Researchers notice something about communication and wish to learn more about it. The articulation of such "researchable" questions is a key turning point in the research process. Defining the term communication is like trying to describe a three-ring circus to a child.
Researchers notice something about communication and wish to learn more about it. The articulation of such "researchable" questions is a key turning point in the research process. Defining the term communication is like trying to describe a three-ring circus to a child.
Researchers notice something about communication and wish to learn more about it. The articulation of such "researchable" questions is a key turning point in the research process. Defining the term communication is like trying to describe a three-ring circus to a child.
:onrise that You lci critical con- ihgs every daY. n'J critical con- ruderstand the 1c' nhat, we have re-lts assump- ic-r. the various of conduct to be c'fe of research irance of distin- nadon. Our goal I and take Part in Cnepren 2 ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION Research begins with curiosity. Researchers notice something about communication and wish to learn more about it. That moment might occur in the midst of the give-and-take of social interaction in a family, business, or community, or it might occur while perusing the published literature in commu- nication journals and books. Researchers move from that sense of curiosity to formulating a question that can be answered by engaging in a research project. The articulation of such "researchable" questions is a primary and es- sential step in the research process. As the saying from the world of computers goes: "Garbage in, garbage out." The questions we ask suggest what information we will gather (the "in"-put of a re- search sfudy), and the conclusions we will draw (the "out"-put of the study) are based on that infor- mation. So phrasing worthwhile questions is a key turning point in the research process. The research question outlines the framework on which the en- tire research project will be built. In this chapteE we examine the process of ask- ing questions about communication. We startby de- scribing the domain of human behavior examined in communication research. We then explore com- monly studied areas of communication research, two important starting points for communication research, and some ways to justify the selection of particular topics. We conclude this chapter by ex- amining the ways researchers phrase topics and ideas in formal research questions and hypotheses. DEFINING COMMUNICATION Defining the term communication is like trying to describe a three-ring circus to a child-how can we put into a sentence or two everything that goes on when so much goes on? Indeed, over 20 years ago, Dance and Larson (1976) had already found (in a survey of the literature) that there were 126 different defrnitions for the word communication! You've probably noticed that a variety of im- ages come to mind when you tell people you are studying communication. Some assume you're studying public speaking, others think of organ- rzational communication, and still others picture journalism, electronic broadcasting, telephone technology, and who knows what else. They react so variably because communication is an um- brella term that covers numerous, apparently dis- parate, activities. But all these activities do have important ele- ments in common. In fact, the term communica- tion, historically, is derived from the Latin word, communis, which means "to make common." To- day, most definitions of communication empha- size one of two different views about makine things common. As Pearce (1995) explains: There is a dffirence in the connotations of commu- nication depending on whether the emphasis is on that which is made common (shared meanings, cul- tural symbols, ftaditions, common ground, under- standing) or on the process of making things common (the transmission of messages from place to place; the languages inwhich things areframed; the patterns of action in which they occur; the things that people actually do and say to each other). (p.7) Those who focus on the process of making things common adopt what can be called an infor- mation exchange perspective; they are primarily 27 28 PARTONE CONCEPTUALIZINGCOMMUNICATIONRESEARCH concerned with how communication can be used as a tool to transfer information from one person or place (a source) to another (a receiver)' In contrast; those who emphasize that which is made conlmon adopt what can be called a meaning-based ot con' stitutive perspective; they are concerned with how "our experiences of reality are a product of commu- nicative activity" (Mokros & Deetz, 1996, p. 32). In this text, we acknowledge these two views on "making things common" in the following defi- nition: Communication refers to the processes by which verbal and nonverbal messages are used to create and share meaning. This definition acknowl- edges that communication is both a meaning- based, creative process, as well as a tool used to exchange information. WIIAT CONSTITUTES COMMUNICATION RESEARCH? We admit that this is a broad, abstract definition of communication. To better help you understand what is done in the communication discipline, we need to divide it into more concrete parts. A tradi- tional model of communic atton-people exchang- ing messages through channels within a context- provides a useful way to focus on the types of re- search done by communication scholars. This model contains four important compo- nents: people, messages, channels, and contexts. The pivotal element of the four is ,nessages. Messages are the usual target of communication researchers-messages we send to ourselves, to others, within small groups or organizations, via the media, or within and between cultures. The other three components of the model- people, channels, and contexts-are usually stud- ied only as they influence messages. We depend on scholars in other disciplines to study the psycho- logical, biological, and many other dimensions of human life. For example, studying how people's self-esteem changes as they grow older is more ap- propriate for psychology researchers than for com- munication researchers because the focus isn't on message behavior. However, studying how self- esteem affects communication apprehension (fear of communicating, such as fear of public speaking) is appropriate for communication research because the focus is on message behavior and not just on psychological variables. Similarly, studying how electronic signals travel through a television cable (a channel) is within the domain of physicists, not communication researchers. Studying whether people acquire more information from messages received via mass-mediated or face-to-face chan- nels, however, certainly is relevant communication research. In the same way, studying how much business organizations (a context) spend on com- puters is important to accountants and/or computer consultants. but not to communication researchers per se. Studying how new technologies affect the flow of information within business organizations, however, is a concern of communication research. Communication research, thus, focuses prima- rily on messages-messages sent' htrapersonally, interpersonally, or within and between groups, or- ganizations, and cultures/societies. To make the other elements of people, channels, and/or con- texts relevant to communication interests, re- searchers must relate them to message behavior. AREAS OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH Because message behavior covers such a large ar- ray of processes, little can be said about "commu- nication in general." In fact, researchers' first step involves carving out and defining the precise slice of the big communication pie they will investigate. They identify the research topic, the novel idea they consider worth studying and hope to under- stand better. Their goal is to be able to say with some certainty a few specific things about that slice. They also want to compare and contrast what they've learned with what others have discovered about that slice and with what is known about the slices studied by other researchers. Over time, as researchers describe more pie slices more accu- rately, the communication pie gradually takes on new meaning. The communication realm can be divided in many ways. One way is to look at the institutional structure of the discipline. Scholars affiliate with lic speaking) arch because I not just on udying how :vision cable h-vsicists, not mg whether )m messages to-face chan- mmunication s how much rcnd on com- llor computer rn researchers des affect the oryanizations, ion research. 'ocuses prima- rtrapersonally, en gloups, or- To make the ;- and/or con- interests, re- ge behavior. ESEARCH uch a large ar- bout "commu- :hers' fust step rc precise slice 1.i11 investigate. the novel idea hope to under- rle to say with ngs about that Ld contrast what rave discovered nown about the ;. Over time, as ges more accu- dually takes on in be divided in the institutional rs affiliate with A. Di vi si ons Appl i ed Communi cati on Argumentati on and Forensi cs Asi an Paci fi c Ameri can Communi cati on Studi es Basi c Course Cri ti cal and Cul tural Studi es Ethnography Fami l y Communi cati on Femi ni st and Women Studi es Cay, Lesbi an, Bi sexual / Transgender Communi tati on Studi es Croup Communi cati on Heal th Communi cati on I nstructi onal Devel opment Internati onal and l ntercul tural Communi cati on Interpersonal Commun i cati on Language and Soci al CHAPTER 2 ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION 29 colleagues studying similar topics within the pro- addresses the common concern(s) of a group of fessional associations in the communication disci- scholars. These interest areas are often labeled ac- pline. The National Communication Association cording tothetr size (e.g., NCA "divisions" have at (NCA), the International Communication Associ- least 300 members, while "commissions" have at ation (ICA), and the Association for Educational least 100 members) or mission (e.g., NCA "cau- Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC), cuses" represent the interests of members in spe- for example, are major associations for those who cific demographic or socially defined groups- study communication. There are also four regional united by gender and race, for instance-who seek associations (the Central States, Eastern, Southern to realize the objectives specified in NCA s Affir- States, and Western States Communication As- mative Action Statement) (see Figure 2.1). sociations) and many state associations, as well as Professional associations often publish aca- other associations that represent more specific demicjournals(seeChapter3).Severaljournalsare communication interests, such as Women in orientedtowardscholarswhostudyparticularinter- Communication (WIC), or specific interests com- est areas (e.g., the joumalHealth Communication). munication scholars share with those in other dis- Professional associations also hold conventions ciplines, such as the Public Relations Society of where scholars present their work. To make a pre- America (PRSA). sentation, scholars send their papers and panel pro- Professional associations are themselves or- posals to an elected officer (typically, the chair or ganized into different interest areas, each of which vice-chair) of that interest area. These offrcers are l nteracti on Communi cati on Assessment Lati na/Lati no Communi cati on Communi cati on i n the Future Studi es Communi cati on Needs of Mass Communi cati on Students at Ri sk Organi zati onal Communi cati on Performance Studies Pol i ti cal Communi cati on Publ i c Address Publ i c Rel ati ons Rhetori cal and Communi cati on Theory Theatre Trai ni ng and Devel opment B. Commissions Afri can Ameri can Communi , cati on and Cul ture Ameri can Pa rl i amentary Practice Ameri can Studi es Communi cati on and Agi ng Communi cati on and Law Communi cati on Apprehensi on and Avoidance Envi ronmental Communi cati on Ethi cs Communi cati on Experi enti al Learni ng i n Communi cat i on Freedom of Expression Human Communi cat i on and Technology I ntrapersonal Communi cati on/ Soci al Cogni ti on Peace and Confl i ct Communi cat i on Semi oti cs and Communi cati on Spi ri tual Communi cati on Vi sual Communi cat i on C. Caucuses Asi an/Paci fi c Ameri can Bl ack Di sabi l i t y I ssues Emeritus/Reti red Members Cay and Lesbi an Concerns La Raza (Chi cano/Lati no cul ture and communi cati on) Women's 30 PARTONE CONCEPTUALZINGCOMMUNICATIONRESEARCH themselves scholars who have devoted some of their own work to that area. The interest areas of the communication disci- pline are reflected in the courses taught at univer- sities and colleges, and, in some cases, in the concentrations offered for communication majors (e.g., public relations or mass communication). The material taught within your communication classes is, in this way, defined by the areas scholars in the communication professional associations choose to study. Within each interest area, several general top- ics attract scholars' attention. For example, M. W. Allen. Gotcher, and Siebert's (1993) review of journal articles published between 1980 and 1991 identif,red 18 general topic areas of organizational communication research (see Figure 2.2). Within each of those general areas, many specific topics interest scholars. For example, how superior-to- subordinate feedback affects subordinates' levels of satisfaction and performance has received much attention within the general area of interpersonal relations within organizations. Existing interest areas within the communica- tion discipline suggest fruitful directions for re- search. Some journal articles and chapters in scholarly texts, such as the one by M. W. Allen et al. (1993), provide an overview and critique of available research in an area. These publications are an excellent starting point for discovering what is known about an area and what needs to be inves- tigated next (see Chapter 3 about reviewing the re- search literature). Officially designated interest areas are not mutually exclusive compa.rtments within which all communication research can be neatly classi- fied. In fact, research, and especially cutting-edge research, is often concerned with the intersections of interest areas, such as the effects of the mass media on interpersonal interactions or rhetorical analyses of organizational communication. As Zarefsky (1993), then President of NCA, noted, "Some of the most exciting recent developments in communication not only have occurred in total disrespect of our disciplinary substructure but make much of that structure irrelevant" (p.2)' Perhaps different structures for organizing com- munication scholarship and pedagogy will emerge in the future. BASIC VERSUS APPLIED COMMUNICATION RESEARCII TOPICS Another distinction communication scholars make is between: (a) research designed to test and refine theory referred to as basic research' and (b) re- search designed to solve apractical problem, re- ferred to as applied research. Basic Cornmunication Research People often misinterpret the word theory, some- times contrasting it negatively with practical knowledge, such as in the cliche, "It may work in theory but not in practice." People, therefore, sometimes distrusttheory. The 1930s movie detec- tive Charlie Chan once said, "Theories are like the mist on the eyeglasses: They tend to obscure one's vision." This caricature of theory is misleading. A the- ory is simply a genercTtzation about a phenome- non, an explanation of how or why something occnrs. It is, as Kaplan (1964) explains, "a way of making sense of a disturbing situation" (p.295). Looked at from this perspective, "Everybody uses theories; we cannot live without them" (Littlejohn' 1996,p.2). There is, however, an important difference be- tween "commonsense" theories and "scientifi cally tested" theories. An example of a commonsense theory is what H. H. Kelly (1950, 1967) called "implicit personality theories." He discovered that people have implicit theories about which person- ality characteristics go together. For example, many people believe that writing ability and oral communication competence go together. If some- one says that his or her friend, Jack, writes well, many people would expect Jack to also be good at social interaction. But this isn't necessarily so. Im- plicit personality theories are an example of how we use a commonsense assumption or theory to form impressions of others. CHAPTER 2 ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION 3l 1r7rng com- $ill emerge iTCATION :holars make st and refi.ne . and (b) re- p'roblem, re- hzory some- ith practical nay work in e. therefore, movie detec- = are like the lbscute one's arling. A the- t a phenome- n somethilg -ns, "a way of ion" (p. 295). ;erybody uses r=Q-ittlejohn, difference be- "scientifi.cally lornmonsense 1967) called iscovered that which person- For example, bility and oral :ther. If some- _k- writes well, rlso be good at :ssarily so. Im- :ample of how n or theory to , 3. 4. '7 B. J . 6. Interpersonal Rel ati ons wi thi n Organi zati ons (233 arti cl es): Arti cl es that i nvesti gate superi or- subordi nate rel ati onshi ps, addi ti onal i nterper- sonal rel ati ons (e.g., expressi ons of emoti ons at work), i ntervi ewi ng, i nterpersonal communi - cati on and stress, and i ssues of gender and race. Communi cati on Ski l l s and Strategi es (120): Ar- ticles that focus on a wide variety of com- muni cati on ski l l s i n the workpl ace, i ncl udi ng persuasi on and i nfl uence strategi es, l i steni ng, self-presentation, and feedback seeking and delivery, as well as the outcomes associated wi t h ski l l s. Organi zati onal Cul ture and Symbol i sm (99): Arti cl es that anal yze the symbol i c aspects of organi zati onal l i fe (e.g., metaphors and ri tual s) or that di scuss organi zati onal cul ture. Informati on Fl ow and Channel s (74): Arti cl es that identify issues affecting information flow i n organi zati ons (e.g., structural characteri sti cs of organi zati ons). Power and Infl uence (67): Arti cl es that concep- tualize and assess the effects of power and in- fl uence i n organi zati ons. Posi ti ve Outcomes Associ ated wi th Communi - cation (67): Articles that assess the effects of or- gani zati onal communi cati on processes on a variety of outcomes, such as performance, pro- ducti vi ty, and empl oyee commi tment. Deci si on Maki ng and Probl em Sol vi ng (67): Arti cl es that study deci si on maki ng and prob- l em sol vi ng ei ther as outcomes or as processes, and i denti fy constrai nts on, and prescri pti ons for i mproved, deci si on maki ng. Communi cati on Networks (57): Arti cl es that identify antecedents and outcomes associated with network membership, links between tech- nology and networks, measurement-related is- sues, and i nterorganizational networks. 9. Cogni ti ve, Communi cati on, and Management Styl es (57): Arti cl es that exami ne possi bl e rel a- ti onshi ps between communi cati on/manage- ment styles and outcomes. 10. Organi zati on-Envi ronment Communi cati on Interface (53): Articles that address an organiza- tion's external communication, such as image- rel ated communi cati on. coroorate communi - cati on, and boundary spanni ng. 11. Technol ogy (45): Arti cl es that study how tech- nological advances (e.g., computer-assisted communi cati on) affect organi zati ons and em- ployees. 12. Language and Message Content (41): Studi es that concentrate on language as a means of shapi ng or frami ng i deas of real i ty and/or mes- sa8e content. 13. Structure (42): Arti cl es that expl ore rel ati on- shi ps between an organi zati on' s structure and communi cat i on. 14. Uncertai nty and Informati on Adequacy (40): Arti cl es that focus on i nterorgani zati onal un- certainty, information adequacy, and informa- ti on search. 15. Croups and Organi zati onal Effecti veness (41): Articles that focus on the outcomes associated wi th group i nteracti ons i n organi zati ons. ' 16. Ethi cs (28 arti cl es): Arti cl es that deal wi th ethi cal i ssues associ ated wi th the strategi c use of communi cati on, as wel l as i nformati on fi ow tssues. 17. Cross-cul tural Research 04: Arti cl es that fo- cus on crosscul tural and i ntercul tural organ' - zati onal communi cati on research, i ncl udi ng communi cati on patterns and manageri al com- muni cat i on. 18. Climate (1 B): Articles that investigate the determi- nants or components of organizational climate. Source: Adapt ed f rom Al l en, M. W. , Cot chet J. M. , & Si ebert , J. H. (1993). A decade of organi za- t i onal communi cat i on research: Journal art i cl es 1980-1 991. I n S. A. Deet z (Ed. ), Communi cat i on yearbook l6 (pp.252-330). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 32 PARTONE CONCEPTUALIZINGCOMMUMCATIONRESEARCH Scholars ?re more systematic in the way they develop and test theories. The purpose of basic communication research is to increase our knowledge about communication phenomena by testing, refining, and elaborating theory. Numerous theories have been developed to explain a wide array of communication events and processes, far too many for us to catalogue in this chapter. (For specific examples, see communica- tion theory textbooks by Baran & Davis, 1995;E. Griffin, I997;Infante, Rancer, & Womack, 1996; Littlejohn, 1996; Severin & Tankard, 1992;ken- holm, 1991.) But if you pick up almost any issue of a scholarly communication journal, you will see that many of the articles propose and/or test the va- lidity, or increase the precision and scope, ofpar- ticular theories. Not all theories proposed by scholars are equally worthwhile. The value of a given theory is judged by the extent to which it explains an impor- tant phenomenon satisfactorily, organizes knowl- edge, predicts certain outcomes, focuses research efforts, and excites inquiry (see Figure 2.3). The process of testing a theory scientifically is ' relatively straightforward (see Figure 2.4). The first step involves the selection of a research topic. The next step is the choice of an appropriate theory to help explain important aspects of the research topic. A hypothesis (or hypotheses) is then derived from the theory and the accuracy ofthat prediction is tested in a study. Data ate collected and ana- lyzed, and they are used to gauge the merits of the prediction. If the findings confirm or support the hypothesis, the theory has one more piece of sup- port. Ifthe findings do not support the hypothesis, more research may need to be conducted, the hy- pothesis may need to be revised, and/or the theory may need to be revised or rejected. As an example, many researchers who study interpersonal communication (an area) are inter- ested in communication behavior during initial in- teractions (a topic). One theory that is especially useful for explaining communication during initial interactions is Berger and Calabrese's (1975) Un- certainty Reduction Theory ORT), a theory that describes the relationship between uncertainty and communication. The theory starls with the premise thdt people experience a lot of uncertainty during initial interactions (e.g., about the other person, how to behave, etc.) and that they eugage in com- munication to reduce their uncertainty. Berger and Calabrese subsequently derived a number of hy- potheses from this theory. For example, they hy- pothesized that "High levels of uncertainty cause increases in information-seeking behavior'" This hypothesis, among others derived from URT, was tested by W. Douglas (1994). His study involved several steps. He fust told research partic- ipants that they would be interacting with another person whom they didn't know. They then com- pleted a questionnaire that measured how uncer- tain they typically are when meeting new people (called "global uncertainty"). Participants then in- teracted in dyads for 4 minutes and their conversa- tions were tape-recorded. After interacting, they filled out another questionnaire that measured how uncertain they were about their conversational partner. The conversations were transcribed and coded with respect to information-seeking be- haviors, such as the number of questions people asked of one another. The results showed that high levels of global uncertainty on the preconversation measure were associated with high levels of ques- tion asking, a f,rnding that supported the hypothesis and, consequently, the theory. However, post- conversation uncertainty was consistently unre- lated to the number of questions asked, a finding not predicted by the hypothesis. This finding calls into question another prediction implied by URI, and Douglas proposed a modification of that the- ory to account for it. This research study shows that a theory is re- ally never complete. Theorists are trying to explain an ever-widening range of communication behav- ior, and always fall a little short of their goal. Their reach always extends beyond their grasp. They continually try to describe, explain, understand, predict, and control more communication phe- nomena than anyone could before. Theories, like communication, are ongoing and ever-changing, and can always benefit from further refinement and elaboration. CHAPTER 2 ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION Ithe premise ainty during frer person, Fge ln com- i'- Berger and mber of hy- ple, they hy- rtainty cause rvior." ierived from 4)- His study iearchpartic- with another :y then com- I how uncer- ; new people pants then in- terr conversa- racting, theY neasured how nnversational rnscribed and rseeking be- Stions peoPle medthathigh econversation levels of ques- thehypothesis owever, post- istently unre- ke4 a finding s finding calls plied by URT, on of that the- a theory is re- yrng to gxPlain rication behav- reir goal. Their ir grasp. They rn, understand, unication Phe- , Theories, like ever-changhg, her refinement The fol l owi ng i s a synthesi s of some of the most i m- portant functions that theory serves, functions that can be used to evaluate any theory. This synthesis is based on work by Barnl und (1968), Bross (1953), Dance (1982), Hal l and Li ndzey (1970), Hawes (1975), Kapl an (1964), Kuhn (1970), Li ttl ej ohn (1996), and Pool e (1990). 1. Expl anati on: Theori es cl ari fy, make sense of, and account for a subject matter. Theories help us understand what something involves by organiz- i ng and summari zi ng knowl edge i nto a system. To the extent that a theory explains something, it is considered to have explanatory power. a. Theoretical Scope: The explanatory power of any theory is limited by its boundary-the behavior, people/texts, or contexts it covers. A theory mi ght expl ai n many thi ngs or some- thjng specific. b. Val i di ty: A theory must be i nternal l y val i d, or consistent, being free from contradiction. A theory also needs to be externally valid, be- ing consistent with observed facts and com- mon everyday experiences. c. Si mpl i ci ty/Parsi morty: A theory shoul d be as si mpl e, or parsi moni ous, as possi bl e. Cener- ally, the fewer the number of propositions, the better the theory. The desire to simplify theories and explanations is known as Ock- ham's Razor, named after William of Ock- ham ( 1285- 1349) . 2. Predi cti on: Theori es foretel l what wi l l happen before it does happen. They provide informed guesses about what wi l l occur and when. To the extent that a theory provides testable predictions about somethi ng, i t i s consi dered preci se. a. Focusing: A theory focuses attention on the most important variables and the expected outcomes. b. Observational Aid: A theory tells what to look for i n observi ng and measuri ng i mportant variables and their effects. c. Open to Falsification: A theory is open to fal- si fi cati on, or corroborati on. It must be abl e to be tested to determine the extent to which it i s true or fal se. Control: To the extent that a theory explains and predicts something, some measure of control can often be gained over that phenomenon. Such control allows the object to be produced and di- rected in meaningful ways, by setting up the nec- essary condi ti ons for causi ng or i nhi bi ti ng i ts occurrence. Heuristic: A theory should generate scholarly re- search. Theory seryes as an impetus for,testing its concepts and predictions. Scholars usually de- vote their energies to testing the most promising theories. Thus, theories that have been examined widely are usually deemed most noteworthy. Communicative: A theory serves as an important focus for di scussi on and debate. l t i s a publ i c message about a phenomenon that schol ars ar- gue for and agai nst. Inspiration: A theory ought to be exciting, catch the i magi nati on, and teach peopl e somethi ng. It ought to hel p sol ve i mportant puzzl es and i n- tri gui ng mysteri es and shoul d address i mportant and meani ngful concerns. 3. Applied Comrnunication Research Applied conrmunication research is conducted for the purpose of solving a "real-world," socially relevant communication problem. As Cissna (L982), the fust editor of the Journal of Applied C ommunication Re s earch, explained: Applied research sets out to contribute to knowl- edge by answeing a real, pragmatic, socinl ques- tion or by solving a real pragmatic, social problem. Applied communication research involves such a question or problem of human communication or examines human communication in order to pro- vide an answer or solution to the question or prob' lem. (Editor's note) Applied communication research, thus, seeks to demonstrate the relevance of communication knowledge to a particular event or challenge of 34 PART ONE CONCEPTUALIZINGCOMMI]NICATIONRESEARCH 2. 3. Select Topic of Interest Exampl e: Communi cati on behavi .or duri ng i ni ti al i nteracti ons I rt Select Appropriate Theory Example: Uncer:tainty Reduction Theory: Peopl e experi ence uncertai nty duri ng i ni ti al interactions and seek to reduce it by engaging i n communi cati on behavi or (Berger & Cal abrese, 1975) | \y Deri ve a Hypothesi s Exampl e: "Hi gh l evel s of uncertai nty cause i ncreases i n i nformati on seeki ng behavi or" (Berger & Cal abrese, 1975, P.103) \/ 4. Design Study and Test Hypothesis A. lf hypothesis is confirmed, study provides support for the theorY B. l f hypothesi s i s not confi rmed: 1. Conduct addi ti onal research 2. Revi se hypothesi s 3. Revise or re.iect theorY everyday life. Applied researchers start with a communication problem in a specific context and conduct a study to lessen its intensity and/or prev- alence. Hopefully, the study yields valid generali- zations about, and potential solutions to, the problem. Many important problems experienced by in- dividuals, couples, groups, organizations, and soci- eties have attracted the attention of communication scholars. Figure 2.5 provides some recent examples of applied communication research. As you see, communication researchers have channeled their energies and resources toward helping to solve some very imporlant problems. One type of applied research that has impor- tant consequences for the study of communication is action research, "a collaborative approach to lz- quiry or investigation that provides people with the means to take systematic action to resolve specific problems" (Stringer, 1996, p. 15). Action research stresses participative inquiry, that is, communica- tion and collaboration with community group members throughoutthe course of aresearch study. Working with a researcher, stakeholders define a problem in their community, determine the meth- ods to be used to collect, analyze, and reflect on the data, and use their new understandings to design action steps to resolve and manage the problem (see Argyris, Putnam, & Smith, 1985; Heron & Reason, 1997; Reason, 1994). One important type of applied communica- tion research that lends itself well to action research methods is social justice communica- tion research. This research deals with and con- tributes to the well-being of people who are economically, socially, politically, and/or cultur- ally underresourced and disenfranchised (see Ray, 1996a, I996b; Swartz, 1997a). One way research- ers do this is by identifying and critiquing domi- nant structures that underwrite inequality. Clair and Thompson (1996), for example, interviewed 50 working women to describe how pay inequity articulates patriarchical conditions. They found that pay inequity is viewed as a sign of oppression, a symbol of privilege to some groups and margin- alization to others. Sometimes social justice com- munication researchers go beyond identifrcation and critique to actively change an oppressive situ- ation. Schmitz, Rogers, Phillips, and Paschal (1995), for example, conducted a 6-year study of the Public Electronic Network (PEN), a free, computer-based electronic communication net- work designed by one of the authors and used by over 5.000 Santa Monica, California, residents. The study showed how PEN spurred participation in confronting the problem of homelessness by persons not customarily given "voice." As another example, Hartnett (1998) not only critiqued the "correctional-industrial-complex" (the interlock- ing interests of police/conectional organizations and industrial corporations that profit from the symbolic construction of racism, fear of crime, and law and order that lead to the solution ofpris- ons), as an activist teaching in a prison, he had his xolve specifi.c ction research i- commuruca- munity group research study. ilders define a oine the meth- dreflect on the ings to design e the problem 985: Heron & d communica- r-ell to action r communica- *-ith and con- ople who are and/or cultur- hised (see Ray, : way research- idquing domi- requality. Clair le. interviewed g pay inequity s. They found r of oppression, rps and margin- ial justice com- d identification oppressive situ- ;- and Paschal Gyear study of (PEN), a free, runication net- rn and used by nnia, residents. ed participation omelessness by rce." As another tv critiqued the (the interlock- il organizations profit from the , fear of crime, solution of pris- rison, he had his R. J. Adams and Parrott (1994) studi ed pedi at- ri c nurses' communi cati on of rol e expectati ons to parents of hospi tal i zed chi l dren. Both nurses and parents were more satisfied and perceived a reducti on i n rol e ambi gui ty when nurses communi cated rul es i n wri ti ng and/or oral l y, as compared to no formal communi cati on. Di l l ard, Pl otni ck, Codbol d, Frei muth, and Edgar (1 996) investigated the extent to which publ i c servi ce announcements on the topi c of AIDS/HlV evoked emotional responses and the degree to which those feelings predicted re- ceivers' reactions to such messages. Ferguson and Di ckson (1995) exami ned chi l - dren' s feel i ngs and expectati ons regardi ng thei r si ngl e parents' dati ng behavi or. They found that chi l dren' s connectedness, i nformati onal certai nty, openness, i nterpersonal acceptance, emoti onal securi ty, and boundari es were re- lated to their perceptions of this aspect of their oarents' l i ves. Henri ksen (1 996) studi ed what ski l l s underl i e chi l dren' s comprehensi on of adverti sements' i ntent. The resul ts suggested that how wel l they understand that sel l i ng i mpl i es an exchange of money for goods i nfl uences how young vi ew- ers interpret advertisers' motives. 5. Manusov, Cody, Donohue, and Zappa (1994) investigated the frequency, type, and sequence of accusati ons made duri ng chi l d custody me- di ati on sessi ons. Accusati ons were found to be detri mental . Coupl es were more l i kel y to reach CHAPTER 2 ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT COMMUMCATION 35 custody agreements when mediators intet- vened after accusations and when discussion of specific offending behavior was avoided. 6. M. Mi l l er (1995) expl ored messages across four generati ons of si x women i n one fami l y who had engaged i n nonfatal sui ci de behav- iors. She discovered recurrent pafterns of com- muni cati on that may have put the femal e members of thi s fami l y at ri sk for sui ci de. 7. Ol son and Ol son (1994) studi ed how j udges' statements and deci si ons i n j ury tri al s, through both thei r tri al -management approaches and the accounts of l aw and j usti ce embedded i n thei r comments.duri ng tri al s, i nfl uence j urors' verdi cts. B. T. R. Peterson et al . (1994) conducted a fi el d study of Texas farmers to identify persuasive strategies (such as following a narrative format and avoi di ng the appearance of rel yi ng on techni cal experti se at the expense of common sense) that work to reduce i nj uri es i nvol vi ng use of farm equi pment. 9. Stamp and Sabouri n (1 995) col l ected and cate- gori zed accounts of 15 abusi ve mal es i o un- derstand violence between spouses and to design effective treatment programs for them. 10. Vangel i sti (1994a) studi ed mari tal and rel a- ti onal counsel ors and found that many focus on i ndi vi dual , rather than i nterpersonal and re- l ati onal , factors when concei vi ng and treati ng the cause of communi cati on probl ems. 3. communication class reenact the 1858 Lincoln/ Douglas debate over slavery, and added the voice of the black abolitionist David Walker. The re- search report documents how this public speaking exercise transformed the class into a workshop for democracy, teaching these students/prisoners and invited guests-guards, administrators, other pris- oners, and members of the press-about the com- plicated systems that then supported and contested slavery, many of which still exist today in the fight for racial equality and social justice. As Hartnett explains, "The debate, therefore, enabled us to stage an empowering counterpublic, in which a marginalized and viciously stereotyped group of men were able to construct the shape and texture of their own voices while engaging in thoughtful, se- rious political debate" (p.237). As L.R. Frey, Pearce, Pollock, Artz, andMurphy (1996) contend, these and other communication scholars (see, for example, Attz, 1998; Crabtree, 1998; T. S. Jones & 36 PARTONE CONCEPTUALIZINGCOMMUNICATIONRESEARCH Bodtker, 1998;. Ryan, Carcagee, & Schwerner, 1998; Varallo, Ray, & Ellis, 1998) "have channeled their energies and resources toward challenging the noflns, practices, relations, and structures that un- derwrite inequality and injustice'; (p. 1 10). An Integrated Model of Basic and Applied Communication Research Although there are some important differences be- tween basic and applied communication research (see Figure 2.6), these should not be treated as un- related endeavors. Theory and practice are inher- ently intertwined. K, Lewin (1951) argued that "there is nothing so practical as a good theory" (p. 169), and Levy-Leboyer (1988) later added that "there is nothing so theoretical as a good applica- tion" (p.785). "Theory and practice," Boyer (1990) concluded, "vitally interact, and one re- news the other" (p.23). The interrelationship of theory and applica- tion is especially important in a "practical disci- pline" such as communication that has enormous potential to make a difference in people's lives (see R. T. Craig, 1989,1995; R. T. Craig &Tracy, 1995). As Craig (i995) claims, 'All research in a practical discipline is ultimately pursued not for its own sake but for the sake of practice" (p. 1 5 1). Moreover, a practical field is inherently theoreti- cal. Wood (1995) contends that there is a dynamic interplay between theory and practice that charac- teizes what is typically called "applied" commu- nication research: 'Applied communication research is practicing theory and theorizing prac- tice" (p. 157). Hence, any strict distinction be- tween "basic" and "applied" communication research, according to G. R. Miller (1995), is "more an intellectual and professional liability than an asset" (p. 49). DEFI NI NG CHARACTERISTIC BASIC COMMUNICATION RESEARCH APPLIED COMMU NICATION RESEARCH Nature of the probl em Coals of the research Cui di ng theory Appropriate techniques Seeks to establ i sh general pri nci pl es about communi cati on. To produce theoreti cal pri nci pl es that si mpl i fy and expl ai n apparentl y compl ex or rel ated communi cati on processes. Other scholars' theoretical perspectives. Theory formu lation, hypothesis testi nB, sampl i ng, data col l ecti on techniques (di rect observation, i ntervi eW questi onnai re, scal e measurement), statistical treatment of data, validation or rejection of hypothesi s. Seeks to understand an i mportant communi cati on probl em. To provide knowledge that can be i mmedi atel y useful to a pol i cymaker who seeks to el i mi nate or al l evi ate a communi cati on probl em Any i dea, i ncl udi ng l ay theori es or other scholars' theoretical perspectives, that hol ds promi se of changi ng an unsati sfyi ng si tuati on i nto a more desi rabl e one. Observe or ask actors about events l eadi ng up to current si tuati on; tri al and eval uati on of proposed sol uti on. Source: Adapted from Miller, D.C., Handbook of research design and social measurement p.4, copyright @ ' 1991 tty Sage Publications, Inc. Adapted by Permission of Sage Publications, Inc. CHAPTER 2 ASKING QIJESTIONS ABOTJ"T COMMUNICATION 37 r and applica- ractical disci- has enormous people's lives )raig & Tracy, I research in a rsued not for ri ce" (p. 151). ently theoreti e is a dynamic ce that charac- ilied" commu- ommunication Eonzmg prac- listinction be- ommunication ller (1995), is iional liability important n. hat can be policymaker or alleviate a n. theories or al perspectives, rangrnS an ito a more bout events h.ration; trial xed sol uti on. o 8 s F 1 Low Source: Gary L. Kreps, Lawrence R. Frey, and Dan O' Hair, ' Applied Communication Research: Scholarship That Can Make a Difference," Journal of Applied Communication Research, 19(1/2\, p.74. Copyright O 1991 by National Communi cat i on Associ at i on. Reproduced by permi ssi on of the oublisher. Kreps, Frey, and O'Hair (199I) advanced a conceptual model that integrates concerns for the- ory with concerns for practice (see Figure 2.7). This model employs two axesr one axis describes the relative emphasis of a particular study on the- ory and the other axis references the relative em- phasis on application/practice. This model is useful for assessing the poten- tial benefits of research studies. A Study low on both theory and application (1/1) is rarely worth doing. For example, many scholars bemoan what they call "variable-analytic research," in which as- pects of a communication process are related for no apparent purpose, not because they can poten- tially advance theory or solve a real-world prob- lem. It might be easy and fun to study whether people born under different astrological signs speak faster or use longer sentences, but this find- ing would have little theoretical or pragmatic sig- nificance. (When lots of variables are studied for no apparent reason, this is called a "shotgun ap- proach," because a researcher essentially aims a gun, metaphorically speaking, in a general direc- tion and hopes to hit something.) A study may have relatively high theoretical interest but little apparent practical application (1/ 9), at least in the short run. For many years, former U.S. Senator William Proxmire of Wisconsin pre- sented a dubious achievement award called the "Golden Fleece" to what he thought were wasteful federally funded research projects. Senator Proxmire may have had good intentions, but he seemed to assume that the only standard for evalu- ating research was obvious and immediate eco- nomic or practical value. However, theoretical research often concerns phenomena that do not seem immediately relevant to the citizens funding it with their tax dollars. In fact, the more developed a science is, the less laypersons can judge what will eventually be important if it is pursued. We must, the.refore, be very careful about dismissing this type of research, because sometimes practical benehts are not immediately appa.rent. For exam- ple, it may seem frivolous to fund a study of con- flict styles based on how people compete in a table game, such as the Prisoner's Dilemma, "a mixed- motive game or simulation which forces two sets of players to make a choice in a situation where the outcome or payoff is a function of the interaction between the decisions of the players" (Ashmore, 1987, p.117). But if the styles identified in that study are later used in another study to reveal how the arguments of couples who get a divorce differ from the arguments of couples whose marriages last, or how the arguments evidenced in successful organizational work teams differ from those in teams in organizations that go bankrupt, the fust study proves to have practical value after all. A study rated high on applied value but low on theory (9/1) is one in which the research solves an important problem in a particular context, but the findings can't be generalized to other contexts (see Chapter 5). For example, say a communica- tion consultant is called in to study a problem of 8 7 a 2 1 1 Low 4 5 6 7 Practice 9 Hi gh ' 1. 9 9. 9 5. 5 1 . 1 9. 1 38 PARToNE CONCEPfUALIZINGCOMMUNICATIONRESEARCH information flow in a company. After conducting extensive research in that organization, the con- sultant finds that the problem is due to a particular individual and recommends that this individual be fired. In this instance, the company gained valu- able information and solved its problem, but that single case does not appear to yield a generaliza- tion that can be applied in any other context. Many studies fall between the extremes, of course (5/5 studies, for example), but communica- tion scholars should aim to do research that has high concern/potential for both theory and practice (9/9). Many 9/9 communication research studies have been done. For example, K. Miller, Birkholt, Scott, and Stage ( 1995) studied the relationship be- tween emotional communication and job burnout for human service workers. Their study of workers who frovide services to the homeless extends the Empathetic Communication Model of Burnout (see K.I. Miller, Stitr, & Ellis, 1988), which ex- plains how different types of empathy are related to communicative effectiveness and subsequent burnout. Their 1995 study includes three important concepts not discussed in the original theory/ model: job involvement, organizational role, and attitude regarding service recipients. This study, thus, not only provided support for a modified ver- sion of this model, but offered a more full under- standing of, and ways of managing, emotional communication-an important cause of burnout, which is a significant problem for many human service workers. JUSTIFYING COMMI.INICATION RESEARCH TOPICS R. K. Tucker, Weaver, and Berryman-Fink (1981) argue that all researchers should be prepared to an- swer the questions: "So what?" and "Who cares?" Researchers, therefore, must develop a clear ratio- nale for why their research topic is worth studying. We have said that the best topics have the po- tential to both extend theory and help solve impor- tant social problems. Research should, thus, contribute to the "conversation" between those who conduct research and those who misht use their research findings. In that light, research can be addressed to three primary audiences, each of which has slightly different needs: scholars, prac- titioners, and the general public. A research project is important to com- munication scholars when it investigates an impor- tant communication phenomenon/problem, extends previous research by providing a more complete understanding of that phenomenon/problem, tests and refines theory, and suggests directions for fu- ture research. A communication research project valuable to scholars contributes to a better under- standing of the significance of previous investiga- tions and suggests directions for subsequent research endeavors. A second audience is practitioners who apply the knowledge that scholars produce. Practitioners include educators who translate research findings for students, communication consultants ryho help organizations solve communication problems, counselors who help couples communicate better, and executives who produce television shows. The best practitioners who use communication to carry out their work try to keep informed about the latest research so that their practice is up-to-date. They value communication research projects that help them do their job better. A thfud audience is the general public, non- professionals who want to know what messages will help them handle their everyday communica- tion challenges better. Occasionally, books about "how to communicate better with your partner" or "how to dress for success," which essentially ffanslate communication-related research findings into easily understood prescriptions (although some don't seem to rely on research at all), have become best-sellers. A communication research project, therefore, is important to the members of the general public to the extent that it helps them live a more fulfrlling life. Some communication research has utility for all three audiences. For example, studying the ef- fects of media violence on children potentially benefits all three audiences. This type ofresearch has a long history dating back to the 1920s (see Gunter. 1994) andhas contributed substantially to research can nces, each of :holars, prac- ant to com- rres an impor- blem, extends ore complete roblem, tests cdons for fu- earch project better under- nrs investiga- : subsequent rs who apply . Practitioners arch findings rnts who help n problems, micate better, n shows. The ation to carry bout the latest to-date. They acs that help I public, non- hat messages i communica- . books about ur parhler" or :h essentially xrch findings ns (although h at all), have rtion research e members of it helps them has utility for udyiog the ef- :n potentially pe of research he 1920s (see ubstantially to theories about relationships between messages and behavior. Understanding these effects is also important to practitioriers, such as producers of television shows (e.g., the recent decision by tele- vision executives to increase the number of hours per week devoted to nonviolent, family-oriented shows) and doctors who treat aggressive children (the American Medical Association recently is- sued guidelines about counteracting such effects). And, of course, such effects are important to par- ents concerned about their children's television- viewing habits. Thus, while any particular research study may benefit some audience(s) more than others, the best communication research poten- tially benefits all three audiences. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES In research articles, researchers first explain why they chose their topic, review the relevant litera- ture (see Chapter 3), and then they articulate the research question or statement that guided their investigation. These questions and/or statements usually are designed to accomplish one of two goals: (a) to describe communication behavior, or (b) to relate communication behavior to other variables. Describing Communication Behavior One important purpose of communication research is to describe the natue aad characteristics of a par- ticular communication behavior or sequence of communication behaviors. A research questionr a formal question posed to guide research, of this type essentially asks, "What is the nature of com- munication behavior 'X'?" For example, consider the following research questions that scholars have asked about communication behavior: RQ: What receiver behaviors trigger perceived suspicion? (J. K. Burgoon, Buller, Dillman, & Walther, 1995) RQ: What topics do recipients report being teased about? (Alberts, Kellar-Guenther, & Corman, 1997\ CHAPTER2 ASKINGQUESTIONSABOUTCOMMUNICATION 39 RQ: What are the types of interpersonal rituals re- ported in friendships and marital relation- ships? (Bruess & Pearson, 1997) RQ: What supervisor communication occurs dur- ing the dismissal process? (Cox & Kramer, 1995) RQ: What is the sffircture of memorable support and nonsupport messages? (L. A. Ford & El- l i s, 1998) RQ: How do able-bodied instructors communicate with students with disabilities? (R. D. Hafi & Wi l l i ams.1995) RQ: What are the rules those sexually abused re- port using to disclose about this crime? (Petronio, Reeder, Hecht, & Ros-Mendoza, r996) RQ: What do the emotional experiences of 911 call-takers and citizens look like? (Tracy & Tracy, 1998) RQ: What are adolescents' motivations for view- ing graphic horror? (Johnston, 1995) RQ: What is the global structure of international news flow? (K. Kim & Barnett, 1996) These questions are descriptive-much like the who, what, where, when, aad why questions journalists ask when covering a news story. But these questions also do something very important: They attempt to categoize a concept and, thereby, measure it and turn it into a vaiable (see Chapter 4 for a fuller discussion of measurement). A vari- able is any concept that can have two or more val- ues. A single object, therefore, is not a variable; it becomes a variable only when it exists in different types or in different amounts and we understand those different states. A particular make of car, such as a Honda, would not be a variable if all Hondas were identical or we didn't know how to differentiate them. Once we learn that Hondas are divided into such categories as 'Accord," "Pre- lude," and "Civic," we are talking about "types of Hondas," which can be a variable. To illustrate the process of tuming a commu- nication behavior into a variable, take the research question posed by Cox and Kramer (1995) about supervisor communication during the dismissal 40 PARTONE CONCEPTUALZINGCOMMUNICATIONRESEARCH process. Before. they did this study, supervisor communication during this process was talked about as a global, single concept. To turn it into a variable, the researchers asked managers what they said during termination meetings with em- ployees. They discovered that supervisors en- gaged in a number of specific communication behaviors, such as asking employees about their performance or conduct, explaining the problem and/or reviewing the documentation, and offering some assistance or advice to the dismissed em- ployee. With this information, we can study more precisely how particular behaviors affect the out- come of the process. Therefore, these categories show how supervisor communication behavior during the dismissal process varies in meaningful ways. Describing communication behavior by showing how it varies by type or amount and, thereby, turning concepts into variables, is, thus, important research. Relating Communication Behavior to Other Variables Turning a communication concept into a variable makes it possible to examine the relationship be- tween that communication behavior/variable and other important variables. Researchers can answer specific instances of the general research question, "How is communication variable 'X' related to other variables?" Consider, for example, the fol- lowing research questions: nQ: Is affective orientation related to the reported use of specific types of nonverbal comforting behaviors? (Bullis & Horn, 1995) RQ: Is the sex of the siblings related to the amount of verbally aggressive messages? (Teven, Martin, & Newpauer, 1998) RQ: Are there associations between a woman's sur- name and men's and women's perceptions of a woman's commitment to the relationship or loveforherpartner? (Stafford & Kline, 1996) RQ: What role will gender and psychological type play in conflict style preference for experi- enced managers? (Sorenson, Hawkins, & So- renson. 1995) RQ: To what extent is perceived nonverbal im- mediacy of teachers related to the students' evaluations of those behaviors? (McCroskey, Richmond, Sallinen, Fayer, & Barraclough, 199s) RQ: To what degree do intemational students' fre- quency of interaction with American students and lengths of time in the United States, the lo- cal community, and attending the university increase their perceptions of adaptation to American culture? (S. Zimmermann, 1995) RQ: How does technology affect the interactions in the classroom? (McHenry &Bozk,1995) Each of these questions asks about the relationship between a communication behavior that varies in measurable ways (e.g., nonverbal comforting be- havior, verbally aggressive messages, etc.) and other variables. To understand more fully how scholars pose research questions involving relationships be- tween variables, we must make several more dis- tinctions between: (a) independent and dependent variables, (b) ordered and nominal variables, and (c) research questions and hypotheses. Independ,ent versus DependentVariables. When researchers study how two variables are related, they often assume that one of them influences the other. They call the variable that is thought to influ- ence changes in another variable an independent variable (IV) (sometimes called an explanatory variable; in nonexperimental research, a predic' tor variable). They call the variable thought to be changed by another variable a dependent variable (DV) (in nonexperimental research, sometimes called the criterion variable or outcome vari- able), because changes in it are dependent on changes in the other variable. For example, in the hypothesis, "If you say 'please,' people are more likely to do what you ask," "saying please" is the independent variable and "people doing what you ask" is the dependent variable. These labels distin- suish variables that are thought to influence other ,kins, & So- rnr-erbal im- he students' IfcCroskey, )arraclough, nrdents' fre- ican students itares, the lo- re university daptation to mn. 1995) interactions iozik, 1995) : relationship tat varies in mforting be- :s. etc.) and cholars pose Lonships be- ral more dis- rtl dependent ariables, and bles. When s are related, nfluences the ughtto influ- independent explanatory ch, a predic- ftought to be Ient variable r, sometimes rtcome vari- lependent on .arnple, in the lple are more please" is the rhg what you :labels distin- rfluence other variables (independent variables) from variables thought to be influenced by other variables (depen- dent variables). Sometimes researchers suspect a causal rela- tionship between variables, believing that changes in the independent variable cause ,obsewed changes in the dependent variable. For example, many researchers believe that smoking cigarettes (the independent variable) causes carcer (the de- pendent variable). Researchers sometimes study independent variables that are not about messages, but are thought to influence people's communica- tion behavior. For example, the attractiveness of people's appearance may influence how others talk to them, television orradio may influence the com- ments political candidates make, and newspaper editorials bbout the bombings of Iraq may be different depending on whether the editorial is published in a United States or Middle Eastern newspaper. These suspected relationships focus on how independent variables (such as the person, channel, and context variables discussed earlier in this chapter) that precede, or exist prior to, com- munication (called input variables) cause changes in a dependent variable that concems some aspect of communication behavior. Communication behavior, of course, can also be studied as an independent variable that causes changes iri a dependent variable. For example, re- searchers may suspect that certain messages de- signed to get other people to comply with a request may actually cause people to resist doing what was asked rather than agreeing to it. Researchers may also believe that exposure to violent televi- sion messages causes children to tolerate violence on their playgrounds. In such instances, commu- nication is the independent variable that is thought to cause changes in the dependent, or outcome, variable. It should be pointed out that causality is very diftrcult to establish. We would not want to con- clude that a drug cured a disease on the basis of a single study, or two or three, and the same is true when attempting to establish causal principles for communication behavior (see Chapter 5 regarding CHAPTER2 ASKINGQUESTIONSABOUTCOMMUNICATION 4I the replication of studies). Careful design of stud- ies that yield ample evidence must be obtained be- fore a causal relationship between variables can be inferred. We will examine how to design such studies in Chapter 7 when we explore experimen- tal research. There are also various models of causal rela- tionships between variables. For example, in some models of causality, called recursive causal mod- els, the causal relationship is one way-one vari- able influences another but not the other way around. that is. one is the cause and the other is the effect. For example, age may influence the amount that people self-disclose about themselves, but self-disclosure can't influence people's age. In other models, called nonrecursive causal models, the causal relationship is reciprocal or two way, in that a variable can be both a cause and an effect. For example, studying may leadlo better grades, but better grades may well make it more likely that a person studies. At other times, researchers assume a non- causal relationship between variables, meaning that the variables are associated, or occur together, without one necessarily causing changes in the other. A study may discover, for example, that peo- ple like people they know more about; that is, self- disclosure and liking are related. But the causal relationship may well remain a chicken-and-egg question. Changes in self-disclosure may cause changes in liking and not the other way around, but it could just as easily be that changes in liking cause changes in self-disclosure and not the other way around. Of course, it could also be a nonrecur- sive causal model, with one variable causing changes in the other that then lead to changes in the first variable. In cases where a relationship be- tween two variables is suspected, but it is not clear which is the cause and which is the effect, a non- causal relationship is assumed. When posing formal research questions for a study that assesses noncausal relationships, re- searchers typically designate one variable as the in- dependent variable and the other as the dependent variable, depending on their primary hterest. For 42 PARToNE CONCEPTUALIZINGCOMMUNICATIoNRESEARCH example, if .they are most interested in how changes in self-disclosure relate to changes in lik- ing, then they should designate self-disclosure as the independent variable and liking as the depen- dent variable. Ifthey think changes in liking are re- lated to changes in self-disclosure, then liking would be viewed as the independent variable and self-disclosure would be the dependent variable. Ordered versus Nominal Variables. Variables can also be differentiated with regard to the values re- searchers assign to them or the kind of "scale" used to measure them (see Chapter 4). Ordered variables can be assigned numerical values that indicate how much of the concept is present. Vari- ables such as age, weight, temperature,'and in- come are ordered variables. Being 10 years old, for example, is less than being 20 years old, which is less than being 30 years old, and so forth. We can measure how much older or younger one person is than another. The numerical value. in this case. in- dicates how much age a person possesses, so age is an ordered variable. Nominal variables (also called categorical, classificatory, or discrete variables), by contrast, can be differentiated only on the basis of type (nominal means "in name only"). Variables such as gender (male and female),race (e.g., Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Native Ameri- can), and political affiliation (e.g., Democrat, Re- publican, and Independent) are nominal variables since they identify different types. No meaningful quantities can be assigned to the categories of a nominal variable. Although numbers are some- times used to represent nominal categories, for ex- ample, we can call males "1" and females "2," we don't mean that females have twice as much of something as males. (A nominal variable such as gender that can only be divided into two categories is called a dichotomous or binomial variable; if there are more than two categories, such as the many categories used to reference ethnicity, it is called a polytomous variable.) License plates are another good example. If you have license plate F1000 and your friend has license plate F3000, that doesn't mean your friend has more license plate than you! Nominal variables, therefore, indi- cate what something is or whether an attribute is present or absent, not how much of a concept is present. In some cases, a potentially ordered variable is ffeated as a nominal variable. Instead of being measured on an ordered scale, it is divided into cat- egories along an ascending or descending range (such as low, medium, or high on communication apprehension). One can easily transform any or- dered variable into a nominal variable. We could, for example, say that temperatures of 50 degrees or above constitute warm weather whereas tempera- tures below 50 degrees constitute cool weather. (An ordered variable that is divided into two cate- gories like this is called a dichotomized variable.) But note how much information we have lost in the process. There is, after all, a big difference be- tween 50 degrees and 120 degrees, but both get classihed as warm weather in this particular exam- ple. Because of this loss of important information, researchers typically don't turn ordered variables into nominal variables. It is also sometimes possible to turn a nominal variable into an ordered variable. Bem (1979), for example, studied gender as an ordered variable by using numerical values to measure the psychologi cal orientations of men and women regarding tradi- tionally feminine and masculine traits, which she called "psychological gender orientation." Her re- search participants indicated on a 5-point ordered scale their agreement with many statements repre- senting these male-associated/female-associated traits and were then given a total score for each type of trait. An imbalance of male and female traits sig- nifres whefher one has a traditionally male or ffadi- tionally female psychological gender orientation; if the scores are relatively equal, people are consid- ered aadrogynous in their psychological gender orientation. In contrast, biological gender can only be ffeated as a nominal variable. Research Questions versus Hypotheses. Re- search studies usually are designed to answer CHAPTER 2 ASKING QI,]ESTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION 43 more license herefore, indi- an attribute is ,f a concept is dered variable stead of being irided into cat- cending range ommumcatlon rsform any or- ble. We could, rf 50 degrees or ereas tempera- cool weather. I into rwo cate- izedvariable.) have lost in the difference be- s- but both get articular exam- [t information, fured variables I turn a nominal lern (1979), for red variable by rte psychologi- rcgarding tradi- airs, which she Ltation." Her re- 5-point ordered tsIements repre- male-associated rre for each type :emale traits sig- l.v male or tradi- er orientation; if ople are consid- ological gender gender can only ypotheses. Re- ned to answer research questions or test hypotheses about rela- tionships between variables. Questions typically are posed when reseaichers don't have enough ev- idence, on the basis of the literature reviewed (see Chapter 3), to predict the nature of that relation- ship. They may, for example, be studying variables that haven't been related before. Therefore, they have little information on which to base a claim about the nature of the relationship. It might also be the case that the literature has revealed conflict- ing evidence, with some studies showing a rela- tionship between two (or more) variables and others showing no relationship. In such cases, re- searchers typically pose a research question about the relationship between the variables. At other times, however, researchers have a hunch or tentative answer about the nature of the relationship between an independent and depen- dent variable. This tentative answer usually is de- rived from a theory or from the available body of literature about the variables, and sometimes from logic and/or observations ofhow the variables in- teract in everyday life. When researchers feel confident enough to make a prediction, they advance a hypothesis (Hu is the general symbol for a research hypothesis; H1 is used to refer to a specific research hypothesis), a tentative statement about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. It may simply predict a relationship between variables without specifying the nature of that relationship, called a two-tailed hypothesis (sometimes called a two-direction hypothesis or, less accurately, a nondirectional hypothesis), or it may predict the specific nature of the relationship, called a one- tailed hypothesis (sometimes called a directional hypothesis) (see Chapter 12). Posing Reseurch Questions and Hypotheses about Relntionships between Vqriebles. How the research question or hypothesis for a communi- cation study is phrased usually depends on two things: (a) whether the independent variable is nominal or ordered, and (b) whether a researcher wishes to pose a research question or a hypothesis about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. We will use two hypothetical examples-the effects of gender on self-disclosure and the effects of age on self-disclosure-to ex- plain the general form that research questions and hypotheses take (see Figure 2.8), and along the way, we will take a look at some actual examples as well. When the independent variable isnominal, di- vided into categories, the research question asks whether there is a dffirence between a (the first category of the nominal independent variable) and b (the second category of the nominal independent variable) with respect to c (the dependent vari- able). For example, in studying the effects of gen- der (the independent variable) on self-disclosure (the dependent variable), the research question asks whether there is a difference between males (a, the flrst category of the nominal variable) and females (b, the second category of the nominal variable) with regard to self-disclosure (c, the de- pendent variable). What we just described is a template for how researchers pose a research question when the in- dependent variable is nominal. In actual practice, this form may differ slightly, as the following re- search questions from actual studies show: RQ: Will females provide more sensitive comfort- ing messages than males? (Hoffner & Haefner, 1991) RQ: How do doctors and patients differ in their co- vert responses during the medical interview? (Cegala, McNeilis, McGee, & Jonas, 1995) RQ: Do program enrollees and nonenrollees [in a Breast and Cervical Cancer Control Programl differ in their preference for persuasive mes- sages delivered through mass media, one-to- several interpersonal channels, or one-to-one interpersonal channels? (A.A. Marshall, Smith, & McKeon, 1995) RQ: Do individuals exhibiting high, moderate, and low Adventurousness, Impulsiveness, and Disinhibition, respectively, differ in reported condom use behavior? (Sheer & Cline, 1995) 44 PART ONE CONCEPTUALIZING COMMUNICATIONRESEARCH NOMINAT INDEPENDENT VARIABTE A. Research Question 1. For m RQ: ls there a difference between a (the first category of the independent variable) and b (the second category of the independent variable) with respect to c (the dependent vari abl e)? 2. Example: Effects of Cender on Self-disclosure (a = Mal es; b = Femal es; c = Sel f-di scl osure) RQ: ls there a difference between males and fe- mal es wi th respect to sel f-di scl osure? B. Hypothesis (One-Tailed) 1. For ms H: A (the fi rst category of the i ndependent vari - abl e) i s greater on c (the dependent vari abl e) than b (the second category of the indepen- dent vari abl e). or H: A (the fi rst category of the i ndependent vari - abl e) i s l ower on c (the dependent vari abl e) than b (the second category of the indepen- dent vari abl e). 2. Examoles: Effects of Cender on Self-disclosure (2 = Males; b = Females; c = Self-disclosure) H: Mal es sel f-di scl ose more than femal es. or H: Mal es sel f-di scl ose l ess than femal es. ORDERED INDEPENDENT VARIABTE A. Research Question 1. For m RQ: l s there a rel ati onshi p between x (the i nde- pendent vari abl e) and y (the dependent vari abl eX 2. Exampl e: Effects of Age on Sel f-di scl osure (x = Age; y = Sel f-di scl osure) RQ: l s there a rel ati onshi p between age and sel f-di scl osure? B. Hypothesis (One-Tailed) 1. For ms H: There i s a posi ti ve rel ati onshi p between x (the i ndependent vari abl e) and y (the depen- dent vari abl e). or H: -There i s a negati ve rel ati onshi p between x (the i ndependent vari abl e) and y (the depen- dent vari abl e). 2. Exampl es: Effects of Age on Sel f-Di scl osure (x = Age; y = Sel f-di scl osure) H: There i s a posi ti ve rel ati onshi p between age and sel f-di scl osure. or H: There i s a negati ve rel ati onshi p between age and sel f-di scl osure. RQ: Compared to Caucasian students will Native American students perceive their teachers to have less communication competence? (Bolls, Tan, & Austin, 1997). A hypothesis for a nominal independent vari- able predicts the nature of the difference between the two (or more) categories of the independent variable. It takes the form: a (the first category of the nominal independent variable) will be greater (or less) on c (the dependent variable) than will b (the second category of the nominal independent variable). Regarding the effects of gender on self- disclosure, the hypothesis might state that "Men self-disclose more than women" (or "Men self- disclose less than women"). (Note: Like most re- search hypotheses, this statement is one-tailed; a two-tailed hypothesis would state: "Men and women self-disclose differently." A difference is still predicted, but investigators are unsure ofits di- rection or location.) In actual practice, this form varies somewhat. The following hypotheses provide illustrations of its use: CHAPTER 2 ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION 45 n.x (the i nde- e dependent di scl osure een age and ip between x f ithe depen- ip between x 1 (the depen- i -Di scl osure rbetween age r between a6e render on self- ate that "Men or "Men self- Like most re- s one-tailed; a e: "Men and \ difference is rnsure of its di- des somewhat. illustrations of H: Women report more than men that verbal in- teractions contribute to their relational close- ness. (Floyd & Parks, 1995) H: Employees provided with justifications will perceive the manager's actions as fairer than employees provided with excuses or no social accounts. (Tata,1996) H: Older people will evaluate their communica- tion with young family adults more positively than young people in general. (Cai, Giles, & Noels, 1998) H: Concrete news items will have better recall than abstract news items. (David, 1998) Ir: Group members from individualistic cultures will initiate more conflicts than group mem- bers from collectivist cultures. (Oetzel, 1998) When the independent variable is ordered, measured in sequenced numbers, the research question asks whether there is a relationship be- tween x (the independent variable) and y (the de- pendent variable). Say we want to know how age (x, the independent variable) affects self-disclosure (y, the dependent variable). Because age is an or- dered variable, the research question asks whether there is a relationship between the variables of age and self-disclosure. In actual piactice, of course, this basic tem- plate is varied quite a bit, as the following research questions reveal: RQ: How are proportions of argument complexity associated with perceptions of communica- tion satisfaction? (Canary, Brossman, Bross- man, & Weger, 1995) RQ: What is the association between leadership evaluations and specific types of leadership- relevant talk? (Pavitt, Whitchurch, McClurg, & Petersen, 1995) RQ: What is the relationship between perpetrator message affect and negotiator affect behav- ior? (Rogan & Hammer, 1995) RQ: What is the relationship of patients' percep- tions of physician communicator styles to pa- fient satisfaction? (Cardello, Ray, & Pettey, 1995) RQ: Is there a relationship between the length of the answering machine message and the caller's message? (Buzzanelf, Burrell, Staf- ford, & Berkowitz, 1997) Finally, a hypothesis for an ordered indepen- dent variable specifies the nature ofthe relationship between the independent and dependent variable. While independent and dependent variables may be related in quite a few ways (see Chapter 14), we fo- cus here on two types of relationships: (a) a posi- tive relationship (also called direct relationship), in which increases in an independent variable are associated with increases in a dependent variable (e.g., the more hours one spends studying before an exam, the higher'one's exam scores will be); or (b) a negative relationship (also called inverse re- lationship), in which increases in an independent variable are associated with decreases in a depen- dent variable (e.g., the more hours one spends "par- tying" the night before an exam, the lower one's exam scores will be). A hypothesis, thus, takes the form: x (the independent variable) is positively (or negatively) related to y (the dependent variable). For the effects of age on self-disclosure, the hy- pothesis might be either'Age is positively related to self-disclosure" or'Age is negatively related to sqlf-disclosure." (A two-tailed hypothesis would simply state: 'Age and self-disclosure are related.") Once more, as actual examples of research hy- potheses show, this format is sometimes changed slightly: Cognitive efficiency will be positively related to interaction involvement (Jordan, 1998) Increases in the amount of gaze, smiles, head nods, and forward lean will be positively cor- related with increases in amount of liking to- ward the actor. (Palmer & Simmons, 1995) Frequent viewing of nonviolent children's programs leads over time to an increase in children's positive-intense daydreaming. (Val- kenburg & van der Voort, 1995) Electronic mail usefulness perceptions will be positively related to frequency of media use. (Fulk, Schmitz, & Ryu, 1995) II: 46 pART oNE coNcEPTUALzINc CoMMUNICATIoN RESEARCH H: A positive relationship exists between stu- dents' reports of teacher content relevant com- munication and students' stated motivation to study. (Frymier & Shulman,1995) You now have the basic form for posing for- mal research questions and hypotheses. Before leaving this discussion, however, let us point out two things. First, some independent variables are obviously nominal or ordered, such as the vari- ables of gender and age used above, but others can be treated as either nominal or ordered. For exam- ple, are intelligence, self-esteem, and communica- tion apprehension nominal or ordered variables? They could be either, depending on how they are dehned and measured. As a general rule, if a vari- able can be measured either way, it should be treated as ordered and a scale should be used to measure it. As we discussed previously, meaning- ful numbers give us more information thaq general categorles. The examples given so far also only refer to one independent and one dependent variable. Re- searchers. however, are often interested in the ef- fects of multiple independent variables on a dependent variable (and even multiple dependent variables). In such situations, researchers are espe- cially interested in interaction effects (also called conditioning, contingency joint' and moderat' ing effects; sometimes known as multiplicative relations in nonexperimental research)-effects due to the unique combinations of the independent variables that make a difference on the dependent variable(s). Interaction effects are due to the ef- fects of multiple independent variables working together, in contrast to the effects of each indepen- dent variable working alone (called main effects) that we focused on before. For example, people lose weightby dieting (a main effect) and they also lose weight by exercising (another main effect), but when people both diet and exercise, they lose the most weight. The effects due to the combina- tion of dieting and exercising are an example of an interaction effect. As we will see later in this text, many commu- nication researchers study interaction effects to capture the complex ways in which variables are reiated. For now, just be aware that some research questions and hypotheses ask about or predict in- teraction effects. Here are some examples: RQ: Do argumentativeness and verbal aggression interact to predict an individual's reported use of evidentiary appeals to respond to refusal of a request? (fert & Bearden, 1998) RQ: What are the differences, if any, between the expressed attributions put forth by adolescents and those put forth by young adults in (a) suc- cess situations and (b) failure situations? (Roghaar & Vangelisti, 1996) RQ: What are the effects of sex of subject, sex of partner, and the interaction of sex of subject and partner on the following 11 verbal commu- nication behaviors: number of words spoken, vocalized pauses, verbal fillers, intemrptions, overlaps, justifiers, intensifiers, qualifiers, questions, tag questions, and agreement? (Turner, Dindia, & Pearson, 1995) RQ: Does vividness interact with story or statisti- cal evidence to produce a more persuasive fype of evidence? (Baesler & Burgoon, 1994) H: The combination of interpersonal communi- cation apprehension and receiver apprehen- sion is more strongly associated with sexual communication satisfaction for women than men in sexually intimate, heterosexual rela- tionships. (Wheeless & Parsons, 1995) H: There will be an interaction between the bio- logical sex of the introducer of an item of in- formation and the level of redundancy of that item of information in its usage. (Propp, 1995) H: There will be an ordinal interaction between efficacy expectations and relational commit- ment such that the relationship between effi- cacy expectations and relational satisfaction will be of greater magnitude at high rather than low levels of relational commitment. (Makoul & Rolofl 1998) H: There will be an interaction between conflict situation and nationality such that Japanese subjects will equivocate more in avoidance- avoidance conflict situations, relative to non- CHAPTER 2 ASKING QUESTIONS ABOUT COMMUNICATION 47 r \.ariables are some research r r nr adi . t i n- . ! r y r v s r v ! u r - nl es ' ::l a-sgression 's repofted use :; to refusal of J S , .". between the rr adolescents :rlis in (a) suc- , e situations? .:bj ect, sex of ser of subject r erbal commu- -;, ords spoken, ,. iniemrptions, :rs. qualifiers, ld agreement? r l i 1 l :on' or statisti- LCie persuaslve :urgoon, 1994) :,nal communi- :rter apprehen- ::d rvith sexual lr rvomen than rerosexual rela- ' i -<. 1995) ei\\'een the bio- ,l an item of in- undancy of that : Propp,1995) raction between ltional commit- ip between effi- rnal satisfaction 3 at high rather :l commitment. retween conflict 'h that Japanese e in avoidance- relative to non- conflict situations, than will American sub- jects. (Tanaka & Bell, 1996) CONCLUSION Communication scholars study varied and com- plex phenomena. There is still much we don't know about communication behavior. The first step researchers take is making sure they select a topic appropriate for communication research. Through careful consideration, they narrow their focus from a general topic to a specific research question or hypothesis. But researchers don't work without guides. Throughout the process of narrowing their focus, researchers consult what their colleagues in the field have reported in the research literature. To learn what else is known about the topic, they need to know where to find and how to read rele- vant publications. We explain how they do this in Chapter 3.