver-operated manipulators
Less force compared to ROV
Improved dexterity
Less expensive than sat-diving
Performance
Maximum depth 305 m
6 8 hr operation (with 48 hr reserve)

DIVING&ROV

571
An example of a hard suit is the Newt Suit. This is a lightweight, single atmospheric
diving system that can dive to a depth of 305 m (1000 ft). The Newt Suit is typically
utilised with a thruster pack, which allows the pilot to fly the suit or work mid-water,
rather than walking on the seabed. They were developed from earlier systems
without thrusters such as the JIM suit.

The system is capable of supporting a wide range of equipment such as cameras,
sonar and tracking systems. The suit, thruster and diver weigh about 326 kg (720 lb).

It uses articulated joints to keep the diver in shirt-sleeve conditions and no
decompression is needed. This makes it less expensive than saturation diving.
However, the diver operated manipulators - whilst giving better dexterity - have less
force than an ROV. The joints also tend to stick with depth. These units are now
rarely used by the pipeline industry.

Specifications:

Depth 305 m (1 000 feet)
Height 1.120 m (81.2 inches) adjustable
Weight 378 kg ( 832 lbs)
Hull A356 Cast Aluminum
Thrusters Constant with variable pitch
Power 2 x 2.25 HP at 400 Hz
Comms Digital voice/data
Life Support 6 - 8 hr, emergency reserve backup 48 hr
Safety Tether cut, pinger, ballast jettison

HARD SUIT
Newt suit rated to
610 m (2000 ft)
US Navy

However, such units are commonly used by the US Navy. This unit and the operator
shown here can reach double the depth of the Newt suit.


572
One advantage is that they require no umbilical to control operations, though the
diver has a tether for emergency recovery, and could make use of hydraulic supply
hose for tool power.
These ADS (atmospheric diving suits) require no dedicated ship and are easier to
airfreight to an incident than an ROV. Other ADS systems are the Spider and the
Hornet.

Control of the thrusters is through use of foot pedals and hand controls. They are
normally operated slightly negatively buoyant (but they could also be slightly
buoyant, should operations require it). Normally, a 4 or 5 man working crew would
have a support team of 4 on deck.

Market

DIVING COMPANIES
Diving companies in 4 main groups
Stolt Offshore
Subsea 7
Technip
Torch Inc
Others
Caldive
Hydrodive
Oceaneering
DMT (GoM)

The diving companies are in the four main groups above, although there are many
other companies including very small local ones. The following gives company fleet
sizes, based on information from Underwater Contractor International magazine.

DIVING&ROV

573
DIVING SUPPORT VESSELS
DSV Bergen Viking
DP system
Saturation diving system
ROV capability
Crane
Moon pool
3.6 m x 3.6 m

An example of a DSV is the Bergen Viking, which is equipped with a saturation
diving system rated down to 150 m (492 ft), and may be delivered with air diving
facilities.

The Argus Mariner Work Class ROV is permanently installed on board.

Deck Specifications and Equipment

Deck: Area 520 m
2
, strength 5.0 t/m
2
,max deck load 1340 t
Main crane/hoist: 50 t at 6 m, 25 t at 12 m
Secondary crane: 5.0 t
Capstans: 2 x 10 t (aft)
Moonpool: 3.6 m x 3.6 m


574
ROCKWATER 1
Pipelay vessel
Diving facilities

Type of Vessel: DP MSV
Dimensions: 98 x 18 x 5 m (323 x 59 x 17 ft)
Mooring Stations Keeping Method: DP, 4-point mooring
Area(s) of Operation: Worldwide

Notes:

Deck cargo capacity: 2 500 t (2 750 short tons)
Clear deck: 5 480 m (59 000 ft)

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575
SEAWAY EAGLE
Pipelay/construction vessel
Diving facilities

Type of Vessel: Construction/Lay vessel
Dimensions: 138 x 19 x 6.86 m
Year Built: Converted in 1996
Range of Pipe Diameters Handled: 6 to 10in
Pipe Installation Method: Reel
Maximum Pipelaying Water Depth: Deepwater
Mooring Station Keeping Method: DP
Area(s) of Operations: Asia Pacific, West Africa and Gulf of
Mexico

Note:
Hyperbaric diving and welding capabilities.
ROV and ROT operations.
Dolly base arrangement for 4 reels on deck and additional area for 2 reels to be
loaded at sea.

19.3 km capacity for 6in pipe
15.2 km for 8in and
8.6 km for 10in


576
WITCH QUEEN
Diving support vessel
Pipelay facilities

Type of Vessel: DSV
Dimensions: 85 x 14 m (278 x 47 ft)
Range of Pipe Diameters Handled: 3.5 to 4.5 in
Welding Method(s) Used: API 1104
Pipe Installation Method(s) Used: Reel, S-Lay
Minimum Pipelaying Water Depth: 9 m (30 ft)
Maximum Pipelaying Water Depth: 305 m (1 000 ft)
Area(s) of Operation: Gulf of Mexico

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577
MSV - ROCKWATER SEMI 2
Construction vessel
Diving facilities

Type of Vessel: DP MSV, Semi-submersible
Dimensions: 63 x 49 x 12/9 m (208 x 160 x 41/30 ft)
Mooring Stations Keeping System: DP
Lifting Capacity: 227 t (250 short tons)
Area(s) of Operation: North Sea

Note:
Deck cargo capacity: 544 t (600 short tons)
Clear deck: 1200 m (12 900 ft)


578
MSV - UNCLE JOHN
Pipelay/construction vessel
Diving facilities

Type of Vessel: Semisubmersible

Dimensions: 49 x 48 m (160 x 158 ft)
Range of Pipe Diameters Handled: 2 to 4.5 in reel; 6 to 10 in., J-Lay
Welding Method(s) Used: API 1104
Pipe Installation Method(s) Used: Reel, J-Lay
Minimum Pipelaying Water Depth: 61 m (200 ft) Reel;
213 m (700 ft) J-Lay
Maximum Pipelaying Water Depth: 610 m (2 000 ft) Reel;
1372 m (4 500 ft) J-Lay
Area(s) of Operation: Gulf of Mexico

Note:
Pontoons are 77 m (254 ft) long.

DIVING&ROV

579
DIVING & EQUIPMENT - SUMMARY
This section has covered
Three main types of diving
Surface diving, saturation, hard suit
Basics of depth limitation and gas mix needs
Minimising the risks
Equipment used for diving
Any questions?

This section has examined the three main types of diving and has covered the basic
reasons for limitations of depth and the gas mix needs of each method. The risks of
each method have also been discussed and methods of minimising these risks
described. These include the use of dive companions, ROV monitoring, hyperbaric
lifeboats and the prevention of hypothermia. Some of the equipment required for
diver support has also been discussed.


580
REMOTELY OPERATED
VEHICLES

Types

ALL SHAPES AND SIZES
Subsea 7 Eyeball and Hercules ROVs

The above shows an eyeball and workclass ROV in Subsea 7s workshop in
Aberdeen. To the left, a white tethered management system (TMS) may be seen.

The Eagle-eye has a 2000 m depth rating and is deployed from a garage. It can have
a tooling skid fitted beneath.

The Hercules has a depth rating from 1000 m to 3000 m and weighs between 2.8 T
and 3.5 T (depending on buoyancy configuration).

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HOW ARE ROVS USED?
In shallow water,
use a direct umbilical
Sea current
Strong umbilicals
supplying control,
power and support
Steerable garage
unit with thrusters
Lightweight
tether
Heavy equipment
& tools lowered
from surface
Workclass ROV carries
tool pack or equipment
slung beneath
Secondary
eyeball ROV
Workclass
or eyeball ROV
Cursor
launch
system
A-frames or
moonpool
Tether
management
system (TMS)
or Top Hat

The figure shows different procedures for operating ROVs, two of which are
specifically designed for deepwater applications. When operating in deepwater
environments, one of the main concerns is the time taken to lower the ROV to the
seabed (this can be several hours). As the ROV requires a power supply cable there
is a problem in that the umbilicals become both heavy (due to their length and
strength requirements) and are subjected to large loads due to sea currents.

Two of the systems utilise a powered unit with separate thrusters to carry the
workclass ROV down to the work site. This unit can be sized to withstand the loads
from the main umbilical. When in position, it then releases the ROV on a lightweight
umbilical or tether. This is normally up to a few hundred metres long, but can be
made up to 1 km (3280 ft).

The figure shows two different methods of deepwater ROV installation. One
involves lowering the ROV in a steerable garage. Any heavy equipment or selections
of tooling can then be lowered to the seabed on a separate frame. This method may
also include a secondary eyeball class ROV slung beneath, which can be used to
oversee the operations of the workclass ROV or other tasks.

The second method involves lowering the ROV on a device known as a TMS (tether
management system) or Top Hat which releases the ROV at the worksite. The ROV
in this case grasps a separate tool unit beneath. This may be a trencher, burial device,
flowline connection module, suction anchor installation, mining or military.

Launch using a Cursor enables the almost neutrally buoyant ROV to be pushed
safely through the surface zone (where the thrusters have difficulty operating) into the
deeper water beneath the vessel. The cursor can run down a set of rails or wires, and
it holds the TMS or garage. Typically, workclass ROVs locate themselves by the left
arm grasper, and manipulate using the right arm. Where following a pipeline, the
ROV may fly above the route, run on tracks or grip the line using wheels.


582
COMPARISON OF COST & APPLICATION
Eyeball $70 000 Video inspections
Offshore $150 000 Survey, diver & drill
observation support
Work class $2 000 000 Survey, drill support,
construction &
interception
(Hire $1800 to $2700 per day)
Specials: $3 000 000 Tracked / free
eg cable burial swim or skids

The typical purchase costs given above are for the ROV alone and do not include
launch recovery system or topsides support containers etc.

The special ROV class may be much more than indicated - depending upon the
purpose needed.

As can be seen, the cost of the work class and special ROVs are an order of
magnitude greater than the inshore and offshore eyeball/observation class.

In many cases, hire costs will be incorporated within those of the vessel and launch
system.

Typical hire costs for the work class ROV shown above are for the unit alone
excluding support staff.

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EYEBALL CLASS
Hydrovision
Offshore Hyball
300 m water depth
Simple grasper
0.15 - 0.25 m/s (0.3 to 0.5 knot)
current
Seaeye Falcon
300 m (1000 ft) water depth
2.5 kVA
50 kg (110 lb) weight
490 N (110 lbf) thrust

Two of Hydrovisions standard observation class ROVs.

OFFSHORE OBSERVATION CLASS
The Sea Owl 500 Mk IV ROV System
General purpose shallow water operations
Can be configured with TMS for offshore
application

With a weight in the air of approximately 100 kg (220 lb), and a 12 kg (26 lb)
payload, the Sea Twin and Sea Owl can operate in depths up to 500 m (1640 ft).

The ROVs incorporate an internal colour close circuit digital camera, external camera
and scanning sonar, and are available with launching cage and main lift winch.

584
WORKCLASS
Hydrovision Venom
Construction, Intervention & Survey
3000 m water depth
Track, skid or
free-fly options

Hydrovision standard workclass ROV shown here can be adapted to various tasks
including burial/de-burial of telecommunications and power cables in soils to 100
kPa (14 lbf/in) to 1 m (3 ft) depth, by the addition of skid tools.

WORK CLASS
Perry Slingsby MRV
workclass ROV
Work packages up to
5000 kg, in addition to
its own weight
Can work to depths in
excess of 4000 m
Can be operated with
or without a TMS
(shown here)

The MRV workclass ROV is based around a core vehicle, to which options are
added to satisfy specific task requirements without redesign.

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MRV will accommodate work packages up to 5 000 kg (11 000 lb), in addition to
its own weight, and can work to depths in excess of 4 000 m (13 100 ft).

MRV can be operated with or without a Tether Management System (TMS), which
allows the operator further flexibility for different operations.

Changeover is easily facilitated as termination components allow for rapid
installation and removal of the TMS.

SURVEY EXAMPLE
Flies 0.3 to 0.5 m (1 ft - 18in) above pipeline
Extra
pipeline
survey
equipment
Use of
third-party
ROV

The example shown here from Fugro shows the typical attachments to the front of the
ROV to enable additional survey equipment to be fitted.

Survey companies often have to make use of a third-party ROV that is chartered with
the vessel by the client. They therefore have to fit their equipment to a variety of
ROVs from different manufacturers.


586
SURVEY ATTACHMENTS
Equipment attached to workclass ROV
Obstacle avoidance system sidescan sonar
CP protection probe tester
Depth meter, gyrocompass and position fixing
ROV location device
Constant acoustic positioning with vessel
Pipeline location device
Flying ROV - thrusters keep pipeline clear of sediment
Trolley unit grabs pipeline and travels along
Tracked unit on seabed
Electromagnetic detection of buried pipeline potential

When a workclass ROV is fitted out for surveys, a range of different sonar and
electromagnetic devices are used.

The above list provides a typical selection.

Some means of controlling the route of the ROV in relation to the pipeline are
required. For a flying ROV (0.3 to 0.5 m above pipe), a combination of up and down
thrusters can keep the water clear of sediments helping the pilot to visually maintain
the ROV position close to the pipe. Some use a trolley unit to grasp the pipeline
between bogies or wheels: the ROV is then driven forward on these. Where the ROV
has caterpillar tracks - perhaps for a buried line, then the steel of the pipeline can be
detected using electromagnetic devices.

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Tools

ALSTOM (SEIMENS) MANIPULATORS

Many ROVs use Alstom manipulator arms.

The unit on the right of the screen is used for grasping. It is the Conan Remote
Manipulator System and has a claw like hand. It would be controlled by a simple
joystick in the control cabin.

The unit on the left of the screen is used to pick up items. It is the Titan 3 Remote
Manipulator System and the hand is designed to pick up T-bar handles on tools.

The centre photographs show a typical joystick and a more delicate replica master
slave arm. These have an intuitive operation - in the same manner as a computer
mouse. However the system is more expensive than the simpler single-speed
operation controls.


588
REMOTE TOOLING SKIDS
Diverless connection systems
Pipeline repair
Component replacement
Pig launcher / receivers
Remote manifold valve operation
Remote well fluid
sampling
Tool deployment
API standard low torque tools
with ROV T grab handles

Typical uses for remote tooling are given above. Some of these are shown in more
detail in the following slides.

Where operation of third party equipment is foreseen, the connectors are generally
built to remote tooling standards API 17D & 17H (depending on field location in the
world). Some low torque tools are shown here with T bar attachments to permit the
manipulators to hold them. Higher torque tools are similar but more robust.

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Specialist ROVs

DIVERLESS PIG LAUNCH/RECEIVER
Pigging unit assembled with ROV in basket
Pig launcher unit
Pig launcher unit
Pig launcher unit
on ROV

The workclass ROV connects up to the launch unit which is lowered separately to the
seabed in a basket. This is because the weight of the launcher is greater than can be
lifted in with the ROV.

In the photograph, they are shown connected up sitting in the basket but with the
hinged handle inclined forward out of the way to enable the ROV to dock.

The pig launcher is sat on a saddle type frame which is bolted into the lowering
basket. This combination weighs approximately 7 T in air.


590
FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PIPE CONNECTION
Phoenix connector during shop trials
DMaC connector system
DMaC connector Phoenix connector

These are two systems used to connect flowlines. Note the buoyancy fitted to the
flanges on the Phoenix.

Both are shown slung beneath the ROV during trials.

SPOOL TIE-IN SYSTEM
Spoolpiece make-up
Skid units
Sonsub-Saipem connection system

These tool units are docked beneath the ROV and the flanges of the pipeline are
mated together.
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BUCKLE REPAIR CUTTER
Sonsub-Saipem
Bluestream wet buckle repair system
Diamond
cutter unit

This cutter can be used to repair a wet buckle at depths of up to 2200 m. It was
developed for use on the Bluestream Project in the Black Sea, but fortunately was not
needed.

The intention was to cut the pipe below the buckle and insert a recovery head. The
evacuated pipe would then be brought back to the surface and J-lay continued.

BESPOKE ROVS/SKIDS FOR OTHER USES
Drill support
Now few divers do this
Recovery of plug in well
Choke replacement
Tubular inspection work
Sticky feet to hold on location
Suction pad
Rotary wire/nylon brush to remove marine growth
Ultrasonic testing for thickness
Visual inspection of concrete


592
Other bespoke specialist units will be designed for IRM (inspection, repair and
maintenance) of subsea equipment, drill support or platform tubulars or risers.
Installation of can anchors for pipeline start-up is usually accomplished by ROV.

Note that ROVs are the method of choice for drill support. The drilling units are
specifically designed with ROV in mind. They can perform many planned operation,
maintenance and emergency tasks.

Typical attachments used in platform inspection and maintenance are listed above.

SPECIALIST TRENCHER
Sonsub-Saipem
Beluga trencher

This purpose built ROV can operate at a depth of up to 2200 m. Unlike the other
systems, which connect a standard workclass tractor unit to a skid, this huge ROV is
a fully dedicated system.

It was used on the Bluestream project. It can attach itself to a pipeline with an incline
of up to 30.

It flies down to pipe and then grasps onto it, protecting the line against the cutter
drums. Multiple passes with the cutters in different orientations means that it can
lower the pipe in stages.

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BELUGA

The above slide shows the sequence of trenching a pipeline using the Beluga ROV
trenching cutter. Initially the ROV attaches to the pipeline, it then makes a first pass
cutting a narrow small groove. The second pass widens and deepens the trench and
the final pass cuts the trench deep enough for the pipe and the pipe is released at the
end of the trench route.

ROV CONSTRUCTION
Bolted aluminium frame
Thrusters - electrical or electro-hydraulic
Control system - sealed dry electronic pods
Buoyancy - designed neutral in water
Less efficient with depth
Tooling - Class 1 to 7 (torque dependent)
API 17D - ISO 13628-6
W Africa, GoM, Far East
API 17H - ISO 13628-8
North Sea


594
Most ROVs have an open-sided bolted aluminium frame which is easier to repair
than welded. The open frame permits some passage of water and gives easy access to
service the equipment on deck. The frame is typically designed with a dynamic
factor of 3 or 4 to permit impacts during launch and recovery.

The thrusters are either direct electrical or through an electro-hydraulic power pack.
A typical workclass ROV will demand around 90 to 110 kW (120 to 150 shaft HP).

The thrusters provide full control in all directions. Typically these will be located at
the corners and operate in a diagonal direction. There may be between four and
twelve of these units. The controlling software operated by the pilot at the surface,
integrates the thruster components to permit logical movement of the ROV (up-down,
forward-reverse and port-starboard).

The control system for a typical workclass ROV will have one or two banks of 12
station solenoid valve packs and a single main electronics pod with extra task-specific
pods.

Buoyancy is located above the frame and usually consists of syntactic foam. This is
surprisingly heavy in air. In deeper waters, the efficiency of this foam is less due to
the requirement for increased resistance to crushing. Consequently, a larger volume
of buoyancy is needed for deep water operation. The typical weight in air of a
workclass ROV with buoyancy fitted is around 3 tonnes. This rises by about 25% if
it needs to go to 3000 m depth.

Two standards are used for tools: API 17D and 17H. These are also referred to as
ISO 1328-6 or ISO 1328-8, respectively being dual standards. The latter is
commonplace in the North Sea though elsewhere the earlier standard predominates.
Some tools are common to both. A range of different classes are recognised (from 1
to 7) depending on the torque requirements.

MAINTENANCE
ROV typically rebuilt 3 times in life
Maintained after operations
Frequent mob/demob
(or dedicated vessel)
Down time following maintenance
Requires
Care in rebuilds/maintenance
Standardisation of units
Training

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ROVs are typically totally rebuilt three or more times throughout their life. They are
also maintained after operations.

Where they are used on different vessels rather than kept onboard a dedicated ship,
there are frequent connection / disconnection of cables for power and control during
the mobilisation / demobilisation.

All these contribute to the risk of down time. Most failures occur during the first few
hours of operation due to adjustments, swap outs or changes made since the last
usage.

To avoid these failures, care and checking needs to be undertaken during repair or
maintenance. It is preferable that units are standardised throughout the fleet to enable
a control cabin from one unit to have identical plug-in to those of other units. Pilots
can easily transfer their skills during operations.

The risk of down time can thus be minimised by thorough training both of operators
and mechanics.

GENERIC EQUIPMENT
Sonar, gyrocompass and bathymeter
Lights & cameras
Survey or span identification
Forward, port & starboard - pan & tilt arms
SIT low light
HD colour
Photogrammetric 3D video
1 or 2 manipulators
3, 7 or 9 function graspers
Flexible mounts

The ROV operator or pilot needs to be aware of its location and depth. Sonar,
gyrocompass and depth indicators provide this general navigation. Workclass ROVs
usually have some degree of autoheading and depth control built in to help the pilot.

However, most ROVs depend on vision to permit fine control adjacent to subsea
equipment. This requires a bank of lights and cameras.

The type of camera depends on the usage. Low light level cameras (outputting black
and white images) or full high definition colour cameras may be fitted. For specialist
use, a pair of cameras may be used to capture full 3D images on the video system.
Often, more than one camera is fitted: for example, for survey or span identification,
three cameras will capture both sides of the pipeline and the forward view.


596
Most ROVs have a pair of manipulators. These may have between 3 and 9 functions
- corresponding to the movements of the hand, wrist, elbow and shoulder of the
operator. In general, the left hand will be simpler and used for grasping onto handles
fitted to the seabed system. The right hand will be able to carry out more delicate
tasks. Most manipulators fitted to ROVs have no control of speed. They open or
close at the same rate. However, some (more expensive) have a master-slave arm at
the surface which can be use for sensitive tasks.

Tools are held by the manipulators using T-shaped handles fixed to flexible mounts.
The latter have been developed from wind surfer mast attachments. These are
available in a variety of resiliences: sometimes a single mount is used - or a pair of
steel plates can be fixed between four bobbin-shaped mounts.

TOOLING SKID CONNECTION
Hydraulic power supply
Separate from ROV itself
Wet-mateable hydraulic connectors
No oil loss
No water ingress
Pressure balanced
10 capture angle
200 bar (3 000 psi) MP rating
Typically 0.3 m (1 ft) high

The tooling skids require separate hydraulic power from that supplied to the ROV
itself. Some skids are lowered separately to the seabed in a basket for subsequent
connection to the ROV.

Some considerations for the connectors are listed above.

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TOOLING SKID UNITS
API 17D
Class 4 tool
Flexible pipe connector unit
XYZ hot stab tool

The above slide shows three types of skid unit that may be linked to a workclass
ROV.

The XYZ tool connects to the front of the ROV rather than slung beneath. It can be
used to operate a bank of valves or, as shown here, to pressure test/ inject a bank of
nozzles.

STAB PLATE
API 17H tooling
Grabber
Torque tool
Grab tool


598
This slide shows a stab plate for a fly to place umbilical connection.

The proposed standard API 17H (used in North Sea), has complex tooling but light
hardware. It can be lightweight because the ROV is docked in - resulting in no ROV
loads on the system. The male is on the fixed structure: the female is on the ROV
tool.

In comparison API 17D is a light simple tool but requires heavy hardware.

The third system is the DMaC, which is used in West of Shetlands by BP.

Deck equipment

DECK REQUIREMENTS
Typical requirements
Control cabin container
Workshop
Store
Independent power generators
A-frame launch system

The ROV power is supplied through the umbilical at 3 kV. This power may be
generated independently from the ship supply which is usually at 440 V.
Transformer conversion is required. The reason that it is sent at high voltage is to
reduce the diameter of the umbilical.

Large specialist ROVs such as the NamSSol underwater mining machine require 2
MW at 3 kV. Trenching machines also have heavy power demands. In contrast,
small eyeball ROVs may only require 1 or 2 kW of power for lights and thrust.

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FOUR LAUNCH SYSTEMS
Outboard crane
A-frame
Moonpool
Cursor
Cursor wire guide
Cursor rail guide
Outboard
crane
A-frame

These systems are needed to push the ROVs beyond the sea/air interface, and allow
the thrusters to operate without cavitation.

The simplest is an overside crane. Cranes and A-frame launch systems shown here
are non-guided. They are very weather dependent but A-frames are probably the
commonest launch method because they can be fixed to the side of any vessel. They
can operate up to about sea-state 6. This is dependent upon the response of the vessel
and snatch loading in the wire, surge and wave motion which could cause swinging.

Dedicated ROV support vessels and offshore drilling vessels have customised launch
systems. It is common nowadays to include a ROV as part of the standard equipment
list. Launch through moon pools can be cursor, rail or wire guided to enable launch
and recovery in any sea state. Semi-submersibles tend to use a wire or rail guided
system to prevent impact with the vessel below the water line. Wire guided systems
can rapidly launch up to sea-state 8.


600
OBSERVATION LAUNCH SYSTEM
Hydrovision launch system and garage

This is the simplest launch system whereby the hydraulic arm simply pushes the
garage through the sea/air interface. It is used for the Hydrovision Seaeye Tiger
observation class ROV.

TOP HAT AND TETHER
Tether management system (TMS)

The umbilical provides power, fibre optic data and video communications back to the
control cabin.

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The TMS is suspended from the vessel on an armoured cable but the unit has some
degree of control by using its own thrusters. This enables it to stay close to the work
site even in strong currents.

The ROV is latched to the bottom of the Top Hat or TMS during launch and
recovery. The ROV is connected to the TMS using a neutrally-buoyant tether up to
1000 m long but which is stored on the drum during launch. The pilot controls the
TMS as well as the ROV.

The main umbilical is either Kevlar or wire armoured. Kevlar is not as robust and is
much more expensive, but has a better strength-weight ratio so is used in deeper
water.

A typical triple wire armoured cable used to lower a TMS and a ROV (such as the
Hercules) will be around 43 mm diameter, 3300 m long with a 920 kN breaking strain
(27 T SWL). Over around 3 km water depth, such cables cannot support their own
weight. They weigh 6.36 kg/m in air or 5.08 kg/m in water and have a minimum
bend radius of 700 mm.

CONTROL CABIN
Pilot on left
Integrated ROV and TMS/garage controls
Joysticks and primary control buttons
Video switching and distribution systems
CCTV monitors & VCRs
Software control and
diagnostics screens
Log-keeper on right
Second eyeball pilot
Similar controls to ROV

The picture shows the pilot and co-pilot in one of Oceaneerings five training centres.

The ROV pilot controls both the ROV and the TMS or garage using joysticks and
primary control buttons and switches.

The co-pilot keeps a log, recording relevant pressure levels on equipment or other
data from onscreen readings.

If there is a second eyeball ROV operator, then he tends to sit to the right again, and
he has similar joystick controls to the main panel.


602
CONTROL PANEL AND SCREEN DISPLAYS
Typical control panel
Screen displays for
Control
Diagnostics

These are typical views of Subsea 7 pilot control system showing the joystick and
main panel. Just visible above are the video screens.

Market

WORKCLASS ROV OPERATORS
Fleet
Subsea 7 55
Oceaneering International 113
Perry Slingsby Systems 57
Racal 37
Sonsub 41
Stolt Offshore 70

The above is a list of the main operators (those with 30 or more) of Workclass ROVs.
All of the above are also suppliers of ROVs.

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There are 45 operators in total, giving a world fleet of 476 ROVs.

(Source: Offshore Magazine 2000/2001 Workclass ROV survey.)

COMPANIES
Construction - two approaches
Bought-in
In-house construction & maintenance
Survey houses
Own equipment
Use what client has on vessel
Mount their own survey units onto vessel ROV

Companies may either buy their ROVs from a specialist manufacturer or build and
service their own design of machine.

The costs are much larger for the latter in setting up the design team and workshop.
However. bearing in mind downtime following maintenance, this may be still be cost-
effective for larger companies.

Survey houses generally own their own equipment but may be obliged to use the
ROV that is already part of the vessel chartered by the client. In this instance, their
own seismic, pipe location equipment etc is mounted onto the tractor unit.


604
ROV - SUMMARY
This section has detailed the following
The four main types of ROV
Observation
Workclass
Survey
Specialist
The required deck support equipment
Power supply
Control systems
Launch and recover systems
Any questions?

This section has introduced the main considerations for the use of ROVs, identifying
the different types of ROV and the tooling systems available. It also gives details of
the typical deck support equipment required to conduct ROV operations.

DIVING & ROV - SUMMARY
You should now:
Know the capabilities of divers and the required
support equipment
Know the various types of ROV available
Required support equipment, available tooling and
operational capabilities
Know the different ROV launch and recovery
systems
Be aware of the ROV market and their availability
when planning ROV operations
Any questions?

The operations of Diving and Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs) were introduced.
Diving operations and their capabilities and limitations were examined, along with
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605
the health and safety requirements and support equipment required for safe diving
operations.

The issues of ROV operation were presented. Information was provided on the
various types of ROV available and the different operational capabilities, support
equipment and available tooling. The different methods of launching and recovering
ROVs from vessels were examined. Finally, an overview was given for the ROV
market, detailing the leading companies and the different options available to
companies looking to make use of ROV systems.


606

DECOMMISSIONING

DECOMMISSIONING

609
EXPECTATION

EXPECTATION
Know the principal factors that influence
the available method of decommissioning
Understand the latest legislation and
current thinking
Know the operations required for
decommissioning pipelines in-situ
Know the methods available for the
recovery of pipeline systems
Appreciate the potential for re-using certain
pipeline systems

An overview is given of the processes for decommissioning pipelines and other
offshore components. The principal factors that influence the methods of
decommissioning are identified; these being environmental and safety concerns,
public opinion, political needs and finally cost effectiveness. The latest legislation
and current thinking regarding the correct decommissioning strategy is discussed.
Decommissioning of pipelines in-situ is examined in detail and the required
operations are detailed. Also, the methods available for the possible recovery or re-
use of certain pipeline systems is discussed.


610
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Understand the purpose of
decommissioning
Be aware of existing legislation regarding
pipelines and structures
Review methods and equipment
Consider alternate methods of recovery
Review the feasibility of re-use

This section on decommissioning looks at the various reasons for, and alternative
methods of, making redundant sub-sea piping safe.

The process of preparation for decommissioning in-situ is studied, as well as the
alternative of recovery for re-use.

The methods and equipment employed during decommissioning are considered.

DECOMMISSIONING

611
INTRODUCTION
Why decommission?
Increasingly environmentally-
conscious world
Pollutants and toxins
Effects of seabed debris
Congestion of seabed

At the end of the operational life of a pipeline, there is a need to address the future
condition and status of the pipeline, so that it never presents a risk of pollution or
interference with the activities of other users of the sea.

The above picture shows 12 shore-end pipe connections exposed at low tide, at the
Thorness Bay SOLO pipeline terminal on the Isle of Wight. They have survived over
half a century of battering by the sea.

ENVIRONMENTAL & SAFETY INFLUENCES
Environment
Look for environmental benefits
Least-impact option
Assess environment hazards
and injury to personnel
Sterilisation of seabed for
future pipelines
Return shoreline to original
Safety
Safety nuisance on seabed
Snagging of trawler nets
If cannot present a good safety case leave as is!
Consider all risks during removal and disposal
Shell Brent Spar


612
The decision as to whether the pipeline is abandoned in-situ or recovered to land for
disposal or recycling, is influenced by the above issues. The considerations include:

Environmental

Would the removal represent a benefit to the environment or would resources
required be better spent in other directions? It is common for coastal and local
authorities to demand the removal of lines at the landfall, allowing the sea to
erode beaches and cliffs naturally (for decades to come).

Contamination from unclean lines.

Determine best possible environmental option. Greenpeace demonstrated about
the decommissioning of the Shell Brent Spar. Finally, they admitted the original
solution would have been a net cleaner option

Safety

Hazards relating to subsea pipelines.
Snagging of trawl equipment.
Nuisance to future seabed construction.

IMAGE AND PUBLIC PERCEPTION
Political need
International guidelines and common approach
Installation reviewed for best solution
Public opinion
Pressure groups
Media sensationalism
Local politicians
Esso Valdez, Alaska
Erica and Prestige,
Biscay and Spain
Fishing and tourism
Prestige

Political Need/Public Opinion

Legislation and guidelines.
Each installation to be viewed on its own merits.
Operators being persuaded to take action.
Public now more aware of issues. However, pressure groups do not always reach
a considered opinion (for example, the Brent Spar situation). They are sometimes
heavily influenced by the press or local politicians.

DECOMMISSIONING

613
It was right that huge amounts of money were spent cleaning up long lengths of the
formerly pristine Alaskan coastline following the leaks from the Valdez in 1988.

The sinking of the tankers Erica and Prestige in the Atlantic off south-western Europe
in 1999 and 2002 caused an outrage. Local holiday and fishing industries had just
recovered from the first incident when the Prestige sank with some of her cargo
remaining sealed on board.

Though there was no financial gain to be made for heavy oil remaining in the tanks,
public outcry demanded that it be recovered from a depth of 3800 m (12 500ft) to
prevent it gradually seeping for decades to come. It is unclear how much of a threat
this might have been, given the viscosity of the heavy oil and the low rate of
corrosion at that depth. The fuel had to be pumped out of holes drilled into the hold
through a 150 mm (6in) hose.

BENEFITS AND COST EFFECTIVENESS
Benefits and cost-effectiveness
Sale of recovered materials is negligible
Hazard has been removed with any liability
Minimum maintenance on empty line
Can accountants delay for another fiscal year?
Sell on the facility?
Was money left in budget (or included in sale)?
Reuse for another field or for CO
2
disposal
Have they sold the liability with facility
Sale of platforms to wind generator companies
Trunk pipelines used for power lines

Benefits and Cost Effectiveness

Total removal of a hazard.
Eliminates future monitoring.
Sale of recycled materials generates little income.
Have the operators budgeted for pipeline removal?

It is in the interests of the company to delay removal of facilities. They can
undertake minimum survey and maintenance for a number of years whilst the line is
empty.

Perhaps it is possible to find a new use for the pipeline. Perhaps further smaller fields
can be discovered and developed. Or we may find in the future that carbon dioxide
can be disposed of in reservoirs, gaining carbon credits.

One important aspect to note is whether the current owner of the subsea facilities has
a budget to de-commission them. It is now common for the original owner to have

614
sold them on to smaller oil companies. Problems may arise in the future should these
small companies go into liquidation with no assets for removal.

Proposals have been made to sell platforms to wind generation companies. The
pipelines provide a conduit for power lines to shore.

DECOMMISSIONING OPTIONS
Leave pipeline on seabed
Bury pipeline below seabed
Recover pipeline to shore
In all options
End structures (manifolds, drilling centres)
should be removed
Pipelines left on seabed or buried below the seabed
should be cleaned, sealed and water filled

These are the decommissioning options that are addressed later in this section.

DECOMMISSIONING

615
LEGISLATION

CONVENTIONS ON STRUCTURES
Geneva Convention on the Continental
Shelf 1958
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982
IMO Guidelines 1989
Oslo Convention 1972
London Dumping Convention 1972
Oslo Commission Guidelines 1991
OSPAR Convention 1992
USA not a signatory use of own legislation

There are a plethora of conventions relating in some way to the removal of
installations from the seabed. Most of them have been aimed at shaping what should
happen to structures and platforms when decommissioned. By comparison, pipelines
have received far less attention.

As yet, the United States of America is not a signatory to OSPAR. It applies its own
legislation which has similar aims.


616
CURRENT STATUS FOR PIPELINES
OSPAR (Oslo-Paris) convention ministerial
meeting in Sintra, Portugal, July 1999
Pipelines case-by-case
In practice we find:
Driven by political expediency
Not science or logic
Most decommissioned rigid lines left insitu
Many removed in Norway and Gulf of Mexico
Most flexibles removed and re-used
Spares stored in Brazil and new ends fitted for reuse
Practice proscribed in Australia

The recent OSPAR meeting decreed that pipelines should be dealt with on a case-by-
case basis, with reference to minimising the damage to the environment.

To date, most rigid lines have been decommissioned by leaving them in place. A
number of pipelines have been removed in Norway and Gulf of Mexico.

Most flexibles have been removed and re-used, particularly in Brazil where many
spare lines are stored underwater in a sheltered bay. However, in Australia, such
reuse is deemed to be too high a risk.

DECOMMISSIONING

617
CURRENT STATUS FOR PLATFORMS
Platforms
Structures under 10 000 tonnes removed
Remaining 34 structures case-by-case
112 000 tonne Maureen removed 2001
Gravity structure with base storage tanks
Refloated and towed to
fjord
No buyer found

The OSPAR meeting agreed that the smaller platforms should be removed, and that
larger structures should be evaluated.

In 2001, the 112 000 tonne Maureen gravity platform with a height of 241 m (790ft)
was refloated and towed to a Norwegian fjord for disposal.

Originally, it was hoped to resell the unit intact, but there were no buyers.

DTI GUIDANCE NOTES
Legislation set out in DTI Guidance Notes
Based on The Petroleum Act 1998
Converts convention into good practice
Gives guidance on pipelines
Approach to be taken
Consider all options and effects
Future consequences of corrosion
Lines that can be left in place
Buried and long trunk lines
Lines that should be removed
Small diameter and untrenched lines
Monitoring
Unlimited time period !


618
The current status of legislation is set out in DTI Guidance Notes based on The
Petroleum Act 1998, and covers the areas shown above.

Approach to be taken:
Based on individual circumstances.
All feasible options to be considered.
Removal to have no effect on environment.
If left in place (decommissioned in-situ), decision based on rate of deterioration
and possible future effect on marine environment.
Consider other users of the sea.

Lines can be left in place:
If adequately trenched.
If likely to self-bury.
If exposed sections retrenched.
If trunk lines.

Lines that should be removed:
Small diameter of up to 323.8 mm (<12 inch).
Rigid lines and flexibles that are not trenched or buried.

Monitoring:
If decommissioned in-situ, monitoring programme to be established on case-by-
case basis.

LEGISLATION - SUMMARY
Governments provide legislation to give
guidance on decommissioning
Most structures assessed uniquely
Not all equipment must be removed
Decommission in-situ if no detrimental effects to
environment
May require monitoring program
Any questions?

Governments have introduced legislation to cover the decommissioning of offshore
structures and subsea pipelines. The legislation gives guidance on considerations for
decommissioning, but most substantial structures will be assessed individually for
their unique requirements.

We need to be aware that not all offshore equipment requires removing from the
installed location. Decommissioning in-situ may be acceptable if no detrimental
DECOMMISSIONING

619
affect to the environment can be proven. To ensure this, a monitoring program may
need to be implemented to ensure there is no long term damage to the environment.


620
DECOMMISSIONING IN-SITU

DECOMMISSIONING IN-SITU
Decommissioning in-situ
Do not disturb!
Likely to be the preferred option for:
Pipelines that are already trenched/buried
Trunk lines
It may involve the following operations
Cleaning
Product removal
Trenching

Decommissioning in-situ is the preferred option for pipelines that are already
trenched or buried and trunk lines. There are three main operations for
decommissioning in-situ, these are cleaning, product removal and trenching. These
operations do not necessarily have to occur in that order.

DECOMMISSIONING

621
Cleaning

CLEANING
Cleaning required to remove deposits from
pipe wall
Wax, gas dust, scale, asphaltines
Internal LSA (NORM) scale
Cleaning by running through trains of pigs
Trains consist of foam, batch, brush and scraper
pigs as required
Most likely done before water filling (avoid
problems of contaminated water disposal)

Cleaning is required for the removal of wax, gas dust and scale from the pipe wall.
These may contain heavy metals and other toxins. This operation is achieved by
driving pig trains through the line. The pig trains will include brush pigs or scraper
pigs.

LSA (Low Specific Activity) scale form in well tubulars and that containing a
relatively low level of radioactivity per unit mass, which however, is in excess of the
background level. LSA scale is a term used in European; elsewhere it may be
referred to as NORM (Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials) scale.

Note that on older pipelines with external coal tar epoxy, there is sufficient
radioactivity to be detected should the coating break off and float to shore.


622
BRUSH PIGS
Removal of scale, rust, dust (gas) and wax

Brush pigs are used for removing scale, rust, dust and wax from the pipe wall. By-
pass ports are used to produce flow in front of the pig. This flow helps prevent the
build-up of debris or wax in-front of the pig. By-pass ports are typically threaded
holes with plugs. The operator can therefore adjust how much by-pass occurs.

SCRAPER PIGS
Polyurethane or steel blades or ploughs
Wax removal

Scraper pigs are used for the removal of heavy wax deposits from the pipe wall.

DECOMMISSIONING

623
Product removal

PRODUCT REMOVAL
Remaining product displaced by water
Pig train provides separation
Batch pigs
20 m to 30 m (60ft to 100ft)
apart
Depends on diameter
Number depends on line
length and wall corrosion
Water Oil Oily water

An essential step of decommissioning is to remove the product from the pipeline.
This is achieved by driving the product out with water. A train of batch pigs provides
the separation between the water and the product.

The batch pigs are arranged such that they are pushed by water from behind
displacing the product ahead of them. They are spaced to allow for some mixing of
the liquids, typically this is a function of the diameter of the pipeline. The number of
pigs in the train depends on how much will pass each of the seals a function of the
length of the pipeline and the pitting on the pipe wall.


624
INHIBITION
Water contains
Corrosion inhibitor
Oxygen scavenger
Biocide
Pipe left in safe condition
Minimise any further deterioration or rusting

The water contains a number of inhibitors to ensure the continuing integrity of the
pipeline.

Corrosion inhibitors and oxygen scavengers prevent aerobic and acidic corrosion.
The biocide prevents the growth of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB), which in turn
will produce anaerobic corrosion.

Trenching

TRENCHING
Lower the pipeline below surface of seabed
Backfill
Methods covered in detail elsewhere
Why bury now when
not at installation?
Open trench
Scour of seabed
Is wall corroded?
Reduced strength
Spalled concrete in nets

DECOMMISSIONING

625
The pipe may need to be both lowered into a trench and then buried to leave a smooth
seabed. This is as discussed in the other modules.

However, we need to ask how it is possible to bury the pipeline now when it was not
undertaken earlier during installation. Perhaps the pipe was only trenched and not
buried or some scour has occurred.

What if there is corrosion of the wall and the steel strength is reduced. It does not
have to withstand operating pressure anymore.

Will deteriorated concrete spall off and end up in fishermens nets?

TRENCHING ISSUES
Remaining strength of pipeline
Will it withstand trenching operation?
Must avoid leakage - corrosion defects and welds
No longer has high internal pressure
Loss of concrete weight coating
Must avoid debris
Loss of coal tar epoxy
Jetting - lower stress than plough

We need to assess how the pipeline will behave during lowering process.

Perhaps a less efficient option may be chosen such as jetting. Ploughs may cause
higher loads to be applied to the pipeline.


626
DECOMMISSIONING IN-SITU - SUMMARY
Preferred option for trunk lines and
buried/trenched pipelines
Need to remove product and clean
Exposed lines may require trenching
Ensure pipe strength is sufficient to withstand
trenching operation
Avoid concrete break-up
Any questions?

Decommissioning in-situ is often the preferred method for trunk lines and pipelines
that are already buried or trenched. To decommission in-situ it will be necessary to
ensure that all product is removed from the pipeline and the pipeline interior cleaned
of debris and harmful deposits. The removal of product is done with pig trains
pushed through by water. Cleaning can be done with specialist cleaning pigs and
batches of cleaning chemicals.

There may be a requirement that the decommissioned pipeline is buried to ensure it
does not become a future obstacle on the seabed. it may be necessary to ensure the
strength of pipe is sufficient to withstand the trenching operation. Care should also
be taken to ensure the concrete coating does not break-up and become debris on the
seabed.

DECOMMISSIONING

627
RECOVERY

RECOVERY
Recovery likely to be preferred option for:
Small diameter rigid and flexible lines that are not
trenched or buried
Up to 323.8 mm or even 406.4 mm (12in or 16in)
Bundles with integral towhead manifolds
Contaminated pipelines
Landfalls and inshore lines subject to local authority
control

Smaller unburied lines are easiest to remove. Even 16in lines (larger than required by
legislation) may be disposed of in this way.

Bundles are large diameter structures that sit on the seabed. These are unburied and
may be towed away on-bottom.

Contaminated lines and the landfall section of other lines may require removal by the
appropriate regulatory authorities.


628
RECOVERY
Recovery Methods:
Small diameter rigid or flexible flowlines - Reelbarge
Thin walled downhole or flowline tubing Reeled
Larger diameter pipelines - Laybarge
Pipeline and Bundle Recovery - Cut and Lift Process
Bundle Recovery - Off-Bottom Towing Method

A number of different approaches have been used, as listed above.

Where the wall and particularly the welds can withstand the stresses, small lines can
be removed by reelbarge.

A simple laybarge can be used to dispose of larger diameters.

An alternative used for larger lines in poor condition (unable to withstand stresses) is
to cut into short sections and lift vertically.

If buoyancy can be provided to bundles, then these could be towed to shore using an
off-bottom method. This may be accomplished either with individual buoys or use of
gel to flush the water from the annulus.

DECOMMISSIONING

629
RECOVERY BY REEL BARGE
Reverse of lay operation
Reassessment of weld stresses
Loss of section risk if rupture occurs on reel
Already well established for small diameter
lines and flexibles (Phillips in GoM in 2001)

Phillips recovered a line using reeling techniques. However, care needs to be taken
with the stresses at welds, bearing in mind that the line may have already been
yielded during the lay and now with thinner wall it will be further damaged.

The consequence of breakage on the reel can be catastrophic.

Flexibles do not suffer from yielding on recovery and can be spooled up safely.

RECOVERY BY LAYBARGE
Simpler (cheaper) than normal lay vessel


630
This method is intended for the recovery of pipelines that are either exposed on the
seabed or have been unburied with specialist equipment.

Either an existing laybarge or converted workbarge could be utilised.

Outline Procedure:
Deploy retrieval clamp and recovery wire to pipeline end.
Recover wire through the A&R winch and secure pipeline with tensioners.
Move barge with pipeline being recovered through tensioners.
Cut pipe into pre-determined lengths and store on barge deck.
Transfer pipe lengths onto supply vessel for disposal/recycling on shore or re-use
after refurbishment.

ADVANTAGES
Utilisation of existing equipment.
High speed operation for long lengths.

DISADVANTAGES
High operating costs.

CUT AND LIFT
Removal of three BNFL outfalls in 2005/6
Demanded by local authority as part of planning
Severely corroded line breakup
Coal tar radioactivity on beach
Lifting stillages onto
transport barge

Method intended for the recovery of short lengths of pipeline or bundle that are
either exposed on the seabed or have been unburied with specialist equipment.
A shallow-draught first-generation workbarge could be utilised.

Outline Procedure:
Pipeline cut on seabed into pre-determined lengths.
Recovery grabs deployed to lift sections out of water onto barge deck.
Transfer pipe sections onto supply vessel for disposal/recycling onshore or re-use
after refurbishment.

DECOMMISSIONING

631
ADVANTAGES
The pipeline does not require high degree of structural integrity.
Work could be undertaken inshore in shallow water.

DISADVANTAGES
Subsea cutting equipment for large diameter lines would need further
development.
Debris from cutting released into the marine environment.
Barge operations slow and weather-dependant.

A small barge was used by Land & Marine to recover three rain water outfalls, which
were potentially contaminated with low level radioactivity in 2005. Their removal
was a requirement of original planning consent. Seabed stillages (storage racks) were
used to store the sections prior to lifting onto the barge. Of particular concern was
the condition of one line which was so severely corroded that there were fist-size
holes in the wall. Additionally, pieces of coal-tar enamel breaking off and floating
ashore (with its natural inherent radioactivity) could give a false reading of
unapproved releases.

BUNDLE RECOVERY
Bundle recovery by off-bottom towing
Use ballast to raise bundle off the seabed
Fill bundle with air
Use ballast chains to stabilise
Tow to an onshore facility
Advantage
No offshore cutting of pipeline
Disadvantages
Depends on structural integrity of bundle
Extensive preparatory work

Method intended to recover continuous lengths of bundles that are lying on the
seabed with minimal rock dump protection.

Prepare bundle and towheads and raise them clear of the seabed for towing to an
onshore bundle fabrication area in the off-bottom mode.

Outline Procedure:
Remove flowline spools and fit pig launchers and receivers.
Fit carrier pipe clamps with fill and drain valves at suitable points.
Check integrity of ballast chains and replace as necessary.
Purge carrier with air to displace inhibited water.
Purge flowlines to raise bundle clear of seabed (fit any supplementary buoyancy).
Connect tow and trail tugs.

632
Shorten rigging to raise towheads clear of seabed..
Tow to fabrication area along pre-surveyed route with protected pipeline crossing
points.
Recover on fabrication area for disposal/recycling or re-use after refurbishment.

ADVANTAGES
No offshore cutting of pipeline.
Less dependency on specialist vessels.

DISADVANTAGES
Extent of preparatory work before tow can commence.
Dependent upon structural integrity of bundle.
Need to protect third party crossings.

RECOVERY - SUMMARY
Recover the following
Small diameter rigid and flexible pipes
Downhole and flowline tubing
Bundles and contaminated pipelines
Landfalls if required by local authority
Methods of recovery
Reeling or lay-barge recovery (pipe lay in reverse)
Cut and lift
Off-bottom tow for bundles
Any questions?

Recovery of pipelines is a viable options for the above listed pipeline types. The
methods of recovery are detailed above and are specific to the type of pipeline being
recovered. The method available will be dependant on the type of pipeline and we
have examined the appropriate methods for different pipeline types.

DECOMMISSIONING

633
RE-USE

RE-USE
Re-use feasible for:
Flexibles
Thin-walled downhole or flowline tubing
Bundles
Rigid flowlines
Consider methods in following slides
Although feasible, it is unlikely that reuse
of rigid lines will be commercially viable


634
FLEXIBLES
Re-use of flexibles
Common offshore Brazil
End lifted and re-reeled
Cleaned, inspected and overhauled prior to
re-use
End fittings usually replaced
Australian QA / insurance recertification concerns

BUNDLES
Bundle dewatered
Towed to new location using off-bottom
method
Described previously

DECOMMISSIONING

635
RIGID FLOWLINES
Bottom tow to near-by location
Re-reel
Issue of total plastic strain
Weld fatigue
JIP currently underway at Welding Institute
Serious proposition for future
Unlikely to be financially viable

RE-USE - SUMMARY
Some pipeline types can be re-used
Flexibles, tubing, bundles, rigid flowlines
May need to carry out some or all of
following operations
De-water, clean, inspect, recondition, replace end
fittings
Method of relocating dependant on pipeline
type
Lift, bottom tow, off-bottom tow, re-reel
Any questions?

Some pipeline types can be re-used at other locations. Re-use may have been an
initial requirement for which the pipeline was initially designed or the pipeline is
found to be in a suitable condition for re-use at the end of its service life.

If re-using the pipeline, then the above operations may need to be carried out before
the pipeline can be moved and reinstalled. The required operations for the type of

636
pipeline have been detailed in this section. Also detailed have been the methods
available for each pipeline type.

DECOMMISSIONING - SUMMARY
You should now:
Know the principal factors that influence the
available method of decommissioning
Understand the latest legislation and current
thinking
Know the operations required for decommissioning
pipelines in-situ
Know the methods available for pipeline recovery
Appreciate the potential for re-using certain pipeline
systems
Any questions?

An overview has been given of the processes for decommissioning pipelines and
other offshore components. The principal factors that influence the methods of
decommissioning were identified; these being environmental and safety concerns,
public opinion, political needs and finally cost effectiveness. The latest legislation
and current thinking regarding the correct decommissioning strategy was discussed.
Decommissioning of pipelines in-situ is examined in detail and the required
operations were detailed. Also, the methods available for the possible recovery or re-
use of certain pipeline systems was discussed.

PROFILES

PROFILES

639

TREVOR JEE
MANAGING DIRECTOR
MA CEng FIMechE

Date of Birth: 30
th
June 1958
Nationality: British
Education: Oxford University (MA)
Academic Qualifications: Honours degree in Engineering Science
Professional Qualifications: Chartered Engineer
Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers

Current Position at Trevor Jee Associates
Trevor Jee is a mechanical engineer with over twenty years experience in the design
construction and operation of oil industry pipelines. Since 1988 he has built up and
run Trevor Jee Associates as a specialist pipelines engineering consultancy. In
January 2002 Trevor was elected as a Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers.

Specific Expertise and Experience at Trevor Jee Associates

Joint Industry Projects
Trevor has recently been involved in two joint industry projects. He provided
technical support to the low cost pipeline connection systems JIP, advising on the
loads which could be experienced by connectors, and therefore what testing should be
done to qualify them for use on pipelines. He project managed and provided the
technical lead for the trenching guidelines JIP which developed the methodology
for assessing whether pipelines need to be trenched in areas subject to trawling.

Other areas which Trevor has been involved in since establishing the company
include the following:

Use of connectors in pipeline systems
Trench versus non-trench decisions and the prediction of fishing gear loads
Computer analysis of fluid, mechanical, structural, soils and thermal
problems
Vortex induced vibrations and pipeline freespans
Arctic pipeline design
Setting up and running company ISO 9001 quality system


640
Summary of Previous Employment

Trevor spent nine years with BP involved in:
Magnus project construction
Forties riser designs
North Sea operations support
Research on diverless systems

He then spent four years working with Andrew Palmers and Associates on:
Project Manager on Shell Nelson
Lead engineer on British Gas North Morecambe project
Design and construction of harbour entrance ranges

PROFILES

641

MIKE HAWKINS
OPERATIONS DIRECTOR
BTech(Hons) CEng MIMechE

Date of Birth: 19
th
May 1962
Education: Loughborough University
Academic Qualifications: Honours Degree in Mechanical
Engineering
Member of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers


Mike Hawkins is a mechanical engineer with nineteen years experience in the oil and
gas industry. Having worked with operators, design contractors and consultants, his
experience includes design, construction and operation of oil industry pipelines. Since
1994 he has been working with Trevor Jee Associates as a Senior Pipeline Engineer.


Since joining Trevor Jee Associates, Mike has been responsible for many studies.
Particular fields of expertise include:
Computer analysis of fluid, mechanical, structural, soils and thermal
problems
Trawl gear interaction with pipelines and the prediction of fishing gear loads
Trench versus non-trench decisions
Upheaval and Lateral buckling
Modelling of impact and denting
Heat transfer and modelling of transient behaviours
Creep of foam insulation systems
Loads, testing and repair techniques for mechanical connectors in pipelines
Risk and reliability analysis
ABAQUS finite element analysis
Detailed design of pipeline and rigid riser systems


642

Mike spent 10 years with BP working in research and engineering roles, involved in
various aspects of design, construction, testing and operational support for major
pipelines and subsea production systems.
Between 1990 and 1994 he worked with Andrew Palmer & Associates and Brown
and Root Marine on major North Sea pipeline conceptual and detail design projects.
His responsibilities during this period included lead engineering positions.
PROFILES

643

PHIL MEDLICOTT
PIPELINE ENGINEER
BSc PhD CEng MIMechE

Date of Birth: 13 February 1952
Nationality: Irish
Education: 1970-73 Nottingham University (BSc)
1973-78 Nottingham University (PhD)
Academic Qualifications: BSc in Mechanical Engineering
PhD in Acoustics - Mechanical
Engineering
Engineers

Phil Medlicott is a pipeline engineer and joined Trevor Jee Associates in July 2000.
He has been responsible for carrying out the following activities:

Fishing field trials to assess trawl gear interaction with pipelines
Laboratory trials to assess vortex induced vibration characteristics of strakes
Design and cost studies of alternative subsea pipeline schemes
Development of ISO Standard for the testing of subsea mechanical
connectors
Developing specifications for testing of components and assessment of
system performance
Presentation of training courses covering pipeline design, pipeline integrity
management and use of composite materials in offshore applications

644

Pipeline design and installation
Design of a subsea LNG pipeline system
S lay and reel lay Installation cost comparison
Suitability of mechanical connectors for S and J-lay
Assessment of vortex induced vibration reduction devices by laboratory
testing

Pipeline fishing interaction studies
Model testing of trawl board impact
Setting up and conduct of fishing gear overtrawling field trials
Fishing gear interaction with trenches and spoil heaps

Specifications and standards
Preparation of DIS/ISO 21239 and FDIS/ISO21329 for the testing of
mechanical connectors for use in pipeline service
Development of specifications for testing of components, e.g. fatigue
Specification of equipment for monitoring system performance, e.g. vortex
induced vibration

Training courses
Preparation and presentation of the following training courses
Pipeline design (3 day course)
Pipeline integrity management (3 day course)
Pipeline stability and use of PRCI pipeline stability software (3 day course)
Overview of properties and implementation of polymer composite materials
in offshore applications (1 day course)

Parallel activities
In 1994 Phil Medlicott established his own engineering consultancy business which
specialises in the use of polymer/composite materials technology to meet oil industry
and transport requirements. He still continues to operate this business and has
provides the following services:
Project manager of a 280,000 Joint Industry Project to develop the
qualification methodology for FRP lined downhole tubing and flowlines. This
work was completed at the end of 2003 and included the successful testing of
FRP lined steel tubing systems in 160C and 5000 psi production service
environments over 4000 hrs
Preparation of ISO 14692:2002 GRP piping Standard for use within the oil
and natural gas industries
Implementation of composite applications on BP Davy and BP Bessemer (9%
of topside weight)
Numerous studies covering range of applications and performance issues
PROFILES

645
Publications and conference presentations
'Composite Material Selection & Implementation in Oil & gas Applications',
Materials Selection for Upstream Oil and Gas" IQPC conference, Aberdeen,
27th January 2004
'Static Electricity and the Use of GRP materials Offshore', CMOO-3 Houston
31st October to 2nd November 2000
'Composite Materials: Addressing Static Electricity Issues in Offshore
Applications' ETCE/OMAE 2000 Conference in New Orleans, February 14 -
17th, 200
'Progress towards a Qualification Methodology for FRP Lined Tubing and
Flowlines in Production Service", Oilfield Engineering with Polymers
Conference 26th October 1998
'Use of Non-Metallic materials Downhole' Aberdeen 24th April 1998. IBC
conference 'Advances in Downhole Technologies'
'Qualification Methodology for FRP Lined tubing for Production Service: A
Joint Industry PROGRAM' 2nd International Conference on Composite
materials for Offshore Operations (CMOO2), Houston, October 28-30 1997.
'Using Composite Materials to Minimise Weight and Maintenance and
Maximise Safety' Euroforum Offshore Platforms '96, London, 18-19th March
1996
'How can Composite Materials be Successfully Applied to your Current and
Future Offshore Projects? IIR Conference Aberdeen, 15-16th November 1995
'Overviewing the Diverse Applications and Advantages of Composites in the
Offshore Industry' IIR Conference Aberdeen, 7 - 8th December 1994
'GRP and HDPE: Alternative Solutions to Corrosion', UK Corrosion, London
19-21st October 1993

Phil Medlicott was a senior mechanical engineer at BP for 16 years and provided
company focus for identifying scope and cost benefit for applying polymer based
engineering materials technology within business operations.

PROFILES

647

MARTIN EAST
PIPELINE ENGINEER
BSc (Hons) MSc NRA CEng MIMechE

Date of Birth: 23 August 1965
Education: Crewe Boys Grammar School
University of Sheffield
Loughborough University of Technology
Academic Qualifications: Honours degree in Mathematics
MSc in Computer Integrated Engineering
Engineers
NAFEMS Registered Analyst
(Advanced)

Martin joined Trevor Jee Associates in 1996. He is responsible for supervising and
carrying out most of the finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) work within TJA.

Finite Element Analysis
Martin has eight years experience of the ABAQUS finite element analysis software
and has used it in the design of umbilicals and pipeline coating systems. Structural
analyses have included
many lateral buckling assessments of surface-laid pipelines
the analysis of concrete spool-piece protection covers
span assessments for flowlines on undulating seabeds
seismic analyses of risers in a GBS platform leg
pipeline crossing design
trawl gear pulling over a pipeline
the energy absorption capability of an elastomeric coating
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Martin has used both Fluent and CFX packages for fluid flow analysis. Analyses
have included
the hydrodynamic effects of helical strakes on a riser

648
the effect of strake pitch and profile on performance for a helical strake
the flow of backfill spoil onto a trenched pipeline
the influence of chord length on the performance of a streamlined riser fairing
heat flow and natural convection inside a cabinet containing pipework
Other Analysis Work
Martin has done hundreds of calculations, primarily using Mathcad. Calculations
include
Stability assessments of pipelines
Pipeline spanning assessments
Rock berm assessments
Lateral buckling calculations
Heat transfer and cooldown of a pipe-in-pipe system with annular flow
Wellhead protection structure design
Training Courses
Martin regularly presents training courses in pipeline design and integrity
management.

Prior to joining Trevor Jee Associates Martin worked for EMRC Europe Limited for
eight years, doing a wide variety of finite element analysis work including
consultancy, training, benchmarking and software development. Analyses included
static, dynamic, thermal and fatigue problems on structures ranging from printed
circuit boards to ships
PROFILES

649

ALAN KNOWLES
PIPELINE ENGINEER
Eur Ing BSc (Hons) CEng MICE

Date of Birth: 17 October 1951
Education: Park High Grammar School for Boys,
Birkenhead
Birkenhead Technical College
Liverpool Polytechnic College
Academic Qualifications: Honours Degree in Civil Engineering
Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers
FEANI European Engineer

Alan joined Trevor Jee Associates in 2002. He has authored and presented the
Installation Calculations course and Landline Construction course. Recent studies
include development of a subsea clamp for VIV and current monitoring, and
overtrawling trials of trawl gear over bundles.


Alan has particular expertise in the following:
Design and specification of onshore and offshore pipelines
Subsea pipe bundles
Flowlines, landfalls, directional drilling, river crossings, marine structures
and sea defences
Both conventional and single-point moorings for tankers
Finite element analysis of subsea equipment and finite difference analysis in
soils
Calculations for coated pipelines with regard to both stability and thermal
insulation
Design and construction of outfalls including investigation of primary and
secondary effluent dispersion patterns


650
Prior to joining Trevor Jee Associates, Alan has worked for over twenty years
experience in the design of oil, gas and water pipelines. He has also been involved
with the nuclear industry, in particular substantiating structures for the safety issues
associated with seismic events.

PROFILES

651

STUART JOYNSON
PIPELINE ENGINEER
B.Sc.(Hons) P.Eng.

Date of Birth: 18
th
February 1943
Education: Salford University
Academic Qualifications: Honours degree in Civil Engineering
ONC in Mechanical Engineering
Professional Qualifications: Registered Professional Engineer
Associate Member of Institution of Civil
Engineers
Member of Pipeline Industries Guild


Stuart Joynson is a Civil Engineer with more than 30 years of experience in the
construction of pipelines for the Offshore Oil & Gas Industry. He has been
extensively involved in the Engineering and Project Management of a wide selection
of projects both in the UK and overseas and has been presenting courses for Trevor
Jee Associates since 2001.


Stuart is currently working with Corus Construction and Industrial promoting the use
of various steel products in both the offshore and renewable energy industries. Prior
to this he was operating as an independent Consultant undertaking studies for a
number of major Offshore Contractors, Oil Companies and Trevor JeeAssociates.

Stuart's particular areas of expertise include :-
Offshore pipeline installation
Landfall construction
Flowline bundle fabrication and installation
Subsea trenching
Estuary crossings
Marine outfalls
Pipeline refurbishment
Decommissioning


652

Stuart has worked with Brown & Root and the Land & Marine companies. He has
been involved in:
Project engineering for offshore pipelines and marine terminals at various
locations around the world
Project management with responsibility for the design, fabrication and
installation of flowline bundles in the North Sea
Operational management including business development, identification of
suitable projects, tendering and contract negotiation

PROFILES

653

PAUL JOB
PIPELINE ENGINEER
MEng CEng MIMechE

Date of Birth: 13 March 1979
Education: Exeter College
University of Surrey
Academic Qualifications: Masters degree in Mechanical
Engineering
Engineers
Basic Offshore Safety Induction and
Emergency Training (BOSIET)

Paul Job joined Trevor Jee Associates in 2002. His main responsibilities in the
department are based around finite element analysis, design and CAD work for the
offshore oil and gas industry, and also presenting and writing training courses for
both the public and in-company. Other duties include studies for clients, which
commonly involve developing spreadsheets in MathCAD and Microsoft Excel and
writing technical reports.


Finite Element Analysis
Paul has worked on a number of FEA jobs since joining TJA, using both ABAQUS
and ANSYS. These include analyses as follows:
Riser analysis - investigating operational and earthquake loads of the risers
supported inside a concrete gravity base structure, to be used on the Sakhalin
project. This included a two-week placement based at Aker Kvaerners
offices in Oslo, Norway.
Parametric flexible pipeline analysis, to determine the effect of trenching on
the interaction of trawl gear in the North Sea.
Analysis of pipe pull, installing a pipeline in a pre-dredged trench using the
bottom-tow method
Parametric upheaval analysis on a flexible pipeline, to determine an
installation methodology to ensure the pipeline does not upheave during
hydrotest or operation.

654
Analysis of a hot-tap tie-in to a spoolpiece, to determine the stresses during
operation and the allowable hydrotest pressure
Analysis to prove a fabricated wye piece fit-for-purpose
Parametric thermal analysis of an insulated flexible pipeline

Other analysis software
Paul has recently been involved in a number of stability analyses using the
PRCI/AGA pipeline stability software package, including both flexible and rigid
pipelines. He has also attended training courses on using the marine dynamics
program Orcaflex for static and dynamic analysis of flexible pipeline and cable
systems in an offshore / marine environment, and also the computational fluid
dynamics package CFX.

FEED studies
Paul was recently involved in a FEED study, which included the steady state two
phase modelling of pipelines using Pipesim, and finite element analysis for upheaval
buckling and overtrawling of fishing gear.

Umbilical overview course
Paul wrote a one-day overview course on umbilical design, installation and operation
towards the end of 2004. Since then he has co-presented the in-house course to
Saipem, and it has now been added to the regular courses offered by TJA.

Training Courses
Paul has been presenting training courses since September 2003, both in-company
and to the public, including the following:
Subsea pipeline design (3 days)
Umbilical overview (1 day)
Offshore pipeline construction (3 days)
Subsea pipeline installation calculations (3 days)
Overview of pipeline engineering (3 days)

These courses have been in various locations around Europe and USA.

Clamp Connector Tool Design
Paul has worked on this project for the last three years, developing a tool to install
mechanical connectors on subsea pipelines using an ROV. This has included
developing the design from concept to a detailed design with fabrication drawings.
The tool has now been fabricated and is awaiting final testing.

QA System
Paul has upgraded TJAs Quality Assurance System, to ensure it is in compliance
with the new requirements of ISO 9001:2000.

Paul worked for Exxon Mobil for one year during his MEng degree course. He
worked for their Supply and Distribution Department, which dealt with the operation
of a multi-product onshore pipeline network, distributing oil and gas to storage
terminals in the UK. Whilst there, he completed two major projects, the first of
which was a study into improving the efficiency of the pumping operation on the
network. The second project involved the installation and implementation of a
condition monitoring system on the pumps, to monitor the condition of shaft bearings.
PROFILES

655

DAVID APPLEFORD
PIPELINE ENGINEER
MEng AMIMechE

Date of Birth: 15 May 1979
Education: Gordonstoun School
University of Bristol
Engineering
Professional Qualifications: Associate Member of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers
Basic Offshore Safety Induction and
Emergency Training (BOSIET)

David Appleford joined Trevor Jee Associates in 2003. His main responsibilities
include finite element analysis, performing studies and research projects for clients,
developing spreadsheets in MathCAD and Microsoft Excel and writing technical
reports. David is continuing to develop his skills in pipeline engineering with the aim
of achieving Chartered Engineer status. He has recently attained his Basic Offshore
Safety Induction and Emergency Training certificate and is keen to gain some
offshore experience on survey or pipelay vessels.

David has also attended an LRQA Internal QMS Auditor Course and is involved in
performing internal audits for Trevor Jee Associates. He is also involved with
developing a new TJA website.


Finite element analysis
David has worked on several FEA jobs since being trained by ABAQUS in August
2004. He has worked on beam, shell, solid and acoustic models including analysing
the vibration of subsea flow termination assemblies and an analysis to verify fitness-
for-purpose on fabricated wye pieces applicable to generic class 600 pipeline systems.

Pipeline Engineering Studies
David has been involved with over-trawling analysis and scale model testing of
subsea protective structures. This has included preparing and running scale model test
in a flume tank, calculating over-trawling and impact loads and performing studies
into types of fishing activity in various locations around the North Sea. David has

656
worked on a JIP on overtrawling large diameter pipelines which included
communication between the companies involved in the JIP and the fishing industry.

David has also worked on the development of a Microsoft Excel and Visual Basic
spreadsheet to analyse deepwater pipe-lay capabilities of pipelay vessels. He has also
been involved in writing various MathCAD calculation sheets.

Pipeline stability
David has been involved in a number of stability analyses using the PRCI/AGA
stability software package, including both flexible and rigid pipelines. In addition he
has done calculations on vortex-induced-vibrations and has performed a study on the
effectiveness of self-burial-spoilers in the Southern North Sea.

Training courses
Since joining Trevor Jee Associates David has attended the following TJA pipeline
engineering training courses:

Overview of Pipeline Engineering
Offshore Pipeline Construction
Pipeline Operations and Integrity Management
Subsea Pipeline Design

David has also been trained in using the finite element analysis package ABAQUS
and in using the marine dynamics program Orcaflex for static and dynamic analysis
of flexible pipeline and cable systems in an offshore / marine environment.

David has recently been involved in writing a half-day training course on the use of
BPs pipeline related Engineering Technical Practices.

Other experience at Trevor Jee Associates
David recently attended an LRQA Internal QMS Auditor Course and is now involved
in performing internal audits for Trevor Jee Associates. He is currently working on
upgrading TJAs Quality Documents.

David is also involved with developing a new TJA website.

Davids degree involved collaboration between Ford Motor Company and the
University of Bristol to develop a non-destructive testing system for use on car body
panels. David also spent three months on an internship with Procter and Gamble
analysing mechanical properties of polymers for use in manufacturing processes.

PROFILES

657

GRAHAM WILSON
GRADUATE ENGINEER
MEng AMIMechE

Date of Birth: 11th June 1981
Education:
Runshaw College
Lancaster University
Engineering
Professional Qualifications: Associate Member of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers

Graham Wilson joined Trevor Jee Associates in October 2004 as a Graduate
Engineer. Since then he has worked on a number of projects, mainly focussing on
engineering design and the creation of MathCAD calculation sheets. Graham has
started a structured training program to develop his skills in pipeline engineering
within TJA, aiming to achieve chartership with the IMechE through the MPDS
scheme.


Pipeline Engineering Studies
Graham has been involved in a number of pipeline engineering studies since joining
TJA in 2004. He has recently carried out the mathematical modelling of a pig and
liquid slug impact on a variety of riser bends using MathCAD and has also been
involved in the design of a test rig to analyse the fatigue effects of acoustic resonance
on a subsea structure. Graham has experience in the use of AutoCAD and used this
package for the design of the test rig components.

Pipeline stability
Graham has written a number of MathCAD sheets to analyse stabilisation
methodologies that can be applied to pipelines. These sheets cover the design and
placement of rock dumps and mattresses to stabilise pipelines, as well as the
determination of the force reductions on unstable pipelines due to trench shielding.


658
Training courses
Since joining Trevor Jee Associates Graham has attended the following TJA pipeline
engineering training courses:

Overview of Pipeline Engineering
Offshore Pipeline Construction

Other experience at Trevor Jee Associates
Graham recently completed an Orcaflex training Course and is also involved in the
development of the new TJA website.

ACRONYMS &
ABBREVIATIONS


660

ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS

661
+ve positive
-ve negative
C degree Celsius
F degree Fahrenheit
30D bend radius of 30 times the pipe diameter
3D three-dimensional
3rd Third
AC Alternating Current
AGA American Gas Association
AGI Above-Ground Installation
Al Aluminium
ALARP As Low As Reasonably Possible
ALS Accidental Limit State
ANSI American National Standards Institute
API American Petroleum Institute
approx. approximate
ASB Above SeaBed
ASD Allowable Stress Design
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
AVTUR Aviation Turbine (fuel)
Bar g Bar gauge (1 bar = 100 kN/m)
BAT Best Available Technology
bbl US oil barrel (1 bbl = 0.159 m)
BHP Brake Horse Power (1 BHP = 745.7 W)
BLEVE Boiling Liquid, Expanding Vapour, Explosion
BMP Best Management Practice
BOP Blow-Out Preventer
BP British Petroleum Ltd
bpd barrels per day
BPEO Best Practical Environmental Option
BS British Standard
C
2
H
4
Ethene (Ethylene)
C
2
H
6
Ethane
C
3
H
6
Propene (Propylene)
C
3
H
8
Propane
C
4
H
10
Butane or Isobutane
C
5
H
12
Pentane or Isopentane
C
6
H
5
CH
3
Toluene
C
6
H
6
Benzene
C
6
H
14
n-Hexane
C
10
H
8
Napthalene
CA Corrosion Allowance
CALM Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring
CAPS Cranfield Automated Pipe-welding System
CBM Conventional Buoy Mooring
CDT Controlled Depth Tow
CDTM Controlled Depth Tow Method
CDUs Crude oil Distillation Units
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CH
4
Methane

662
CHP Combined Heating and Power
CITHP Closed-In Tubing Head Pressure
Cl
2
Chlorine
CNS Central Nervous System
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO
2
Carbon Dioxide
COMAH Control Of Major Accident Hazards
CP Cathodic Protection or Code of Practice
cP Centipoise (1 cP = 1 x 10
-3
Pas)
CPF Central Processing Facitlity
CPT Cone Penetrometer Test
CRA Corrosion Resistant Alloy
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
cSt CentiStokes (1 cSt = 1 x 10
-6
m
2
/s)
CSO Coflexip Stena Offshore
CSOL Coflexip Stena Offshore Limited
CTE Coal -Tar Enamel
CTOD Crack Tip Opening Displacement
D/t Diameter to wall thickness (ratio)
DC Direct Current
DD Directional Drilling
dia, diam. diameter
DIN Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.V. (German
standards)
DMaC Diverless Maintained Cluster (connection system)
DnV Det Norske Veritas
DP Dynamic Positioning (vessel)
DPI Dye Penetrant Inspection
DRA Drag Reduction Agent
DSAW Double Submerged Arc Welding
DSV Diver Support Vessel
DTI Department of Trade and Industry
DWT Dead Weight Tonnage
ECA Engineering Criticality Assessment
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EMIT Examination, Monitoring, Inspection and Testing
EN Euronorm
EOR Enhanced Oil Recovery
EP Evacuation Plan
EPDM Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer
ERD Extended Reach Drilling
ERP Emergency Recovery Plan
ERW Electrical Resistance Welding
ESD Emergency Shut-Down
ESDV Emergency Shut-Down Valve
ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
ETAP Eastern Trough Area Project
ESV Emergency Shut-down Valve
FBE Fusion Bonded Epoxy
FEA Finite Element Analysis
FEED Front End Engineering Design
FEHM Fire and Explosion Hazard Management

663
FHM Fire Hazard Management
Fi Fi Fire Fighting
FLAGS Far north Associated Gas System
FLS Fatigue Limit State
FP Foam Pourers or FluoroProtein
FPS Forties Pipeline System
FPSI Forties Pipeline System and Infrastructure
FPSO Floating Production Storage and Offloading (facility)
FRSU Floating Regasification and Storage (unit for LNG)
FRP Fibre Reinforced Plastic
FSM Field Signature Measurement (or Method)
FSO Floating Storage and Offloading (facility)
ft foot (1 ft = 0.3048 m)
gal US US gallon (1 gal US = 3.785 litre)
GAEL Graben Area Export Line
GBS Gravity Based Structure
GCHPL Grangemouth Combined Heat and Power Limited
GEBCO GEneral Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans
GIS Geographic Information System
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding
GoM Gulf Of Mexico
GOR Gas Oil Ratio
GPR Ground Penetrating Radar
GPSS Government Pipeline and Storage System (UK)
GRP Glass-Reinforced Plastic
GSPU Glass Syntactic PolyUrethane
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
H
2
Hydrogen
H
2
O Water
H
2
S Hydrogen Sulphide
HAL Hiden Analytical Limited
HAT Highest Astronomic Tide
HAZ Heat Affected Zone
HAZAN HAZard ANalysis
HCl Hydrogen Chloride
HCV Hydrant Control Valve
HDD Horizontal Directional Drilling
HDPE High Density PolyEthylene (PE-HD)
He Helium
HEPC Hose End Pressure Coupling
HFI High Frequency Induction
HFW High Frequency Welding
HIC Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
HICC Hydrogen-Induced Corrosion Cracking
HIPPS High Integrity Pressure Protection System
HP High Pressure
HP/HT High Pressure/High Temperature
HSE Health and Safety Executive
ID Internal Diameter
IFC International Finance Corporation
in inch (1 in = 25.4 mm)
IP Institute of Petroleum or Inspection Plan
ISGOTT International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and

664
Terminals
ISO International Standards Organisation
JIP Joint Industry Project
JONSWAP JOint North Sea WAve Project
KP Kilometre Point (chainage in km)
LAFB Local Authority Fire Brigade
LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide
LCP Lack of Cross Penetration
LFS Lack of Fusion Surface
LFSS Lack of Fusion Subsurface
LHD Linear Heat Detection
LLDPE Linear Low Density PolyEthylene
LNG Liquid Natural Gas
LP Low Pressure
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
lpm Litres Per Minute
LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design
LRP Lead Replacement Petrol
M Monitors
MAOP Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure
MATIS Modular Advanced Tie-In System
max maximum
MDPE Medium Density PolyEthylene
MEG Mono Ethylene Glycol
MFL Magnetic Flux Leakage
MIG Metal Inert Gas (welding)
mil thousandth of an inch (1 mil = 25.4 m)
mile 1 mile = 1.609 km
min minimum or minute
MMA Manual Metal Arc (welding)
MMboe Million barrels of oil equivalent
MMscfpd Million standard cubic feet per day (gas flow)
MOL Main Oil Line
MP Medium Pressure
MPI Magnetic Particle Inspection
MPRE Military Pipeline Repair Equipment
MSL Mean Sea Level
N number
N
2
Nitrogen
NACE National Association of Chemical Engineers
Nd Neodymium
NDT Non-Destructive Testing
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NGL Natural Gas Liquid
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NH
3
Ammonia
NNF Normally No Flow
NPSH Net Positive Suction Head
NUI Normally Unattended Installation
OD Outer Diameter
OHTC Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
op. operating
OPA Oil and Pipelines Agency (UK)

665
OTDR Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry
PCR Pipeline Cost Reduction
PD Positive Displacement (flow meters)
PDF Probability Density Function
PDQ Production, Drilling and Quarters (platform areas)
PE PolyEthylene
PFP Passive Fire Prevention
PGD Permanent Ground Deformation
PIMS Pipeline Integrity Management System
PL Pipeline
PLEM PipeLine End Manifold
PP Polypropylene
PPA Pressure Point Analysis
PPE Personal Protection Equipment
PPF PolyPropylene Foam
ppm parts per million
psi pounds per square inch (1 psi = 0.069 bar)
PSV Pressure Safety Valve
PU PolyUrethane
PUF PolyUrethane Foam
QC/DC Quick Connect/Disconnect (coupling)
RAO Response Amplitude Operators
RD Relative Density
ROT Remotely Operated Tool
ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle
ROW Right Of Way
RP Reference Publication or Recovery Plan
RTU Remote Terminal Unit
SAC Special Area of Conservation
SAGE Scottish Area Gas Evacuation
SALM Single Anchor Leg Mooring
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
SAWL Submerged Arc Welding (Longitudinal seam)
SAWH Submerged Arc Welding (Helical seam)
SBM Single Buoy Mooring (See SPM)
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SCC Stress Corrosion Cracking
SCR Steel Catenary Riser
sec second
SFR Strategic Fuel Reserve
SG Specific Gravity
SIWP Shut-In Wellhead Pressure
SLS Serviceability Limit State
SMAW Submerged Metal Arc Welding
SMYS Specified Minimum Yield Stress
SPM Single Point Mooring (See SBM)
SPU Syntactic PolyUrethane
SRB Sulphuate Reducing Bacteria
SS Stainless Steel
SSC Sulphide Stress Cracking
SSIV SubSea Isolation Valve
SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest
TAPS Trans-Alaska Pipeline System
TARA TArtan Riser Access

666
TFHE Tactical Fuel Handling Equipment
Tg Glass transition temperature
Ti Titanium
TIG Tungsten Inert Gas (welding)
TLP Tethered or Tensioned Leg Platform
TMAW Tungsten Metal Arc Welding
TMS Tethered Managament System (for ROVs)
TOFD Time of Flight Diffration
TOM Total Oil Marine
TRB Through (or Three) Roller Bending
TRF Thermal Radiation Flux
U/C Undercut
UD Uni-directional
UI Ultrasonic Inspection
UK United Kingdom
UKCS United kingdom Continental Shelf
UKOOA United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association
ULS Ultimate Limit State
ULSD Ultra-Low Sulphur Diesel
UOE U-ing, O-ing and Expanding (method of pipe
manufacture)
USA United States of America
UT Ultrasonic Testing or Thickness (measurement)
UTS Ultimate Tensile Strength
V Vanadium or Volt
VIV Vortex-Induced Vibration
VP Vapour Pressure
X52, X65, X80 API pipe steel grades
YAG Yttrium Aluminium Garnet
P Change in pressure
eq
Equivalent Stress
h
Hoop Stress
l
Longitudinal Stress

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
& REFERENCES


668
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND REFERENCES

669
The following companies have kindly provided images, videos or help with this
course. Their help is gratefully acknowledged.

ABANDONRITE
Enviro Services Nabors Industries Inc
3000, 500 - 4th Avenue S.W.
Calgary
Alberta T2P 2V6
Tel +1 (403) 508-7900
Fax: +1 (403) 508-7909
Email info@abandonrite.com
www.abandonrite.com
ACERGY MS LTD
(Formerly Stolt Offshore)
(MATIS Modular Advanced Tie-In
System and Talon Trencher)
Dolphin House
Windmill Road
Sunbury-on-Thames
Middlesex UK
TW16 7HT
Tel: +44 1932 773700
Fax: +44 1932 773701
www.acergy-group.com
ABAQUS FINITE ELEMENT
SOFTWARE
See Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen
ADAS ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT SERVICES
Woodthorne
Wergs Road
Wolverhampton WV6 8TQ
Tel: +44 (1902) 754 190
Fax: +44 (1902) 743 602
www.adas.co.uk
ADVANTICA TECHNOLOGIES
LTD
(Study for Shah Deniz in Azerbaij
with BP and Transco)
Ashby Road
Loughborough
Leicester LE11 3GR
Tel: +44 (1509) 282 000
Fax: +44 (1509) 283 131
E-mail: service@advanticatech.com
www.advanticatech.com
ALLSEAS GROUP SA
(Solitaire and Lorelay Laybarges,
Digging Donald & Trenchsetter)
81, Route de la Coula
CH 1618, Chatel-st. Denis
SWITZERLAND
Tel: +41 (21) 9489191
Fax: +41 (21) 9489141
E-mail: info@allsea.com
www.allseas.com
ALYESKA PIPELINE SERVICE
COMPANY
(Trans-Alaska Pipeline System, or
TAPS)
1835 South Bragaw St
MS-542
Anchorage
Alaska 99512
www.alyeska-pipe.com
ARCELOR RPS - Sheet Piling
66, rue de Luxembourg
L-4009 Esch/Alzette (Luxembourg)
Tel: (+352) 5313-3105
Fax: (+352) 5313-3290
E-mail: sheet-piling@arcelor.com
www.sheet-piling.arcelor.com
APPLIED INSPECTION LTD
(NDT)
Applied House
Old Colliery Lane
Holmewood
Chesterfield
Derbyshire S42 5RB
Tel: +44 (1246) 851864
Fax: +44 (1246) 852243
E-mail: info@appliedinspection.co.uk
www.appliedinspection.co.uk
AQUADEVICE
Yokota Manufacturing Co Ltd.
1-3-6 Minami Yoshijima
Naka-ku
Hiroshima
Japan
Tel: +81 82-241-8672
Fax: +81 82-504-1115
www.aquadevice.com

670
ARC MACHINES, INC
(Automatic pipe welding equipment)
10500 Orbital Way
Pacoima
CA 91331
USA
www.arcmachines.com
ARCELOR RPS UK LTD
(Sheet steel piling)
Queensway Business Centre
Dunlop Way
Scunthorpe
North Lincolnshire, UK
DN16 3RN
Tel: +44 (870) 770 8057
Fax: +44 (870) 770 8059
E-mail: sheet-piling@arcelor.com
www.sheet-piling.arcelor.com
ASHTON GATE ENGINEERING
LTD
(Hot pipe bending, fabrication welding
and tube rolling)
Baynton Road
Ashton
Bristol BS3 2EB
Tel +44 (117) 966 1337
Fax +44 (117) 953 8496
Email info@ashtongateeng.co.uk
www.ashtongateeng.co.uk
ASPLUNDH TREE EXPERT CO
708 Blair Mill Road
Willow Grove
PA 19090
Tel +1-800-248-TREE (8733)
www.asplundh.com
BIG INCH MARINE SYSTEMS
INC
A Subsidiary of Stolt Offshore Inc
(Flexiforge connector)
Northwoods Industrial Park West
12235 FM 529
Houston
Texas 77041-2806
Tel: +1 (713) 896 1501
Fax: +1 (713) 466 1283
E-mail: connectors@big-inch.com
www.big-inch.com
BOSKALIS OFFSHORE BV
Rosmolenweg 20, PO Box 43
3350 AA Papendrecht
The Netherlands
Tel: +31 78 696 9011
Fax: +31 78 696 9571
E-mail: royal@boskalis.nl
www.boskalis.nl
or
WESTMINSTER DREDGING
COMPANY
Westminster House
Crompton Way
Segensworth West
Fareham
Hants PO15 5SS
Tel: +44 1489 885 933
Fax: +44 1489 578 588
Email: wdco@boskalis.co.uk
www.boskalis.co.uk
BJ PROCESS AND PIPELINE
SERVICES
Beeston Royds Industrial Estate
Geldered Road
Leeds LS12 6EY
Tel: +44 (113) 251 1300
Fax: +44 (113) 251 1391
www.bjservices.com
BP PLC
(Study for Shah Deniz in Azerbaij
with Advantica and Transco)
1 St James's Square
London SW1Y 4PD
Tel: +44 (207) 496 4000
Fax: +44 (207) 496 4630
www.bp.com
BREDERO PRICE COATERS
LTD
(BPCL)
Bredero House
Imperial Dock
Leith,
Edinburgh EH6 7DT
Tel: +44 (131) 553-9640
Fax: +44 (131) 553-9699
www.bredero-shaw.com

671
BRITISH GAS
(Walney Channel crossing Case
Study)
See Transco
R J BROWN
See Coflexip
CCP (CORROSION CONTROL
PRODUCTS COMPANY) AND
PACTIV CORPORATION
(Rockguard foam pipe coating)
1480 West Artesia Blvd
Gardena
CA 90248-3215
Tel: +1 (310) 532-9314
Fax: +1 (310) 532-1472
E-mail: ccp@ccpcc.com
www.farwst.com/ccp
CLOCK SPRING COMPANY, LP
(Pipeline repair)
14107 Interdrive West
Houston, TX.77032
Tel: +1 (281)-590-8491
Fax: +1 (281) 590 9528
E-mail: sales@clockspring.com
www.clockspring.com

COBHAM FLUID SYSTEMS
Holland Way
Blandford Forum
Dorset
UK DT11 7BJ
Tel: +44 (0) 1258 486600
Fax: +44 (0) 1258 486601
sales@cobhamfluidsystems.com
www.cobhamfluidsystems .com

COFLEXIP SA
See Technip-Coflexip
CONOCO FLOW IMPROVER
SOLUTIONS
(LiquidPower DRA, Texaco Basin
Case Study and Heidrun drilling riser)
Conoco Center
600 North Dairy Ashford
Houston, TX 77079
Tel: +1 (281) 293-1000
Fax: +1 (281) 293-1440
www.conoco.com
CORRIDOR PIPELINE LTD
(Case study Bruderheim Alberta)
Springwood Business Centre
Suite 14, 363 Sioux Road
Sherwood Park
Alberta T8A 4W7
Tel: +1 (780) 416 2446
Fax: +1 (780) 416 2447
E-mail: info@corridorpipeline.com
www.corridorpipeline.com
CORROSION CONTROL
PRODUCTS COMPANY
See CCP
CORROCEAN
Teglgaarden
Hornebergvn 7
Trondheim
Norway
Tel: +47 73 82 5000
Fax: +47 73 82 5050
CORROSION COST
CC Technologies
6141 Avery Road
Dublin
Ohio 43016-8761
Tel: +1 (614) 761 1214
Fax: +1 (614)-761-1633
E-mail: info@cctlabs.com
www.corrosioncost.com
CORTEC CORPORATION
(Corrosion inhibitor)
4119 White Bear Parkway
St. Paul, MN 55110
Tel: +1 (651) 429 1100
Fax: +1 (651) 429 1122
www.cortecvci.com
CORUS
(Steel & Hydrotherm)
30 Millbank
London SW1P 4WY
Tel: +44 (20) 7717 4444
Fax: +44 (20) 7717 4455
www.corusgroup.com

672
CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY
Cranfield
Bedfordshire MK43 OAL
Tel: +44 (1234) 750 111
Fax: +44 (1234) 750 875
www.cranfield.ac.uk

CRC-EVANS PIPELINE
INTERNATIONAL INC
(Automatic welding, pipe installation
equipment and PIH)
11601 N. Houston-Rosslyn Rd
Houston TX 77086
Tel: +1 (281) 999 8920
Fax: +1 (281) 999 8724
or
AUTOMATIC WELDING
The Pipeline Centre
Farrington Rd
Rossendale Road Industrial Estate
Burnley BB11 5SW
Tel: +44 (1282) 415 323
Fax: +44 (1282) 457 890
E-mail: autoweld@pih.co.uk
CRP GROUP LIMITED
(Now part of the Trelleborg Group)
Stanley Way
Stanley
Skelmersdale
Lancashire
WN8 8EA
England
Tel: +44 (0)1695 712000
Fax: +44 (0)1695 712111
www.crpgroup.com
CSO, CSOL
See Coflexip
CTC MARINE PROJECTS LTD
(Trenching equipment)
Coniscliffe House
Coniscliffe Road
Darlington
County Durham
DL3 7EE
England
Tel: +44 (0) 1325 390500
Fax: +44 (0) 1325 390555
www.ctcmarine.com
DIGGING DONALD AND
SUPPORT VESSEL,
TRENCHSETTER
(Mechanical subsea trencher)
See Allseas
DIXON MARINE CONSULTING
LTD
11 White Hart Street
Aylsham
Norwich
Norfolk NR11 6HG
Tel: +44 (1263) 733 530
Fax: +44 (1263) 733 730
E-mail: mail@dmcltd.com
www.dmcltd.com
DSND SUBSEA (DET
SONDENJFELDS NORSKE
DAMPSKIBSSELSKAB)
(Vessels)
Serviceboks 506
Bark Silasvei 5
4898 Grimstad,
Norway
Tel.: +47 37 29 55 00
Fax: +47 37 29 55 45
www.dsnd.no
EMC EUROPEAN MARINE
CONTRACTORS LTD
(Now part of Eni Saipem group)
Saipem House
Station Road
Motspur Park
Surrey KT3 6JJ
Tel: +44 (0) 20 - 8296 5171
Fax: +44 (0) 20 - 8296 5104
E-mail: business.development@e-m-
c.co.uk
www.e-m-c.co.uk
EPRIS INTERNATIONAL LTD
(Emergency pipeline repair and
isolation system)
Middlefield Road
Middlefield Industrial Estate
Falkirk FK2 9HU
Tel: +44 (1324) 623 682
Fax: +44 (1324) 632 570
E-mail:
eprisinternational@btconnect.com
www.eprisinternational.com

673
ESSO PETROLEUM
(Chad-Camaroon pipeline and
UK multi-product lines)
ExxonMobil House
Ermyn Way
Leatherhead KT22 8UX
Tel: +44 (1372) 222000
www.esso.com
EUROPIPE
Formerstrae 49
40878 Ratingen, Germany
Tel: +49 (2102) 857 0
Fax +49 (2102) 857 285
E-mail: europipe@europipe.com
www.europipe.com
FINE TUBES LTD
Estover Works
Plymouth
Devon, UK, PL6 7LG
Tel: +44 (1752) 735 851
Fax +44 (1752) 733 301
E-mail: smccoy@fine-tubes.co.uk
www.finetubes.com
FLEXCOM & FREECOM 3D
OFFSHORE SOFTWARE
See MCS International
FMC KONGSBERG OFFSHORE
(UTIS - Universal Tie-In System)
(An FMC Corporation Subsidiary)
PO Box 1012
N-3601 Kongsberg, Norway
Tel: +47 32 73 98 98
Fax: +47 32 73 96 60
E-mail: subsea.systems@fmcti.com
www.fmckongsbergsubsea.com
FMC MEASUREMENT
SOLUTIONS
(Oil and gas flowmeters)
6677 Gessner
Suite 315
Houston
TX 77040
Tel: +1 (713) 510 6970
E-mail:
measurement.solutions@fmcti.com
www.fmcmeasurementsolutions.com
FORCE TECHNOLOGY
Park Alle 345
DK-2605
Brondby
Denmark
Tel. +45 4326-7000
Fax +45 4326-7011
www.force.dk
FOSTER WHEELER
PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT
(Kadanwari Field Case Study)
Shinfield Park
Reading
Berkshire RG2 9FW
Tel: +44-(118) 913 1234
Fax: +44-(118) 9132333
www.fwc.com
FOUNDOCEAN
(Formerly SeaMark Systems Ltd)
Ledger House
Forest Green Road
Fifield
Maidenhead, Berks
SL6 2NR
Tel: +44-(0) 1628 788614
Fax: +44-(0) 1628 788604
www.foundocean.com
www.seamarksystems.com
FUEL SUBSEA ENGINEERING
(DMaC umbilical connector tool)
(Now part of Intec
Engineering/Heerema)
Bourne House
Lansbury Estate
102 Lower Guildford Road
Knaphill
Surrey GU21 2EP
Tel +44 (1483) 795300
Fax +44 (1483) 795315
www.fuelsubsea.com
FUGRO NV
Veurse Achterweg 10
P.O. Box 41
2260 AA Leidschendam
Tel: +31 (70) 311 1422
Fax: +31 (70) 320 2703
E-mail: holding@fugro.nl
www.fugro.nl

674
GEO-GRAF, INC
(GPR gas pipeline leak detection)
511 Beechwood Drive
Kennett Square
PA 19348
Tel: +1 800 690 3745
Fax: +1 (610) 444 3191
E-mail: info@geo-graf.com
www.geo-graf.com
GEOLINE APS
Sage Profile
(Subsea pipeline analysis)
Vinagervej 11, 1
2800 Kgs, Lyngby
Denmark
Tel: +45 45875855
Fax: +45 45875855
E-mail: info@geoline.dk
www.geoline.dk
GETMAPPING PLC
(Aerial photography)
The Old Toy Factory
10 The Business Park
Jackson Street
Coalville LE67 3NR
Tel: +44 (1530) 835 685
www.getmapping.com
GUSTO MSC INC and
IHC GUSTO BV
(Now part of SBM Offshore group)
See SBM
www.gusto.nl
HDI HORIZONTAL DRILLING
INTERNATIONAL INC
(Colville River HDD case study)
3430 Rogerdale Road
Houston TX 77042-5016
Tel: 713-785-3369
Fax: 713-785-4094
www.hdiinc.com
HEAMAN PIPE BENDING INC
6030 - 30 Street
Edmonton
Alberta
Canada
Tel: +1 (780) 440 1955
Fax: +1 (780) 468 6117
E-mail: info@heaman.com
www.heaman.com
HEAT TRACE LTD
(Pipeline heat tracing)
Cromwell Road
Bredbury
Stockport
Cheshire SK6 2RF
Tel: +44 (161) 430 8333
Fax: +44 (161) 430 8654
Email: webmail@heat-trace.com
www.heat-trace.ltd.uk
HEEREMA MARINE
CONTRACTORS NEDERLAND
BV
(Balder laybarge)
Vondellaan 47
2332 AA Leiden
The Netherlands
Tel: +31 (71) 579 9000
Fax: +31 (71) 579 9099
E-mail: info.hmc@heerema.com
www.heerema.com
HIBBITT, KARLSSON &
SORENSEN INC
(Abaqus finite element software)
1080 Main Street
Pawtucket
RI 02860-4847
Tel: +1 (401) 727 4200
Fax: +1 (401) 727 4208
E-mail: info@abaqus.com
www.hks.com
HYDRATITE SWEENEY
(Morgrip subsea connectors)
Bentley Road South
Darlaston
West Midlands WS10 8LQ
Tel: +44 (121) 505 0600
Fax: +44 (121) 505 0800
E-mail: enquiry@hydratight.com
www.hydratightsweeney.com

675
INTERLIANCE LLC.
Associates for the California Energy
Commission
(Gulf Coast to California Pipeline
Case Study)
151 Kalmus Drive, Suite K-2
Costa Mesa
California 92614
Tel: +1 (714) 540 8889
Fax: +1 (714) 540 6113
E-mail: info@interliance.com
www.interliance.com
ITAS
(Pigging and isolation plugs)
Tankbtveien 1
4056 Tananger
Norway
Tel: +47-51 69 08 00
Fax: +47-51 69 08 01
E-mail: itas@itas-no.com
www.itas-no.com
ITP INDUSTRIAL THERMO
POLYMERS LTD
(Pipeline insulation)
2316 Delaware Avenue
Suite 216
Buffalo
NY 14216
Fax: +1 (905) 846 0363
Tel: +1 800 387 3847
www.tundrafoam.com
JME LTD
(NDT equipment)
Crown House
Crown Street West
Lowestoft
Suffolk NR32 1SG
Tel: +44 (1502) 500 969
Fax: +44 (1502) 511 932
E-mail: info@jme.co.uk
www.jme.co.uk
KONGSBERG
(UTIS - Universal Tie-In System)
See FMC Kongsberg
LAND AND MARINE PROJECT
ENGINEERING LTD
(Directional drilling, landfalls and
bundles)
(Formerly part of Costain / Smit
Groups)
Dock Road North
Bromborough
Wirral
Merseyside
CH62 4LN
Tel: +44 (151) 641 5600
Fax: +44 (151) 641 9990
www.landandmarine.com
LASMO PLC
Now part of Eni Saipem Group
(Kadanwari Field Case Study)
101 Bishopsgate
London
EC2M 3XH
Tel: +44 (20) 7892 9000
Fax: +44 (20) 7892 9292
www.lasmo.com
LEIGH PAINTS
Tower Works
Kestor Street
Bolton BL2 2AL
Tel: +44 (1204) 521 771
Fax: +44 (1204) 382 115
E-mail: enquiries@leighspaints.co.uk
www.wjleigh.co.uk
LIFTEX CORPORATION
(Pipeline lifting slings)
7266 Wynnpark
Houston, TX 77008
Tel: +1 (800) 863 0900
Fax: +1 (713) 868 3234
www.liftex.com
LINCO EQUIPMENT INC
(Mobile soil sampling)
I-39 & U.S. 24 West
El Paso
IL 61738
Tel: +1 (309) 527 6455
Fax: +1 (309) 527 6600
E-mail: info@linco.com
www.linco.com

676
LGSTR RR A/S
(Pre-insulated pipelines, pipe-in-pipe)
Lgstr Rr A/S
Danmarksvej 11
DK-9670 Lgstr
Tel.: +45 99 66 10 00
Fax: +45 99 66 11 80
E-mail: info@logstor.com
www.logstor.com
MCCONNELL DOWELL
(Natural Gas Line Australia)
Tally Ho Business Park
16 Lakeside Drive
Burwood East
Victoria 3151
Australia
Tel: + 61 3 8805 5200
Fax: +61 3 8805 5376
www.mcconnelldowell.com
MACCAFERRI LTD
(Gabions and geotextiles,
Severn River Bank - Case Study)
7400 The Quorum
Oxford Business Park
Garsington Road
Oxford OX4 2JL
Tel: +44 (1865) 770 555
Fax: +44 (1865) 774 550
www.maccaferri.co.uk
MAT AND TIMBER SERVICES
Division of Sarum Hardwood
Structures Ltd
124-126 Stockbridge Road
Winchester
Hampshire SO22 6RN
Tel.: +44 (1962) 87 75 00
Fax: +44 (1962) 84 22 92
E-mail: sarumhs@interalpha.co.uk
www.grootlemmer.com/Groot-
NL/Mats.htm
MATIS MODULAR ADVANCED
TIE-IN SYSTEM
See Stolt Comex Seaway
MCS INTERNATIONAL
(Flexcom & Freecom 3D offshore
software)
Lismoyle House
Merchants Road
Galway
Ireland
Tel: +353 (91) 566 455
Fax: +353 (91) 566 457
E-mail: info@mcs-international.com
www.mcs-international.co.uk
MERLIN CONNECTORS
See Oil States Industries
MILLER ELECTRIC
MANUFACTURING CO
(Welding equipment)
1635 W Spencer St
PO Box 1079
Appleton WI 54912-1079
Tel: +1 (920) 734 9821
www.millerwelds.com
MOLESEYE LTD
(Records of underground services)
Washington Court
Washington Lane
Edinburgh EH11 2HA
www.moleseye.com
MORGRIP
(Underwater connector)
See Hydratight Sweeney
NKT FLEXIBLES I/S
(Flexible subsea pipelines)
Priorparken 510
DK-2605 Broendby
Denmark
Tel: +45 43 48 30 00
Fax: +45 43 48 30 10
E-mail: nkt.flexibles@nkt.dk
www.nktflexibles.com
NORFRA A/S
(Dunkirk landfall)
Strandveien 106
N-9292 Troms
Norway
Tel: +47 77 60 24 00
Fax: +47 77 60 24 25
E-mail: postmaster@norfra.no
www.norfra.no

677
OIL STATES INDUSTRIES LTD
(Merlin pipe connectors)
7701 South Cooper Street
Arlington, TX 76001
Tel: +1 817 548 4200
Fax. +1 817 548 4250
E-mail: headqtrs@oilstates.com
www.oilstates.com
OLYMPIC PIPELINE COMPANY
(Whatcom Creek /
Bellingham Gas Pipeline Case Study)
2319 Lind Ave SW
Renton
WA 98055
Tel: +1 (425) 235 7736
www.olypipeline.com
ORCINA LTD
(Orcaflex software)
Daltongate
Ulverston
Cumbria LA12 7AJ
Tel: +44 1229 584742
Fax: +44 1229 587191
E-mail: enquiry@orcina.com
www.orcina.com
PACTIV CORPORATION
See CCP
PETROBRAS
Maracal Adhemar de Queiroz
EDISE
Avenida Republica do Chile 65
Centro
Rio de Janeiro RJ
Brasil
Tel: +55 (21) 2534 4477
Fax: +55 (21) 2534 2288
www.petrobras.com.br
PII PIPELINE SOLUTIONS
Atley Way
North Nelson Industrial Estate
Cramlington
Northumberland NE23 1WW
Tel: +44 191 247 3486
Fax: +44 191 247 3419
www.piigroup.com
PIPE INDUCTION HEAT LTD
(PIH)
See CRC-Evans
PSI PLUGGING SPECIALISTS
INTERNATIONAL AS
(Smartplug)
Fabrikkveien 15
PO Box 8011
Postterminalen
N-4068 Stavanger
Norway
Tel: +47 51 44 32 40
Fax: +47 51 44 32 41
www.plugging.com
RAHCO INTERNATIONAL INC
(Onshore pipeline construction
vehicle)
8700 N Crestline
Spokane WA 99217
Tel: +1 (509) 467 0770
Fax: +1 (509) 466 0212
E-mail: rahco@rahco.com
www.rahco.com
RENDA MARINE INC
(Marshland dragline and dredging)
17128 Market Street
Channelview
TX 77530
Tel: +1 (281) 864 9552
Fax: (281) 864 9554
E-mail mail@rendamarine.com
www.rendamarine.com
R J BROWN
See Coflexip
ROCKWATER
(CDT)
See Haliburton Subsea now Subsea
7
ROYAL DUTCH SHELL GROUP
See Shell
RSK ENVIRONMENT LTD
Spring Lodge
172 Chester Road
Helsby
Cheshire WA6 0AR
Tel: +44 (1928) 726 006
Fax: +44 (1928) 725 633
www.rsk.co.uk

678
RUPTURE PIN TECHNOLOGY
(Pressure safety systems ESDVs)
8230 SW 8th Street
Oklahoma City
OK 73128
Tel: +1 (405) 789 1884
Fax: +1 (405) 789 1942
www.rupturepin.com
SAGE PROFILE
(Subsea pipeline analysis)
See GeoLine
SASOL GAS LTD
(Mozambique river crossing case
study)
32 Hill Street
Ferndale
Randburg 2125
South Africa
Tel: +27 (11) 889 7600
Fax: +27 (11) 889 7956
www.sasol.com
SBM OFFSHORE NV
(Single buoy moorings, FSOs and
FPSOs)
5 Route de Fribourg
PO Box 152 CH
1723 Marly
Switzerland
Tel: + 41 26 439 99 20
Fax: + 41 26 439 99 39
www.sbmoffshore.com
www.singlebuoy.com
SEAEYE MARINE LTD
Sister company to Hydrovision
(Panther ROV)
Seaeye House
Lower Quay Road
Fareham
Hampshire PO16 0RQ
Tel: +44 (1329) 289 000
Fax: +44 (1329) 289 001
E-mail: rovs@seaeye.com
www.seaeye.com
SEAMARK SYSTEMS LTD
(concrete mattresses)
See Foundocean
www.seamarksystems.com
SEAWAY FALCON
(Reel barge)
See Stolt Comex
SERIMER DASA
(Automated pipe welding)
Serimer Dasa
8 rue Mercier
77290 Mitry-Mory
France
Tel: +33 1 60 21 67 00
Fax: +33 1 60 21 67 01
www.serimerdasa.com
SHELL EXPLORATION &
PRODUCTION
(Nigerian Pipeline sabotage)
Shell Centre
London SE1 7NA
Tel: +44 (20) 7934 1234
Fax +44 (20) 7934 8060
www.shell.com
SIERRA PACIFIC CORP
(Infrared thermography)
284 Sea Rim Ave
Las Vegas
NV 89148
Tel: +1 (702) 369-3966
Fax: +1 (702) 369-397
www.x20.org
SMIT INTERNATIONALE N.V.
(CDT see also Land and Marine)
Zalmstraat 1
3016 DS Rotterdam
The Netherlands
Tel: +31 (10) 454 9911
Fax: +31 (10) 454 9298
www.smit.com
SONAR RESEARCH &
DEVELOPMENT LTD
See SRD
SPM INSTRUMENT AB
(Condition monitoring systems)
Box 4
645 21 Strngns
Sweden
Tel: +46 152 225 00
Fax: +46 152 150 75
E-mail: info@spminstrument.se
www.spminstrument.se

679
SRD SONAR RESEARCH &
DEVELOPMENT LTD
(Underwater video)
Grovehill Industrial Estate,
Beverley
East Yorkshire HU17 0LF
Tel: +44 (1482) 869 559
Fax: +44 (1482) 872 184
E-mail: enquiries@srduk.com
www.srduk.com
STARTRAK PIGGING
TECHNOLOGIES
(Pigging and river crossing
inspections)
27235 Highway Blvd
Katy
TX 77493
Tel: +1 (281) 599 7557
Fax: +1 (281) 578 9181
E-Mail: startrak@starpig.com
www.starpig.com
STATOIL ASA
N-4035 Stavanger
Norway
Tel: +47 51 99 00 00
Fax: +47 51 99 00 50
www.statoil.com
STOLT COMEX SEAWAY MS
LTD
See Acergy
SUBSEA 7
(Formed from Halliburton Subsea and
the subsea activities of DSND)
Stoneywood Park
Dyce
Aberdeen AB21 7DZ
Tel: +44 (1224) 722 877
Fax: +44 (1224) 795 459
www.subsea7.com
TALON SUBSEA TRENCHER
See Stolt Comex Seaway
TAPS TRANS-ALASKA
PIPELINE SYSTEM
See Alyeska
TDW
See Williamson
TECHNIP-COFLEXIP
(Apache, Pliant wave and S risers)
22 rue Jean Mor
BP 7 76580 Le Trait
France
Tel +33 2 95 05 50 00
Fax +33 2 95 37 49 60
www.technipcoflexip.com
TECHNICAL TOOLBOXES INC
(TTI)
(Software products for the energy
industry)
Technical Toolboxes
P. O. Box 980550
Houston, TX
77098-0550
THRUST SHORE
See Trench Shore
TIG TITANIUM INFORMATION
GROUP
Unit B2
Dudley Central Trading Estate
Shaw Road
Dudley
West Midlands DY2 8TP
Tel: +44 (1384) 254563
Fax: +44 (1384) 258381
www.titaniuminfogroup.co.uk
TOTAL DUNBAR
(Insulated pipe connector)
See Total
TOTAL EXPLORATION UK PLC
(formally TotalFinaElf)
2 place de la Coupole
La Dfense 6
92400 Courbevoie
France
Tel: +33 (1 47) 44 45 46
Fax: +33 (1 47) 44 78 78
www.totalfinaelf.com
TTI
See Technical Toolboxes

680
TRANSCANADA
TransCanada Tower
450 - 1 Street SW
Calgary
Alberta T2P 5H1
Tel: +1 (403) 920 2000
Fax: +1 (403) 920 2200
www.transcanada.com
TRANSCO
(Gas transmission pipelines for British
Gas)
(Study for Shah Deniz in Azerbaij,
with BP and Advantica)
31 Homer Road
Solihull
West Midlands B91 3LT
Tel: +44 (121) 626 4431
www.transco.uk.com
TRELLEBORG CRP AB
P.O. Box 153
SE-231 22 Trelleborg
Sweden
Street address: Henry Dunkers gata 2
Tel: +46 410 670 00
Fax: +46 410 427 63
www.trelleborg.com
TRENCH SHORE LTD
(Landline trench support products)
Unit 22
Amalgamated Industrial Park
Cheddington Lane
Long Marston
Tring
Herts HP23 4QR
Tel: +44 (1296) 661 622
Fax: +44 (1296) 668 234
E-mail: info@trenchshore.com
www.trenchshore.com
TRENCOR INC
(Landline trenching machines)
1400 East Highway 26
Grapevine
TX 76051
Tel: +1 (817) 424 1968
Fax: +1 (817) 421-9485
www.trencor.com
TRIAD WESTERN
CONSTRUCTORS INC
(Auger boring, pipe ramming and
HDD)
512 North Broadway
PO Box 850
Cortez
Colorado 81321
Tel: +1 (970) 565 4257
Fax: +1 (970) 565 1057
E-mail: twc@fone.net
www.triadwestern.com
VERMEER MANUFACTURING
COMPANY
(Rock trenchers and HDD)
1210 Vermeer Road
Pella
Iowa 50219
Tel: +1 (641) 628 2000
Fax: +1 (641) 628 4283
www.vermeer.com
VIA+ VISITLESS INTEGRITY
ASSESSMENT LTD
(Satellite earth condition monitoring)
Lacey Court
344 12th Ave SW
Calgary
Alberta T2R 0H2
Tel: +1 (403) 265-8420
Fax: +1 (403) 243-0042
E-mail: info@via-plus.net
www.via-plus.net
T D WILLIAMSON INC
(Shortstopp connection)
6801 S 65th W Ave
Tulsa
Ohio
Tel: +1 (918) 447 5100
www.tdwilliamson.com
WWW.X20.ORG
(infrared thermography)
See Sierra Pacific Corp
X100 STUDIES
See Shell Global Solutions,
TransCanada, Advantica, Serimer
Dasa, Cranfield University and BP


681
Additional Help

Additional help was provided by individuals:

Cyril Bishop
(Pipe freezing and hot tapping)
Herman Duff
(Malaysian pipeline)
Mike Mosedale
(Cartoonist)
Frank Gibbons
(Marsh and wetlands)

References

Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in the United States, G.H. Koch, M.P.H.
Brongers, N.G. Thompson, Y.P. Virmani, and J.H. Payer, Study by CC Technologies,
Report FHWA-RD-01-156, September 2001.

Oman India Pipeline: Development of Design Methods for Hydrostatic Collapse in
Deep Water, C Tam, P Raven, R Robinson, T Stensgaard, A M Al-Sharif & R
Preston, Offshore Pipeline Technology Conference (OPT96) Amsterdam, 15-16
February.

Liquefaction hazards and their effects on buried pipelines, T D ORourke and P A
Lane (1989), Tech Rep NCEER-89-0007, National Center for Earthquake
Engineering Research, Buffalo, NY, 1 February.

Web Sites
The following web contact addresses may also be of use:

API
American Petroleum Institute
www.api.org
ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
www.amse.org
ANSI
American National Standards Institute
www.ansi.org
BS
British Standards Institute
www.bsi-global.com
DTI
Department of Trade and Industry
www.dti.gov.uk

682
DNV
Det Norske Veritas
www.dnv.com
GIS RESOURCE
University of Edinburgh
(Geographic Information System)
www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/giswww.html
HSE
UK Health and Safety Executive
(Offshore Safety Reports and
Contact Research Reports)
www.hse.gov.uk
WORKSAFE VICTORIA
Australian State of Victoria
Health and Safety Accident Prevention Arm
(Good international contacts worldwide)
www.workcover.vic.gov.au
IP
Institute of Petroleum
www.petroleum.co.uk
ISO
International Organisation for Standardization
www.iso.org
NACE - THE CORROSION SOCIETY
National Association of Corrosion Engineers
www.nace.org
OS
Ordnance Survey (of Great Britain)
www.ordsvy.gov.uk
SHEET PILING SPECIFICATIONS
Search engine for sheet piling specifications
www.pilespecs.com
DEAL DATA REGISTRY FOR UK OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS
Data and information about offshore oil and gas exploration and production for the
UK
www.ukdeal.co.uk
USDA US DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
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685

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