"

THE ATMOSPHERE AND COMBUSTION

Atmosphere; it refers to the air surrounding us consisting mainly of Nitrogen and oxygen. There are other gases in lesser
amounts e.g. water vapour, carbon dioxide, and noble gases especially argon.
Combustion; combustion is a reaction between a substance and atmospheric air producing heat energy. Some substances
under go rapid combustion; they burn with a flame e.g. petroleum fuels like paraffin, petrol, diesel, wood, and magnesium.
Other combustion reactions are slower and no flames are produced e.g. combustion of food inside our bodies, the rusting of
iron.
The burning of a candle
A candle is a hydrocarbon. A hydrocarbon is a compound made up of hydrogen and carbon only.
Experiment; to find out if only air is used up when a candle burns in air.
Procedure;
Stick a burning candle on a beehive shelf
Fill the through with water in order to cover part of the candle
Lower a gas jar quickly over the burning candle
Diagram


Observations
1. The candle flame goes off
2. The water rises into the jar
3. White fumes are seen in the jar as the candle flames goes off.

Conclusion
Part of the air that supports burning of the candle is used up.
The water rises into the jar to occupy the space, which was previously occupied, by that part of air, which supports
burning.
What are the products of a burning candle?
Experiment to find out the products of a burning candle
Apparatus funnel, round bottomed flask
A funnel is connected to the flask A containing while anhydrous copper II sulphate powder, then to flask B containing lime
water. A burning candle is put in place and the set up connected to a suction pump and the pump switched on.
Diag.

The suction pump puts the gaseous products of the burning candle and keeps the candle burning. If a suction pump is not
available, a gas syringe is used to suck the gaseous products.
Observations;
The white powder is a tube A turns blue and the lime water in B turns milky.
Conclusion
The products of a burning candle are water and carbon dioxide.
A candle is a compound of carbon and hydrogen

How much active air (oxygen) is present in a given volume of air? What is the percentage composition by volume of oxygen
in air?
#

There are several ways of determining this percentage,
By reaction of air with copper
By reaction of air with iron (rusting of iron)
By reaction / burning of phosphorous in the air
Determining of the percentage composition (by volume) of oxygen in air by the rusting of iron.
Materials; iron wool (steel wool), beaker, water, graduated test tube
Procedure;
Place wet iron wool into the bottom of a graduated test tube and invert it into a beaker of water. Adjust the water level in a
beaker and test tube to be the same. Record the air column x and leave the set up for say a week, record the observations as
below.
Diagram

Results / observations after 1 week
i. Record what happens to the colour of the steel wool
ii. Record what happens to the level of water in the test tube and beaker.
iii. Record the highest of the air column in the tube after one week, Ycm.
Calculation
At the beginning the volume of air = 11.0cm3
At the end of the volume of air = 9.5cm3
Oxygen used = 11.0
-9.5
1.6 = 1.5cm2
= 1.5 x 100 = 150
11.0 11.1
Percentage = 13.6%

Question: In a class experiment to determine the percentage of oxygen in air using the rusting of iron, the values of t and y
were found to be 10.5 and 8.5cm respectively. (see diagram)

Calculate the percentage of oxygen by volume of air using the results. Show your working.
Oxygen used = 10.5
-8.5
2.0
2.0 x 100
10.5
= 200
10.5
= 19.5

Determination of the percentage of oxygen by volume in air using reaction with copper
Place copper powder into a combustion tube with glass wool in the ends of the tube. Connect the tube to 100cm
3
glass syringe
one empty and the other full of air as shown in the diagram;
$




Heat the copper and pass air over it from one syringe to the other until the volume in the syringe remains constant. Record
this volume.

Specimen results
Volume of air at the beginning = 100cm3
Volume of air at the end = Ycm3
Volume of oxygen used at react with copper = (100-y) cm
3

Percentage composition of oxygen by volume in air = 100 y x 100%
100
(a) Describe an experiment to determine the percentage composition of oxygen by volume in air.
(b) State what is observed when copper fillings are heated strongly in air - they change from brown to black.

Experiment to find if there is change in mass when magnesium burns in air.
Procedures;
Place polished pieces of magnesium ribbon in a crucible
Weigh the crucible + contents + lid (A g)
Place the crucible on the pipe day triangle;
On tripod stand and heat gently, lifting the lid occasionally to allow air to enter but ensuring that no solid particles escape.
When reaction seems to be complete, heat more strongly. Then cool and weigh crucible, content + lid (B g). B is greater
than A, because magnesium reacted with oxygen to form a compound known as magnesium oxide.
Questions:
Why is it necessary to clean magnesium ribbon before use?
It is because the outer substance contains some weight
Explain why it is necessary to ensure that no solid material escapes during heating
It is because the weight might reduce
State the difference between the magnesium ribbon and the product after experiment.
The rusting of iron
When iron nail is left in damp air for some days, it gets covered with a brown coating called rust. The chemical name of rust is
called Hydrated iron III oxide.
Corrosion refers to the reaction between metals and atmosphere air where by they lose their shine and become dull.
Conditions necessary for rusting
Air (Oxygen) and Water

To investigate the conditions necessary for the rusting of iron
1. Place a clean nail in a test tube containing tap water in such a way that part of the nail is exposed to the atmosphere.
2. Place nail in freshly boiled distilled water and cover the water with a layer of oil.
3. Place nail to rest on anhydrous calcium chloride in a test tube
Observation;
Exp. 1. Rusting took place. The nail was coated with brown solid.
%
In every statement, a clean nail is used in experiment 2 the water, preferably should be distilled and boiled for about 3 minutes.
The oil is to prevent the entry of air into the water on cooling in experiment 3, anhydrous calcium chloride is to absorb any
moisture. The nail should rest on the solid drying agent to prevent contact with any solution that may form since the latter will
drip to the bottom of the tube.
Diagram




Protection of iron against rusting
If iron does not get into contact with water and air (oxygen), it will not rust. The methods used to protect iron against rusting
are; painting, greasing, galvanising, tinplating, covering with enamel, and converting iron into stainless steel. Stainless steel
contains chromium or nickel.

Some metals are self-protecting. For instance aluminium reacts with oxygen of the air and the oxide layer formed on its
surface prevents further reaction. The oxide is impermeable to water and air; hence the metal beneath is safe. For iron,
however the trust is porous and cannot prevent air and water into contact with the metal. So rusting continues indefinitely.

Galvanising is the coating of iron with a thin layer of zinc. Tinplating is the coating of iron with a layer of tin. If the zinc
coating is cracked to expose iron, only the zinc reacts with the atmosphere to form a solid compound which seals the cracks.
cracks. The zinc (and not iron) reacts because it is more electropositive than iron coating (Zinc is above iron in
electrochemical series) Hence the presence of cracks in the zinc coating does not reduce its efficiency in protecting iron against
against rusting. However, if tin coating is cracked to expose iron, rusting occurs rapidly. This is because tin is less
electropositive than iron, hence iron, instead of tin, reacts with the atmospheric air and rusting takes place. This implies that
tin is not good when it cracks.

Underground pipes and ship hulls are made of steel. They are protected against rusting by painting. Alternatively, pieces of
zinc or magnesium are fixed on them at some intervals. The zinc or magnesium pieces dissolve away thereby preventing
rusting. Replacement of these pieces is done as necessary.

The composition of atmospheric air
We already mentioned the different gases present in atmospheric air. It is very easy to investigate the active part of air
(oxygen) because it takes part in so many reactions. Nitrogen is inert and its investigation is difficult. When oxygen has been
removed from a given volume of air, the remaining amount is mainly Nitrogen. This gas extinguishes a flame but has no effect
on limewater.
Exposing limewater to the air for a long time can show the presence of carbon dioxide. The limewater turns milky. Limewater
in the chemistry laboratory does not keep for long and that is why it is necessary to re-filter it before use. The sold filtered of
is called calcium carbonate which forms when carbon dioxide reacts with limewater.
Water vapour is also easy to show. While anhydrous copper II sulphate goes pale blue after a few weeks, Blue cobalt chloride
paper turns pink if left exposed for some time.
The composition of air by volume is;
Nitrogen 78%, Oxygen 21%, Noble gases 1%, Carbon dioxide 0.03%, Water vapour 0 4%
Also present are pollutant gases such as hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide in minute quantities.
&



OXYGEN
Laboratory preparation
Oxygen prepared by decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution using manganese IV oxide as a catalyst.
Procedure place manganese IV oxide into a flask and arrange the flask, and the rest of the apparatus as shown in the diagram.




Now add hydrogen peroxide solution,
Observation
Effervescence of colourless (oxygen) gas occurs. This gas is collected over water.
Word equation, for the reaction is;
Hydrogen Peroxide ! Water + Oxygen
Reactant Products
2H
2
O
2(aq)
! 2H
2
O
(l)
+ O
2(g)

(aq) - Aqueous, (l) - Liquid, (g) - Gas


If the gas is required dry, it is passed through concentrated sulphuric oxide (a drying agent) and then collected into a gas
syringe.
Diag.

Test for oxygen
A glowing splint is lowered into gas jar of oxygen. The splint bursts into flame.
Qn: How can it be proved that manganese IV oxide used in preparation of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide is actually a
catalyst? A catalyst is a substance, which increases the speed of chemical reaction, but it does not itself take part in the
reaction. It remains chemically unchanged at the end.

Other ways of preparing oxygen
1. By adding water to sodium peroxide
2Na
2
O
2(aq)
+ 2H
2
O
(l )
!O
2(g)
+ 4NaOH
(aq)

2. By heating a mixture of potassium chlorate and manganese IV oxide
KClO
4(s)
!2O
2(g)
+ KCl
(aq)

3. By heating potassium permanganate

Properties of oxygen
Physical properties
Colourless, odourless, sparingly soluble in water, same density as the density of air, neutral to litmus
Chemical Properties