Computer Basics

What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it until the information
is needed, processes the information according to the instructions provided by the user, and
finally returns the results to the user. The computer can store and manipulate large quantities
of data at very high speed, but a computer cannot think. A computer makes decisions based
on simple comparisons such as one number being larger than another. Although the computer
can help solve a tremendous variety of problems, it is simply a machine. It cannot solve
problems on its own.
History of Computers
Since civilizations began, many of the advances made by science and technology have
depended upon the ability to process large amounts of data and perform comple
mathematical calculations. !or thousands of years, mathematicians, scientists and
businessmen have searched for computing machines that could perform calculations and
analyze data quickly and efficiently. "ne such device was the abacus.
The abacus was an important counting machine in ancient #abylon, $hina, and throughout
%urope where it was used until the late middle ages. It was followed by a series of
improvements in mechanical counting machines that led up to the development of accurate
mechanical adding machines in the &'()*s. These machines used a complicated assortment
of gears and levers to perform the calculations but they were far to slow to be of much use to
scientists. Also, a machine capable of making simple decisions such as which number is
larger was needed. A machine capable of making decisions is called a computer.
The first computer like machine was the +ark I developed by a team from I#+ and ,arvard
-niversity. It used mechanical telephone relays to store information and it processed data
entered on punch cards. This machine was not a true computer since it could not make
decisions.
In .une &'/(, work began on the world0s first electronic computer. It was built at the
-niversity of 1ennsylvania as a secret military pro2ect during 3orld 3ar II and was to be
used to calculate the tra2ectory of artillery shells. It covered &4)) square feet and weighed ()
tons. The pro2ect was not completed until &'/5 but the effort was not wasted. In one of its
first demonstrations, the computer solved a problem in 6) seconds that took a team of
mathematicians three days. This machine was a vast improvement over the mechanical
calculating machines of the past because it used vacuum tubes instead of relay switches. It
contained over &7,))) of these tubes, which were the same type tubes used in radios at that
time.

The invention of the transistor made smaller and less epensive computers possible.
Although computers shrank in size, they were still huge by today*s standards. Another
innovation to computers in the 5)*s was storing data on tape instead of punch cards. This
gave computers the ability to store and retrieve data quickly and reliably.
Classification of Computers
i. Mainframe Computers
ii. Minicomputers
iii. Microcomputers
iv. Supercomputers
+ainframe computers are very large, often filling an entire room. They can store enormous
of information, can perform many tasks at the same time, can communicate with many users
at the same time, and are very epensive. . The price of a mainframe computer frequently
runs into the millions of dollars. +ainframe computers usually have many terminals
connected to them. These terminals look like small computers but they are only devices used
to send and receive information from the actual computer using wires. Terminals can be
located in the same room with the mainframe computer, but they can also be in different
rooms, buildings, or cities. 8arge businesses, government agencies, and universities usually
use this type of computer.
+inicomputers are much smaller than mainframe computers and they are also much less
epensive. The cost of these computers can vary from a few thousand dollars to several
hundred thousand dollars. They possess most of the features found on mainframe computers,
but on a more limited scale. They can still have many terminals, but not as many as the
mainframes. They can store a tremendous amount of information, but again usually not as
much as the mainframe. +edium and small businesses typically use these computers.
+icrocomputers are the types of computers we are using in your classes at !loyd $ollege.
These computers are usually divided into desktop models and laptop models. They are
terribly limited in what they can do when compared to the larger models discussed above
because they can only be used by one person at a time, they are much slower than the larger
computers, and they can not store nearly as much information, but they are ecellent when
used in small businesses, homes, and school classrooms. These computers are inepensive
and easy to use. They have become an indispensable part of modern life.
Computer Tasks
i. Input
ii. Storage
iii. 1rocessing
iv. "utput
3hen a computer is asked to do a 2ob, it handles the task in a very special way.
&. It accepts the information from the user. This is called input.
6. It stored the information until it is ready for use. The computer has memory chips, which
are designed to hold information until it is needed.
(. It processes the information. The computer has an electronic brain called the $entral
1rocessing -nit, which is responsible for processing all data and instructions given to the
computer.
/. It then returns the processed information to the user. This is called output.
%very computer has special parts to do each of the 2obs listed above. 3hether it is a
multimillion dollar mainframe or a thousand dollar personal computer, it has the following
four components, Input, +emory, $entral 1rocessing, and "utput.
The central processing unit 9$1-: is the electronic brain of the computer. The $1- in a
personal computer is usually a single chip. It organizes and carries out instructions that come
from either the user or from the software. The processor is made up of many components,
but two of them are worth mentioning at this point. These are the arithmetic and logic unit
and the control unit. The control unit controls the electronic flow of information around the
computer. The arithmetic and logic unit, A8-, is responsible for mathematical calculations
and logical comparisons.
The processor is plugged into the computer*s motherboard. The motherboard is a rigid
rectangular card containing the circuitry that connects the processor and all the other
components that make up your personal computer. In most personal computers, some of the
components are attached directly to the motherboard and some are housed on their own small
circuit boards that plug into the epansion slots built into the motherboard.
Input Devices
A computer would be useless without some way for you to interact with it because the
machine must be able to receive your instructions and deliver the results of these instructions
to you. Input devices accept instructions and data from you the user. Some popular input
devices are listed below.
;eyboard
+ouse
Scanner
+icrophone
$<=>"+
.oystick
Memory
A personal computer must have a means of storing information 9data: and instructions so that
it can perform processing tasks on the data. 1ersonal computers have two types of memory.
These are discussed below.
>ead "nly +emory 9>"+:
>"+ is a small area of permanent memory that provides startup instructions when the
computer is turned on. ?ou can not store any data in >"+. The instructions in >"+ are set
by the manufacturer and cannot be changed by the user. The last instruction in >"+ directs
the computer to load the operating system.
%very computer needs an operating system. This is a special computer program that must be
loaded into memory as soon as the computer is turned on. Its purpose is to translate your
instructions in %nglish into #inary so that the computer can understand your instructions.
The operating system also translates the results generated by your computer into %nglish
when it is finished so that we can understand and use the results. The operating system
comes with a computer.
>andom Access +emory 9>A+:
This is the area of memory where data and program instructions are stored while the
computer is in operation. This is temporary memory. @"T%A The data stored in RAM is
lost forever when the power is turned off. !or this reason it is very important that you save
your work before turning off your computer. This is why we have peripheral storage devices
like your computer*s hard disk and floppy diskettes.

1ermanent +emory 9Auiliary Storage:
?our files are stored in permanent memory only when saved to your disk in aA drive or saved
to your computer0s hard disk, <rive cA In the !loyd $ollege labs, you can also save your
work to a network drive. 3e will discuss this in class.
To better understand how a computer handles information and to also understand why
information is lost if the power goes off, let*s take a closer look at how a computer handles
information. ?our computer is made of millions of tiny electric circuits. !or every circuit in
a computer chip, there are two possibilitiesA
&. an electric circuit flows through the circuit or
6. An electric circuit does not flow through the circuit.
3hen an electric current flows through a circuit, the circuit is on. 3hen no electricity flows,
the circuit is off. An BonC circuit is represented by the number one 9&: and an off circuit is
represented by the number zero 9):. The two numbers & and ) are called bits. The word bit
comes from Bbinary digitC. %ach time a computer reads an instruction, it translates that
instruction into a series of bits, &*s and )*s. "n most computers every character from the
keyboard is translated into eight bits, a combination of eight &*s and )*s. %ach group of eight
bits is called a byte.
#yte D The amount of space in memory or on a disk needed to store one character. E bits F &
#yte
Since computers can handle such large numbers of characters at one time, metric prefies are
combined with the word byte to give some common multiples you will encounter in computer
literature.
;ilo means &))) ;ilobyte 9;#: F &))) #ytes
+ega means &,))),))) +egabyte 9+#: F &,))),))) #ytes
Giga +eans &,))),))),))) Gigabyte 9G#: F &,))),))),))) #ytes
At this point it would be good to point out why information stored in >A+ is lost if the power goes off.
$onsider the way the following characters are translated into binary code for use by the computer.
A )&)))))&
# )&))))&)
$ )&))))&&
H )&)&&)))
I )&)&&)&)
& ))&&)))&
6 ))&&))&)
$onsider the column at the right, which represents how the computer stores information. %ach of the &*s in the
second column represents a circuit that is BonC. If the power goes off, these circuits can @"T be BonC any more
because the electricity has been turned off and any data represented by these circuits is lost. This is why we can
not overemphasize the importance of saving your work often.
Central Processin !nit "CP!#
The central processing unit is one of the two most important components of your microcomputer. It is the
electronic brain of your computer. In addition to processing data, it controls the function of all the other
components. The most popular microprocessors in I#+ compatible computers are made by Intel. The
generations of microprocessors are listed below.
&'E& E)EE
&'E/ E)6E5
&'E7 E)(E5
&'') E)/E5
&''( 1entium
&''5 1=5
&''E 1entium III
6))) 1entium IJ
?our computer has a 1entium IJ processor.
$utput Devices
+onitor
Speakers
1rinter
Impact
<ot +atri
@on=Impact
Ink .et
8aser
Storae Devices
,ard disk
!loppy disk
Tape drive
$<=>"+
Telecommunications
Telecommunications means that you are communicating over long distances usually using phone lines. This
enables you to send data to and receive data from another computer that can be located down the street, in
another town, or in another country. Telecommunications requires a communication device called a modem,
which connects your computer to a standard phone 2ack. A modem converts the digital signals that your
computer uses into analog signals that can be transmitted over the phone lines. To use a modem, you must also
have communication software to handle the transmission process.
Computer Soft%are
System Software
System software will come provided with each computer and is necessary for the computers operation. This
software acts as an interpreter between the computer and user. It interprets your instructions into binary code
and likewise interprets binary code into language the user can understand. In the past you may have used +S=
<"S or +icrosoft <isk "perating System which was a command line interface. This form of system software
required specific commands to be typed. 3indows '4 is a more recent version of system software and is known
as a graphical interface. This means that it uses graphics or KiconsK to represent various operations. ?ou no
longer have to memorize commandsL you simply point to an icon and click.
1rogram Software
1rogram software is software used to write computer programs in specific computer languages.
Application Software
Application software is any software used for specified applications such asA
3ord 1rocessing
Spreadsheet
<atabase
1resentation Graphics
$ommunication
Tutorials
%ntertainment, Games
FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
What is Computer : Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with
Information. The term computer is derived from the Latin term computare, this
means to calculate.Computer can not do anything without a Program.it
represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. The ord
!Computer!usually refers to the Center "rocessor #nit plus Internal memory.
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user
and processes these data under the control of set of instructions $called program%
and gives the result $output% and saves output for the future use. It can process both
numerical and non&numerical $arithmetic and logical% calculations.The basic
components of a modern digital computer are: Input 'evice,(utput 'evice,Central
"rocessor. ) Typical modern computer uses *+I Chips.
Charles Babbage is called the ,-rand .ather, of the computer.The .irst
mechanical computer designed by charles /abbage was called Analytical Engine.
It uses read&only memory in the form of punch cards.
.our .unctions about computer are:
accepts data Input
processes data "rocessing
produces output (utput
stores results +torage
Input (Data):
Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the
collection of letters, numbers, images etc.
Process:
"rocess is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process
of the computer system.
Output:
(utput is the processed data given by computer after data processing. (utput is also
called as 0esult. e can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.
Uses of Computer
Education :
-etting the right kind of information is a ma1or challenge as is getting information to
make sense. College students spend an average of 2&3 hours a week on the
internet.0esearch shows that computers can significantly enhance performance in
learning. +tudents e4posed to the internet say they think the web has helped them
improve the 5uality of their academic research and of their written work. (ne
revolution in education is the advent of distance learning. This offers a variety of
internet and video&based online courses.
Health and Medicine :
Computer technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. )ll medical
information can now be digiti6ed. +oftware is now able to computer the risk of a
disease. 7ental health researchers are using computers to screen troubled teenagers
in need of psychotherapy. ) patient paraly6ed by a stroke has received an implant
that allows communication between his brain and a computer8 as a result, he can
move a cursor across a screen by brainpower and convey simple messages.
Science :
+cientists have long been users of it. ) new adventure among scientists is the idea of
a 9collaboratory:, an internet based collaborative laboratory, in which researchers all
over the world can work easily together even at a distance. )n e4ample is space
physics where space physicists are allowed to band together to measure the earths
ionosphere from instruments on four parts of the world.
usiness :
/usiness clearly see the interest as a way to enhance productivity and
competitiveness. +ome areas of business that are undergoing rapid changes are sales
and marketing, retailing, banking, stock trading, etc. +ales representatives not only
need to be better educated and more knowledgeable about their customers
businesses, but also must be comfortable with computer technology. The internet has
become a popular marketing tool. The world of cybercash has come to banking ; not
only smart cards but internet banking, electronic deposit, bill paying, online stock
and bond trading, etc.
!ecreation and Entertainment:
(ur entertainment and pleasure&time have also been affected by computeri6ation.
.or e4ample:
i% In movies, computer generated graphics give freedom to designers so that special
effects and even imaginary characters can play a part in making movies, videos, and
commercials.
ii% In sports, computers compile statistics, sell tickets, create training programs and
diets for athletes, and suggest game plan strategies based on the competitors past
performance.
iii% In restaurants, almost every one has eaten food where the clerk enters an order by
indicating choices on a rather unusual looking cash register8 the device directly
enters the actual data into a computer, and calculates the cost and then prints a
receipt.
"overnment:
<arious departments of the -overnment use computer for their planning, control
and law enforcement activities. To name a few ; Traffic, Tourism, Information =
/roadcasting, >ducation, )viation and many others.
Defence:
There are many uses computers in 'efence such as:
?% Controlling #)< or unmanned air&crafts an e4ample is "redator. If you have cable
I would recommend watching the shows 9.uture eapons, and 97odern 7arvels,.
The show future weapon gives an entire hour to the predator.
@% They are also used on Intercontinental /allistic 7issiles $IC/7s% that uses -"+
and Computers to help the missile get to the target.
A% Computers are used to track incoming missiles and help slew weapons systems
onto the incoming target to destroy them.
B% Computers are used in helping the military find out where all their assets are
$+ituational )wareness% and in CommunicationsC/attle 7anagement +ystems.
2% Computers are used in the logistic and ordering functions of getting e5uipments to
and around the battlefield.
3% Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target enemy forces, help run
the platform and more recently to help diagnose any problems with the platforms.
D% Computers help design and test new systems.
Sports:
In today!s technologically growing society, computers are being used in nearly every
activity.
!ecordin# Information
(fficial statistics keepers and some scouts use computers to record statistics, take
notes and chat online while attending and working at a sports event.
$nal%&in# Movements
The best athletes pay close attention to detail. Computers can slow recorded video
and allow people to study their specific movements to try to improve their tendencies
and repair poor habits.
'riters
7any sportswriters attend several sporting events a week, and they take their
computers with them to write during the game or shortly after while their thoughts
are fresh in their mind.
Score(oard
hile some scoreboards are manually updated, most professional sports venues have
very modern scoreboards that are programmed to update statistics and information
immediately after the information is entered into the computer.
Safet%
Computers have aided in the design of safety e5uipment in sports such as football
helmets to shoes to mouth guards
Block Diagram of Computer and Explain its Various Components
) computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly
complicated problems 5uickly and accurately. ) computer as shown in .ig. performs
basically five ma1or computer operations or functions irrespective of their si6e and
make. These are

?% it accepts data or instructions by way of input,
@% it stores data,
A% it can process data as re5uired by the user,
B% it gives results in the form of output, and
2% it controls all operations inside a computer.
e discuss below each of these Computer operations


Fig : Basic computer Operations

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer
system. Eou should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other
machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out
processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an
organi6ed manner for processing.
. !torage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as
storage. 'ata has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is
because the processing speed of Central "rocessing #nit $C"#% is so fast that the data
has to be provided to C"# with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in
the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary
storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides
space for storing data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following ma1or functions:
F )ll data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
F Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
". Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical
operations is called processing. The Central "rocessing #nit $C"#% takes data and
instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the
instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage
unit.
#. $utput: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information. +imilarly the output produced by the computer after processing must
also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human
readable form. )gain the output is also stored inside the computer for further
processing.
%. Control: The manner how instructions are e4ecuted and the above operations are
performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are
performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations
inside the computer.
)*+,TIO+$L *+ITS
In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer
allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer system is
divided into three separate units for its operation. They are
?% arithmetic logical unit
@% control unit.
A% central processing unit.
Arithmetic &ogical 'nit (A&') &ogical 'nit
&ogical 'nit :)fter you enter data through the input device it is stored in the
primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are
performed by )rithmetic *ogical #nit. The ma1or operations performed by the )*#
are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. 'ata is
transferred to )*# from storage unit when re5uired. )fter processing the output is
returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.
Control #nit $C#%
The ne4t component of computer is the Control #nit, which acts like the supervisor
seeing that things are done in proper fashion. Control #nit is responsible for co
ordinating various operations using time signal. The control unit determines the
se5uence in which computer programs and instructions are e4ecuted. Things like
processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the instructions
and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to e4ecute them. It also acts as
a switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously.
Thereby it coordinates the activities of computers peripheral e5uipment as they
perform the input and output.
Central "rocessing #nit $C"#%
The )*# and the C# of a computer system are 1ointly known as the central
processing unit. Eou may call C"# as the brain of any computer system. It is 1ust like
brain that takes all ma1or decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs
different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the
operations.
Classification of Computers
Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified
according to purpose, data handling and functionality.
)ccording to purpose, computers are either general purpose or specific purpose.
-eneral purpose computers are designed to perform a range of tasks.
They have the ability to store numerous programs, but lack in speed and efficiency.
+pecific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a
specific task. ) set of instructions is built into the machine.
)ccording to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid. )nalog
computers work on the principle of measuring, in which the measurements obtained
are translated into data. 7odern analog computers usually employ electrical
parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to represent the 5uantities
being manipulated. +uch computers do not deal directly with the numbers. They
measure continuous physical magnitudes. 'igital computers are those that operate
with information, numerical or otherwise, represented in a digital form. +uch
computers process data into a digital value $in Gs and ?s%. They give the results with
more accuracy and at a faster rate. Hybrid computers incorporate the measuring
feature of an analog computer and counting feature of a digital computer. .or
computational purposes, these computers use analog components and for storage,
digital memories are used.
)ccording to functionality, computers are classified as :
$nalo# ,omputer
)n analog computer $spelt analogue in /ritish >nglish% is a form of computer that
uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic
5uantities to model the problem being solved
Di#ital Computer
) computer that performs calculations and logical operations with 5uantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system
H%(rid ,omputer ($nalo# - Di#ital)
) combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both
digital and analog signals. ) hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective
method of performing comple4 simulations.
On the (asis of Si&e
!uper Computer
The fastest and most powerful type of computer +upercomputers are very e4pensive
and are employed for speciali6ed applications that re5uire immense amounts of
mathematical calculations. .or e4ample, weather forecasting re5uires a
supercomputer. (ther uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid
dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum e4ploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a
supercomputer channels all its power into e4ecuting a few programs as fast as
possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to e4ecute many programs
concurrently.
7ainframe Computer
) very large and e4pensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even
thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple
microprocessor $in watches, for e4ample% at the bottom and moves to
supercomputers at the top, mainframes are 1ust below supercomputers. In some
ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support
more simultaneous programs. /ut supercomputers can e4ecute a single program
faster than a mainframe.
7ini Computer
) midsi6ed computer. In si6e and power, minicomputers lie between .or/stations
and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers
and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small
minicomputers and workstations. /ut in general, a minicomputer is a
multiprocessing system capable of supporting from B to about @GG users
simultaneously.
*icro Computer or Personal Computer

+es,top Computer: a personal or micro&mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.
&aptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is
generally smaller in si6e than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.
Palmtop Computer-+igital +iary -.oteboo, -P+As: a hand&si6ed computer. "almtops have
no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.
orkstations
) terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this conte4t, workstation is 1ust a
generic term for a user!s machine $client machine% in contrast to a ,server, or
,mainframe.,
Characteristic of a Computer
BY DINESH THAKUR
asic characteristics a(out computer are:
1. !peed: / )s you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for
calculations that we take hours to complete. Eou will be surprised to know that
computer can perform millions $?,GGG,GGG% of instructions and even more per
second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond $?G&3
part of a second% or nanosecond $?G to the power &I part of a second%. .rom this you
can imagine how fast your computer performs work.
. Accuracy: / The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every
calculation is performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on
the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and
inaccurate data.
". +iligence: / ) computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc.
It can work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be
performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. 'ue to
this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.
#. 0ersatility: / It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work.
Eou may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Je4t moment you may use it for
inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
%. Power o1 2emembering: / Computer has the power of storing any amount of
information or data. )ny information can be stored and recalled as long as you
re5uire it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you
want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.
3. .o I4: / Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without
instruction from the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with
accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do and in what se5uence. +o a
computer cannot take its own decision as you can.
5. .o Feeling: / It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and
e4perience. Thus it does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not
distinguish between users.
6. !torage: / The Computer has an in&built memory where it can store a large
amount of data. Eou can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies,
which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.
History of computer
>ach generation of computer is characteri6ed by a ma1or technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more
powerful and more efficient and reliable devices
The various generations of computers an listed below :

(i) First 7eneration (18#3/18%#) : In 18#3 there was no !best! way of storing
instructions and data in a computer memory. There were four competing
technologies for providing computer memory: electrostatic storage tubes, acoustic
delay lines $mercury or nic,el%, magnetic drums $and disksK%, and magnetic
core storage.
The digital computes using electronic 9al9es $<acuum tubes% are known as first
generation computers. the first !computer! to use electronic valves $ie. vacuum
tubes%. The high cost of vacuum tubes prevented their use for main memory. They
stored information in the form of propagating sound waves.
The vacuum tube consumes a lot of power. The <acuum tube was developed by *ee
'e.orest in ?IGL. These computers were large in si6e and writing programs on them
was difficult. +ome of the computers of this generation were:
*ar, I : The IB* Automatic !e:uence Controlled Calculator (A!CC),
called the 7ark I by ;ar9ard 'ni9ersity, was an electro/mechanical
computer. 7ark I is the first machine to successfully perform a long services of
arithmetic and logical operation. 7ark I is the First 7eneration Computer.
it was the first operating machine that could e<ecute long computations
automatically. Mark I computer which was built as a partnership between
Harvard and IB* in 18##. This was the first programmable digital computer made
in the #.+. /ut it was not a purely electronic computer. Instead the 7ark I was
constructed out of switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches. The machine
weighed 2 tons, incorporated 2GG miles of wire, was L feet tall and 2? feet long, and
had a 2G ft rotating shaft running its length, turned by a 2 horsepower electric motor.

E.IAC: It was the 1irst general/purpose electronic computer built in 18#3
at 'ni9ersity o1 Pennsyl9ania= '!A by >ohn *auchly and >. Presper
Ec,ert. The completed machine was announced to the public the evening of
February 1#= 18#3. It was named Electronic .umerical Integrator and
Calculator (E.IAC). >JI)C contained ?D,B3L vacuum tubes, D,@GG crystal diodes,
?,2GG relays, DG,GGG resistors, ?G,GGG capacitors and around 2 million hand&
soldered 1oints. It weighed more than AG short tons $@D t%, was roughly L by A by ?GG
feet $@.B m M G.I m M AG m%, took up ?LGG s5uare feet $?3D m@%, and consumed ?2G
k of power. Input was possible from an IB* card reader, and an IB* card
punch was used for output. These cards could be used to produce printed output
offline using an I/7 accounting machine, such as the IB* #?%. Today your favorite
computer is many times as powerful as >JI)C, still si6e is very small.
E+0AC: It stands for Electronic +iscrete 0ariable Automatic Computer and
was developed in 18%?.it was to be a vast improvement upon >JI)C, it was binary
rather than decimal, and was a stored program computer. @he concept o1
storing data and instructions inside the computer was introduced here.
This allowed much faster operation since the computer had rapid access to both data
and instructions. The other advantage of storing instruction was that computer could
do logical decision internally.
The >'<)C was a binary serial computer with automatic addition, subtraction,
multiplication, programmed division and automatic checking with an ultrasonic
serial memory. >'<)C!s addition time was 63# microseconds and its
multiplication time was 8?? microseconds $@.I milliseconds%.
The computer had almost 3,GGG vacuum tubes and ?@,GGG diodes, and consumed 23
k of power. It covered BIG ftN $B2.2 mN% of floor space and weighed ?D,AGG lb
$D,L2G kg%.
E+!AC: It stands for Electronic +elay !torage Automatic Computer and was
developed by *.0. Wil,es at Cambridge 'ni9ersity in 18#8. Two groups of
individuals were working at the same time to develop the first stored&program
computer. In the #nited +tates, at the #niversity of "ennsylvania the >'<)C
$>lectronic 'iscrete <ariable )utomatic Computer% was being worked on. In >ngland
at Cambridge, the >'+)C $>lectronic 'elay +torage )utomatic Computer% was also
being developed. The E+!AC won the race as the first stored/program
computer beating the #nited +tates >'<)C by two months. The >'+)C
performed computations in the three millisecond range. It performed arithmetic and
logical operations without human intervention. The key to the success was in the
stored instructions which it depended upon solely for its operation. @his
machine mar,ed the beginning o1 the computer age. >'+)C is the first
computer is used to store a program
'.I0AC/1: Ec,er and *auchly produced it in 18%1 by 'ni9ersal
Accounting Computer setup. it was the 1irst commercial computer produced
in the #nited +tates. It was designed principally by O. "resper >ckert and Oohn
7auchly, the inventors of the >JI)C.
The machine was @2 feet by 2G feet in length, contained 2,3GG tubes, ?L,GGG crystal
diodes, and AGG relays. It utili6ed serial circuitry, @.@2 7H6 bit rate, and had an
internal storage capacity ?,GGG words or ?@,GGG characters.
It utili6ed a *ercury delay line, magnetic tape, and typewriter output. The
#JI<)C was used for general purpose computing with large amounts of input
and output.
"ower consumption was about ?@G kva. Its reported processing speed was G.2@2
milliseconds for arithmetic functions, @.?2 milliseconds for multiplication and A.I
7illiseconds for division.
The #JI<)C was also the first computer to come e5uipped with a magnetic tape unit
and was the 1irst computer to use bu11er memory.
$ther Important Computers o1 First 7eneration
+ome other computers of this time worth mentioning are the hirlwind, developed
at 7assachussets Institute of Technology, and O(HJJI)C, by the 0and Corporation.
The hirlwind was the first computer to display real time video and use core
memory. The O(HJJI)C was named in honor of Oon <on Jeumann. Computers at
this time were usually kept in special locations like government and university
research labs or military compounds.
&imitations o1 First 7eneration Computer
.ollowings are the ma1or drawbacks of .irst generation computers.
?. They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main electronic component.
@. They were large in si6e, slow in processing and had less storage capacity.
A. They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat.
B. Their computing capabilities were limited.
2. They were not so accurate and reliable.
3. They used machine level language for programming.
D. They were very e4pensive.
>4ample: >JI)C, #JI<)C, I/7 32G etc
$ii% !econd 7eneration (18%%/183#) : The second&generation computer used
transistors for C"# components = 1errite cores 1or main memory =
magnetic dis,s for secondary memory. They used high&level languages such as
F$2@2A. (18%3)= A&7$& (183?) A C$B$& (183? / 1831). IC( processor was
included to control IC( operations.
)round ?I22 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky <acuum tubes in the
first generation computer. Transistors are smaller than <acuum tubes and have
higher operating speed. They have no filament and re5uire no heating.
7anufacturing cost was also very low. Thus the si6e of the computer got reduced
considerably.
It is in the second generation that the concept of Central "rocessing #nit $C"#%,
memory, programming language and input and output units were developed. The
programming languages such as C(/(*, .(0T0)J were developed during this
period. +ome of the computers of the +econd -eneration
were
?. IB* 13?: Its si6e was smaller as compared to .irst -eneration computers and
mostly used for scientific purpose.
@. IB* 1#?1: Its si6e was small to medium and used for business applications.
A. C+C "3??: Its si6e was large and is used for scientific purposes.
Features:
?. Transistors were used instead of <acuum Tube.
@. "rocessing speed is faster than .irst -eneration Computers $7icro +econd%
A. +maller in +i6e $2? s5uare feet%
B. The input and output devices were faster.
>4ample: I/7 ?BGG and DGGG +eries, Control 'ata A3GG etc.
$iii% @hird 7eneration (183#/1855) : /y the development of a small chip
consisting of the capacity of the "?? transistors. These ICs are popularly known as
Chips. ) single IC has many transistors, registers and capacitors built on a single
thin slice of silicon. +o it is 5uite obvious that the si6e of the computer got further
reduced. +ome of the computers developed during this period were IB*/"3?= IC&/
18??= IB*/"5?= and 0AB/5%?. Higher level language such as BA!IC
(Beginners All purpose !ymbolic Instruction Code) was developed during
this period. Computers of this generation were small in si6e, low cost, large memory
and processing speed is very high. <ery soon ICs ere replaced by &!I (&arge
!cale Integration), which consisted about ?GG components. )n IC containing
about ?GG components is called *+I.
Features:
?. They used Integrated Circuit $IC% chips in place of the transistors.
@. +emi conductor memory devices were used.
A. The si6e was greatly reduced, the speed of processing was high, they were more
accurate and reliable.
B. *arge +cale Integration $*+I% and <ery *arge +cale Integration $<*+I% were also
developed.
2. The mini computers were introduced in this generation.
3. They used high level language for programming.
>4ample: I/7 A3G, I/7 ADG etc.
$iv% Fourth 7eneration : )n IC containing about ?GG components is called *+I
$*arge +cale Integration% and the one, which has more than ?GGG such components,
is called as 0&!I (0ery &arge !cale Integration). It uses lar#e scale Inte#rated
,ircuits $*+IC% built on a single silicon chip called microprocessors. 'ue to the
development of microprocessor it is possible to place computers central processin#
unit $C"#% on single chip. These computers are called microcomputers. *ater ver%
lar#e scale Inte#rated ,ircuits $<*+IC% replaced *+ICs. Thus the computer which
was occupying a very large room in earlier days can now be placed on a table. The
personal computer $"C% that you see in your school is a .ourth -eneration Computer
7ain memory used fast semiconductors chips up to B 7 bits si6e. Hard disks were
used as secondary memory. Peyboards, dot matri4 printers etc. were developed. (+&
such as *!/+$!= '.IB= AppleCs *acintosh were available. (b1ect oriented
language, CDD etc were developed.
Features:
?. They used 7icroprocessor $<*+I% as their main switching element.
@. They are also called as micro computers or personal computers.
A. Their si6e varies from desktop to laptop or palmtop.
B. They have very high speed of processing8 they are ?GGQ accurate, reliable,
diligent and versatile.
2. They have very large storage capacity.
>4ample: I/7 "C, )pple&7acintosh etc.
$v% Fi1th 7eneration (1881/ continued) : 2th generation computers use #*+I
$#ltra&*arge +cale Integration% chips. 7illions of transistors are placed in a single IC
in #*+I chips. 3B bit microprocessors have been developed during this period. 'ata
flow = >"IC architecture of these processors have been developed. 0I+C = CI+C,
both types of designs are used in modern processors. 7emory chips and flash
memory up to ? -/, hard disks up to 3GG -/ = optical disks up to 2G -/ have been
developed. fifth generation digital computer will be Arti1icial intelligence.
What is BUS?
BY DINESH THAKUR
Bus: The electrically conducting path along which data is transmitted
inside any digital electronic device. ) bus consists of a set of parallel conductors,
which may be conventional wires, copper tracks on a "0IJT>' CI0C#IT /()0', or
microscopic aluminum trails on the surface of a silicon chip. >ach wire carries 1ust
one bit, so the number of wires determines the largest data (0' the bus can
transmit: a bus with eight wires can carry only L&bit data words, and hence defines
the device as an L&bit device. ) bus normally has a single word memory circuit called
a *)TCH attached to either end, which briefly stores the word being transmitted and
ensures that each bit has settled to its intended state before its value is transmitted.
The bus helps the various parts of the "C communicate. If there was no bus, you
would have an unwieldy number of wires connecting every part to every other part. It
would be like having separate wiring for every light bulb and socket in your
house. There are a variety of buses found inside the computer. The data bus allows
data to travel back and forth between the microprocessor $C"#% and memory $0)7%.
The address bus carries information about the location of data in memory. The
control bus carries the control signals that make sure everything is flowing smoothly
from place to place. If your computer has e0pansion slots1 there!s an e<pansion
bus. 7essages and information pass between your computer and the add2in (oards
you plug in over the e4pansion bus. )lthough this is a bit confusing, these different
buses are sometimes together called simply ,the bus., ) user can think of the
computer!s ,bus, as one unit made up of three parts: data, address, and control, even
though the three electrical pathways do not run along each other $and therefore don!t
really form a single ,unit,% within the computer.
There are different si6es, or widths of data buses found in computers today. ) data
bus! width is measured by the number of bits that can travel on it at once. The speed
at which its bus can transmit words, that is, its bus /)J'I'TH, crucially
determines the speed of any digital device. (ne way to make a bus faster is to
increase its width8 for e4ample a ?3&bit bus can transmit two L&bit words at once,
!side&by&side!, and so carries L&bit data twice as fast as an L&bit bus can. ) computer!s
C"# will typically contain several buses, often of differing widths, that connect its
various subunits. It is common for modern C"#s to use on&chip buses that are wider
than the bus they use to communicate with e4ternal devices such as memory, and the
speed difference between on& and off&chip operations must then be bridged by
keeping a reservoir of temporary data in a C)CH>. .or e4ample many of the "entium
class of processors use @23 bits for their fastest on&chip buses, but only 3B bits for
e4ternal links.
)n L&bit bus carries data along L parallel lines. ) ?3&bit bus, also called I+) $Industry
+tandard )rchitecture%, carries data along ?3 lines. ) A@&bit bus, classified as >I+)
$>nhanced Industry +tandard )rchitecture% or 7C) $7icro Channel )rchitecture%,
can carry data along A@ lines.
The speed at which buses conduct signals is measured in megahert6 $7h6%. Typical
"Cs today run at speeds between @G and 327h6. )lso see C"#, >4pansion Card,
7emory, 7otherboard, 0)7, 0(7, and +ystem #nit.
How Does It Work?
) bus transfers electrical signals from one place to another. )n actual bus appears as
an endless amount of etched copper circuits on the motherboard!s surface. The bus is
connected to the C"# through the /us Interface #nit.
'ata travels between the C"# and memory along the data bus. The location
$address% of that data is carried along the address bus. ) clock signal which keeps
everything in synch travels along the control bus.
The clock acts like a traffic light for all the "C!s components8 the ,green light, goes on
with each clock tick. ) "C!s clock can ,tick, anywhere from @G to 32 million times per
second, which makes it seem like a computer is really fast. /ut since each task $such
as saving a file% is made up of several programmed instructions, and each of those
instructions takes several clock cycles to carry out, a person sometimes has to sit and
wait for the computer to catch up.
http:CCecomputernotes.comCfundamentalCintroduction&to&computerCbus
What are BCD numers

7eaning of /C' ; ,/inary Coded 'ecimal,, is a method that use binary digits G
which represent 9off: and ? which represent 9on:. /C' has been in use since the first
#JI<)C computer. >ach digit is called a bit. .our bits are called a nibble and is used
to represent each decimal digit $G through I%.
The first binary number system was documented by -ottfried *eibni6 in the ?Dth
century. In ?L2B mathematician -eorge /oole came up with a system of logic that is
know today as /oolean )lgebra $based on two elements G!s and ?!s%.

The binary numbering system use a base of @ whereas the decimal numbering system
use a base of ?G. hen the binary number is G, then the number is off, when the
binary number is ?, then the number is on. The configuration of /C' is ,LB@?, a B bit
binary called a nibble . Therefore, the decimal 2 is a /C' G?G?: where GRL, ?RB, GR@,
?R?8 the L and @ are turned off.

The following is an e4ample of binary digits and how they represent decimal digits:

'ecimal /C'
G GGGG
? GGG?
@ GG?G
A GG??
B G?GG
2 G?G?
3 G??G
D G???
L ?GGG
I ?GG?

The advantage that /inary Coded 'ecimal $/C'% has over /inary is that there is no
limit to number si6e. .or every decimal number added, you add B&bits or one nibble.
/inary numbers are limited to the largest number that can be represented by L, ?3,
A@ and 3B bits. It is easier to convert decimal numbers to and from /C' than /inary.

/C' is usually converted to /inary for arithmetic processing since computers only
process Gs and ?s. However, hardware can be built to operate directly with /C'.
/C' is common in electronic systems where numeric value is displayed. This is done
in systems that consist of digital logic and do not contain a microprocessor.

Computer processing re5uires a minimum of ? byte $L bits% therefore, the left portion
of each /C' number is wasted storage. /ecause storage is valuable, storage can be
saved by using packed /C' numbers. ith packed /C' numbers $e.g. @ bytes are
use to store ABLB instead of B bytes% the left byte will consist of GG??G?GG $AB% the
right byte will consist of ?GGGG?GG $LB%.


Explain !SC""# Unicode and $ray Code

A!CII : )+CII codes represent te4t in computers, communications e5uipment,
and other devices that work with te4t. )+CII, pronounced ,as/2ee, is the acronym for
American !tandard Code 1or In1ormation Interchange. It!s a set of
characters which, unlike the characters in word processing documents, allow no
special formatting like different fonts, bold, underlined or italic te4t. )+CII is
computer code for the interchange of information between terminals.

)n ,)+CII file, is a data or te4t file that contains only characters coded from the
standard )+CII character set. Characters G through ?@D comprise the +tandard )+CII
+et and characters ?@L to @22 are considered to be in the >4tended )+CII +et. These
codes, however, may not be the same in all computers and files containing these
characters may not display or convert properly by another )+CII program. )+CII
characters are the ones used to send and receive email.

The reflected binary code, also known as 7ray Code after .rank -ray, is a binary
numeral system where two successive values differ in only one digit.The reflected
binary code was originally designed to prevent spurious output from
electromechanical switches. Today, -ray codes are widely used to facilitate error
correction in digital communications such as digital terrestrial television and some
cable T< systems. This is a variable weighted code and is cyclic.

This means that it is arranged so that every transition from one value to the ne4t
value involves only one bit change. The gray code is sometimes referred to as
reflected binary, because the first eight values compare with those of the last L
values, but in reverse order. The gray code is often used in mechanical applications
such as shaft encoders.

'nicode is an industry standard allowing computers to represent = manipulate te4t
e4pressed in any of the worlds writing systems. It consists of about ?GGGG
characters, a set of code charts for visual reference, an encoding methodology and a
set of character encodings, rules, etc. It allows for combining characters as it contains
precomposed versions of most letter combinations in normal use. This makes
conversion to and from encodings simpler. It covers almost all scripts like )rabic,
/engali, -reek, Hebrew, *atin, -u1rati, etc. It is used in operating systems, email,
web, fonts, etc.

What is EBCD"C%Extended Binary Coded Decimal "nter change code&?
EBC+IC$pronounced ,ebb see dick,% is short for e4tended binary coded decimal
interchange code is eight bits, or one (%te, wide. This is a coding system used to
represent characters&letters, numerals, punctuation marks, and other symbols in
computeri6ed te4t. ) character is represented in >/C'IC by eight bit. >/C'IC
mainly used on I/7 mainframe and I/7 midrange computer operating systems.
>ach byte consists of two ni((les, each four bits wide. The first four bits define the
class of character, while the second nibble defines the specific character inside that
class.
>/C'IC is different from, and incompatible with, the )+CII character set used by all
other computers. The >/C'IC code allows for @23 different characters. .or personal
computers, however, )+CII is the standard. If you want to move te4t between your
computer and a mainframe, you can get a file conversion utility that will convert
between >/C'IC and )+CII.
>/C'IC was adapted from the character codes used in I/7!s pre electronic
"#JCH>' C)0' machines, which made it less than ideal for modern computers.
)mong its many inconveniences were the use of non&contiguous codes for the
alphabetic characters, and the absence of several punctuation characters such as the
s5uare brackets ST used by much modern software.
.or e4ample, setting the first nibble to all&ones,3333, defines the character as a
number, and the second nibble defines which number is encoded. >/C'IC can code
up to @23 different characters.
There have been si4 or more incompatible versions of >/C'IC, the latest of which do
include all the )+CII characters, but also contain characters that are not supported in
)+CII.

Binary to Hexadecimal Con'ersion
BY DINESH THAKUR
;e<adecimal is a number system in base ?3. It utili6es the numbers o through I
and the letters ) through .. The he4 system is convenient to use in programming
because it is compatible with the binary system and is easier to read and more
compact. Two he4adecimal numbers can represent one byte. .or e4ample, @/D'
e5uals GG?G ?G?? G??? ??G? in binary.
Convert ?G??G???.?
@
to he4adecimal:

Binary to (ctal Con'ersion
BY DINESH THAKUR
/IJ)0E T( (CT)* C(J<>0+I(J
Convert ?G??G???.?
@
to octal:

Where Does the )erm *Binary+ Come ,rom
BY DINESH THAKUR
/icycle R @ wheels.
/iplane R @ wings
/inoculars R @ eyepieces

What is !SC"" Code?
BY DINESH THAKUR
A!CII +tands for )merican +tandard Code for Information Interchange
$pronounced !as&key!%. This is a standard set of characters understood by all
computers, consisting mostly of letters and numbers plus a few basic symbols such as
U and Q. hich employs the ?@L possible D&bit integers to encode the 2@ uppercase
and lowercase letters and ?G numeric digits of the 0oman alphabet, plus punctuation
characters and some other symbols. The fact that almost everyone agrees on )+CII
makes it relatively easy to e4change information between different programs,
different operatin# s%stems1 and even different computers.

What is Binary -umers?
BY DINESH THAKUR
The binary system is a method for working with numbers based on only two digitsA & and )
9binary is also known as Kbase twoK:. /inary numbers are the basis for computer
storage. Input into the computer is changed into binary numbers that the computer
can store and manipulate. ) binary numbering system uses a series of ?!s and G!s to
represent any number. Jon&numbers $such as the letter '% or characters $such as a
5uestion mark% are assigned an eight digit binary number so that they too can be
represented within the computer.

What is Byte?
BY DINESH THAKUR
) byte is a group of eight bits. /it, short for /inary digit,which can represent any
number in the range GGGGGGGG To ???????? /inary, or G To @22 'ecimal. .rom the
early days of digital computing, it is the basic unit of information within a computer,
e5ual to a ? or a G. It is used to measure both memory si6e $Pilobytes, 7egabytes%
and data transfer speed $Pilobytes per second%. >ight individual electronic onCoff
signals, strung together to make a message that the computer can interpret. /its are
stored within the computer!s microchips and are led by control the flow of electrical
currents8 a ? is represented by an ,on, or high voltage electrical current, and a G is
represented by an ,off, or low current. ) byte is formed by combining eight bits
together to store the e5uivalent of one character. .or e4ample, the letter ) $a single
byte% is made up of the eight bits G?GGGGG?.

What is Bit %Binary digit&?
BY DINESH THAKUR
/it is short for /inary digit. ) bit is a single digit, either a ? or a G, and it is the
fundamental unit of information in computing, communications and physics. /inary
numbers $bits% are stored within a computer!s microchips by turning an electrical
current ,on, or ,off,8 a ? is represented by an ,on, or high voltage current, and a G is
represented by an ,off, or low current.

What is !rithmetic shift?
BY DINESH THAKUR
Arithmetic shi1t: ) type of "0(C>++(0 IJ+T0#CTI(J that moves all the /IT+
making up a binary (0' one or more places to the left or right: bits that move off
the end of the word are discarded and 6eroes are introduced to fill the vacated
positions. However, unlike the otherwise similar *(-IC)* +HI.T operations,
arithmetic shifts preserve the sign of a number by propagating the value of its 7(+T
+I-JI.IC)JT /IT. Hence they can be used in calculations, offering a fast way to
perform multiplication and division by powers of two.

What is Byte.!ddressing?
BY DINESH THAKUR
Byte/Addressing: )ny memory addressing scheme in which the smallest value that
can have its own uni5ue address is a /ET>: in other words, each successive address
identifies a different eight&bit 5uantity. This contrasts with various word&addressing
schemes, where for e4ample a A@&bit word might be the smallest addressable ob1ect.

What is ase/0?
BY DINESH THAKUR
) method of encoding binary information so that it can be transmitted across te4t&
only communications systems such as Internet >7)I*$which will pass only )+CII
characters in the range A@ to ?@3 decimal%. /ase3B is used by the 7I7> protocol to
encode binary attachments to email.

What is 1achine Code or 1achine 2anguage?
BY DINESH THAKUR
*achine code is the only language a computer understands. It!s 1ust a bunch of
numbers, represented inside the computer as ?s and Gs $ones and 6eros%. These ones
and 6eros are electronic signals that tell the computer what to do. (nly a very few
humans write machine code $of course, they write it out in numbers, not electronic
signals%.

What is 3!1 %random access memory&?
BY DINESH THAKUR
2A* stands for random access memory. /e prepared, because this definition is
pretty long $but it!s importantV%. .irst we!ll tell you what 0)7 in general is, then we!ll
go over how 0)7 works in 7acintoshes and pcs. )lso, there are different kinds of
0)7, including <0)7, "0)7, '0)7, +0)7, and *) 0)7.

What is -ile?
BY DINESH THAKUR
) nibble is a cute little term for half of a (%te1 but hardly anyone really uses the
word anymore. (ne byte is eight (its1 so a nibble is four bits. If you really want to
know what bits and bytes are, please see their definitions under (it4 $Jibble is
sometimes spelled ,nybble.,%