EXPERIMENT: E1

STUDY OF A POWER SOURCE.

OBJECTIVES;
To develop familiarization and to study characteristics of a power source.
BRIEF HISTORY;
In practice, alternating currents are not so dependable to use because their periodically reverse
their direction (A). Therefore it is usually very important to use some electrical devices to solve
this problem, hence the use of a rectifier to make the current to flow in one direction.
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), into direct current (DC)
which flows only in one direction. There process is known as rectification. This can be done
using diodes and resistors. Rectification may serve other rules other than to generate direct
current for use as a source of power, for example, detectors of radio signals and detecting
presence of a flame in gas heating systems, but we are now dealing with power source.
The simple process of rectification produces a type of DC characterized by pulsating voltages
and currents.



HAVEWAVE RECTI FI CATI ON;
Rectification process can be done in two categories: half wave rectification and full wave
rectification. In half wave rectification half of AC power is passed, while the other half is
blocked. Half wave though inefficient can be achieved with a single diode in a one phase-supply.
Half-wave rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current.



FULL-WAVE RECTI FI CATI ON;
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input wave-form into one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its input. It converts both polarities of the input wave-form to DC (direct
current), and is more efficient. In a non-centered tapped transformer, four diodes are used instead
of the one needed for half-wave rectification. Four diodes arranged this way are called Diode
Bridge or bridge rectifier.



For single-phased AC, if the transformer is center tapped, then two diodes back-to-back (i.e.
anodes-to-anodes or cathode-to cathode) can form a full-wave rectifier. Twice as many windings
are required on the transformer secondary to obtain the same out-put voltage compared to bridge
rectifier above.




FI LTERS:
Even after rectification, there is notable noise referred to as ripples. To further reduce this
ripple. A capacitor input is used. This complements the reservoir capacitor with a choke
(inductor) and a second filter capacitor so that a steadier DC output can be obtained across the
terminal of the filter capacitor.
The reservoir capacitor needs to be large enough to prevent the troughs of the ripple getting
below the voltage DC is being regulated to.
Introduction;
The Ohms law provides the basis of our experiment where
V
s
= IR
s
Vs= voltage of a source.
Rs= Resistance
But since the voltage source, for example a battery source, there is always the internal resistance,
we therefore write the effective resistance as;
Rs= R+r
R Resistance of the circuit.
R Internal resistance.
Taking into consideration a circuit as shown below, we have;

In this system we have by Ohms Law, Vo= IRo. By including the effective Resistance, it shall
be given by;
Vo=IRo.
1/R=1/R1 + 1/R, .. 1/Rs= (Ro+R1)/RoR1
Rs= RoR1/(R1+R2), therefore
Vs = (IoRoR1)/(R1+R2)
Vs = VoR1/R1+ R2.
We can now represent the source by a certain output voltage Vs and the source resistance Rs as
shown below.

We can now say that across the terminals AB, we have a source of output voltage Vs with an
effective resistance Rs. This effective source resistance is often called the output resistance of the
device as seen from AB. This is the basis of our experiments.
PROCEDURE;
EXPERIMENT 1;
To obtain the output voltage and output resistance of a given source. The theoretical circuit
diagrams was as shown below, from which the practical circuit was devised based on the same
principle.

I. The resistor RL called the load resistor was connected along with a millimeter.



II. A capacitor of value 470f was used to reduce the ripple so that steady current was
achieved.
The current drawn from the source is measured by a millimeter and the new voltmeter
reading VL, is noted to be lower than Vs.
If Rs be the output resistance of the source then
Vs Irs= VL.
Thus the output resistance is given by;
Rs= Drop in the output voltage/Load current= (Vs VL)/I
THE RESULTS;
While using R1 = 470
R2 = 1K
The observations were tabulated as follows;


EXPERIMENT 2;
The experiment was set up to study the variation of the output resistance Rs with changes in the
value R1 and R2, the ratio R1/R2 remaining constant.
The calculated value of Vs was
Vs = VoR2/(R1+R2), R1 = 940
R2 = 2K
Vs = Vo* 2000/2940.
= 12* 0.680 = 8.16.
The value of Rs changes.
Rs should be
Rs = R1R2/(R1 +R2)= 940*2000/(2000+940), = 0.6395K.
IF R1=470 and R2 =1K
Rs= R1R2/(R1+R2)=470000/1470 = 0.3197K.
EXPERIMENT 3;
To study the power delivered by source of different Loads.
If for a certain load RL, the current is I, the voltage across VL, then the power delivered by the
source is given by,
I max V RL
26.5 0 0
20.5 2 100
16.5 3.2 200
14 4.1 300
13 4.7 400
10.5 5.2 500
9.5 5.5 600
8.5 5.8 700
8 6 800
7 6.2 900
6.5 6.4 1000
P = VLI.
From the tabulated data we can calculate power using equation of the power above.

The graph of P versus RL was a smooth curve through the given points.

The graph analysis was as follows;
The following experiment was conducted so as to develop farmilialisation and to study the
characteristics of POWER SOURCE. The data for RL, VL and I for a given values of R1 and
R2.
R1- 470
R2- 1k
TABLE OF VALUES;

I max V P=VLI
135 13.5 1822.5
70 13.5 945
45 13.5 607.5
35 13.5 472.5
30 13.5 405
25 13.5 337.5
20 13.5 270
19 13.5 256.5
15 13.5 202.5
15 13.5 202.5


The equation of the smooth curve was as follows;
y = A2 + (A1-A2)/(1 + exp((x-x0)/dx).
The data analysis for the graph was as follows;
Sigmoidal(Boltzmann) fit to Data1_B:
Weight given by Data1_C error bars.
Chi^2/DoF 2270.79256
R^2 -0.16869
---------------------------------------------
Init(A1) 0 0.292
Final(A2) 61.100 0.176
XatY50(x0) 140.94 --
Width(dx) 1.0000 --
---------------------------------------------
XatY20 139.55447
XatY80 142.32706

I max V P=VLI RL Er(Y)
0 13.5 0 0 0
135 13.5 1822.5 100 1.8225
70 13.5 945 200 0.945
45 13.5 607.5 300 0.6075
35 13.5 472.5 400 0.4725
30 13.5 405 500 0.405
25 13.5 337.5 600 0.3375
20 13.5 270 700 0.27
19 13.5 256.5 800 0.2565
15 13.5 202.5 900 0.2025
15 13.5 202.5 1000 0.2025
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70


Data: Data1_B
Model: Boltzmann
Equation:
y = A2 + (A1-A2)/(1 + exp((x-x0)/dx))
Weighting:
y Instrumental

Chi^2/DoF = 2270.79256
R^2 = -0.16869

A1 0 0.29201
A2 61.1 0.17603
x0 140.94077 --
dx 1 --
P
O
W
E
R
LOAD RESISTANCE
B
Boltzmann fit of Data1_B
THE GRAPH OF POWER AGAINST LOAD RESISTOR


The values of R1 and R2 were changed;
R1-940
R2-2k
The obtained values were tabulated as follows;


The equation of the graph was as follows;
y = A2 + (A1-A2)/(1 + exp((x-x0)/dx)).




The graph drawn was as follows;
RL P=VL.I Er[Y]
0 0 0
100 13.8 0.138
200 21 0.21
300 24.84 0.2484
400 27.2 0.272
500 27.75 0.2775
600 28.7 0.287
700 28.6 0.286
800 28.2 0.282
900 27.5 0.275
1000 28.08 0.2808
0 200 400 600 800 1000
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35


Data: Data4_B
Model: Boltzmann
Equation:
y = A2 + (A1-A2)/(1 + exp((x-x0)/dx))
Weighting:
y Instrumental

Chi^2/DoF = 3.09906
R^2 = 0.99832

A1 -101.24074 46.60441
A2 28.33863 0.13516
x0 -162.02935 67.29407
dx 127.02504 7.89994
P
O
W
E
R
LOAD RESISTOR
B
Boltzmann fit of Data4_B
THE GRAPH OF POWER AGAINST LOAD RESISTOR (RL)

The data analysis was as follows;
Sigmoidal(Boltzmann) fit to Data4_B:
Weight given by Data4_C error bars.
Chi^2/DoF 3.09906
R^2 0.99832
---------------------------------------------
Init(A1) -101.24 46.6
Final(A2) 28.339 0.135
XatY50(x0) -162.03 67.3
Width(dx) 127.03 7.90
---------------------------------------------
XatY20 -338.12345
XatY80 14.06475