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N
x
V
x
A
x
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
ds
k
dx
k
:
The negative bound of the integral is due to a mirror
image introduced at the free surface of the electrons [13].
The net transfer of energy during the electron-phonon
collision across the area A
x
in x-axis is:
DE
x;t
=
_
N
x
V
x
A
x
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
ds
k
dx
k
[E
s;t
E
x;t
[
where E
s;t
and E
x;t
are the electron and phonon energies in
x-axis respectively.
The transfer of energy across the area A
y
in y-axis
during the collision processes is:
DE
y;t
=
_
N
y
V
y
A
y
exp
[y g[
k
_ _
dg
k
dy
k
[E
g;t
E
y;t
[
where E
g;t
and E
y;t
are the electron and phonon energies in
y-axis respectively.
Similarly, the transfer of energy across the area A
z
in
z-axis during the collision processes is:
Fig. 1. 3-dimensional motion of electrons and molecules
496
DE
z;t
=
_
N
z
V
z
A
z
exp
[z f[
k
_ _
df
k
dz
k
[E
f;t
E
z;t
[
where E
f;t
and E
z;t
are the electron and phonon energies in
z-axis respectively.
Energy increase per unit volume in the material across
the area A
x
and along the increment dx during the time
interval dt is:
DE
x;t
A
x
dx dt
:
Similarly equation can be written for energy increase
per unit volume in the material across the areas A
y
and A
z
and along the increments dy and dz during the time
interval dt:
The energy absorbed by the substrate per unit volume
during time dt may be formulated considering the laser
beam intensity scanning the surface (moving in y-axis) with
a constant velocity u
s
(Fig. 1). In this case, the energy ab-
sorbed per unit volume by the substrate during time dt is:
DE[
abs
=
I
o
2p
_
a
exp
(y u
s
Dt)
2
z
2
a
2
_ _
d exp (dx)A
x
dx dt
where Dt is the time duration for a laser beam to scan the
surface under consideration.
Consequently, total energy gain per unit volume is:
DE
x;y;z;t
dx dy dz dt
=
DE
x;t
A
x
dx dt
DE
y;t
A
y
dy dt
DE
z;t
A
z
dz dt
DE[
abs
A
x
dx dt
knowing that
A
x
= dy dz :; A
y
= dx dz :; A
z
= dx dy
The total energy increase per unit volume is equal to
internal energy gain of the substrate, assuming thermal
properties are independent of temperature, i.e.:
DE
x;y;z
dx dy dz dt
= qC
p
o
ot
T(x; y; z; t)
Energy balance attains in the element during time incre-
ment dt, due to absorption and electron-phonon collision
processes, should be equal to the total energy increase in
the control volume. Therefore,
qC
p
o
ot
T(x; y; z; t)
=
I
o
2p
_
a
exp
(y u
s
t)
2
z
2
a
2
_ _
d exp(dx)
3f
k
2k
2
T(x; y; z; t)
fk
4k
3
_
0
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
_
x
0
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
x
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
fk
2k
3
_
0
exp
[y g[
k
_ _
T(x; g; z; t) dg
_ _
fk
2k
3
_
0
exp
[z f[
k
_ _
T(x; y; f; t) df
_ _
(1)
where T(s; y; z; t), T(x; g; z; t) and T(x; y; f; t) are the
electron temperatures in x, y and z axes respectively.
However, the equation for the relation between the
energy of lattice site atoms and the electrons was devel-
oped using standard scattering rate formulas [15]. In this
case, the relation yields:
In x-axis:
T(s; y; z; t)
oT(s; y; z; t)
ot
=
3
h
pk
B
k(x
2
)[T(s; y; z; t) T(x; y; z; t)[
In y-axis:
T(x; g; z; t)
oT(x; g; z; t)
ot
=
3
h
pk
B
k(x
2
)[T(x; g; z; t) T(x; y; z; t)[
In z-axis:
T(x; y; f; t)
oT(x; y; f; t)
ot
=
3
h
pk
B
k(x
2
)[T(x; y; f; t) T(x; y; z; t)[ (2)
where x
2
is the second moment of the phonon spectrum,
k
B
is the Boltzmann's constant and k is the electron-
phonon coupling parameter.
To obtain a temperature eld for electrons and lattice
site atoms, Eqs. (1) and (2) must be solved simultaneously.
2.2
Phase change processes
In the case of phase change processes the energy exchange
may occur due to free molecular, free molecule-bound
molecule, electron-free molecule and free molecule-va-
cancy collisions. The bound molecules at the surface and
free molecules from the interior of the material may escape
through the surface if they have sufcient energy. In order
to consider the heat transfer process in detail, these effects
must be included. The thermal motion of the molecules
can be taken into account by including the irreversible
displacements of the molecules. In this case, a molecule
leaves its lattice site and becomes free, i.e. this irreversible
displacement in the surface vicinity allows molecules to
escape (evaporate) from the surface.
In most materials the effects of the solid-liquid phase
change are relatively small compared with the effects which
occur on evaporation. These facts, together with that of the
marginal change which occurs in specic heat on fusion
mean that the character of the thermal motion in liquids is
not fundamentally different from that in solids, where it is
mainly reduced to small molecular vibrations about xed
lattice sites. As the temperature is increased, these vibra-
tions are augmented by larger, irreversible movements
497
which shift the equilibrium site to a new position at a
distance of the order of intermolecular spacing. Finally, at a
high enough temperature, the whole lattice structure is
destroyed and the material is completely composed of free
molecules. The model of a material which has been pre-
sented is thus able to explain all these effects and therefore
is particularly suited as a starting point for the subsequent
analysis of the laser heating process where very high tem-
peratures and gradients co-exist. Before passing on to the
development of the energy transfer model it is worth noting
that there are two possible ways in which molecules may
leave the material. These are by direct evaporation of the
surface layers and by the escape of the free molecule gas
through the surface barrier. The latter process is governed
by the magnitude of the surface potential and it is useful to
consider the equilibrium situation when there is a saturated
vapor above the surface. In this case, the effect of the
surface barrier is to act outwards from the surface a small
distance. Molecules which move away from the surface
through this force eld are slowed down, whilst they are
accelerated if they move towards the surface. The overall
velocity distribution of molecules is Maxwellian. Since the
system is at equilibrium, there are equal number of mole-
cules condensing as there are evaporating. However, in
laser machining the process is non-equilibrium, therefore,
molecules which evaporate immediately escape. Since the
evaporation process is made up of contributions from the
surface and from the interior, the surface effect will be
unchanged apart from causing the surface to move, but
there will be a net outow of molecules from the interior of
the material. This may cause shock waves to propagate into
both the vapor and the material. The effects of shock waves
will be neglected but the total deciency of molecular ow
will be accounted for. The distribution of molecular
velocities in the surface vicinity will also become non-
equilibrium. However, it is assumed that this reaches an
equilibrium distribution.
Within the material, the molecules which escape from
the lattice must also have a minimum velocity. In the same
way, those molecules which escape form a Maxwellian
distribution. Since there is a minimum velocity which
correspond to a molecule being able to free, and there are
free molecules with velocities less than this, then they may
be easily trapped by vacancies to become high energy
bound molecules. Furthermore, these molecules may also
convert some their potential energy to kinetic energy and
therefore stable equilibrium distributions may be main-
tained in both the free and bound molecules. There is,
therefore, no mean temperature difference between free
and bound molecules in any section of the material.
In the analysis, the free molecular motion for evapo-
ration is considered as one-dimensional and it takes place
in the axis perpendicular to the surface, i.e. one-dimen-
sional motion only. However, the volumetric phase change
may be introduced as that the interior process is three-
dimensional, but it is modied at the free surface by the
fact that the evaporating molecules may escape in one-
dimension. The analysis of the phase change process is
given briey here, but the details can be found in [14].
The number of free molecules per unit volume
throughout the material at temperature / is
N
fm
= N
o
exp
U
1
k
B
/
_ _
and the number of vacancies per unit volume is:
N
h
= N
o
exp
U
2
k
B
/
_ _
where U is the activation energy and N
o
is the number of
lattice sites molecules per unit volume. It is also evident
that
N
bm
N
h
= N
o
where N
bm
is the number density of bound molecules.
The probability of the collision (P
h
) taking place be-
tween vacancy and the existing species (bound molecules,
free molecules and vacancies) may be expressed as [14]:
P
h
=
N
h
N
bm
N
fm
N
h
=
N
h
N
o
N
fm
=
exp
U
2
k
B
/
_ _
1 exp
U
1
k
B
/
_ _ :
The probability of the collision (P
fm
) taking place between
free molecule and the existing species (bound molecules,
free molecules and vacancies) may be expressed as [14]:
P
m
=
N
fm
N
bm
N
fm
N
h
=
exp
U
1
k
B
/
_ _
1 exp
U
1
k
B
/
_ _
Similarly, the probability of the collision (P
bm
) taking
place between a bound molecule and the existing species
(bound molecules, free molecules and vacancies) may be
written as [14]:
P
bm
=
1 exp
U
2
k
B
/
_ _
1 exp
U
1
k
B
/
_ _ :
The amount of energy transferred during free molecule-
vacancy collision is:
U(s) U(x) 3k
B
[/(s; y; z; t) /(x; y; z; t)[ (3)
where /(s; y; z; t) and /(x; y; z; t) are the temperatures of
the molecules at locations s and x respectively.
However, the recaptured molecule can give up an
amount of energy
U(s) 3k
B
/(s; y; z; t)
where /(s; y; z; t) is the lattice temperature at position s
(as shown in Fig. 1) and time t. Similarly, the escaping
molecule removes an amount of energy
U(x) 3k
B
/(x; y; z; t)
where /(x; y; z; t) is the lattice temperature at position x
(as shown in Fig. 1) and time t.
Therefore, the overall process may be considered as one
where free molecules created at ds collide in any section dx
and in doing so give up an amount of energy as indicated
by Eq. 3.
The amount of energy transferred during free molecule
bound molecule collision is:
498
1
2
g k
B
[/(s; y; z; t) /(x; y; z; t)[ :
Similarly, the amount of energy transferred during free
moleculefree molecule collision is:
1
2
h k
B
[/(s; y; z; t) /(x; y; z; t)[ :
When a collision takes place between molecules, it is
assumed that the proportions g and h of the excess kinetic
energy are transferred to bound and free molecules, re-
spectively. Moreover, constant proportions of the excess
energy (in this case g and h) are assumed to be transferred
during collision with bound and free molecules respec-
tively. However, the details of the energy transfer mecha-
nism and its formation is given in [14]. Consequently, the
total energy transfer due to evaporation is:
_
N
sx
2l
2
V
sx
h k
B
P
fm
exp
[x s[
l
_ _
[/(s; t) /(x; t)[ ds
N
sx
2l
2
V
sx
g k
B
P
bm
exp
[x s[
l
_ _
[/(s; t) /(x; t)[ ds
N
sx
l
2
V
sx
P
h
exp
[x s[
l
_ _
U(s) U(x) 3k
B
[/(s; t) /(x; t)[ [ [ ds : (4)
In laser heating process, in general, the material is
heated beyond the evaporation temperature. Therefore,
when formulating the problem, the conduction contribu-
tion should be added to convection part. Consequently, the
total energy equation becomes:
qC
p
o
ot
T(x; y; z; t)
=
I
o
2p
_
a
exp
(y u
s
t)
2
z
2
a
2
_ _
d exp(dx)
3f
k
2k
2
T(x; y; z; t)
fk
4k
3
_
0
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
_
x
0
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
x
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
fk
2k
3
_
0
exp
[y g[
k
_ _
T(x; g; z; t) dg
_ _
fk
2k
3
_
0
exp
[z f[
k
_ _
T(x; y; f; t) df
_ _
N
sx
2l
2
V
sx
h k
B
P
fm
exp
[x s[
l
_ _
[/(s; t) /(x; t)[ ds
N
sx
2l
2
V
sx
g k
B
P
bm
exp
[x s[
l
_ _
[/(s; t) /(x; t)[ ds
N
sx
l
2
V
sx
P
h
exp
[x s[
l
_ _
U(s) U(x) 3k
B
[/(s; t) /(x; t)[ [ [ ds :
(5)
However, when solving the conduction part, Eqs. (1)
and (2) has been taken into account and they should be
solved simultaneously to obtain electron and lattice site
atom temperatures. To determine the evaporating front
velocity (V
s
), the following equation can be used [16]:
V
s
=
k
B
/(0; 0; 0; t)
2pm
_
exp
U
o
k
B
/(0; 0; 0; t)
_ _
: (6)
It should be noted that Eq. 5 is valid for temperatures
greater than evaporation temperature. Hence, by knowing
the surface temperature, the value of V
s
can be obtained.
3
Numerical solution to governing equations
and laser pulse property
The energy equation governing heating processes is in the
form of integro-differential equation, which does not yield
analytical solution. Therefore, a numerical method using
an explicit scheme is introduced to solve the equations.
The general procedure of the discretization process is
given in the appendix. In the case of conduction limited
heating, the stability criteria should satisfy:
3fkDt
2k
2
qC
p
_ 1
The calculated time increment meeting the stability crite-
rion is of the order of 10
9
s and this value is used in the
computation. The stability requirements for conduction
and phase change processes should meet:
3fkDt
2k
2
qC
p
P
fm
h k Dt
2l
2
qC
p
_
P
bm
g k Dt
2l
2
qC
p
2P
h
k Dt
2l
2
qC
p
_
_ 1
The time increment satisfying the stability criterion is of
the order of 10
10
s and it is this time increment which is
being used in the computation.
3.1
Pulse property
The laser power intensity distribution is shown in Fig. 2.
1=e points of the power intensity distribution correspond
to a diameter of 260 lm. The temporal variation of the
heating pulse is also considered resembling the actual laser
output pulse (Fig. 2). The energy contents of the actual
pulse was measured and then adapted for the theoretical
prole ensuring that both pulse proles have the same
energy contents.
4
Experimental
The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 3. An Nd-YAG
laser delivering output energy of 715 J in 1:48 ls pulses
499
was used to irradiate the workpiece surface. A care was
taken not to exceed the limiting value of the output power
intensity, which results in surface evaporation of the
substrate. An energy-power meter was used to monitor the
laser output energy and power. 51 mm nominal focal
length lens was used to focus the laser beam. To measure
the surface temperature an optical method was employed.
The principle of the optical temperature measurement is
based on the emissive power ratios emitted from the
heated spot knowing that there is a unique ratio of
monochromatic emissive power intensities corresponding
to two spectral frequencies. Consequently, after obtaining
the emissive power ratios, the corresponding temperature
can be calculated, i.e. recording the temporal variation of
this emissive power ratios, the surface temperature prole
with time can be determined. The details of the measure-
ment is not given here due to lengthy arguments, but re-
ferred to [17]. The photodetector output are coupled into a
computer where the data processing was carried out.
A stainless steel thick sheet is used as workpiece.
The spectral analysis of the light emitted from the
heated spot was carried out using a grating spectrometer.
Two fast response photodetectors were used to detect the
light emitted from the irradiated spot. The detectors were
spaced 2 mm apart at the exit slid and the spacing of
photodetectors corresponded to 164 A spectral width. To
integrate the monochromatic emissive power intensity
seen by the photodetectors, a 5.62 A spectral band width
was considered, since the diameter of the photodetector
corresponded to 5.62 A spectral width. The spectrometer
was positioned at 45
2p
_
a
exp
(y u
s
t)
2
z
2
a
2
_ _
d exp(dx)
3f
k
2k
2
T(x; y; z; t)
fk
4k
3
_
0
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
_
x
0
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
x
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
fk
2k
3
_
0
exp
[y g[
k
_ _
T(s; g; z; t) dg
_ _
fk
2k
3
_
0
exp
[z f[
k
_ _
T(s; y; f; t) df
_ _
: (7)
Using the forward differences for the rst derivatives,
the energy equation may be written as
503
T(x; y; z; t dt)
= I
o
d
Dt
qC
p
exp
(y u
s
t)
2
z
2
a
2
_ _
exp(dx)
fk
4k
3
Dt
qC
p
_
0
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
_
x
0
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
x
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
_
fk
2k
3
Dt
qC
p
_
0
exp
[y g[
k
_ _
T(s; g; z; t) dg
_ _
fk
2k
3
Dt
qC
p
_
0
exp
[z f[
k
_ _
T(s; y; f; t) df
_ _
T(x; y; z; t) 1
3f a dt
2k
2
_ _
(8)
This is the explicit nite difference representation of the
energy equation.
Evaluation of the integrals
The integrals involved in the energy equation are com-
puted using the trapezoidal method. According to this
method, a function f is computed from an initial point 1 to
a nal point n using the values of f at equally spaced
discrete points. Mathematically,
Integral =
h
2
f
1
2f
2
2f
3
. . . f
n
[ [
where f
1
; f
2
; . . . ; f
n
are the values of the function at points
1; 2; . . . ; n and h is the spatial increment between succes-
sive points.
Hence if the integrals are denoted by
G
1
=
_
0
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
G
2
=
_
x
0
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
G
3
=
_
x
exp
[x s[
k
_ _
T(s; y; z; t) ds
G
4
=
_
0
exp
[y g[
k
_ _
T(x; g; z; t) dg
G
5
=
_
0
exp
[z f[
k
_ _
T(x; y; f; t) df
then the trapezoidal approximation to one of these inte-
grals, G
1
, can be written as
G
1
=
Dx
2
exp
[x s
o
[
k
_ _
T(s
o
; y; z; t)
_
2 exp
[x s
1
[
k
_ _
T(s
1
; y; z; t)
_
exp
[x s
n1
[
k
_ _
T(s
n1
; y; z; t)
_
exp
[x s
n
[
k
_ _
T(s
n
; y; z; t)
_
; (9)
where
s
1
= Dx
s
2
= 2Dx
.
.
.
.
.
.
s
n
= nDx:
The expressions for G
2
to G
5
also involve the exponents,
so in order to generalize, the exponential terms are dened
as
A
7
(j; m) =
n1
j=1
n1
m=1
exp
[jDx mDx[
k
_ _
:
A
8
(j; m) =
n1
j=1
n1
m=1
exp
[jDx mDx[
k
_ _
:
A
81
(j; m) =
n1
j=1
n1
m=1
exp
[jDy mDy[
k
_ _
:
and
A
82
(j; m) =
n1
j=1
n1
m=1
exp
[jDz mDz[
k
_ _
:
Therefore, the integrals yield in a nal form:
G
1
=
Dx
2
_
A
8
(j; 1) T(1; y; z; t)
2
n
r=2
A
8
(j; r) T(r; y; z; t)
A
8
(j; n 1) T(n 1; y; z; t)
_
G
2
=
Dx
2
_
A
7
(j; 1) T(1; y; z; t)
2
j1
r=1
A
7
(j; r) T(r; y; z; t)
A
7
(j; j) T(j; y; z; t)
_
G
3
=
Dx
2
_
A
7
(j; j) T(j; y; z; t)
2
n
r=j1
A
7
(j; r) T(r; y; z; t)
A
7
(j; n 1) T(n 1; y; z; t)
_
G
4
=
Dy
2
_
A
81
(jy; 1) T(x; 1; z; t)
504
2
n
r=2
A
81
(jy; r) T(r; y; z; t)
A
81
(jy; n 1) T(x; n 1; z; t)
_
G
5
=
Dz
2
_
A
82
(jz; 1) T(x; y; 1; t)
2
n
r=2
A
82
(jz; r) T(r; y; z; t)
A
82
(jz; n 1) T(x; y; n 1; t)
_
:
As can be observed, the explicit representation gives the
future temperature at (x; y; z) in terms of the current
temperatures at (x; y; z) and its surrounding nodes. Hence,
knowing only the initial temperatures for all the nodes, the
individual nodal temperatures for the next time step can
be calculated. However, the explicit formulation faces the
problem of stability, and careful choice of the time in-
crement is required. The upper limit of the allowable time
increment is given by
3fKDt
2k
2
qC
p
_ 1 (10)
so that the second term on the right-hand side of the en-
ergy equation remains positive. If we let
A =
I
o
dDt
q C
p
exp
(y u
s
t)
2
z
2
a
2
_ _
B = 1
3fKDt
2k
2
qC
p
_ _
C =
f KDt
4k
3
qC
p
and G
1
to G
5
are as dened above, then equation (8) can
be written as