AIAA-2006-8037

Computational Modeling Advances Supporting Hypersonic

Scramjet Design
Sanford M. Dash
1
, Ronald J . Ungewitter.
2
, J ames D. Ott
3
, and J ohn L. Papp
4
Combustion Research and Flow Technology, Inc., Pipersville, PA, 18947
This paper discusses computational modeling advances which have resulted in an
improved predictive capability for analyzing hypersonic scramjet propulsive flowpaths and
for supporting design. Validation has been performed using full-scale model data obtained
in the LENS shock-tunnel facility at duplicated flight conditions, with careful attention paid
to forebody transitional effects which have been found to have a first-order effect on
mixing/combustion and thus on overall performance. Modeling advances discussed include
those for transitional turbulence and for scalar fluctuations. Our hypersonic engineering-
oriented transitional modeling work solves pdes for both onset and intermittency and
accounts for noise levels in the free stream and surface temperature effects permitting its
application in bridging the gap between full-scale ground tests data and flight designs. Our
scalar fluctuation modeling work solves pdes for both energy and species variance (and
associated dissipation rates) and is used to extract local values of turbulent Prandtl and
Schmidt numbers which significantly improve solutions in the combustor from those
obtained using constant, user-prescribed values of these transport parameters. Model
calibration has used LES data sets since scalar fluctuation data in a hypersonic, scramjet
environment is not readily available. Also discussed is genetic-based, multi-variate design
optimization methodology that has been used to optimize fuel injector design (spacing, cant-
angle, etc.).
I. Introduction
The authors and coworkers have been developing advanced computational models to support the US Army in the
design of a new, hypersonic missile that is rocket boosted and scramjet propelled, using hydrogen as the primary
fuel. There are many complex flowpath design issues that are being addressed which include dealing with
transitional turbulence, shock/boundary layer interactions, fuel/air mixing in a highly compressible environment, and
ignition/flameholding for operation at higher altitudes. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has played a major role
in overall design and scramjet component optimization, in conjunction with full-scale experiments performed in the
Army LENS shock tunnel facility operated by Holden and coworkers at CUBRC
1
. CFD has proven invaluable in:
interpreting scramjet data; in providing performance parameters not available from testing (i.e. combustion
efficiency); and, in shedding insight into the complex physics occurring along the propulsive flowpath which is
often highly nonlinear (i.e. small changes can produce large effects). Via the use of massively parallel hardware
platforms and CFD codes configured to perform efficiently on these platforms, end-to-end RANS solutions with
resolved grids can now be obtained in several days. This is extremely encouraging since we are now implementing
advanced thermo-chemical and turbulence/ transitional models, and hence, are integrating a very large system of
coupled partial differential equations with widely disparate length/time-scales. A description of recent computational
modeling advances made to improve our ability to support hypersonic scramjet design is the focus of this paper.
End-to-end propulsive flowpath CFD capabilities have been operational for a number of years and they have
been evaluated via comparisons with full-scale data at duplicated flight conditions for varied hypersonic scramjet
propulsive systems (for NASP, Hyper-X, etc). The routine analysis of scramjet propulsive flowpaths has been
made possible by efficient operation of CFD codes on massively parallel architectures (utilizing 256-512 or more
CPUs) combined with the use of advanced grid adaptation techniques
2
and varied enhancements such as dynamic

1
President & Chief Scientist, 6210 Kellers Church Rd., Associate Fellow AIAA.
2
Senior Research Scientist, 6210 Kellers Church Rd., Member AIAA.
3
Research Scientist, 6210 Kellers Church Rd., Member AIAA.
1
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

4
Research Scientist, 6210 Kellers Church Rd., Member AIAA.
AIAA-2006-8037
load balancing to improve performance
3
. However, even for hydrogen-fueled hypersonic scramjet systems,
substantive modeling advances have been required to address the complex physics/thermochemistry associated with
transitional turbulence, shock/boundary layer interactions, fuel injection, and turbulent combustion. For inward
turning scramjet designs of current interest, where the geometry can be quite complex, use of multi-element UNS
numerics for the end-to-end problem has been required, and the detailed gridding of trips and multiple fuel injectors
can require numerous levels of grid adaptation.
Our experience in analyzing varied data sets indicates that many intricate details need to be addressed to
replicate what is observed from the shock tunnel data. For typical hypersonic operating conditions, the velocity of
the airstream in the combustor does not differ substantially from the velocity of the injected fuel (expanded to the
local pressure), so that the rate of fuel/air mixing is strongly dependent on upstream boundary layer
turbulent/transitional characteristics, as well as on the shock pattern in the combustor. This is why inclusion of the
complete propulsive flowpath (with forebody) is so important in evaluating performance, and why direct or semi-
direct tests are inadequate since they do not provide appropriate inflow conditions. The very simple study shown in
Figure 1 illustrates this important point. For conditions typifying those in a Mach 10 combustor, it is seen that
inclusion of an inflow turbulent boundary layer enhances combustion efficiency over that achieved with a uniform
(slug) entrance profile.

Product Species at X=10
Slug
inflow
Body
B.L.
Profile
Mixing Efficiency of Flush Injector
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
X
M
ix
in
g
E
f
f
ic
ie
n
c
y
Real (BL & Shock)
Slug
Body B.L.
Schematic of unit
problem with Fuel iso-
surfaces and cutting
plane result of product
Real ( B.L. &
Shock)
Product Species at X=10
Slug
inflow
Body
B.L.
Profile
Mixing Efficiency of Flush Injector
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
X
M
ix
in
g
E
f
f
ic
ie
n
c
y
Real (BL & Shock)
Slug
Body B.L.
Schematic of unit
problem with Fuel iso-
surfaces and cutting
plane result of product
Real ( B.L. &
Shock)

Figure 1. CFD Unit Problem Performed to Illustrate the Effect of Inflow Conditions on Mixing.

The path we are taking to advance computational modeling to a level that produces better overall consistency
with full scale data will be summarized in this paper. Part of this work entails using advanced/research models in
our CFD codes rather than the basic models we had been using for routine applications, but still working at an
engineering level using a RANS framework. Referring to the survey article of Dash
3
, our advances in transitional
modeling
4
, turbulent scalar transport
, 56
and design optimization
7
are of particular interest and will be discussed.
The transitional modeling work accounts for facility-induced noise levels in the flow, and has been demonstrated to
predict the differences in behavior between flight, and ground tests where such noise levels can be significant. The
turbulent scalar transport work entails solving PDEs for energy and species variance (and corresponding dissipation
rates) which are used to provide local values of turbulent Prandtl and Schmidt numbers, greatly improving
predictions for fuel/air mixing. These same scalar variances are used in assumed PDF turbulent combustion models
8
employed for analyzing scramjet flowpaths under conditions of marginal self-ignition.

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AIAA-2006-8037
Of significant importance to design, is the automated genetic based optimization methodology developed, which
has recently been extended to fuel injector optimization
3
. For a given fuel injector geometry and fixed
stoichiometry, this optimization procedure is being used to determine the optimal number of injectors (or spacing),
the injection angle and the off-set. Optimized fuel injector patterns for different configurations will be discussed.
The full automation of this procedure can yield very valuable design information in a timely manner using a block of
dedicated processors. Using the advanced scalar transport modeling greatly improves the reliability of this process
as assessed by comparisons with detailed LES simulations
9
.
In this paper we will first describe the CFD codes used for scramjet design and component optimization. This
will be followed by a description of the modeling used in the codes, including an overview of how we are
implementing large eddy simulation to calibrate the advanced RANS turbulence models being used. Some aspects
of scramjet component evaluation will be discussed as well as the approach being used for design optimization using
an evolutionary algorithm.
II. Codes Utilized
An overview of the CFD and grid adaptation codes utilized for scramjet calculations are provided in Table 1. For
conventional
rectangular designs
(NASP, Hyper-X), a
hybrid approach is
utilized,
10
with the
structured grid
numerics in the
CRAFT CFD

code
applied for most of the
flowfield, but with the
UNS numerics of the
CRUNCH CFD

code
required where fine-
scale features must be
resolved, such as in the
vicinity of transition
trips on the forebody
and in the fuel injector
regions of the
combustor. Several levels of grid
adaptation are often required for which the
CRISP CFD

code
2
is utilized. Figure 2
shows product formation contours at
several stations in the elliptical combustor
of a generic inward-turning scramjet,
where fuel is injected from the walls using
flush, angled injectors.
Table 1. Codes Utilized for Scramjet Applications
The combustion efficiency, obtained
with the original and adapted UNS grids
indicates that unless the grid is adapted, we
overestimate this efficiency (due to
numerical diffusion effects). Since there is
only half-plane symmetry, the fuel/air
mixing details for over 10 injectors must be
resolved. Using conventional, cell-splitting
adaptation can lead to a large increase in
the number of nodes (see Table in Figure 2
we go from 7M to 13.5M cells in Pass 1
which did provide a grid resolved solution
since Pass 2 results were essentially

Figure 2. Grid adaption effects on combustion efficiency and grid size.
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AIAA-2006-8037
identical). We have been working on hybrid cell splitting/cell stretching adaptation concepts which remedy this
issue but still require further development to resolve tangling issues
11
.
While conventional load balancing (same number of cells per domain) using domain decomposition with MPI is
effective for aerodynamic problems, it is problematic for scramjet combustor problems where varied zones in the
flow have differing work loads. Using iterative matrix-split chemical kinetic techniques, we may be performing 100
iterations per CFD time-step in fuel injection regions (where ignition reactions have small time-scales), and minimal
iterations in other regions. Using dynamic load balancing, based on work per node,
3
has led to effective load
balancing in such situations and is being supplemented by use of tabulated procedures (ISAT, ANN, etc.). The fuel
injection region of combustors can be very CPU intensive, particularly for problems where ignition kinetics is
required, requiring 10-15M cells and solving 20 or more coupled pdes (5 gas dynamic, 9 or more chemical species
and 8 turbulent/ transition model equations see next section). Analysis of this region takes about of the overall
CPU time (including grid adaptation) and full end-to-end runs on 256-512 processors are routinely performed in
several days.
III. Models Utilized
The modeling utilized in performing scramjet simulations is summarized in Table 2. Basic models are used for
preliminary design and to
expedite early stages of
design optimization.
Advanced models are used
for interpreting experimental
data and for refining designs.
Transitional models, which
solve pdes for onset location
and for intermittency (3D
blending from laminar to
turbulent flow), have been
calibrated for hypersonic
flows and compared with
varied shock tunnel data sets
4
. These models account for
the fluctuation noise levels in
test facilities (prescribed as
inflow condition) and are
extremely useful in
suggesting trip location modifications in going from full-scale testing to a quieter flight environment. Analyzing the
transitional flow downstream of trips using the intermittency model is still developmental and has required some
local modifications to the source terms used in the low Re turbulence models. Referring to Figure 3, it has proven
important to both resolve the grid surrounding individual trip elements (Figure 3a), and to modify the turbulent
production levels in the immediate vicinity of the trip to produce results consistent with the measured heat transfer
levels behind the trip (Figure 3b). As per the discussion in the introduction, doing this properly has strong
implications on mixing/combustion and overall performance.
Table 2. Basic and advanced models used for scramjet applications

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
0 10 20 30 40 50
Test Data
CFD, Trips
CFD, TripswBoost

(a) Multi-Element UNS grid (b) Localized Pressure gradient correction to low Re
Turbulence Model
Figure 3. Modeling Trip Effects on Transitional Behavior.
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AIAA-2006-8037

Our transitional modeling work is focused on being able to use CFD to bridge the gap in designing a flight
vehicle, using full-scale ground test data as the primary means of transitional model calibration and validation. The
transitional model has already demonstrated the ability to deal with differences in noise levels and wall
temperatures, and we are making very good progress in treating pressure gradient effects associated with nose
bluntness and mild compressions.
Scalar fluctuation modeling is playing a very dominant role in obtaining accurate values for fuel/air mixing. The
most recent form of the turbulent pdes implemented
, - 13 15
solve for energy and species variance and related
dissipation rates, and are used to obtain local values of turbulent Prandtl (Pr
t
) and Schmidt (Sc
t
) numbers, governing
thermal and species turbulent diffusion. Most CFD codes require specification of constant values for these
parameters but their values in fuel injection regions can vary substantially as shown by the Sc
t
contours in Figure 4
Calibration and validation of these models suffers from lack of scalar fluctuation data in high speed flows and LES
solutions of unit fuel injection problems
9
are providing supportive data. Figure 5 shows one such LES solution with
contours of time-averaged mean flow (u, T, Y
H2
) and corresponding RMS fluctuations exhibited. This case
represented H2 angled fuel injection into a high speed airstream emulating the environment in a Mach 10
combustor.

Figure 4. Schmidt number contours fuel injection in high speed stream comparisons.


Figure 5. LES simulation of fuel injection flowfield.
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AIAA-2006-8037
While RANS comparisons with the LES results for mean and fluctuating velocity and temperature were
quite promising, species comparisons were not as favorable, with RANS species fluctuation levels significantly
underpredicting those of the LES calculation (see Ref. 9). An inspection of these results indicated that species
fluctuations in the RANS solution were too low and not showing any dependence on pressure gradients, as was
evident in the velocity/temperature fluctuations in the RANS and LES solutions, and in the species fluctuations in
the LES solution. A pressure gradient correction term has been added to the species fluctuation equation that greatly
improves the comparisons as shown in Figures 10-12. Figure 6 compares species fluctuation contours at several
axial stations downstream of the injector with the original formulation (as used in Ref. 9), and, with the new
formulation with the pressure correction.

x =1
Orig. p

x =3
Orig. p

x =5
Orig. p

x =7
Orig. p


Figure 6. Comparison of RANS species fluctuation levels with original and new pressure-gradient corrected
formulation.

It is seen that fluctuation levels are significantly higher using this correction, and that the contours show
more spread. In Figure 7, we compare fluctuation levels using the pressure correction with the LES results. Both
fluctuation levels and overall spread are now in reasonable accord with the LES results. Finally, we show in Figure
8, Schmidt number contours obtained using the original and new pressure-corrected formulation, with the new
formulation yielding contours that appear more realistic and are in reasonable accord with the Prandtl number
contours (see Ref.9). We are currently analyzing several fuel/air mixing data sets with this improved model and will
be presenting these comparisons in an upcoming paper
16
.


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AIAA-2006-8037
x =1
LES p

x =3
LES p

x =5
LES p

x =7
LES p


Figure 7. Comparison of RANS pressure-gradient corrected species fluctuations with LES results.
x =1
Orig. p

x =3
Orig. p

x =5
Orig. p

x =7
Orig. p



Figure 8. Schmidt number comparisons original vs. pressure-gradient corrected formulation.
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AIAA-2006-8037
IV. Studies Supporting System Design
Earlier studies had been performed for rectangular scramjet designs, with interdigitated flush and wedge
injectors (see J ANNAF Combustion Science Meeting papers presented over the past several years), to assess the
ability of the CFD codes of Table 1 to reproduce data obtained in varied LENS shock tunnel tests performed at full-
scale and for duplicated flight conditions. These studies exhibited the need to develop advanced transitional and
scalar fluctuation models, and to use grid adaptation in transitional trip and fuel injector regions. The conclusion
from these varied comparative studies was that CFD could provide very reasonable comparisons with data under
conditions where strong burning occurred without ignition aids. Substantive DoD computer (AMRDEC and HPCC)
resources were used to support a substantive number of end-to-end comparative studies and were key to the progress
made in generating accurate solutions in a timely manner.
Of most recent interest in our Army scramjet work are inward-turning concepts, which utilize a sugar-scoop
inlet which compresses the flow in a shock-free manner into an elliptical combustor with flush, angled injectors.
These concepts have been tested in the Army/CUBRC LENS facility with an inward-turning conceptual flowpath
shown in Figure 9,
17
. Such propulsive flowpaths are now being integrated into hypersonic missile designs and
numerous CFD calculations have been performed in support of systems studies. This flowpath is not straightforward
to calculate and UNS numerics are beingused for the entire end-to-end calculation. While on-design inlet
performance is generally quite good, achieving good combustion efficiency in a reasonable length is a design
concern. A basic issue is that of fuel injector design and spacing with studies for fixed fuel/air stoichiometry and
injector size shown in Figure 10. Using a smaller number of injectors provides good penetration but air passes
between injectors, while using a larger number of injectors results in poor penetration and unburnt air in the central
core. In this preliminary study, ten injectors worked best but our solution is far from optimal.

Figure 9. Inward turning model and flowpath.


Figure 10. Circular combustor injector design study.
V. Fuel Injector Optimization
To optimize fuel injector patterns/conditions to yield the highest combustion efficiency for a fixed combustor
length, multi-variate genetic-based optimization
7
is being used, with a schematic of the GUI-driven framework
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AIAA-2006-8037
implemented shown in Figure 11. The genetic optimization procedure has been coupled to the CRUNCH CFD

code and the grid generation package, GRIDGEN. The methodology was chosen because the search procedure is
inherently parallel and has worked well in a number of earlier multi-variant design applications. Figure 12 shows the
fuel injector optimization performed for a rectangular combustor with upper and lower interdigitated, flush fuel
injectors. Parameter space included spacing, cant angle and off-set with the fuel/air ratio (=1.2) and injector diameter
kept constant. Each case was performed on 64 processors, with 5 cases running simultaneously and 6 design levels
performed to date yielding a close-to-optimal solution.

Figure 11. GUI Driven automated optimization of CFD problems with several variables, constraints and
objectives with complex design landscapes.


Figure 12. Fuel injector optimization study.
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AIAA-2006-8037
VI. Conclusion
This paper has discussed computational modeling advances which we have found to be needed to reproduce
hypersonic scramjet propulsive flowpath data sets obtained with full-scale models at duplicated flight conditions in
the LENS shock-tunnel facility. Transitional modeling and trip design has been an area of major concern, and the
well-calibrated hypersonic engineering model being utilized is showing great promise for use in transitioning from
ground test to flight, since it includes effects of noise levels and wall temperatures, which are the principal
differences in these two environments. In view of the marked sensitivity of mixing/combustion to inflow (shock and
transitional) characteristics (as discussed in the introduction), the role and utility of subscale (ground or flight)
and/or direct/semi-direct ground tests in supporting practical flowpath design needs to be more carefully examined.
We have found that the user-specified selection of constant turbulent Prandtl and Schmidt numbers poses a
major uncertainty in the prediction of mixing/combustion efficiency, with predictions most often requiring the
tuning of these values (and possibly using zonal strategies) to match varied data sets. Inclusion of scalar
fluctuation models which predict these transport parameters removes this uncertainty and is providing more
consistent agreement with varied data sets in a fully-predictive manner.
Design optimization has been focused on optimizing fuel injector patterns and operational characteristics. This
multi-variate process is CPU intensive since each design case requires a bare-minimum of 64 CPUs and we
would like to run 5-10 cases simultaneously, for 5-10 design levels(25-100 3D calculations). Efficiency
enhancements to the CFD such as dynamic load balancing and use of chemical-kinetic tabulated procedures are
helping, with other enhancements now in a developmental state.
Substantive design-oriented developmental work is now in progress that includes:
1. trip design/optimization (including fluidic concepts that can pre-condition the fuel);
2. transpiration modeling (supported by LENS shock-tunnel tests);
3. examination of alternate fuel concepts to reduce H
2
volumetric requirements; and,
4. integration of inward-turning propulsive flowpath designs with vehicle concepts for varied mission
objectives.
This developmental work will be discussed in upcoming papers.
Acknowledgments
The work described in this paper has been primarily supported by several U.S. Army Research, Development,
and Engineering Center (USARDECOM) programs monitored by Dr. Billy J . Walker, AMSRD-AMR-SS. The
authors acknowledge contributions made by: Billy J . Walker (USARDECOM) and Dr. Michael Holden (CUBRC) in
interpreting varied data sets; by Dr. Chandrasekhar Kannepalli (CRAFT Tech) in performing the LES calculations
used to calibrate the scalar-fluctuation models; and by Drs. Kevin W. Brinkman and William H. Calhoon, J r.
(CRAFT Tech), in their continued support for applying the RANS scalar-fluctuation models.
References
1
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2
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3
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4
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7
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8
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Modeling For Rocket Plumes, 28th EPTS J ANNAF Meeting, San Diego, CA, Nov. 1-5, 2004.
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9
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10
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Lauderdale, FL, J uly 11-14, 2004.
11
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Reacting Flows, CRAFT Tech Final Report No.: CRAFTR-12/2005.013 (C236), 28 December 2005.
12
Papp, J .L. and Dash, S.M., Turbulence Model Unification and Assessment for High-Speed Aeropropulsive
Flows, AIAA Paper No. 2001-0880, 39
th
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13
Brinckman, K., Calhoon, W.H., J r., Mattick, S.J ., Tomes, J ., and Dash, S.M., Scalar Variance Model Validation for High-
Speed Variable Composition Flows AIAA Paper No. AIAA-2006-0715, 44
th
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14
Calhoon, W.H., J r., Brinckman, K., Tomes, J ., Mattick, S. and Dash, S.M., Scalar Fluctuation and Transport Modeling for
Application to High Speed Reacting Flows AIAA Paper No. AIAA-2006-1452, 44
th
Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit,
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15
Brinckman, K. W., Calhoon, W.H., J r., and Dash, S.M., Scalar Fluctuation Modeling for High-Speed
Aeropropulsive Flows, to be published, AIAA Journal, 2007.
16
Mattick, S.J., Calhoon, W.H., J r., Brinckman, K.W., Ott, J .D., and Dash, S.M., Improvements in Analyzing Scramjet Fuel
Injection Problems Using Scalar Fluctuation Modeling Abstract submitted to 45
th
Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit,
Reno, NV, J an. 8-11, 2007.
17
Walker, S. H., Rodgers, F.C. and Esposita, A.L., Hypersonic Collaborative Australia/United States Experiment
(HYCAUSE) AIAA Paper No. AIAA 2005-3254, AIAA/CIRA 13
th
International Space Planes and Hypersonic Systems and
Technologies, Capua, Italy, May 16-20, 2005.

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