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2
+
p
|
m
F
2
D
2N
=0 (1)
where D, p, q, |
m
, N and m
m
p
, respectively, denote the
relative density, hydrostatic pressure, the equivalent
stress, the ow stress of the matrix material, a material
constant and the equivalent plastic stress of the matrix
material. The function F can be determined from exper-
imental data and represented by a function of relative
density. Shima and Oyane [13] obtained F=1 /
[2.49(1D)
0.514
] and N=2.5 from uniaxial compres-
sion of porous copper.
3.2. Sintering
Abouaf et al. [18] proposed the equivalent Mises
stress for a porous material
|
eq
2
=f I
1
2
+3 c J
2
(2)
where I
1
=|
ii
, J
2
=1/2( s
ij
s
ij
) and s
ij
= |
ij
|
kk
/3. The
parameters c and f in Eq. (2) can be determined from
experiments as functions of relative density D. When
c=1 and f =0, |
eq
in Eq. (2) reduces to the usual
Mises stress.
To analyse densication of powder compacts during
sintering, Besson and Abouaf [16] proposed a creep
strain rate m;
ij
under diffusional creep by considering the
sintering potential. Thus,
m;
ij
=
DA
diff
exp( Q0/RT)
TG
3
!
f(|
kk
3|
s
)l
ij
+
3
2
cs
ij
"
(3)
where |
s
, A
diff
, T, G, R, Q0 and l
ij
are the sintering
potential, the diffusional creep constant, absolute tem-
perature, grain size, diffusional activation energy, and
the Kronecker delta, respectively.
3.3. Hot isostatic pressing
Assuming that the viscoplastic work of the matrix
material is the same as that of a porous material [21],
Abouaf and co-workers [16,18] proposed a creep strain
rate m;
ij
under power-law creep. Thus,
m;
ij
=
Dm;
0
|
eq
n1
|
0
n
fI
1
l
ij
+
3
2
cs
ij
=DA|
eq
n1
fI
1
l
ij
+
3
2
cs
ij
(4)
where m;
0
and |
0
are creep parameters and D denotes
relative density. For a solid exhibiting power-law creep,
i.e. m; =m;
0
(|/|
0
)
n
, A and n in Eq. (4) denote Dorns
constant and the creep exponent, respectively.
3.4. Finite element analysis
To investigate densication and residual stress distri-
bution in a powder compact with a ceramic ball inclu-
sion under cold isostatic pressing, sintering and HIPing,
the interface between the surface of the ceramic ball
and metal powder was assumed to have a perfect-bond-
ing boundary condition in the nite element analysis.
We also assumed that the ceramic ball has only ther-
moelastic deformation.
K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 32
Fig. 1. Finite element meshes and boundary conditions for (a) cold isostatic pressing and sintering and (b) hot isostatic pressing of a metal powder
compact with a ceramic ball inclusion.
Fig. 1 shows nite element meshes and boundary
conditions for (a) cold isostatic pressing and sintering
and (b) hot isostatic pressing of a metal powder com-
pact with a ceramic ball inclusion. Three hundred four-
node axisymmetric thermally coupled quadrilateral,
bilinear displacement and temperature elements
(CAX4T) were used in both cases. Due to the symmetry
condition in the x-axis and the axisymmetry condition
in the y-axis only the rst quadrant of the sample is
considered in Fig. 1(a) and (b).
4. Results and discussion
To analyse densication of metal powder with a
ceramic ball inclusion under cold isostatic pressing, the
model by Shima and Oyane [13] was implemented into
the user subroutine UMAT of ABAQUS [22]. For densi-
cation of metal powder with a ceramic ball inclusion
under sintering and HIPing, the models by Abouaf and
co-workers [16,18] were implemented into the user sub-
routine CREEP of ABAQUS. Experimental data ob-
tained for densication of powder compacts with a
ceramic ball inclusion under cold isostatic pressing,
sintering and hot isostatic pressing were compared with
nite element calculations. Finite element results were
also obtained for residual stress distribution at the
ceramicmetal interface.
Fig. 2 shows uniaxial stressplastic strain relation for
the matrix of metal powder obtained under uniaxial
compression at room temperature. The solid curve was
obtained from Ludwiks equation to represent experi-
mental data. Thus,
|
m
=209+354.8(m
m
p
)
0.4737
MPa (5)
Table 3 shows temperature-dependent elastic modulus
for the matrix of metal powder [23]. Table 4 shows
diffusional creep properties of metal powder [19]. Ta-
bles 5 and 6, respectively, show creep properties of
metal powder and 304 stainless steel for the container
Fig. 2. Uniaxial stressplastic strain relation for the matrix of metal
powder.
Table 3
Variation of elastic modulus with temperature for the matrix material
[23]
1100 1000 600 400 20 Temperature, C
119 192 217 E, GPa 25 25
Table 4
Diffusional creep properties for the matrix of metal powder [19]
Volume diffusion constant, D
v
6.1510
9
m
2
s
1
419 kJ mol
1
Volume diffusion activation energy
14.1 mm Grain size
8.3 kJ kg
1
K
1
Gas constant
K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 33
Table 5
Creep properties for the matrix of metal powder [24]
Creep expo- Temperature, C Dorn constant, A (MPa s)
nent, n
600 6.8510
17
6.9
3.0810
13
6.9 850
4.5 1100 5.5410
10
k
p
=k
DD
0
1D
0
1.46(1D
0
)
(6)
where k is thermal conductivity of the fully dense
material and D
0
denotes initial relative density.
4.1. Cold isostatic pressing and sintering
Finite element results for densication of metal pow-
der compacts with a ceramic ball inclusion under sinter-
ing after cold isostatic pressing were compared with
experimental data.
Density distributions of a powder compact can be
obtained indirectly from the relationship between hard-
ness and relative density [26,27]. In this work, hardness
of powder compacts was measured by a Rockwell (type
B) tester with a 1/16 in. (1.58 mm) steel ball indenter by
applying 60 kg force on the sample for 20 s. A sample
was cut vertically into two pieces by a diamond wheel,
then the sample was annealed at 700C for 1 h to
remove possible residual stress. A total of 96 points was
measured in a sample by a Rockwell hardness tester.
Fig. 3 shows the variation of relative density with
Rockwell hardness (HRB) for metal powder compacts.
The solid curve can be represented by the following
equation. Thus,
D=6.7310
3
HRB+0.659 (7)
Fig. 4 shows a comparison between (a) experimental
data and (b) nite element calculations for relative
density distribution of a powder compact with a tung-
sten carbide ball inclusion after cooling under sintering.
Finite element results show slightly higher relative den-
sity distribution compared to experimental data in Fig.
4(a). The overall density distribution in Fig. 4(a), how-
ever, shows some of the same trend with that in Fig.
4(b).
Fig. 5 shows hydrostatic stress distributions in pow-
der compacts with an alumina ball inclusion (a) before
and (b) after cooling under sintering. The highest hy-
drostatic stress is 34.2 MPa in tension and the stress is
Table 6
Creep properties of 304 stainless steel [24]
Dorn constant, A (MPa s) Temperature, C Creep expo-
nent, n
7.5 2.3710
24
600
900 7.5 1.6310
19
7.5 1100 3.3510
17
Fig. 3. Variation of relative density with Rockwell hardness (HRB)
for metal powder compacts.
Fig. 4. Comparison between (a) experimental data and (b) nite
element calculations for relative density distribution of a powder
compact with a tungsten carbide ball inclusion after cooling under
sintering.
Fig. 5. Hydrostatic stress distributions in powder compacts with an
alumina ball inclusion (a) before and (b) after cooling under sintering.
[24]. The variation of thermal conductivity k
p
with
relative density D can be written [25]
K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 34
Fig. 6. The Mises stress distributions in powder compacts with (a) an
alumina ball and (b) a tungsten carbide ball inclusion before cooling
under sintering.
tion in a powder compact with a tungsten carbide ball
inclusion before cooling under sintering. The Mises
stress distribution in Fig. 6(b) shows higher stress levels
compared with that in Fig. 6(a) due to larger thermal
mismatch between metal powder and tungsten carbide
than alumina.
Fig. 7 shows hydrostatic stress distributions in a
metal powder compact with a tungsten carbide ball (a)
before and (b) after cooling during sintering. In Fig.
7(a), the highest hydrostatic stress is about 45 MPa in
tension and the stress is concentrated at the interface
with the ceramic ball. The stress distribution in Fig.
7(a) shows the similar trend as in the powder compact
with an alumina ball inclusion in Fig. 5(a). However,
the stress level in Fig. 7(a) is higher than that in Fig.
5(a), because the thermal expansion coefcient of tung-
sten carbide is smaller than that of alumina. Thus,
tungsten carbide ball induces higher hydrostatic stress
in a metal powder compact compared with the case of
alumina ball. Residual hydrostatic stress distribution
after cooling in Fig. 7(b) for a tungsten carbide ball
inclusion shows some of the same trends as observed in
Fig. 5(b) for an alumina ball inclusion, except the stress
level is higher than that of alumina.
4.2. Hot isostatic pressing
Fig. 8 shows a comparison between (a) undeformed
shape and (b) deformed shape of a metal powder
compact with an alumina ball inclusion during HIPing
at 1100C under 50 MPa. Due to the effect of the
container, the compact shows a cusped shape, i.e. the
centers of the top and the bottom caps and the middle
of the lateral surface of the compact deformed much
without large deformation at the edges of the top and
bottom caps.
Fig. 9 shows a comparison between (a) experimental
data and (b) nite element calculations for relative
density distributions of a metal powder compact with
an alumina ball inclusion after 30 min during HIPing at
1100C under 50 MPa. The measured density distribu-
tion in Fig. 9(a) shows the lowest density level near the
edge of the caps and density becomes higher near the
ceramic ball. Although the density level by the nite
element result in Fig. 9(b) is slightly higher than the
measured density distribution in Fig. 9(a), the overall
density distribution shows some of the same trend as
observed in Fig. 9(a).
Fig. 10 shows a comparison between (a) experimental
data and (b) nite element calculations for relative
density distributions of a metal powder compact with
an alumina ball inclusion after 120 min during HIPing
at 1100C under 50 MPa. The density distributions in
Fig. 10 are more uniform than those observed in Fig. 9
and the overall density levels in Fig. 10 are higher than
those in Fig. 9.
Fig. 7. Hydrostatic stress distributions in a metal powder compact
with a tungsten carbide ball inclusion (a) before and (b) after cooling
under sintering.
concentrated at the interface with the ceramic ball. The
residual hydrostatic stress distribution after cooling in
Fig. 5(b) shows the stress concentration is dispersed
from the interface with the alumina ball to the outer
surface of the compact compared with that in Fig. 5(a).
The highest hydrostatic stress can be observed at the
top center surface and the mid-lateral surface. This is
due to thermal mismatch of the metal compact with the
alumina ball, which shrinks much less than the metal
compact during cooling, thus tensile residual stress near
the ceramic ball is dispersed to the outer surface of the
metal compact.
Fig. 6(a) shows the Mises stress distribution in a
powder compact with an alumina ball inclusion before
cooling under sintering. The highest Mises stress in the
powder compact is observed at the interface with the
ceramic ball due to thermal mismatch between metal
powder and a ceramic ball.
To investigate the effect of ceramic balls with differ-
ent thermal expansion coefcients on residual stress
distribution, a tungsten carbide ball, which has a lower
thermal expansion coefcient compared to an alumina
ball, was used. Fig. 6(b) shows the Mises stress distribu-
K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 35
Fig. 8. Comparison between (a) undeformed shape and (b) deformed shape of a metal powder compact with an alumina ball inclusion during
HIPing at 1100C under 50 MPa.
Fig. 11 shows (a) residual hydrostatic stress and (b)
the residual Mises stress of a metal powder compact
with an alumina ball inclusion during HIPing at 1100C
under 50 MPa. The stresses in Fig. 11 are much smaller
compared with those in Figs. 5 and 6 for samples
produced under sintering after cold isostatic pressing.
This can be explained by the fact that tensile stress in a
sample caused by thermal mismatch during heating
almost disappears by applying hydrostatic pressure of
50 MPa during HIPing.
Fig. 12 shows nite element results for deformed
shapes of powder compacts with a ceramic ball inclu-
sion (solid line) and without a ceramic ball (dashed
line) during HIPing at 1100C under 50 MPa. A com-
pact without a ceramic ball shows more shrinkage than
that with a ceramic ball inclusion. However, the differ-
ence in shrinkage is very small because the size of the
ceramic ball is not large enough compared to the
compact size.
Fig. 13 shows nite element results for deformed
shapes of powder compacts with various ratios of a
ceramic ball radius (r) to the inner radius (R) of the
container; (a) r/R=0.667, (b) r/R=0.5 and (c) r/R=
0.333 after 60 min during HIPing at 1100C under 50
MPa. The shape changes in Fig. 13(b) and (c) are
relatively small compared to that of the powder com-
pact with r/R=0.667 in Fig. 13(a). The sample tested
in the present work has the ratio r/R=0.365, which is
close to the case in Fig. 13(c).
Fig. 14 shows nite element results for relative den-
sity distributions in powder compacts with various ra-
tios of a ceramic ball radius (r) to the inner radius (R)
of the container; (a) r/R=0.667, (b) r/R=0.5 and (c)
r/R=0.333 after 60 min during HIPing at 1100C
under 50 MPa. The highest density distributions are
observed near the interface with the ceramic ball in the
y-axis. The more uniform density distribution is ob-
served, the smaller the size of the ceramic ball is. Thus,
the effect of the ceramic ball inclusion on densication
of a powder compact becomes more signicant as the
ceramic ball inclusion is larger.
Fig. 9. Comparison between (a) experimental data and (b) nite
element calculations for relative density distributions of a powder
compact with an alumina ball inclusion after 30 min during HIPing at
1100C under 50 MPa.
K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 36
Fig. 10. Comparison between (a) experimental data and (b) nite
element calculations for relative density distributions of a powder
compact with an alumina ball inclusion after 120 min during HIPing
at 1100C under 50 MPa.
5. Conclusions
The present paper reports on the effect of a ceramic
ball inclusion on densication of a metal powder com-
pact during cold isostatic pressing, sintering and hot
isostatic pressing. Experimental data were obtained for
deformation and densication of mixed ironnickel
powder with an alumina ball or a tungsten carbide ball
inclusion under cold isostatic pressing, sintering and
hot isostatic pressing. Finite element results were also
compared with experimental data. The agreements be-
tween nite element results and experimental data were
good in both densication and deformation.
The residual stress in a metal powder compact may
be caused by nonuniform temperature distribution in a
powder compact during sintering due to thermal mis-
match and stress induced by the interfacial geometric
constraint between a ceramic ball and a metal powder
compact. The higher residual stress was observed in a
metal powder compact when the difference between
thermal expansion coefcients for a ceramic ball and
metal powder became larger.
Samples produced by HIPing showed more uniform
density distributions with higher densities and lower
residual stresses compared to those by sintering after
cold isostatic pressing.
Acknowledgements
We should like to thank Engineering Research Cen-
ter for Net Shape and Die Manufacturing at Pusan
Fig. 11. (a) Hydrostatic stress and (b) the Mises stress of a powder
compact with an alumina ball inclusion during HIPing at 1100C
under 50 MPa.
Fig. 13. Finite element results for deformed shapes of powder com-
pacts with various ratios of a ceramic ball radius (r) to the inner
radius (R) of the container; (a) r/R=0.667, (b) r/R=0.5 and (c)
r/R=0.333 during HIPing at 1100C under 50 MPa.
Fig. 12. Final deformed shape of powder compacts with a ceramic
ball inclusion (solid line) and without a ceramic ball (dashed line)
during HIPing at 1100C under 50 MPa.
K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 K.T. Kim, H. Park / Materials Science and Engineering A282 (2000) 2937 37
Fig. 14. Finite element results for density distributions in powder compacts with various ratios of a ceramic ball radius (r) to the inner radius (R)
of the container; (a) r/R=0.667, (b) r/R=0.5 and (c) r/R=0.333 during HIPing at 1100C under 50 MPa.
National University established by Korea Science and
Engineering Foundation for support of this project.
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