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Particle size fractions

The physical and chemical properties of soil are strongly influenced by the particle size distribution of soil
particles. Although the particle size distribution is a continuum, it is conveniently broken down into size classes.
Particle sizes range from less than 0.002 mm (e.g. clay) to greater than 2 mm (e.g. fine gravel). The latter
value is where a division is made in grading of soil particles.
This division is achieved by passing a soil sample through a sieve with 2-mm diameter holes. The sample is
said to be fine-earthed if it passes through the sieve. The material is then described using terms such as clay,
silt or sand.
Conversely, the material which is retained on the sieve (i.e. >2 mm) is called the course fraction. In this case
the material is described using terms such as gravel, cobbles, stones or boulders.

In Australia the particle sizes of the fine-earthed fraction can be quantitatively defined (in mm) as follows;
Sand 0.02-2 mm in diameter,
Silt 0.002-0.02 mm in diameter, and
Clay <0.002 mm in diameter.
The particle size fractions of the fine-earthed fraction (i.e. clay silt and sand) control the properties and
behaviour of soil. This is because they have the greatest surface area in soil and as such are chemically and
biologically the most active components in soil. It is said that 1 kg of soil can contain 1020 individual particles
and which have a combined surface area of approximately 75 hectares (i.e. 75 x 100 x 100 m).
Another reason why these particle size fractions control the properties and behaviour of soil is because they
each impart their own character.
Property Clay Silt Sand
Size range (mm) <0.002 0.002-0.02 0.02-2
Size range (mm) <2 2-20 20-2,000
Observation Electron microscope Light microscope Naked eye
Dominant minerals Secondary Primary and
secondary
Primary
Attraction of particles High Intermediate Low
Surface area High-very high Low-medium Very low
Water holding capacity High Medium-high Low
Aearation Poor Medium Good
Compactability High Medium Low
pH buffering capacity High Medium Low
Element and nutrient
retention
High Medium Low
Susceptibility to wind erosion Low Medium Moderate
(esp. fine sand)
Susceptibility to water
erosion
Depends on degree of
aggregation
High Low
(unless fine
sand)
Consistency when wet Sticky, malleable Smooth Loose, gritty
Consistency when dry Hard clods Powdery some clods Very loose, gritty

The reason for this is that each particle size fraction is comprised of soil particles with distinct mineralogy.
Sand and most of the silt sized particles are composed of primary silicate minerals and quartz. Conversely,
over half of the clay sized particles are composed mostly of secondary silicate minerals and other secondary
minerals.
Clay
The particle size range for the clay fraction is less than 0.002 mm (i.e. fine clay) with particles less than 0.0002
mm considered to be fine clay. Owing to their size, clay particles have an enormous capcaity to absorb water
and hold plant nutrients.

The clay fraction contains micas, secondary silicate minerals (e.g. kaolin, smectite, illite) and other secondary
minerals such as the sesquioxides (e.g. iron and aluminum hydrous-oxides).
Each of these minerals impart very different characteristics to the soil in which they are found. This includes, a
profiles capacity to shrink and swell, make water available to plants and overall ability to retain soil nutrients
and buffer changes in soil pH.
The type of clay mineral found in a given soil profile is dictated mostly by the soil forming factors of parent
material and climate. With respect to climate, silicate or alluminosilicate clays (i.e. O, Si and Al) are primarily
located in mid-latitudes, whilst sesquioxides or hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum are found in tropic zones.
In clay rich soil, pore spaces are very small, so water and air movement can be significantly decreased.
However, when clay becomes wet it may swell and via the combined actions of plant roots and biotic activity
these particles may cohere or stick together into soil structural units called peds.
Clay rich soil can readilly be identified in the field as it is sticky and resists squeezing in your hand when wet.
Silt
The particle size distribution of the silt fraction ranges from more than 0.002 to 0.02 mm. For the most part, this
particle size range contains a similar suite of silicate minerals to that of sand. As such, silt is essentially
microsand.

However, these medium sized fine-earth particles generally have a greater ability to hold water within the
smaller void spaces that exist between indivdual silt sized particles. In addition, silt has a greater capacity to
store nutrients for plant use.
The ability of silt to hold more nutrients is attributable to the fact that many silt sized particles are primary
minerals. Owing to their smaller size and large surface area, these primary silt-sized minerals readilly weather
and in the process release elements required by plants.
Another by-product of weathering is the transformation of the primary minerals (i.e. silt sized particles) into clay
size particles and secondary silicate minerals. These secondary silicate minerals (e.g. kaolin, smectite, illite)
have a greater water storing and nutrient holding capacity.
The size and latent fertility of silt sized particles, are the main reasons why silt is an ideal soil for growing
crops. Silt in the soil makes it smooth or floury to the touch.
Sand
The particle size distribution of the sand fraction ranges from more than 0.02 mm to 0.2 mm for fine sand and
greater than 0.2 mm to 2.0 mm for coarse sand. The latter value is where a division is made in the grading of
soil particles.

The size of individual sand grains varies depending on how long they are exposed to weathering. Generally
they are angular in shape and as a consequence they tend to fit together rather closely in the natural state.
The coarsest sand particles may contain several minerals. However, the major mineral is quartz, which
composed of silica and oxygen (SiO2). Individual sand grains, therefore, do not exhibit much surface activity
(i.e. cation exchange and/or adsorption of water and gases).
There are three major consequences to the relatively inert nature of sand grains. In the first instance, sand
particles are considered noncohesive and hence will not stick together or adhere to other soil particles.
Secondly, they can hold little water, so soil textures dominated by sand (e.g. Loamy Sand) will be susceptible
to drought conditions. Thirdly, sand particles have a low capacity to hold plant nutrients and large amounts of
fertiliser will need to be supplied to sandy textured soil profiles.
Sand in soil makes it gritty to the touch with the individual particles generally visible to the naked eye. Owing to
the relatively large size of sand particles and the fact there are few forces of attraction between individual
grains, sand particles are loose packing in soil.
Owing to the loose packing nature of sand grains, large-sized voids exist between them. This is advantageous
as these pores will readilly allow water and air entry into the soil. However, water can pass easily through a
sandy soil profile. That is, sandy textured soil (i.e. Sand, Loamy sand) is highly susceptible to excessive deep
drainage. This can be particularly problematic in irrigated areas.
Soil Texture
Soil texture is the relative proportion of the various soil particle size fractions in soil. A soil texture class is
defined as a range of particle size distributions with similar behavior and management needs.
Soil texture is commonly determined in the field by assessing the behaviour of a small handful of soil when
moistened and kneaded into a ball. This is known as a bolus. The bolus is then pressed out between the
thumb and forefinger. The bolus is assessed in terms of coherence, feel and length of ribbon that can be
produced from it in this process. The rationale for doing this is that differing proportions of the various particle
sizes (i.e. clay, silt and sand) of the fine-earth fraction confer a different feel to the soil.
Based on feel of the soil and the assessment of the bolus using various qualitative descriptors, a soil sample
can be classified into a texture class. For example, a soil sample which can be formed into a long ribbon of
approximately 50-75 mm and has the following qualitative properties; is coherent, has a plastic feel and fine to
medium sand can be felt and heard, would be considered to belong to the Sandy Clay soil texture class.
The relationship between the percentage of the various particle size fractions, in terms of the relative
proportion of each present in a given soil sample, can be presented on a ternary plot. This is known as thesoil
texture triangle. It was developed to graphically display any combination of particle size fractions common to a
given texture class.
The heavy lines delineate the soil texture classes which include; clay, sandy clay, silty clay, clay loam, silty clay
loam, sandy clay loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy loam, loamy sand, and sand.
In the field soil texture class determination can be affected by mineralogy, organic matter, oxides, calcium and
magnesium carbonates, base saturation and cation dominance levels and presence of cementing agents.
In order to confirm the classification a more robust method for determining particle size fractions is employed in
the laboratory. In the laboratory a more robust method for determining particle size fractions can be employed.
Generally, chemical dispersion and mechanical analysis is undertaken.
Generally, chemical dispersion and mechanical analysis is undertaken using a process known as particle size
analysis. This includes; chemical dispersion of material by suitable adjustment of the chemical environment
and mechanical agitation causing disruption of aggregates to leave mineral fraction as individual particles;
sedimentation involves the determination of the concentration of the two finer size fractions (i.e. clay and silt) to
be determined after given periods of settling; decantation of these two finer fractions in order to leave the two
sand fractions (again assuming Stokes Law); and sieving of the sand into a fine- and coarse-fractions.
Once the percentages of the various fine-earth particle size fractions have been determined in the laboratory,
the Texture can be used to determine the soil texture class name. Each corner of the triangle represents 100
% of a size fraction: sand, silt and clay.

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