Y BAN NHN DN TP.

HCM
TRNG I HC SI GN
KHOA MI TRNG






BI GING L THUYT


SINH HA MI TRNG


H CAO NG (30 TIT)









Gio vin bin son: DNG TH GING HNG









Lu hnh ni b.
NM HC 20072008.


BI GII THIU

Sinh ha hc l khoa hc nghin cu c s phn t ca s sng (thnh phn cu to
v cc qu trnh bin i ca cc cht trong c th sng).

Th gii sinh vt v cng di do v phong ph. Cc hot ng sng ca th gii ny
cng th hin ra mun mu mun v, nhng nt c trng v chung nht l s trao i
cht, tc tc dng qua li v thng xuyn gia mi c th v mi trng bn ngoi.
Nh qu trnh trao i cht m sinh vt ch ng thch nghi vi ngoi cnh. Trong s
trao i cht th thc n ng mt vai tr v cng quan trng. nh c th thu nhn
c nhng vt cht cn thit to hnh v cung cp nng lng.

Qu trnh trao i cht bao gm qu trnh ng ha v d ha. ng ha l tng hp
nn cc cht cung cp nng lng. D ha l qu trnh gii phng nng lng.
Hin nay ngi ta p dng ngy cng rng ri phng php sinh hc x l nc
thi bi v n c nhng u vit hn hn so vi cc phng php khc. Tc nhn x
dng cho phng php ny l vi sinh vt.

Ni chung, v thnh phn nguyn t trong c th sng ch tm thy 27 trong s hn
100 nguyn t bit. Bn nguyn t ch yu l C, H, O, N. Mt s nguyn t
thng gp dng ion nh: Na
+
,

K
+
,Mn
2+
,Ca
2+
,Cl
+
.cc nguyn t khc nh: Mn,
Co, Fe, Cu, Zn, Al,.ch c vi s lng rt nh, gi l cc nguyn t vi lng.
Cht cu to nn c th sng gm hai nhm:

1. Nhm hu c: Bao gm m (protein), ng bt (glucid), cht bo (lipid),
sinh t (vitamin).
2. Nhm v c: Bao gm nc v mui khong.
CHNG I

PROTEIN



I. Gii thiu chung v protein

Protein l nhng hp cht hu c m trong thnh phn phn t c cc nguyn t C, H,
O, N,S, P,.

I.1.Chc nng sinh hc ca protein

Protein l thnh phn khng th thiu c ca tt c cc c th sng. Mt s chc
nng quan trng ca n l:

- Xc tc: Cc protein c chc nng xc tc c gi l cc enzym.
- Vn ti; Mt s protein ng vai tr nh nhng xe ti vn chuyn cc cht
trong c th, v d hemoglobin vn chuyn oxy n cc m v c quan trong
c th.
- Bo v: Cc khng th trong mu l nhng protein c kh nng nhn bit v
bt nhng cht l xm nhp vo c th.
- D tr dinh dng: Cung cp axit amin cho phi pht trin, v d ovalbumin
trong lng trng trng.

I.2. Protein i vi i vi i sng con ngi

Protein l thc phm quan trng nht .Khng c protein th khng th c s sng, sinh
trng v pht trin.Nu cung cp y protein vi cht lng cao s to iu kin
ti u cho c th hot ng bnh thng, pht trin tt v kh nng lao ng
cao.Thiu protein s dn ti mt cn bng trong qu trnh trao i cht, dn n suy
gim kh nng mim dch v nhiu bnh tt

Thc phm giu protein Protein
Trng (trung bnh) 6 grams
Sa ( 1 ly) 6.3 grams
Sa u nnh (200 ml) 6 grams
u h (100 g) 8 grams
Yaourt (150g) 7 grams
C (100g) 21 grams
Ph-mt (100g) 25 grams
Tht b (100g) 28 grams
Tht g (100g) 25 grams


Protein l thc n c gi tr dinh dng cao, ph hp khu v.Ngoi ra chng cn c
nhiu tnh cht cn thit cho thc phm nh kh nng to bt, kh nng to mng
(gel), to hnh, kh nng ng t v kt ta

Ngun protein : Hm lng protein trong cc c th sng thay i kh nhiu. Ngun
protein ng vt ch yu l cc loi tht gia sc, gia cm, c tm, sa. Ngun protein
thc vt quan trng l ht cc loi u, c bit l u tng. Nm , to cng l nhng
ngun protein qu gi.

II. Cu to phn t ca protein

Protein c cu to t cc L- axit amin, lin kt vi nhau bng lin kt peptid.

II.1. Axit amin

II.1.1. Cng thc tng qut ca L- axit amin nh sau:


II.1.2. Phn loi axit amin

Mc d axit amin rt a dng nhng hu ht chng c cu to t 20 L- axit amin
v 2 amit tng ng. Da vo nhng c tnh ca mch bn (nhm R) ngi ta chia
cc axit amin thnh cc nhm chnh nh s ( xem thm bng cc axit amin ).




II.1.3. Cc axit amin khng thay th
Axit amin
Mch thng Mch vng
1 COOH
1 NH2
trung tnh
2 COOH
1 NH2
axit
1 COOH
2 NH2
baz

ng
vng
D vng

Trong s 20 axit amin thng gp trong phn t protein c mt s axit amin m c
th con ngi v ng vt khng th t tng hp c, phi a t ngoi vo qua
thc n, gi l cc axit amin cn thit hoc khng thay th. Khi thiu thm ch ch
mt axit amin ny c th lm cho cn bng Nito m (protein c tng hp t hn
protein b phn gii ). Theo tiu chun ca FAO (t chc nng lng quc t ) th 8
axit amin cn thit vi con ngi l: Treonin, Valin, Loxin, Izoloxin, Metionin,
Triptophan, Lixin, Phenilalanin.

Hm lng cc axit amin khng thay th v t l gia chng trong phn t protein l
mt tiu chun quan trng nh gi cht lng protein.

II.2. Lin kt peptid

L lin kt CO NH c to thnh do phn ng kt hp gia nhm - cacboxyl
ca axit amin ny vi nhm -amin ca axit amin khc, loi i mt phn t nc.



Nu 3,4,5 hoc nhiu axit amin kt hp vi nhau to thnh cc peptid c tn tng
ng l tripeptid, tetrapeptid, pentapeptid,v polypeptid.

III. Cu trc ca phn t protein

III.1. Cu trc bc 1

L trnh th sp xp cc gc axit amin tng ng trong mch polypeptid. Cu trc
ny c gi vng bi lin kt peptid.

III.2. Cu trc bc 2

L tng tc khng gian gi cc gc axit amin gn nhau trong mch polypeptid.
Theo Paulin v Cori (gii thng Nobel 1951) th cu tryc1 bc 2 ch yu l dng
xon ca cu trc bc 1 v c gi vng bi lin kt hidro. Cu trc bc 2 l cu
trc in hnh si nh keratin (tc ), callogen (da, xng ).

III.3. Cu trc bc 3

Nhiu protein tan trong nc, protein xc tc c dng hnh cu. S cun li ca cc
cu trc bc 2 thnh cc khi hnh cu gi l cu trc bc 3. Cu trc bc 3 c gi
vng bi lin kt cu isunfua, lin kt hidro,

III.4. Cu trc bc 4

L nhiu cu trc bc 3 lin kt li vi nhau to khi c nhiu dng.


IV. Tnh cht ca protein v axit amin:

IV.1. Tnh in ly lng tnh

Axit amin v protein u c tnh in ly lng tnh, tc l n c kh nng phn ly nh
mt axit hoc mt bazo hoc trung tnh ty vo mi trng.

Nh vy khi t axit amin trong in trng ty theo pH mi trng n c th di
chuyn ti catot hoc anot. mt gi tr pH no axit amin khng di ng trong
in trng tc trung ha v in tch. Gi tr pH ny c gi l im ng in ca
axit amin, k hiu l pHi (pI).

ngha: Trong mi trng pH = pI protein d dng kt t li vi nhau. C th s
dng tnh cht ny xc nh im ng in cng nh kt ta protein. Mt khc,
do s sai khc v im ng in gia cc protein nn c th iu chnh pH mi
trng tch ring cc protein ra khi hn hp ca chng.

IV.2. Tnh cht ca dung dch keo protein, s kt ta protein

Khi ha tan, protein to thnh dung dch keo. Do trn b mt phn t protein c cc
nhm phn cc nn khi ha tan trong nc cc phn t nc lng cc c cc
nhm ny hp ph to thnh mng nc bao xung quanh phn t protein gi l lp v
hydrat. Hai yu t m bo bn ca dung dch keo protein l:

- pH # pI .
- Lp v hydrat bao quanh phn t.

Nu loi b hai yu t trn protein s kt ta. Sau khi protein b kt ta, nu loi b
yu t kt ta protein li c th to thnh dung dch keo bn hoc khng. Trng hp
u gi l kt ta thun nghch, trng hp sau gi l kt ta khng thun nghch.
Trong trng hp kt ta khng thun nghch protein b mt tnh cht ban u hay
cn gi l b bin tnh. Cc yu t kt ta thun nghch (mui (NH4)2SO4, dung mi
hu c) dng thu ch phm protein, cc yu t kt ta khng thun nghch (
nhit cao, axit hoc kim nng cao, mui kim loi nng) dng loi b
protein khi dung dch, lm ngng phn ng enzyme.

IV.3. Phn ng nh tnh v nh lng protein v axit amin

- Trong mi trng kim mnh protein phn ng vi CuSO4 to phc cht mu
tm hoc . Phn ng ny gi l phn ng Biure. y l phn ng c trng
cho lin kt peptid (tt c cc cht c cha 2 lin kt peptid tr ln u cho
phn ng ny ) v c s dng nh tnh v nh lng protein.

- nh tnh v nh lng axit amin ngi ta dng phn ng Ninhydin. Tt
c cc axit amin (tr prolin ) phn ng vi ninhydrin to hp cht mu xanh
tm ( ring prolin cho mu vng ).




V. Phn loi protein

Protein n gin l nhng protein khng c nhm khng phi l protein . Th
d albumin (c trong lng trng trng ), globulin (c trong ht cy h u ),
glutelin (c trong la m ).

Protein phc phc tp c cha nhm ngoi khng phi l protein. Trong trng
hp ny protein gi l apoprotein, th d homoglobin, lipoprotein.


VI. S chuyn ha protein trong c th sng v ng dng ca protein

IV.1. Trong c th sng

Protein thc n khi vo c th nh enzyme xc tc s phn gii thnh cc axit amin .
Axit amin thm qua thnh rut theo mu ti cc t bo. Chng l nguyn liu tng
hp nn protein trong c th. S tng hp protein din ra riboxom. Protein c
tng hp trong c th c gi l protein c trng ca c th, n c xy dng t
axit amin ca thc n song trnh t axit amin th khc, do protein c trng ca c
th mang nt c th ca mi c th v khoi6ng cn ging protein ca thc n na.

IV.2. Trong cng nghip thc phm:

Trong ch bin thc phm: Hai hin tng thng gp l thy phn v bin tnh:

- Thy phn : protein thy phn hon ton hoc khng hon ton to cc axit
amin ( thi d: sn xut nc mm, tng, cc sn phm ln mem truyn
thng, chao)
- S bin tnh: Nhm c mt cu trc mong mun ( th d sn xut phomai,
yaourt, u h ,).

Trong bo qun thc phm: khi thc phm c m cao nn protein b thy phn
di tc dng ca enzyme thy phn c trong bn thn thc phm hoc ca vi sinh
vt xm nhp. Kt qu l to ra nhiu aldehyt, amin, ru khc nhau khin sn phm
c mi v c th c. Thc phm c th b gim cht lng do s bin tnh protein
(dn ti mt hot tnh sinh hc, ng t protein ,). Bi vy bo qun thc phm
cn phi kh enzyme, gim m, b sung cc cht c ch vi sinh vt

CHNG II

ENZYME



I. Gii thiu chung v enzyme

I.1. Enzyme l g ?

Trong cc t bo ca c th sng lun xy ra qu trnh trao i cht. Qu trnh ny l
tp hp cc qui lut ca rt nhiu cc phn ng khc nhau. Lm th no nhng
phn ng ha hc rt khc nhau v rt kh xy ra trong iu kin bnh thng ngoi
c th, tin hnh thng i hi tc dng ca ha cht ( axit, kim,) v iu kin
nhit , p sut cao li c th xy ra trong c th sng ht sc nhanh, trong iu kin
m du? Cu tr li l cc phn ng ny din ra do tc dng ca cc cht xc tc sinh
hc cc enzyme.

I.2. Cu to ha hc ca enzyme

Bn cht ha hc ca enzyme l protein c ngha l enzyme c cu to t cc L-
axit amin lin kt vi nhau bi lin kt peptid.

Enzyme ch cu to t axit amin c gi l enzyme mt thnh phn ( mt cu t,
enzyme n gin ). Enzyme c cu to t chui polypeptid v phn phi enzyme
c gi l enzyme hai thnh phn ( hai cu t, enzyme phc tp ). Trong trng hp
ny chui polypeptid gi l apoenzyme, cn phn phi protein gi l coenzyme .
Thng gp coenzyme c bn cht l ion kim loi hoc vitamin.

I.3. Trung tm hot ng ca enzyme

mi phn t enzyme u tn ti mt vng cu trc ni trc tip xy ra phn ng
xc tc gi l trung tm hot ng ca enzyme. Cu to ca cc trung tm hot ng
enzymr hin cn bit rt t.

cc enzyme mt cu t, trung tm hot ng thng bao gm mt t hp cc nhm
nh chc axit amin khng tham gia to thnh trc chnh ca si polypeptid ( th d
nhm SH ca xystein , -OH ca xerin) cc nhm ny c th xa nhau trong mch
polypeptid nhng li rt gn nhau trong khng gian ( cu trc bc 3 v 4 ). V vy
ch cn mt bin i nh ca mi trng nh hng n cu trc ca phn t enzyme
s lm v hiu ha trung tm hot ng v enzyme mt hot tnh.

enzyme hai cu t vai tr trung tm hot ng thng do nhm ngoi (coenzyme )
m nhn.

Trung tm hot ng ( TTH) c cu hnh khng gian rt tng ng vi cu trc ca
c cht v thng c hnh thnh trong qu trnh enzyme tip xc vi c cht.


Quan nim cha kha v m hnh Koshland.









Mt s enzyme c TTH tn ti di dng cha hot ha gi l zimogen hoc
proenzyme. Th d pepxinogen, tripxinogen c th c hot ha nh cc proteaza
khc (tripxin chng hn ). Cc enzyme ny ct i mt vi on peotid c tc dng km
hm TTH ca enzyme.

II. Tnh cht ca enzyme

II.1. Cng lc xc tc

Enzyme c kh nng xc tc mnh hn nhiu so vi xc tc thng thng.

Th d: thy phn 5 kg protein trng cn phi un si trong nhiu gi cn nu s
dng 1gam pepxin th ch mt 2 gi trong nhit thng.

II.2. Tnh c hiu ca enzyme

Mi enzyme ch c kh nng xc tc cho s chuyn ha mt hay mt s cht nht
nh theo kiu phn ng nht nh. S tc dng c tnh la chn cao ny gi l tnh
c hiu ca enzyme.

Ngi ta phn bit:

a) c hiu kiu phn ng: mi enzyme ch c kh nng xc tc cho mt trong cc
kiu phn ng chuyn ha mt cht nht nh, th d phn ng oxy ha
kh, phn ng thy phn.

b) c hiu c cht:

c hiu tuyt i: Enzyme ch tc dng trn mt c cht nht nh. Th d ureaza ch
tc dng vi ure m khng tc dng vi dn xut ca n.

Ureaza
H
2
N CO NH
2
+ H
2
O CO
2
+ H
2
O


Ureaza
H
2
N CO NH
3
+ H
2
O khng xy ra


E S [ES]
S E [ES]
c hiu tng i: Enzyme ch c kh nng tc dng ln mt kiu lin kt ha hc
nht nh trong phn t c cht khng ph thuc vo cu to phn t ca phn tham
gia to thnh lin kt . Th d enzyme lipaza c kh nng thy phn tt c cc lin
kt este.

CH
2
OCOR
1
CH
2
OH R
1
COOH
Lipaza
CHOCOR
2
+ H
2
O CHOH + R
2
COOH

CH
2
OCOR
3
CH
2
OH R
3
COOH


c) c hiu nhm: Enzyme c kh nng tc dng ln mt kiu lin kt ha hc nht
nh vi iu kin mt tronh hai thnh phn tham gia to thnh lin kt phi c cu
to xc nh. Th d cacboxypeptidaza c kh nng phn ct lin kt peptid gn nhm
cacboxyl t do.
Cacboxylpeptidaza
R C N CH COOH RCOOH + H
2
N CH COOH
|| | | |
O H R

R

d) c hiu quang hc: Enzyme ch tc dng vi mt tronh hai dng ng phn quang
hc ca c cht. th d fumarathydrataza ch kh nc ca axit L malic m khng
tc dng vi D- malic to axit fumaric.


COOH HCOOH
| Fumarahydrataza ||
HO - CH HOOC CH
|
CH
2
|
COOH

L- malic axit fumaric


III. C ch tc dng ca enzyme

Phn ng enzyme xy ra qua 3 giai on

Giai on 1: Enzyme ( E ) nhanh chng kt hp vi c cht ( S ) bng lin kt yu
to phc enzyme c cht ( ES ) khng bn.

[ E ] + [ S ] [ ES].

Giai on 2: C cht b bin i do s ko cng v ph v cc lin kt.



Giai on 3: To sn phm, enzyme c gii phng di dng t do.

[ ES] [P] + [ E ].

Th d: Phn ng thy phn






















IV. Cc yu t nh hng n hot ng ca enzyme

IV.1. Nng enzyme

Ni chung , trong iu kin tha c cht tc phn ng ph thuc tuyn tnh vo
nng enzyme: V = K [ E ].

Trong : V vn tc phn ng; [ E ] nng c cht; K hng s.

IV.2. Nng c cht













IV.3. nhit

















Trong cng nghip sn xut v bo qun sn phm thc phm yu t nhit d0o65
thng c s dng iu ha phn ng enzyme . nhit thp enzyme gim
hot song khng b bin tnh nhiu. nhit cao ( 70
0
C) enzyme b bin tnh v
khng c kh nng phc hi hot . Nhit ti thch vo khong 40 50
0
C.

IV.4. Gi tr pH



















IV.5. Cht kch thch v km hm

Cht km hm l nhng cht lm gim hot ca enzyme. Ngi ta phn bit cht
km hm cnh tranh v khng cnh tranh.

Cht hot ha l nhng cht lm tng hot xc tc ca enzyme.

V. Cch gi tn v phn loi enzyme

V.1.Cch gi tn

trc kia thng gi tn enzyme mt cch ty tin, ty tc gi. Cc tn quen dng
nh pepxin, tripoxin,hin nay vn c dng gi l tn thng dng. Tn gi y ,
chnh xc, theo quy c quc t c gi theo tn c cht c hiu ca n cng vi
tn ca kiu phn ng m n xc tc, cng thm ui aza.

Th d: Glucozyltransferaza l enzyme xc tc cho phn ng vn chuyn gc ng.

V.2. Phn loi enzyme

Enzyme c chia lm 6 loi

1. Oxydoreductaza: l enzyme xc tc phn ng oxy ha kh. Th d: dehydrogenaza,
oxydaza, peroxydaza,

2. Transferaza: l enzyme xc tc s vn chuyn nhm ha hc t cht ny sang cht
khc. Th d: aminotransferaza,

3. Hydrolaza: Enzyme xc tc phn ng thy phn. Th d: peptidhydrolaza, lipaza,

4. Liaza: xc tc phn ng loi CO2 ra khi mt cht. Th d: piruvatdecacboxylaza
(loi CO2 ra khi axit piruvic),

5. Izomeraza: l enzyme xc tc qu trnh ng phn ha. Th d glucoizomeraza,

6. Ligaza: L enzyme xc tc cho phn ng cn nng lng. Th d: piruvat
cacboxylaza, asparaginsyntetaza,

VI. Tnh u vit ca phn ng enzyme v mt s ng dng ca
enzyme

VI.1. tnh u vit ca phn ng enzyme

iu kin phn ng n ha hn so vi xc tc ha hc, do d thc hin, t tn km
v hiu qu cao.

t tn km hn v nng lng. Th d : phn ng thy phn sacaroza nu khng c
cht xc tc th cn nng lng l 32 000 cal/mol, nu xc tc l axit th cn nng
lng l 25000 cal/mol, nu xc tc l enzyme invertaza th ch cn nng lng l 9
400 cal/mol.

Phn ng enzyme din ra vi vn tc rt nhanh. Th d : thy phn protein thnh
axit amin cn lim hoc axit trong vng vi chc gi, song nu s dng enzyme thi
ch cn vi chc pht.

VI.2. Mt s ng dng ca enzyme

Trong cng nghip thc phm:

ng dng ca phn ng thy phn: to cu trc mong mun, ci thin cu trc
ca sn phm (mi, v,), thu nhng sn phm c phn t lng nh : th d
enzyme amilaza, proteaza,trong cng nghip sn xut ru, bia, bnh m, ch bin
tht,

ng dng ca phn ng oxy ha kh: th d cc loi ch, c ph, thuc l khc nhau
l do s dng mt cch ti tnh cc enzyme c sn trong nguyn liu hoc ch phm
enzyme c ngun gc ng thc vt, c bit l vi sinh vt.

Mt s enzyme cn c s dng bo qun thc phm, th d glucooxydaza c
s dng ngn chn qu trnh oxy ha,

Trong x l mi trng: Phng php x l sinh hc: X dng VSV phn gii hu
ht cc cht vi thi gian ngn, trong iu kin n gin, cc thit b x l n gin,
chi ph khng cao, phng php tin hnh n gin.



CHNG III

GLUXIT



I. Gii thiu chung v gluxit

Gluxit l nhm cht hu c ph bin c ng vt ( 2 % trng lng cc cht kh) v
thc vt ( 80 90 % trng lng cc cht kh). Gluxit c tng hp bi cy xanh t
CO2, H2O v nng lng ca nh sng mt tri, cn con ngi v ng vt khng c
kh nng v phi s dng ngun gluxit t thc vt.

Gluxit thuc nhm dinh dng c bit quan trng i vi ngi v ng vt. Cc
nguyn t to nn gluxit l C, H v O.

I.1. Chc nng sinh hc ca gluxit

Gluxit l cht cung cp nng lng ch yu (60 % ) cho cc qu trnh sng ca c th.
Tuy sinh nhit ch bng mt na lipid song gluxit c u th ni bt l ha tan tt
trong nc, lm mi trng cho cc phn ng xy ra trong c th.

Gluxit c vai tr cu trc , to hnh (xelluloza).

Gluxit c vai tr bo v (mucopolysacharit).

I.2. phn loi gluxit

Gluxit c phn lm hai loi

Gluxit n gin (monosacarit)
Gkuxit phc tp (polysacarit ) : polysacarit li c phn thnh polysacarit
loi I (oligosacarit) v polysacarit loi II.

Trong cng nghip thc phm Gluxit l cht liu c bn, khng th thiu ca ngnh
sn xut ln men: sn xut ru, bia, axit aimin, m chnh, cht khng sinh,

Gluxit to ra cu trc, hnh th, trng thi cho cc sn phm : phng ca
bnh phng tm, xp cho bnh m,
To cht lng: to ngt (ng ), to mu sc cho thc phm,

II. Monosacarit

II.1. c tnh cu to ca monosacarit

Monosacarit l dn xut aldehyt hoc xeton ca cc polyol. Dn xut aldehyt c gi
l aldoza, dn xut xeton gi l xetoza. Ngi ta thng tin hnh nh s cc nguyn
t C ; nh s c bt u t nguyn t C u mch c nhm cacbonyl cho
nguyn t C ca nhm cacbonyl c ch s nh nht.
Gii thiu mt s monosacarit thng gp:




Cc dng cu to ca monosacarit

Dng D v L : trong phn t ca monosacarit c mt s nguyn t C bt i, v vy
mi monosacarit c th tn ti di dng ng phn lp th khc nhau, s lng ng
phn lp th l 2
n
vi n l s nguyn t C bt i. Nhng monosacarit c OH nh
vi C nm cnh C cui cng bn phi mch thng gi l monosacarit dng D
(dextrogyre), ngc li th l dng L (levogyre ). Hin nay ngi ta dng ch L v D
ch cc cu hnh ca ng phn v thm vo du (+) hoc (-) ch quay cc
v bn phi hay bn tri.

a s cc monosacarit trong t nhin u thuc dng D v c th sinh vt ch hp
th monosacarit dng D m thi. Nhng monosacarit dng L cn tr s hp th gluxit
ca c th. Khi gp iu kin thun li dng D v L c th chuyn ha qua li ln
nhau. Trong ch bin thc phm nu xy ra qu trnh monosacarit dng D chuyn ha
thnh dng L ( qu trnh racemic ha ) s lm gim st cht lng ca sn phm.
CHO CHO CHO
| | |
HCOH HCOH HCOH
| | |
CH
2
OH HCOH HOCH
| |
HCOH HCOH
| |
CH
2
OH HCOH
|
CH
2
OH

D - glyxeraldehyt D- Riboza D- glucoza
CHO CHO CH
2
OH
| | |
HCOH HOCH C = O
| | |
HOCH HOCH HOCH
| |
HOCH HCOH HCOH
| | |
HCOH HCOH HCOH
| | |
CH
2
OH CH
2
OH CH
2
OH

D galactoza D mantoza D - Fructoza

Dng vng ca monosacarit

Khi nghin cu k v cc tnh cht ha hc ca monosacarit ngi ta thy rng cc
cng thc hnh chiu trnh by trn cha hon ton ph hp. Th d mt s phn
ng d dng xy ra i vi chc aldehyt thng thng song li khng xy ra i vi
monosacarit. V vy c th ngh rng chc aldehyt trong monosacarit cn c th tn
ti di dng cu to c bit no ,

Kolle (1870) ch ra rng monosacarit cn tn ti di dng mch vng. S to
vng xy ra do tc dng ca nhm cacbonyl vi mt trong cc nhm OH ru trong
cng mt phn t monosacarit. Nh vy t cng thc cu to h s c th to nn hai
dng vng, th d i vi D glucoza:


OH
H -C
|
H C - OH
|
HO C H O
|
H- C - OH
|
H - C
|
CH
2
OH

D - glucoza








CHO CHO
| |
HCOH HCOH
| |
HCOH HCOH
| |
HOCH HOCH
| |
HCOH HOCH
| |
CH
2
OH CH
2
OH

D glucoza L - glucoza
OH

H -C
|
H C - OH
|
HO C H O
|
H- C - OH
|
H - C
|
CH
2
OH

D - glucoza

S sp xp ca nhm OH glucozit v bn phi hoc bn tri ca trc cacbon lm
thay i hng lot tnh cht ca phn t monosacarit ( quay c c chng hn). trong
dung dch D- glucoza c th tn ti c ba dng : hai dng vng v mt dng h. S
to vng thng xy ra gia nhm cacbonyl v nhm Oh ru v tr C
4
hoc C
5

i vi cc aldoza v C
6
i vi cc xetoza. Nh vy dng vng ca monosacarit c
th l nm cnh hoc su cnh.


















Cch biu din cng thc vng theo kiu trn da trn nguyn tc ca Hayworth:
Vng monosacarit c coi nh t trn mt mt phng, nh vy ton b mch C v
cu ni oxy c xp cng trn mt mt phng, phn m nt ca phn t biu din
v tr ca vng gn vi tm mt ca ngi quan st, cn cc nhm OH v H s c
sp trn hoc di mt phng cha vng monosacarit. Nu trong cng thc hnh
chiu chng c sp xp bn phi ca chui cacbon th trong cng thc ca
Hayworth chng s c sp xp phn di ca mt phng cha vng v ngc li.

Ch ring trong trng hp i vi nguyn t cacbon m nhm OH c dng cu
to nn cu oxy th cch sp xp cc nhm th li theo nguyn tc ngc li, s d
nh vy l do cng thc hnh chiu ca Ficher cn cha biu din c cu trc ca
monosacarit mt cch hon ho.

Th d i vi fructoza:














































II.2. Tnh cht ca moonosacarit

II.2.1. Phn ng oxy ha

Di tc dng ca cc tc nhn oxy ha, nhm cacbonyl b chuyn thnh axit. Ty
iu kin tc nhn oxy ha mnh hay yu m qu trnh oxy ha ch xy ra ti C
1
hay
C cui.

Th d: phn ng khi oxy ha nh bng nc brom (hoc clo,iot) trong mi trng
kim.

Nc brom
Glucoza -------------------------------- HOOC- (CHOH )
4
- CH
2
OH
Axit gluconic

Ring i vi xetoza th phn ng ny khng xy ra. Khi oxy ha bng cc cht oxy
ha mnh hn, th d : HNO
3
th c chc aldehyt v chc ru bc mt trong phn t
u chuyn thnh chc axit.

HNO
3

Glucoza ------------------------------HOOC (CHOH)
4
COOOH
Axit glucaric

II.2.2. Phn ng kh

Di tc dng ca cc cht kh monosacarit chuyn thnh cc polyol. Khi cc
nhm aldehyt hoa85cxeton ca monosacarit chuyn thnh cc nhm ru tng ng.

H
2

Glucoza --------------------------- HOH
2
C - (CHOH)
4
CH
2
OH
D- sorbitol
II.2.3. Tc dng ca axit
Khi un si pentoza, hexoza vi axit nng cao ( HCl 12%,H
2
SO
4
c ), phn t
ca chng b loi i 3 phn t nc v to thnh fucfurol hoc oximetylfucfurol. Cc
sn phm ny c th ngng t vi cc hp cht phenol v to cc sn phm c mu
c trng. Nhng phn ng ny c s dng nh tnh v nh lng
monosacarit.











II.2.4. Phn ng vi nhm hydroxyl glucozit v s to ra cc hp cht glucozit























III. Polysacarit

III.1. Polysacarit loi 1( Oligosacarit )

Oligosacarit l nhm gluxit cu to bi s lin kt ca mt s t (2-10) monosacarit
bng lin kt glucozit. S kt hp gia hai monosacarit c th xy ra theo hai kiu
khc nhau v ph thuc vo cc kiu kt hp m s c cc disacarit c tnh cht
khc nhau. Trong kiu lin kt th nht , mt monosacarit ny lin kt vi mt
monosacarit nh nhm OH ca n vi mt nhm OH ru ca cht khc, nh vy
cht to thnh vn cn mt nhm OH glucozit dng t do v duy tr tnh kh, th d
nh ng lactoza, maltoza. Trong kiu lin kt th hai, hai monosacarit kt hp vi
nhau nh hai nhm OH glucozit ca chng, kt qu cht to thnh khng cn cha
OH glucozit t do v khng cn tnh kh, th d ng sacaroza.

III.1.1. Sacaroza

L disacarit c to t , D glucoza v , D fructoza lin kt vi nhau bng lin kt
1-2 glucozit.







Sacaroza c nhiu trong ma, c ci ng. ng sacaroza c tnh ht m mnh v
khi b thy phn bi enzyme invertaza to thnh dung dch cha , D glucoza v , D
fructoza. Hn hp cha hai cht trn gi l ng nghch o do sau khi thy phn
gc quay cc chuyn t phi sang tri.

III.1.2. Maltoza ( ng mch nha )

L disacarit c cu to bi hai gc , D glucopiranoza lin kt vi nhau bi lin kt
1-4 glucozit.














Maltoza c nhiu trong cc mm la ( do enzyme amilaza thy phn tinh bt). Khi
thy phn maltoza bng axit hoc enzyme maltaza s to thnh dung dch cha , D
Glucopiranoza.

III.1.3. Lactoza (ng sa)

L disacarit c cu to bi , D galactoza v , D glucoza lin kt vi nhau bi
lin kt 1-4 glucozit.















ng lactoza kh b thy phn hn sacaroza. Trong rut tr em c enzyme lactaza
khin qu trnh thy phn din ra d dng hn. Khi trng thnh enzyme ny mt dn
i.

III.2. Polysacarit loi 2

c cu to bi nhiu monosacarit lin kt vi nhau nh cc lin kt , hoc
glucozit. Nhiu polysacarit c tm quan trng c bit trong thc phm nh : tinh bt,
pectin, thch (aga-aga).

Tinh bt: Tinh bt l thnh phn chnh ca cc ht ng cc v cc c lng thc. Tinh
bt c vai tr dinh dng cc k ln v trong qu trnh tiu ha chng b thy phn
thnh ng glucoza l cht to nn ngun calo chnh ca thc phm cho con ngi.
Tinh bt gi vai tr quan trng trong k ngh thc phm do nhng tnh cht ha l
quan trng ca n nh : lm kt dnh, to cng. lm c , to n hi cho thc
phm
Cu to ca tinh bt: Tinh bt khng phi l mt cht ring bit. N bao gm hai
thnh phn khc hn nhau v tnh cht l hc v ha hc l amoloza (20-25%) v
amilopectin (75-80% ).

Amiloza: c cu to t cc , D Glucopiranoza lin kt vi nhau bng lin kt 1-4
glucozit.

















Amilopectin: c cu to t , D Glucopiranoza lin kt vi nhau bng lin kt 1-4
v 1-6 glucozit.













Mt s c tnh ca tinh bt:

1. Khi tc dng vi Iot: amilo cho mu xanh, amilopectin cho mu tm , tinh bt
cho mu xanh tm rt c trng. Phn ng ny dng xc nh tinh bt.

2. Tinh bt b h ha nhit nht nh. Gi tr nhit m ti mch tinh bt b
gin ra gi l nhit gin mch. Khi y lin kt 1-4 v 1-6 glucozit b ko cng
(cha b ct ) v tr nn lng lo. Khi b h ha nht ca tinh bt rt cao.

3. S thoi ha tinh bt: l hin tng mt tnh do ca tinh bt, thng xy ra nhit
thp, th d cm n ngui chng hn. i vi tinh bt giu amylopectin ( tinh
bt np) th s thoi ha din ra chm hn so vi tinh bt giu amiloza.

4. S thy phn tinh bt: Di xc tc ca enzyme hoc axit , tinh bt b thy phn,
lin kt glucozit gy. Qu trnh thy phn tinh bt xy ra theo cc giai on sau :

Tinh bt amylodextrin eritrodextrin acrodextrin maltodextrin

Mi sn phm ny cho mu khc nhau vi iot : amylodextrin cho mu tm,
eritrodextrin cho mu , acrodextrin v maltodextrin khng cho mu vi iot. Nh
vy ta c th s dng iot th v nhn bit giai on su ca qu trnh thy phn
tinh bt.

Nu s dng enzyme thy phn tinh bt th ty thuc vo mc ch sn xut m s
dng cc loi enzyme khc nhau.

Gii thiu tc dng ca mt s enzyme thy phn tinh bt:

amilaza c trong malt, vi sinh vt v tuyn ty ca ng vt. N c tc dng
xc tc s thy phn lin kt glucozit 1- 4 bt k, kt qu l to ra cc polysacarit
ngn hn hoc disacarit hoc glucoza.

-amilaza
Tinh bt Dextrin + Maltoza + Glucoza
Glycogen ( nhiu) (t ) (t)

(glycogen l polysacarit c ngun gc ng vt, cu to ha hc tng t amilopectin nhng mc phn nhnh nhiu hn)

amilaza c trong malt, c tc dng ln lin kt glucozit 1-4 nhng ch tc dng
t pha u khng c tnh kh ca phn t tinh bt v theo tng cp glucoza mt.

amilaza
Tinh bt Dextrin + Maltoza
(54-58%) (42-46%)


Glucoamilaza c trong gan ng vt, vo sinh vt, xc tc cho phn ng thy
phn lin kt 1-4, 1-6 glucozit bt u t u khng kh ca chui polysacarit. Sn
phm ch yu c to thnh l glucoza v dextrin.


Tc dng ca amilaza , amilaza i vi amiloza v amilopectin


oooooooooooooooooooooooooooo


ooooooooooo oooooooooooo


oooo ooooo oooo oooooo



oo oo oo oo oo o oo oo o

amilaza amiloza







oooooooooooooooooooooooooooo


oo oo oo oo oo

amilaza amiloza




S phn gii tinh bt trong c th:

Trong c th, di tc dng ca cc enzyme tinh bt b thy phn, dn dn to sn
phm cui cng l , D glucoza. , D glucoza thm qua thnh rut, theo mu ti t
bo. Ti t bo chng c chuyn ha qua nhiu phn ng di s xc tc ca nhiu
enzyme, to thnh axit pyruvic ( CH
3
COCOOH ). Qu trnh ny c gi l qu trnh
ng phn. c th hiu kh, axit pyruvic c oxy ha trong chu trnh Krebs
gii phng nc v CO
2
, c th ym kh axit pyruvic c ln men to ru hu c
v axit hu c.

Trong cng nghip thc phm:

Di tc dng ca cc enzyme polysacarit b thy phn to monosacarit.
Trong iu kin khng c oxy ca khng kh, di tc dng ca h enzyme vi sinh
vt, c bit l nm men, cc monosacarit b chuyn ha thnh ru axit lactic,
glyxerin,.Qu trnh ny gi l qu trnh ln men.


CHNG IV

LIPID



I. Gii thiu chung v lipid

Lipid hay cht bo l nhm hp cht hu c t nhin rt ph bin trong t bo ng
vt v thc vt, c thnh phn ha hc khc nhau nhng c c im chung l khng
ha tan trong nc m ha tan trong cc dung mi hu c ( ete, cloroform,). V cu
to ha hc trong phn t lipid c cha ru a chc v axit bo bc cao ( este ca
ru v axit bo).

I.1. Chc nng sinh hc

Cung cp nng lng cho c th: 1g protein khi c t chy trong c th gii
phng 4,3 kcal nng lng. 1 g gluxit t chy trong c th gii phng 4,8 kcal,
cn 1 g lipid gii phng 9,8 kcal.

L dung mi ha tan vitamin.

L ngun cung cp cc vitamin A,D,E,K,F cho c th.

M to thnh lp o t nhin bao bc v bo v c th.

Lipid cng tham gia vo cu to t bo.

I.2. Phn loi lipid

Lipid n gin l nhng lipid m trong thnh phn ch c este ca ru v axit bo.
Thuc nhm ny c glycerid, cerid (sp ), sterid.

Lipid phc tp l nhng lipid m ngoi hai thnh phn trn cn c nhng nhm ph.
Thuc nhm ny c glycerophospholipid, glyceroglucolipid.

II. Glycerid

II.1. Cu to ha hc

Glycerid l este ca glycerin v axit bo.






O
||
CH
2
O C R
1

| O
||
CH

O C R
2

| O
||
CH
2
O C R
3






II.2. Cch gi tn glycerid

Gii thiu mt s axit bo:
Mc d trong thin nhin c rt nhiu loi cht bo khc nhau song s sai khc ch
yu gia chng l tnh cht ca cc axit bo. Axit bo c chia thnh hai loi: no
(C
n
H
2n
O
2
) v khng no.

Trong s nhng axit bo no thng gp nht l palmitic (C
15
H
31
COOH) v stearic
(C
17
H
35
COOH ), chng khin cht bo c cu trc rn . Mt s axit bo no khc t
gp hn l miristic (C
14
), capric (C
10
),butyric (C
4
).

Axit bo khng no thng gp trong du thc vt, du ng vt ( t c, ng vt
bin). nhit phng chng c dng lng.Thng gp nht l oleic
(C
17
H
33
COOH), linoleic (C
17
H
31
COOH), linolenic (C
17
H
29
COOH) v arachidonic
(C
19
H
31
COOH).

Ba axit bo cha no l arachidonic, linoleic v linolenic l nhng thnh phn khng
th thiu ca thc phm v c th con ngi khng th tng hp chng. Ngi ta coi
tp hp cc axit bo cha no trn c vai tr quan trng nh vitamin ( chng c gi
l vitamin F).

Oleic : CH
3
- (CH
2
)
7
- CH = CH -(CH
2
)
7
COOH
Linoleic : CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
- (CH=CH-CH
2
)
2
- (CH
2
)
6
COOH
Linolenic: CH
3
CH
2
- (CH=CH-CH
2
)
3
- (CH
2
)
6
COOH.
Arachidonic: CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
- (CH=CH-CH
2
)
4
- (CH
2
)
2
COOH.

Glycerid c gi theo s gc axit tham gia to lin kt este, tn ca axit i ui ic
thnh ui in. Th d:

CH
2
O CO (CH
2
)
16
CH
3

|
CH O CO (CH
2
)
16
CH
3

|
CH
2
O CO (CH
2
)
16
CH
3


Tristearin
CH
2
O CO (CH
2
)
7
CH = CH (CH
2
)
7
CH
3

|
CH O CO (CH
2
)
7
CH = CH (CH
2
)
7
CH
3

|
CH
2
O CO (CH
2
)
7
CH = CH (CH
2
)
7
CH
3


Triolein


M, du ng vt, du thc vt:

C th ni du m t nhin l nhng triglycid hn tp. Chng hn, thnh phn ca m
l ln gm c : tristearin o%, stearodiolein 15 %, - palmitodiolein 42-57 %, -
palmitostearolein 21- 36 %, - palmitodistearin 2%,

Triglycerid ca ng vt thng tp trung trong cc t bo ca m m lm thnh mt
lp m di da, hoc bao quanh mt s c quan hoc nm xen gia cc m khc. C
th thu c m nc bng cch nu nng chy nhit di 80
0
C ( m khng
c mu v mi.

Triglycerid ca ng vt trn cn v ca chim th rn v c gi l m, cn ca c
v ng vt di nc th lng v c gi l du ng vt. Trong cy glycerid l
thnh phn tt yu ca ht. Ht ca mt s cy cha rt nhiu glycerid gi l ht c
du v l nguyn liu khai thc du ( du lc, hng dng,..).

II.3. Tnh cht l hc ca glycerid

Khng tan trong nc m tan trong cc dung mi hu c. Tuy nhin trong nhng iu
kin nht nh, di tc dng ca cht nh ha (protein, x phng, soda,) lipid b
phn chia thnh cc ht nh l lng trong dung dch m khi yn khng b tch
thnh hai lp, c gi l nh tng. Nguyn nhn l do cc cht nh ha ( c tnh
cht hot ha b mt, lm gim sc cng b mt ca cc git lipid) bao quanh cc git
lipid, khin chng khng tch t li vi nhau. Trong c th ngi v ng vt, lipid
c nh tng ha nh axit mt.

L dung mi cho nhiu cht c mi d bay hi. Trong m phm ngi ta s dng
cht bo lm dung mi chit du ete ( th d t hoa hng). Chnh v tnh cht ny
m khi bo qun cht bo d dng hp th nhng mi l.

Nhit nng chy ca glycerid ph thuc vo thnh phn s lng cc loi axit bo.
Du m cha nhiu axit bo no c nhit nng chy cao, du m cha nhiu axit
bo khng no c nhit nng chy thp hn. Nh chng ta thy, tt c du v m
t nhin u cha cc triglycerid khc nhau, do khng c mt im nng chy r
rng m thng c mt khong nng chy.

II.4. Tnh cht ha hc ca glycerid

Phn ng thy phn: glycerid d dng tham gia phn ng thy phn di tc dng
ca enzyme lipaza to ra glycerin v axit bo.
CH
2
O CO R
1
CH
2
OH R
1
COOH
|

Lipaza |
CH

O CO R
1
CHOH R
2
COOH

|

+ H
2
O |
CH
2
O CO R
1
CH
2
OH R
3
COOH



Phn ng x phng ha: Di tc dng ca kim lin kt este trong phn t glycerid
b thy phn to glycerin v mui ca axit bo. Cc mui ny gi l x phng.


CH
2
O CO R
1
CH
2
OH R
1
COONa
|

|
CH

O CO R
1
+ 3NaOH

CHOH R
2
COONa

|

|
CH
2
O CO R
1
CH
2
OH R
3
COONa

X phng


Phn ng hydrogen ha: L phn ng gn hydro vo ni i ca axit bo khng no
trong cc glycerid.
Ni
Triolein + 3H
2
Tristearin
t
o


Trn thc t ngi ta hydro ha chn lc mt s du thc vt lm gim hm lng
axit linolenic do lm tng bn ca du ( th d hydro ha du u tng gim
hm lng axit linolenic t 9% xung 1% ). i khi ngi ta cng hydro ha tng
phn hoc ton b nhm mc ch to ra cc cht bo rn lm nn sn xut
margarin hoc sn xut m nh ha.

II.5. Cc ch s ca cht bo

Ch s axit: L s mg KOH dng trung ha cc axit bo t do c trong 1g cht
bo.Ch s axit c dng khi nh gi ti ca cc cht bo dng lm thc phm.
Ch s axit cao chng t axit khng ti, b thy phn mt phn.

Ch s x phng ha ( ch s savon ): L s mg KOH dng x phng ha 1g cht
bo v trung ha axit bo t do c trong 1g cht bo ny. Ch s savon cao chng t
trong du m c cha nhiu axit bo phn t lng thp v ngc li.

Ch s Iot: L s gam iot kt hp vi 100 gam cht bo. Iot kt hp vo cc ni i
trong phn t axit bo khng no. Cc cht bo c cha nhiu axit bo khng no, c
ch s iot ln. Cht bo c ch s iot cng cao, nhoe65t nng chy cng thp.

Ch s peroxit: Du, m gi lu ngy thng c mi kht kh chu, gi l s i ha.
Mi kht kh chu l do cc aldehyt,xeton, axit phn t thp,.. c to thnh do qu
trnh i ha. Hin tng ny c th do nhiu nguyn nhn, tuy nhin kiu ph bin
nht l do oxi trong khong kh kt hp vo ni i trong phn t axit bo khng no
to thnh peroxit theo kiu phn ng sau:
O - O
| |
R C = C R
1
+ O
2
R C C R
1
| | | |
H H H H
Peroxyt
Khi cho KI phn ng vi cht bo b i ha, n s phn ng vi peroxit, gii phng
iot theo phn ng sau:
O - O
| |
R C C R
1
+ 2KI + H
2
O R CH CH R
1
+ I
2
+ 2KOH
| | O
H H

Dng tiosunphat chun lng iot c gii phng:
2 Na
2
S
2
O
3
+ I
2
= Na
2
S
4
O
6
+ 2NaI.

S gam iot c gii phng bi peroxit c trong 100gam cht bo c gi l ch
s peroxit. Ch s peroxit c s dng nh gi mc i ha ca cht bo. Qu
trnh i m tng nhanh iu kin m, nhit cao v c nh sng. Mt s ion kim
loi nh Cu, Pb cng xc tc cho qu trnh ny. Trong thc t, ngn nga qu trnh
i ha m, ngi ta thng thm cc cht chng oxi ha nh galatpropil, galatetil
hoc tm cch loi b oxi trong mi trng bo qun.

III. Cerid (cn gi l sp )

Cerid l este ca axit bc cao v ru n cht. Sp rt ph bin dch tit ca ng
vt. th d sp ong, sp lng cu,c tc dng chng thm nc, bo v da, lng ca
ng vt khi b thm nc. thc vt, c bit l thc vt nhit i trn b mt ca
l v qu c ph mt lp sp cng c tc dng bo v cho l, qu khi b thm
nc, hn ch thot hi nc, ngn chn vi sinh vt xm nhp.

Sp c ng dng trong cng nghip dc, sn xut cc loi thuc bi, sn
xut cc loi kem , son trong m phm. Trong bo qun lu di tri cy, ngi ta
trng mt lp sp mng bo v.

IV. Sterid

Sterid l este ca ru mch vng v axit bo bc cao. Hai i din quan trng l
colesterol v ecgosterol. ng vt, colesterol c tng hp ch yu trong gan.
Colesterol cng c nhiu trong m thn kinh, mu , trong lp m di da, lng
trng.

Sterid c th chuyn ha thnh cc cht iu ha sinh hc khc nhau ( cc hoocmon
sinh dc, vitamin D,) v tham gia cu to nn mng t bo.



V. Lpid phc tp

Cc i din chnh

V.1.Glycerophotpholipid

Ph bin rng ri trong c th ngi v ng vt (hng cu, no, lng trng, gan
,tim,) v thc vt (ht hng dng, ht u tng,).Cu t alcol ca n l
glycerol. Hai nhm hydroxyl C-1 v C-2 b este ha vi cc axit bo phn t ln,
cn nhm hydroxyl C-3 este ha vi axit photphoric.
CH
2
OCOR
1

|
R
2
OCOCH O
| ||
CH
2
O P OH
|
O X

V.2. Glyceroglucolipid

Ph bin trong lc lp v cc phn khc ca t bo l. Cng thc cu to nh sau:
















VI. S chuyn ha lipid trong c th

Lipid phc tp vo trong c th s c chuyn ha dn thnh lipid n gin, sau
thnh glycerin v axit bo di tc dng ca cc enzyme. Nhng cht ny theo nhng
phn ng phc tp s c oxy ha to nng lng cho c th hot ng hoc c
d tr.

Lng cht bo cn thit cho ngi ln vo khong 80-100 gam/ngy.

CHNG V

AXIT NUCLEIC



I. Thnh phn cu to

Axit nucleic l hp cht cao phn t c cha cc nguyn t C, H,O, N, P. n v cu
to c s ca axit nucleic l mononucleotid. Mt mononucleotid bao gm ba thnh
phn: bazo nito, ng pentoza v axit phosphoric. Ba thnh phn ny kt hp vi
nhau theo t l : 1: 1: 1.

I.1. Bazo nito

Cc bazo nito c trong phn t axit nucleic l dn xut ca purin hoc pirimidin.

































I.2. Pentoza

Pentoza c trong phn t axit nucleic dng D furanoza. Hai loi pentoza ca axit
nucleic l riboza v deoxiriboza:











Da vo c im ca pentoza ngi ta phn axit nucleic thnh hai loi chnh : axit
ribonucleic (ARN ) cha riboza v axit deoxiribonucleic (AND) cha deoxiriboza.
Ngoi ra gia ARN v AND cn khc nhau v thnh phn bazo nito: AND khng
cha uraxin, ARN thng khng cha timin.

I.3. Cch lin kt gia cc thnh phn cu to ca mononucleotid

Bazo nito pentoza - axit photphoric.

( lin kt N- glucozit c to thnh gia C
1
ca pentoza v N
3
ca pirimidin hoc C
9
ca purin
nucleozit

( lin kt este vi nhm OH ca pentoza, thng l C
5
)

Nucleotid




















II. lin kt photphodieste gia cc mononucleotid trong chui
polynucleotid

Cc gc mononucleotid trong chui polynucleotid kt hp vi nhau qua lin kt
photphodieste. Lin kt ny c to thnh gia gc photphat ca mt mononucleotid
vi nhm OH pentoza ca mononnucleotid k tip.
























Nm 1953 Oatxon ( nhi M) v Cric ( ngi Anh ), ra m hnh cu trc xon
kp ca phn t AND. Theo m hnh ny hai chui polynucleotid vi cc tri xon
gn nh song song xung quang mt trc chung tng t nh cu thanh xon c. Hai
chui polynucleotid gn vi nhau qua lin kt hidro hnh thnh gia cc cp bazo v
tr i din nhau theo nguyn tc b sung nghim ngt : A lun lin kt vi T, G lun
lin kt vi X. Nh vy bit c trt t sp xp ca cc mononucleotid trn mt
chui c th thit lp chnh xc trt t sp xp cc mononucleotid trn chui kia.
Trt t chnh xc ca cc bazo (cc nucleotid ) trn chui polynucleitid l yu t
mang thng tin di truyn. Thnh tu ny m ra bc ngot trong lch s sinh hc,
dn n nhng hiu bit v c ch phn t hot ng biu hin gen. Hai nh bc hc
trn nhn dc gii thng Nobel vo nm 1962.

III. Chc nng ca axit nucleic

III.1. Chc nng ca AND

Trong t bo AND tp trung trong nhim sc th v c nhim v gi thng tin di
truyn, ch o mi hot ng sng ca t bo.

III.2. Chc nng ca ARN

Ty theo chc nng ARN c th c chia thnh ba loi:

ARN thng tin cha cc thng tin cn thit tng hp protein.
ARN riboxom tp trung riboxom thc hin vic tng hp protein.
ARN vn chuyn vn chuyn axit amin c hot ha n riboxom l ni
tng hp nn phn ti protein.

CHNG VI

NC, MUI KHONG V VITAMIN



I. Nc

Nc l cht k diu nht trong tt c cc cht v cn thit nht cho c th con ngi.
Khng c nc th khng c s sng. 60-70 % c th con ngi l nc. Nc tham
gia vo thnh phn cu to t bo, l dung mi ha tan cc cht trong c th, tham gia
vo phn ng thy phn, c tc dng iu ha thn nhit.Trong cng nghip thc
phm nc l nguyn liu cho nhiu qu trnh ch bin. C th con ngi hp th
nc bng thc n, ung ,th. Nc vo trong c th c hp th trc tip khng
phi qua mt qu trnh ch bin no. Nc cng c bi tit qua con ng tiu ha,
qua da v h hp. Nhu cu v nc phuu5 thuc vo tui, c im sinh lTrung
bnh mt ngy mt ngi cn 1,75 -2 lt nc: 0,8 1 lt dng ung, lng nc
cn li c trong thc n v do qu trnh chuyn ha cc cht ( lipid, gluxit, protein )
trong c th to thnh.

II. Mui khong

Da vo thnh phn c trong c th, ngi ta chia cc nguyn t thnh hai nhm: cc
nguyn t a lng v cc nguyn t vi lng. Cc nguyn t a lng ch yu l Ca,
K, Na,P,S,MG,cc nguy t vi lng ch yu l Fe, Cu ,Zn ,I,F, chng c vai tr
rt quan trng i vi c th.

Canxi tham gia vo thnh phn cu to ca xng v rng. Trong c th ngi ln c
cha khong 1 kg canxi. Nhu cu mt ngy vo khong 0,8 1g. Ngun canxi l cc
sn phm sa ( c bit l phomai), tm cua,..

Mui cha Mg cng vi cc enzyme xc tc chuyn ha cc cht.

St tham gia vo thnh phn cu to ca hemoglobin trong mu, c trong gan v mt
s c quan khc

C th con ngi hp th mui khong mt cch trc tip, khng phi qua mt qu
trnh bin i no.

III. Vitamin

III.1. Gii thiu chung v vitamin

Thut ngvitamin c s dng nhm cc cht hu c c cu to v tnh cht
ha l khc nhau song u rt cn thit cho hot ng sng ca c th . Nhu cu ca
c th i vi vitamin rt nh ( i khi n phn mi, phn trm mg), tuy nhin nu
thc n khng cung cp mt hoc mt vi vitamin no s dn ti cn bng trao
i cht b ph v , dn n bnh tt v thm ch t vong. Nhn chung cc vitamin
tham gia vo thnh phn ca cc enzyme.

Da vo tnh tan ngi ta chia vitamin thnh hai nhm : cc vitamin tan trong nc
v cc vitamin tan trong cht bo.

Bng : Phn loi vitamin
Vitamin tan trong nc Vitamin tan trong cht bo
Vitamin B
1
(Tiamin )
Vitamin B
2
(Riboflavin )
Vitamin B
6
(Piridoxin )
Vitamin PP ( axit nicotinic)
Vitamin H (Biotin )
Vitamin C (Axit ascorbic)
Vitamin B
12
(Xiancobalamin )
Vitamin A v Caroten
Vitamin D (Canxipherol)
Vitamin E ( Tocopherol )


III.2. Nhm vitamin ha tan trong cht bo

III.2.1. Vitamin A v caroten ( tin vitamin A )

Tc dng:

- Tng s cm nhn nh sng ca mt
- m bo s pht trin bnh thng ca cc biu m.

Thiu vitamin A s gy bnh qung g, nu thiu nhiu s dn ti m la. Thiu
vitamin A s khin da kh, sn si v chm pht trin

Ngun cung cp: Vitamin A c nhiu trong du gan c thu, gan ng vt, trng ng
vt. Trong mt s loi rau qu (t, c rt , b , hnh l, gc,) c cha nhiu
provitamin A l caroten. Khi a vo c th caroten s chuyn thnh vitamin A nh
h enzyme.

III.2.2. Vitamin D

Tc dng : iu hnh qu trnh trao i canxi v photpho, tham gia vo qu trnh to
xng.

Thiu vitamin D s dn ti bnh ci xng, n mt ngon, kh ng, nng tnh, su
rng, xng d gy v kh hi phc.

Ngun cung cp: Vitamin D c nhiu trong nghu, s, c , hn, cua,c, sa,

Trn da ngi c tin vitamin D, di tc dng ca tia t ngoi s thu c vitamin
D, v vy ngi ta cha cho tr em ci xng do thiu vitamin D bng cch tm
nng.




III.2.3. Vitamin E

Tc dng :
- Tham gia vo cc phn ng oxy ha kh.
- Tham gia vo s trao i lipid, qua nh hng n kh nng sinh sn ca
ng vt. Thiu vitamin E ng vt s sinh sn km hoc v sinh.

Ngun cung cp : Du thc vt, rau x lch, rau ci, thn ng vt,.. Tuy nhin nhu
cu c th v vitamin E khng ln lm v trong c th lng vitamin E d tr
bo m c thi gian di ti vi thng nn t xy ra hin tng thiu vitamin E.

III.2.4. Vitamin K

Tc dng: L mt trong nhng yu t tham gia vo qu trnh ng mu . Khi thiu
vitamin K thi gian ng mu s ko di. Tuy nhin bnh thiu vitamin K t xy ra do
trong rut c cc vi khun c kh nng tng hp vitamin ny.

Ngun cung cp: Vitamin K c nhiu trong c chua, u, c rt, gan , thn,

III.3. Vitamin tan trong nc:

III.2.5. Vitamin B
1


Tc dng: L coenzyme ca enzyme piruvatdecacboxylaza v xetoglutarat
decacboxylaza, l nhng enzyme tham gia vo qu trnh trao i gluxit. V vy khi
thiu vitamin B
1
qu trnh trao i gluxit b tr tr v dn ti bnh tt.

Ngun cung cp: Vitamin B
1
c nhiu trong cm, trong nm men bia, thn ng
vt,

III.2.6 Vitamin B
6


Tc dng :

- L coenzyme ca nhiu enzyme.
- Tvo qu trnh trao i cht bo.
- Thiu vitamin B
6
thn kinh s b c ch, dy mt ng, au u,..

Ngun cung cp : Vitamin B
6
c nhiu trong lng trng, sa, tht,...

III.2.7. Vitamin C

Tc dng: Tng sc khng, chng li cc hin tng chong hoc ng c bi cc
ha cht cng nh cc c t ca vi trng.

Khi thiu vitamin C, s xut hin cc triu chng ca bnh l nh chy mu li, rng.

Ngun cung cp: Vitamin C c nhiu trong tri cy chua, rau xanh, (cam ,chanh, du,
da chut, c chua, rau ci,..)

III.2.8. Vitamin B
12
( cobalamin)

Tc dng: Cn thit cho mu. Nu thiu vitamin B
12
c th s b thiu mu, thiu
nhiu c th dn ti thiu mu c tnh.

Ngun cung cp :
- Sa, gan ,trng.
- t c trong thc vt.
- c tng hp bi vi sinh vt.

III.3. S lin quan gia vitamin v enzyme

Trong thnh phn coenzyme ca a s cc enzyme u c cc vitamin. Khi c th b
thiu cc vitamin th xut hin cc bnh l tng ng do khng c cc coenzyme c
cha cc vitamin.

Phng thc hp th vitamin ca c th:

Vitamin l hp cht hu c vi mt lng b nhng rt cn thit cho c th, cu
to nn cc enzyme, hoocmon,ng thi xc tc cc qu trnh sinh ha xy ra trong
c th.

S trao i cht s hiu qu khi c vitamin. Khi chuyn ha trong c th, vitamin
to thnh cc este, cc nucleotid v nhng hp cht khc. Nhiu hp cht ny lin kt
vi protein to thnh cc enzyme hon ton.

Thiu vitamin s dn n ph hy cc hot ng ca enzyme, hn lon s trao i
cht.

III.4. Antivitamin

Nhng cht c kh nng lm mt hot tnh sinh hc ca vitamin v c tc dng chng
li chng gi l cc antivitamin hay khng vitamin.

Antivitamin thng c cu to ha hc gn ging vitamin, nhng antivitamin khng
c hot tnh vitamin nn khi vo c th s lm cho cc h enzyme khng hot ng.

Ngha l antivitamin y vitamin ra khi h enzyme v chim ch th hin tnh
givitamin.


Chng VI

X L NC THI BNG PHNG PHP SINH HC

I. Khi nim chung

Nc thi c to ra trong qu trnh sn xut ca nh my v trong sinh hot hng
ngy. Nc thi cha nhiu hp cht v c, hu c, cht ha tan, khng ha tan,cc
cht kh v h vi sinh vt khc nhau. Nc thi c th dng lng lu chy c hoc
dng huyn ph, cng c th dng c qunh nh bn hay dng khng tan.
Trong thnh phn nc thi c nhiu cht nh hng n mi trng v i sng con
ngi. Khi cng nghip cng pht trin th cng c nhiu cht thi hn v a dng
hn.V th vn x l cc cht thi l mt vn cp bch v cn phi gii quyt.

X l nc thi cng c nhiu phng php khc nhau nh:

Phng php ha hc: dng cc cht ha hc hay phn ng ha hc phn gii.

Phng php l hc: dng cc bin php lng,lc, kt ta, hp ph.

Phng php c l: ng t, trung ha, kt ta, lng trong.

phng php ha l: trao i ion, hp ph.

Phng php nhit: dng nhit cao phn gii cc cht

Phng php sinh hc: bin i cc cht do vi sinh vt.

Mc ch: chuyn cc cht c hi thnh n gin hn. Chuyn cc cht c hi,
khng c ch thnh cc sn phm c ch: to phn bn, to cc kh biogaz,..

Phng php sinh hc c xem l c hiu qu v hin nay c ph bin v: S
dng vi sinh vt c kh nng phn gii hu ht cc cht vi thi gian ngn, trong iu
kin n gin, cc thit b x l n gin, chi ph khng cao, phng php d tin
hnh .

Da vo iu kin tin hnh, h vi sinh vt s dng c th chia 2 dng x l nc
thi:

X l sinh hc ym kh (khng c oxy): km theo h vi sinh vt ym kh.
X l sinh hc hiu kh (c oxy ): km theo h vi sinh vt hiu kh.

Ty tng loi nc thi s dng phng php ph hp.
Cc vi sinh vt s dng cc thnh phn c trong cht thi lm cht dinh dng cho
n, ng thi chuyn ha nhng cht trong cht thi thnh nhng cht khng c hi,
i khi to sn phm c li.

II.Nhng yu t nh hng n hiu qu x l nc thi bng phng php sinh
hc

Cc vi sinh vt trong qu trnh x l nc thi cn sng, sinh sn v pht trin bnh
thng. Mi iu kin trong x l nc thi phi ph hp vi iu kin sinh l.

- Nhit : l yu t quan trng. Vic x l cht thi xy ra 20 -30
0
C ph hp
vi vi sinh vt. Nu nhit thp hn, qu trnh x l chm hn v vi sinh vt
km hot ng. Nu nhit qu cao, vi sinh vt b c ch v c th b tiu
dit.Phn protein ca cht xc tc (enzyme-VSV) b bin tnh, khng cn xc
tc.
- pH : VSV a phn khng chu c kim / axit qu cao. VSV a mi
trng trung ha hay axit yu. Mt s nc thi ca nh my c pH qu kim
hay axit s c ch vi sinh vt. Do d phi iu chnh pH v gn 7. Trong mi
trng t nhin pH t 6 6,5 ph hp vi phn ln cc vi sinh vt ( nm men,
nm mc, vi khun). Trong mt s trng hp, vi sinh vt c kh nng t iu
chnh pH mi trng.
- Nng oxy ha tan(DO):Ty theo phng php ym kh hay hiu kh
c bit i vi phng php hiu kh: Oxy ha tan trong nc b tieu thu
do qua trnh phan huy cac chat hu c, do vay khi can thiet can phai bo sung
lng DO e duy tr cac qua trnh sinh hoc va i song thuy sinh. Ngi ta
thng s dung cac qua trnh nh :xao trn v sc kh. i vi phng php
k kh th cng gim lng oxy cng tt qu trnh ln men k kh thun tin
v hiu qu.

Khuy trn dch nc thi v tc nhn vi sinh vt; s khuy trn dch nc
thi lm hiu qu x l tng ln.

Cht dinh dng cn cho vi sinh vt nh: , cacbon, nit , phot pho,lu
hunh,..( C : xenluloza, glucid; N: nitrat, ure; P: mui photphat; S: muoii61
sunfat;).nhng loi nc thi c lng N,P qu cao cn phi pha long nc
thi, trc khi x l khng nh hng n sinh l ca vi sinh vt.

III. Mt s phng php sinh hc x l nc thi

C nhiu phng php sinh hc x l nc thi c chia thnh 3 nhm ln:

III.1. X l bng phng php t nhin ( PP cnh ng lc)

L phng php s dng ngay h vi sinh vt trong t nhin 9 t, nc, khng kh,
nguyn liu sn c,) khng cn a thm vi sinh vt khc vo.

Phng php ny s dng cho trng hp nhim bn khng cao, khng c nhiu cht
c hi: nc thi t nh my hay nc thi sinh hot c chy thm qua mt lp
dt dy khong 2m thng l t xp hay t pha ct,sau khi qua lp t ny, nh
h vi sinh vt t nhin c sn trong t, nc, khng kh,s phn hy cc cht bn
trong nc thi, mt s VSV c hi cng b gi li trong lp t ny.

Phng php n gin, s dng nhng vng t khng canh tc cho nc thi chy
qua nhng tn din tch, thi gian x l lu.

Trong t nhin, cc ao h, sng cng c qu trnh lm sch t nhin bi h vi sinh vt
c trong nc, bn ao, khng kh,.


III.2. Phng php x l hiu kh: cn oxy v vi sinh vt hiu kh.

Cch 1: S dng bn hot tnh, trong cha h vi sinh vt hiu kh c kh nng
phn gii mnh cc cht . Nng VSV chim khong 70 %, 30% l cht khc. H
VSV trong bn hot tnh hiu kh ch yu l cc vi khun c kh nng phn hy mnh
cc hp cht hu c nh ru, axit bo, cacbua hydro thm, hydratcacbon v cc hp
cht khc.

Th d: vi khun Pseudomonas oxy ha c ru, axit bo, parafin,

Nhm bacterium phn hy c cc ph liu du m, phenol, andehyt, axit bo,
Ty theo chiu dng chy nc thi v bn hot tnh hiu kh ta c cc kiu x l
khc nhau.

Kiu 1: cho bn hot tnh hiu kh chy vo b x l cng mt lc v cng
chiu vi nc thi t trn xung.

Trong qu trnh dch chuyn cng chiu, cht thi tip xc vi bn hot tnh,
vi sinh vt s nhanh chng phn hy cc cht trong nc thi khong 4 gi.
Lung khng kh c a vo y thit b v c phun bng nhng ng
nh. Ngoi ra , trong b x l c nhiu vch ngn bn phn dng chy i
theo nhiu ng, gim tc dng chy, tng thi gian tip xc gia nc
thi vi thi gian tip xc
Sau khi qua b x l, hn hp c cho qua thit b lng tch ring phn
bn, cn v phn nc x l.

Kiu 2: V nguyn l nh kiu 1,nhng chiu nc thi v bn hot tnh
ngc nhau. Nc thi chy t trn xung, sau l chy t phi sang pha
tri b; cn bn hot tnh s chy t trn xung, sau chy t tri sang phi
b ngc dng nhau); khng kh t di ln.Mc ch tng cng s tip xc
gia bn hot tnh v nc thi lm cho qu trnh phn hy cht trong nc
thi nhanh hn. Nc sau khi x l c tch ra mt van pha trn bn tri
b.

Kiu 3: Kiu hn hp, bn hot tnh v nc thi i ngc chiu nhng to
thm cc dng xoy mnh, tng s tip xc; khng kh vn c a t di
ln.

Cch 2: Cng s dng bn hot tnh nhng dng khng chuyn ng m c
t trong mt b c nh c gn h thng nh khuy.Nc thi c a t di ln,
oxy vo b t trn xung. Nc sau x l c ly ra pha trn.Trong qu trnh hot
ng, VSV phat trien tng sinh khi nn lng bn cng tng ln nn c van tho bn
d pha trn b. Ngoi ra c van ly phn kh biogaz.

















Ngy nay ngi ta ci tin bng cch bn hot tnh c gn ln mt cht mang xp (
gm,s, dm,si, vt liu x kim loi, polymer,..) nhm to khong khng cha
lp khng kh gia cc lp bn hot tnh. a ton b bn hot tnh v cht mang xp
vo b lc, nc thi chuyn t trn xung, khng kh t di ln, nc sau x l
c ly ra pha di b( b lc sinh hc).

Cng lm sch ph thuc: tc dng chy, vt liu mang vi sinh vt, h vi sinh
vt, khng kh,



















III.3. Phng php x l ym kh

S dng h vi sinh vt ym kh trong iu kin khng c oxy.Phng php ny p
dng cho cht thi c nng nhim bn cao, nhiu cn, cht b x, thng dng c
qunh nh bn, rc, thc vt cht, nc phn, phn chung, cht cn b ca cc nh
my,.

Wu trnh c tin hnh trong nhng b kn, ym kh v s dng h vi sinh vt ym
kh c sn hay b sung thm. Vi sinh vt phn gii cc cht to sn phm thng l
kh. Cc kh do VSV to ra l biogaz c thnh phn ch yu l metan (50 80 % ),
CO
2
(18-32%), H
2
(7,7%), N
2
(7,6%).Hn hp kh ny c th thp sng hay un
nu trong gia nh.

Ln men metan gm 2 giai on:

Giai on 1: oxy ha axit, cht hu c b phn hy thnh axit hu c : axit
axetic, CO
2
, H
2
, NH
2
, v cc sn phm khc.

Giai on 2: L qu trnh ln men to metan, vi sinh vt s dng cht hu c
to nng lng cho chng, ng thi phn hy cht hu c to biogaz lm
gim hm lng cht nhim bn trong nc thi v trong cc loi rc, phn ,
thc vt cht,..


ngha: X l cht thi bn chng nhim mi trng , ng thi to biogaz s
dng trong cng nghip v i sng.