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EE143 Microfabrication Technology

Fall 2009
Homework #1 - Answers


Semiconductor Basics

1.) The term, degenerate doping refers to a doping level whereby there exists an error of 5% or
greater between the Fermi-Dirac and Maxwell-Boltzmann distributions with regard to the position
of E
F
.

a. How many kT is E
F
from the band edge (i.e., what is [E
c
E
f
]/kT) for a semiconductor
doped right at the onset of degeneracy? (1pt)
FD: f(E) = 1/(1+exp([E-E
f
]/kT)) MB: f(E) = exp([E
f
-E]/kT)

MB = 1.05*FD 1.05 = (1+exp([E-E
f
]/kT))*exp([E
f
-E]/kT) = exp([E
f
E]/kT) + exp(0)
E
f
E = kT*ln(0.05) = -3*kT

b. What is E
f
-E
i
(assuming E
i
=E
G
/2) for degenerately-doped Si, Ge, and GaAs? (3pts)
Si bandgap = 1.12 eV, Ge bandgap = 0.67 eV, GaAs bandgap = 1.42 eV.

Si: E
f
-E
i
= (E
G
/2) 3*kT = 0.485 eV
Ge : 0.260 eV
GaAs : 0.635 eV

c. What is the degenerate doping level for Si, Ge, and GaAs? (3pts)
E
f
E
i
= kT*ln(N
D
/n
i
) E
f
E
i
= (60 mV/dec)*log
10
(N
D
/n
i
)
Si : n
i
= 1x10
10
cm
-3
, Ge : n
i
= 2x10
13
cm
-3
, GaAs : n
i
= 2x10
6
cm
-3

Si : N
D
= 1.21x10
18
cm
-3
Ge : N
D
= 4.31x10
17
cm
-3
GaAs : N
D
= 7.66x10
16
cm
-3


2.) Consider a Si sampled doped at 1x10
15
cm
-3
with Phosphorus.
a. What is E
F
E
i
at T=300K? (1pt)
E
F
E
i
= 60 mV/dec * 5 decades = 0.3 eV

b. What is E
F
E
i
at T=600K? Why? (2pts)
E
F
E
i
~ 0. This is because n
i
~ n at T=600K

c. What is E
F
E
i
at T=0K? Why? Does this change if we dope it with Arsenic? If so, why,
and to what value? (4pts)
E
F
E
i
= (E
G
/2) + (E
c
E
D
)/2 = 0.56 eV + 0.5*0.044 eV = 0.538 eV for Phosphorus.
E
F
E
i
= (E
G
/2) + (E
c
E
D
)/2 = 0.56 eV + 0.5*0.054 eV = 0.533 eV for Arsenic.

E
F
represents the probability of a state being filled as . For a doped system, the
highest energy of the last filled state at T=0K is at the donor level E
D
(all donor states
are full at T=0K), and the next available state is in the conduction band minimum E
c
,
which has zero electrons at T=0K. Thus, E
F
will fall precisely between these two
levels.

3.) In the lecture, it was noted that an effective density of states is used to compute the electron or
hole concentration. This is because the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution allows us to obtain a
closed-form solution to the g(E)f(E) integral. However, as you found from problem #3, this is only
accurate up to a certain doping level. So, we need to obtain a quantitative understanding of E
F
in
the degenerate regime. Plot E
F
E
c
vs. N
D
for Silicon at T=300K, over the range of N
D
=1x10
15
to
1x10
21
cm
-3
. Generate two plots on the same graph: one using the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
(easy) and another using the Fermi-Dirac distribution (not-so-easy). You may use a spreadsheet to
compute the results; in fact, youll need it for the Fermi-Dirac distribution (hint: how do we
approximate an integral?). To get the two curves to overlay in the non-degenerate regime, you may
need to adjust m*/m
0
in g(E) for the Fermi-Dirac solution. Zero credit will be issued without the
Fermi-Dirac solution. (5pts)

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution: E
f
E
c
= (E
G
/2) E
F
E
i
= 0.56 eV kT*ln(N
D
/n
i
)

Fermi-Diract distribution: Here we cannot perform an integral which gets us a closed form
solution such as that achieved with the Maxwell-Boltzmann approximation. So, we must instead
perform a Reimann Sum of g(E)f(E) over a fine energy grid. E = 0 represents the conduction
band minimum. Integrating out to E ~1-2 eV with E ~ 0.005 eV will give us a reasonably
accurate solution. Recall that each g(E)f(E) product gives us the carrier concentration at that
specific energy, so adding up all of the products gives us the total electron concentration (for n-
type materials, as is done here). So, in Excel, one column is E, another is f(E), and another is
g(E). Fixed parameters are things like q, T, m*, etc., with your semi-fixed parameter being E
F
.
So, you can plug in a value for E
F
and have the spreadsheet calculate N
D
for you through the
Reimann Sum. The plot below shows the results. In the non-degenerate regime, I had to use
m*/m
0
= 6.02 to get the two solutions to overlap.

-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
1E+15 1E+16 1E+17 1E+18 1E+19 1E+20 1E+21
Doping (cm
-3
)
E
F
-
E
c

(
e
V
)
Maxwell-Boltzmann
Fermi-Dirac



















Lithography

1.) Advanced lithographic equipment tends toward low wavelength exposure through high numerical
aperture (NA) lenses. Modern systems have =193 nm and NA ~0.9. Let us assume that k
1
=
0.3 and k
2
=0.75.
a. Find the depth of focus (DOF) and the minimum half pitch (HP) achievable in this system.
(2pts)
DOF = +/- k
2
/NA
2
= +/- 0.75*193nm/0.9
2
= +/- 178.7 nm
HP = k
1
/NA = 0.3*193nm/0.9 = 64.3 nm

b. Find DOF and HP if NA =1. Is this even physically possible? Why or why not? (4pts)
DOF = +/- k
2
/NA
2
= +/- 0.75*193nm/1 = +/- 144.75 nm
HP = k
1
/NA = 0.3*193nm/1 = 57.9 nm
This is not physically possible. NA is the sine of the half angle of the lens. So, NA = 1
means the focal point F is located inside the lens!

c. 193nm lithography can be pushed very far using methods like immersion lithography (next
question below), photoresist trimming, and double patterning. 193nm immersion was done
specifically to avoid the jump to 157nm lithography, for which the cost was too high for
such a marginal gain in minimum HP. What is the next step in optical lithography after
193nm? Does it use refractive optics? If not, then what kind of optics does it use, and how
is it achieved? Cite a reference (2 maximum) to support your answer. (3pts)
d.
Most people think that extreme ultra-violet (EUV) is the next step, with an exposure
wavelength of 13 nm. This system does NOT use refractive optics, but instead uses
REFLECTIVE optics. This is because the refractive index tends to drop with
wavelength, and so lenses cannot feasibly be made. However, small differences in
refractive index can be achieved (e.g., 0.99 vs. 1.01) at low wavelengths for different
materials. By making a multi-layer stack of two materials and then repeating this
many times over, it is possible to make a mirror, which can be curved to focus the
exposing radiation.

2.) Let us explore immersion lithography
a. Using the parameters above (NA =0.9, etc.), what is the new value for NA if we use water
(n =1.44) for immersion lithography? Find DOF and HP. (2pts)
Effective NA = n*NA = 1.44*0.9 = 1.296
DOF = +/- k
2
/NA
2
= +/- 0.75*193nm/1.296
2
= +/- 86.2 nm
HP = k
1
/NA = 0.3*193nm/1.296 = 44.7 nm












b. Plot HP vs. n
fluid
for n
fluid
=1-2. (2pts)

30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
n
fluid
H
a
l
f

P
i
t
c
h

(
n
m
)
Remember that n
fluid
affects NA, so HP and NA scale together here...



















i. At what value for n
fluid
will total internal reflection (TIR) occur (assume that
n
photoresist
=1.7)? Lets call this value n
crit
. (1pt)
TIR occurs when light goes from a high index medium to a low index medium, and
the angle of the refracted light is 90. So, n
fluid
must be greater than n
photoresist
for
TIR to occur, and we can calculate n
crit
using Snells Law.

n
1
*sin(theta_1) = n
2
*sin(theta_2)
theta_2 = 90 and sin(theta_1) = NA
NA = n
2
/n
1
= n
photoresist
/n
crit
n
crit
= 1.89

ii. Will the photoresist be exposed for n
fluid
>n
crit
? Why or why not? If not, then what
is the theoretical HP limit for this system? (3pts)
The photoresist will not be exposed for n
fluid
> n
crit
, since all the incident light is
reflected off of the fluid-resist interface. As such, the theoretical HP limit is at
n
fluid
= n
crit
= 0.3*193nm/(1.89*0.9) = 34 nm.

c. Solid immersion lithography has received some attention recently, with sapphire (Al
2
O
3
)
used as the medium to achieve n=1.92. To avoid damaging the resist, a nanoscale air gap
separates the sapphire from the photoresist.
i. For a lens with NA =0.9, does TIR occur? Why or why not? (3pts)
Now were comparing the refractive indices between the sapphire and the air gap
(not the resist).

Theta_1 = sin
-1
(NA) = sin
-1
(0.9) = 64.2
Theta_2 = sin
-1
(n
air
/n
sapphire
) = sin
-1
(1/1.92) = 31.4.

The critical angle is 31.4, while the light exits the lens at 64.2, which is much
greater than the critical angle. Therefore, TIR occurs.

ii. Will the photoresist be exposed? Why or why not? Cite a reference (1 maximum)
to support your answer. (3pts)
This time, the photoresist will be exposed. Under conditions that give rise to TIR,
what happens is a process called frustrated total internal reflection. Although
the light reflects off of the interface, there is also an evanescent wave that
transmits through the interface (and into the air gap). When this wave reaches a
higher index medium (such as going from air to photoresist), it turns back into a
transverse electromagnetic wave (light) and exposes the resist. This process is
analogous to tunneling, but here it takes place with photons rather than electrons.

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