PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE

SECOND EDITION
Front cover illustration
by courtesy of
Sulzer Bros. (SA)
Limited
Fluids Handlin
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
SECOND EDITION
1 contents Page NO.
1 l e Principles of fluids handling 3- 13
1 2* Fluids handling in various industries 14 - 49
1 3. Pump applications 50 - 78
1 4. Control and OdOff Valves 79 - 147
1 5. Fluids handling components 148 - 168
1 6. Motors and drives 169 - 185
1 8. Installation and txoblem solving 201 - 226
1 9. Index 227 - 232
Introduction
The first edition of 'Fluids Handling - Principles
and Ractice' had been out of print for several
years before this Second Edition was published.
This provided an opportunity to update existing
material and to expand the content by including
many other excellent articles.
FQblished as an informative technical work in its
own right, 'Fluids Handling - Principles and Ractice'
forms a part of a series of handbooks covering
subjects such as Pumps, Valves, Fluids Flow and
control, Pipework-systems, and Corrosion and
Wear Control,
Most of the information provided is intended to be
of a general nature rather than that of specific
pro~ects or components. The contributors have been
acknowledged at the foot of each article and are
also listed in the contributor's index; they will be
pleased to assist ln supplying specific technical data
if requested.
The publishers take this opportunity of thanking
contributors for their individual efforts in
preparing original material for publication.
Although every effort is made to ensure the
accuracy of the contents, neither the contributors
nor the publishers can be held responsible for
any errors or omissions which may inadvertently
have been made.
PRODUCTION
Artwork: Pat Holtshousen
Typesetting: Jill Last
P ~ t i n g : Pro-Bind
Binding: Tradebind
0 COPYRIGHT RESERVED
The whole of this book or any portion thereof, may not be
reproduced, translated or used as an information system without
permission being obtained in writing from the Publisher,
K. Myles and Associates cc (copyright holder).
Published by K. Myles and Associates cc P.0.Box 2212,
Northcliff, 21 15, Republic of South Africa
www.my~espub1ications.co.za
ISBN 0-620-27460-3 Second Editicn 2003
Principles of Fluids
Handling
Derivation of Hydraulics 4
Pascal's principle 4
Science of Hydraulics 4
Physical properties of fluids 4
Terms defined 4-5
Transmission of forces 5
Measurement of pressure 6
Fluids exert pressure 6
Llquid pressure and containers '7
Buoyancy 8
Volume of flow 8
Velocity of flow 8
Steady and unsteady flow 8
Laminar and turbulent flow 8, 9
Reynolds number 9
Factors involved in flow 9
Relation between inertia and force 9
Factors governing hydraulic action 9, 10
Kinetic energy 10
Relation between force, pressure and head 10
Pressure and head relations in flowing liquids 10
Static and dynamic factors 10
Relation of static and dynamic factors lo9 11
Flow through pipe 113 12
Differential pressure 12
-- -
Equivalent pipe length 12
Resistace coefficient 12
- -
Flow coefficient
- -
Hydraulic gradient
-
Water hammer 12,13
DERIVATION OF HYDRAULICS
The word Hydraulics has its origin from the Greek words
meaning water and pipe, and when first used it referred
only to that branch of the science which treats liquids in
motion. The word is now used to include all fluids, both
in motion (hydrodynamic), and at rest (hydrostatic),
Although the modern development of hydraulics is
comparatively recent, the ancient civilizations were familiar
with many hydraulic principles and their applications.
About three or four hundred years ago, the physical
sciences, as we now classify them, began to flourish. It
was in this period that one of the fundamental laws
underlying the whole science of hydraulics was discovered
and stated by Pascal in the year 1653.
PASCAL'S PRINCIPLE
Fig. 1
Pressure is transmitted equally in all directions through-
out a mass of fluid at rest and if pressure of a confined
fluid is increased at any point, pressure is increased
everywhere throughout the fluid mass by the same
amount (Fig, 1).
A farm hand went t o the well, filled a jug with water,
inserted the stopper and hit the stopper a sharp blow
with the palm of his hand. The bottom fell out of the jug
much to his astonishment. Let us inquire what really
happened. Fig. 1 represents the jug filled with water. As
the cork was driven into the jug by the force of the blow,
the resulting pressure upon the confined liquid was
transmitted equally in all directions. For convenience,
let us assume that the neck of the jug had an area of
10 cm2, and that a force of 50 Newton was used in
driving the stopper into the jug, This results in every
square centimetre of the inside surface being subject to a
force of 50 N +- 10 cm* = 5 N (an additional force would
be exerted due to the mass of the liquid). If the bottom
of the jug had an area of 250 cm2, the total force acting
on it would have been 5 N/cm2 x 250 cm2 = 1 250 N, a
load far in excess of that applied at the cork. The bottom
of the jug was not strong enough to withstand such a
force, and failed as a result.
SCIENCE OF HYDRAULICS
The science of hydraulics involves the application of
Pascal's Law and includes the manner in which fluids act
in such containers as tanks, valves, and pipes, dealing
with the fluid properties and with the ways of utilizing
these properties, This basic study of hydraulics also
includes the laws of floating bodies, the treatment of flow
under various conditions, and ways of directing this flow
to useful ends.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Fluids are substances such as water, oil, air etc which are
capable of changing their shape and flowing in contrast
to solids. Fluids are divided into two classes: LIQUIDS
and GASES.
Liquids do not substantially change in volume when
subjected to pressure. Liquids are less compressible than
solids. When a force is applied to a codined liquid, that
liquid is substantially as rigd as a solid.
Gases fill all parts of a containing vessel and they are far
more compressible than liquids.
All fluids have mass. The molecules that make up these
fluids resist movement and this resistance is known as
viscosity.
Fluids conform to the shape of their container (Fig 2).
Because of their nature, liquids flow through open
channels as well as closed conduits (pipe) by the force of
gravity or other applied forces,
Fig. 2
TERMS DEFINED
Mass Density
The number of units of mass of a substance contained in
a unit of volume is called the mass density of the
substance. Example: The mass density of water is 62,4
pounds mass per cubic foot, or 1 000 kilogram mass per
cubic metre.
Relative Density
The relative density of a substance is the ratio of the
mass density of a unit volume of that substance t o the
mass density of a similar unit volume of a standard
substance. Water is the standard substance for liquids and
solids, Air is the standard substance for gases. Both water
and air are designated as having a relative density of 1,O
under standard conditions,
Viscosity
Resistance to movement in fluids is called viscosity.
Fluids differ greatly in mobility (viscosity) due to the
difference in resistance to movement of the molecules of
different fluids.
Temperature
Temperature affects the mass density and viscosity of
fluids to a greater or lesser degree, depending upon the
fluid concerned.
TRANSMISSION OF FORCES
When the end of a solid column is struck, the force of
the blow is transmitted straight through the solid in the
direction of the blow only. (Fig. 3). If the end of a
column of confined fluid is struck, the force is transmitted
not only to the opposite end but equally in all directions
throughout the column, causing the container to be
literally filled with pressure (Fig. 4).
Forces can be transmitted through fluids - up or down,
around comers or curves - with great efficiency.
When considering the control of flow or pressure of a
fluid, it is important to know the specific gravity,
viscosity, and temperature of the fluid. (In the case of
gases other characteristics must be known.)
Viscosity
Dynamic viscosity is expressed in Pascal-second
= Pas = p
Kinematic viscosity is expressed in Area per second
= m2/s = v
Temperature is commonly expressed in degrees Centigrade
Force Fig. 5
Force is the total load exerted on any given surface or
area. Force is expressed in Newtons (N). Although fluids are not rigid, the laws of fluids permit
them to be used like levers. A small force can be used to
Pressure
balance a larger force (Fig. 5).
Pressure is the amount of force applied to a unit area
and is generally expressed in Pascals (Pa).
Mathematically
PISTON 1000 cm'
-PISTON 10 cm'
Where: F = Force in Newtons (N).
P = Pressure in Pascals (Pa).
A = Area in Millimetres (mm2).
Fig. 6
Let us consider a hydraulic system consisting of two
,
interconnecting cylinders, one having a piston area of
10 cm2 and the other having a piston area of 1 000 cm2
and the system filled with a liquid (Fig. 6).
!
/
Disregarding friction, a downward force of 10 N on the
small piston will produce a pressure of 10 N -+ 10 cm* =
1 N/cm2 in the liquid. This pressure will be transmitted
undiminished in all directions throughout the system and
act at right angles against all internal surfaces. Thus, the
upward pressure on the 1 000 cm2 piston will provide an
upward force of 1 N/cm* x 1 000 cm2 = 1 000 N and
-nl
thus support an equal loading of 1 000 N (equivalent to
Fig. 3 Fig. 4 a mass of 100 kg).
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
There are a number of different ways in which to
measure pressure. Two of the most common methods are
presented here.
Fig. 7
The most common instrument for measuring pressure is
the Bourdon tube type of pressure gauge (Fig. 7).
The Bourdon tube is fixed at the open end and free at
the closed end. The closed end is attached to a lever gear
and pinion system which rotates a pointer when the free
end of the Bourdon tube moves. A dial is provided,
preferably calibrated in Pa or kPa.
Pressure applied to the open end of the tube, tends to
straighten out the curved tube causing the free end to
move and, by transmitting this movement through the
linkage, gears and pointer, indicate the magnitude of the
pressure applied.
Pressure is also measured in head. It is important to state
the units of measurement and the type of fluid, e.g. head
in metres of water or millimetres of mercury.
Fig. 8
Normally in hydraulic engineering, the atmosphere has
access to both ends, top and bottom, or actually sur-
rounds the system. Consequently, in everyday engineering
the local atmospheric pressure is taken as zero. Almost all
gauges are calibrated to read zero when exposed to local
atmospheric pressure. When we see the term pressure
(gauge) used, this means that the engineer wishes to
ensure that there is no misunderstanding as to his
reference point.
There are several pressures: Absolute, Barometric, Gauge,
and Vacuum.
ANY PRESSURE ABOVE ATMOSPHERIC
t t
I
I
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE ~ ~ ~ ~ $ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ p H E R l c
= GAUGE + BAROMETRIC
PRESSURE 4
A
GAUGE
PRESSURE
AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
LEVEL - VARIABLE
1
Fig. 9
I
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE
OR ABSOLUTE
ATMOSPHERICPRESSURE
Perfect vacuum cannot exist on the surface of the earth,
but it nevertheless makes a convenient datum for the
measurement of pressure. Barometric pressure is the level
of the atmospheric pressure above perfect vacuum.
Standard atmospheric pressure is 101,325 kPa(abs.) or
760 millimeters of mercury. Gauge pressure is measured
above atmospheric pressure, while absolute pressure
always refers to perfect vacuum as a base. Vacuum,
usually expressed in millimetres of mercury, is the
depression of pressure below the atmospheric level
(Fig. 9).
I
ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE
ABSOLUTE ZERO OF PRESSURE
-PERFECT VACUUM -
FLUIDS EXERT PRESSURE
At any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in
every direction. Therefore, in a fluid at rest the pressure is
the same at all points on the same level (Fig. 10).
The manometer is used for measurement of pressure. It
comes in several forms such as Well type, U type, Incline
type, and utilizes various liquids as the gauging medium.
Because of its relatively high mass, low congealing point,
and high surface tension preventing adherance to the
gauge walls, mercury is the most commonly used gauging
medium.
Fig. 10
Consider a wooden tank filled with water. If we bore a
hole in the bottom of the tank the water will flow out,
proving that fluids push downward. If we bore a hole in
the side of the tank the water will flow out, proving that
fluids also exert pressure in a sideways direction. If we
push a piece of wood down into the water, it will rise t o
the surface as soon as it is released. The upward push
which liquids exert upon objects submerbed in them
causes them t o seem t o lose weight. From these examples
we must conclude that fluids exert pressure in all
directions (Fig. 1 1).
Fig. 11
Fluid pressure is proportional to the depth: Just as a
brick lying on a table exerts force and pressure upon the
table. When several bricks are piled upon one another,
the downward pressure is increased. Likewise, every layer
of fluid sustains the force of the layer or layers above it;
hence, the pressure of the fluid increases in direct
proportion to the depth (Fig. 12).
Fig 12
In the study of liquids, water is most commonly used for
illustration. The mass density of water varies, but for the
purpose of standard measurements its mass is considered
as 1 000 kg/m3.
If the bottom area of a straight sided container is one
square metre, water one metre deep in this container
exerts a pressure of 1 000 kg per square metre. As 1 kg
represents a force of 10 Newton, pressure = 10 000 N/ m2
= 10 kPa.
Because pressure exerted by any liquid is governed by
relative density as well as its depth, the pressure exerted
at any depth may be determined by multiplying the
pressure exerted by water (10 kPa per 1 metre head) by
the relative density of the liquid. For example, the
pressure exerted at the base of a column of gasoline
(relative density of 0,7) = (10 x 0,7) kPa per metre head
=7 kPa per metre head.
LIQUID PRESSURE AND CONTAINERS
Since fluid pressure is measured in unit area and is
exerted equally in all directions, the shape of a container
or vessel has no effect upon the amount of pressure
exerted by the contained liquid. The area of the liquid
surface inside the body of a tea kettle is much greater
than the area of the liquid in the spout, but the pressure
per unit area at the same depth is the same in both cases.
If the pressure increased with the area, water would
always flow out of the spout. The depth of the liquid in
containers determines the pressure, exerted at any point
regardless of container shape or size.
Fig. 13
The fact that the force exerted on the bottom of a vessel
can be greater than the weight of all the liquid in a vessel
has been called the hydrostatic paradox (Fig. 13).
Fig. 14
A liquid will come to rest at the same height in open
vessels that are interconnected, regardless of the shape of
area of these vessels. Water seeks its own level.
BOUYANCY
The lifting force of a liquid upon a body immersed in it
is called bouyancy. The law of bouyancy was discovered
by Archimedes about 420 B.C. and is as follows: A body
immersed in a liquid is bouyed up by a force equal to
the mass of the liquid displaced by it.
Fig. 15
It follows that when a body floats on a liquid with a
portion protruding above the surface of the liquid, the
mass of the liquid displaced is equal to the mass of the
floating body (Fig. 15).
A float is a body designed to float in liquids and do
useful work. If a float is constructed so that its total mass
is one kilogram and the liquid displaced by one half of
its volume also is one kilogram, the float will rest on a
liquid with one half submerged; this float has a thrust or
lift upward equal to one kilogram.
A float must be designed for the liquid in which it floats.
Fig. 16
that the two liquids will quickly separate and the gasoline
will float on top of the water. When completely at rest
the two liquids will be separated by a clear-cut line. The
two liquids are said to be immiscible (I), and the line of
separation is called the interface (2). The liquid on top
will be lighter liquid.
Note 1:
Immiscible liquids can be defined as liquids that will not
remain in solution when mixed with each other but tend
to separate - as oil and water.
Note 2:
Interface is the division line between immiscible liquids
which are contained in the same vessel.
A float can be constructed in such a manner that it will
come to rest at the interface of two immiscible liquids
with one half of its volume above the interface and one
half of its volume below the interface. With such a float
and proper mechanical and hydraulic linkage to a valve,
the volume of either liquid in a vessel can be controlled.
In order to understand hydraulic systems and flow of
fluids through valves, it is necessary to become acquainted
with some of the characteristics of fluids in motion.
VOLUME OF FLOW
The quantity of liquid that will pass a given point in a
system in a unit of time.
Volume of flow is stated in cubic metres per unit of time.
VELOCITY OF FLOW
Velocity of flow means the rate of speed of the liquid
flowing.
There are several units of measure of velocity. The usual
method of stating velocity is in metres per second.
Volume and velocity are interelated since volume can be
determined by multiplying the area of a pipe by the
velocity resulting in volume per unit of time.
STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Few hydraulic systems have steady uniform flow rates.
Changes in demand and pressure usually change the rate
of flow of most systems.
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
A float can be used to control the level of liquids in
reservoirs or tanks by utilizing mechanical and hydraulic
linkage to control the opening and closing of a valve
(Fig. 16).
If a quantity of gasoline (relative density 0,7) and water
(relative density 1,O) is poured into a container and
thoroughly mixed, then allowed to settle, it will be noted
Flowing liquid tends to flow in a laminar Stream Line
RELATION BETWEEN INERTIA AND FORCE
manner in small diameter pipes and at low velocities. By
stream line is meant the particles of liquid will follow one
In order to overcome this tendency to resist any change
another and move along side each other without bumping
in its state of rest or motion, some force which is not
into each other (Fig. 17).
otherwise cancelled or balanced must act upon the object.
Some unbalanced force must be applied whenever liquids
When flow velocities increase and or pipe diameters
are set in motion or speeded up, while conversely, forces
become large the liquid particles tend to tumble and jostle
are made available to do work elsewhere whenever liquids
each other and flow becomes turbulent (Fig. 18).
in motion are retarded or stopped.
There is a direct relationship between the magnitude of
the force exerted and the inertia against which it acts.
This force is dependent on two factors: on the mass of
the subject, and on the rate at which the velocity of the
object is changed. While the mathematical relationship
between inertia and force is outside the scope of this
book, it is included here for completeness and for those
who may be interested. The rule is that the force required
to overcome inertia is equal to the mass of the object,
multiplied by the change in velocity and divided by 9,81
times the time in seconds required to accomplish the
change. Thus the rate of change in velocity of an object
is proportioned to the force applied. The constant 9,81 is
the acceleration due to gravity (m2/s) and is known as
Fig. 18 the gravitational constant.
Flow through valves is generally accepted to be turbulent.
Some designs are less inclined to cause turbulence than
others.
In a pipe or channel, the liquid lying next to the wall of
the conduit will have very little velocity. The closer to the
center the greater the velocity. The more turbulent the
flow the less difference in velocity, wall to center.
Velocities, when stated are the average of velocities across
the cross section of the pipe.
REYNOLDS NUMBER
Experiments conducted by Osborne Reynolds showed
that the nature of flow, turbulent or laminar could be
given a numerical value and this value is determined by
the internal diameter of the pipe, roughness factor, the
average velocity of flow, the density of the fluid and the
absolute viscosity in mass per foot second.
FACTORS INVOLVED IN FLOW
Inertia
Before we can understand the behaviour of liquids in
motion, or of solids either for that matter, it is necessary
to understand what is meant by inertia. Inertia is the
term used by scientists to describe that property possessed
by all forms of matter which makes the matter resist
being moved if it is at rest, and likewise resist any change
in its rate of motion if it is moving.
The basic statement covering the action of inertia is: A
body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in
motion tends to continue in motion with the same
velocity and in the same direction. This is simply saying
in more scientific terms what everyone has learned by
experience - that one must push on an object to get it
moving and offer an opposition to stop it again.
FACTORS GOVERNING HYDRAULIC ACTION
There are five physical factors which can act upon a
liquid to affect its behaviour. All of the physical actions
of liquids in all possible systems are determined by the
relationships of these five factors to each other. Summaris-
ing, these factors are:
1. Gravity: which acts at all times upon all bodies
regardless of all other forces.
2. Atmospheric Pressure: Which acts whenever any part
of a system is exposed to the open air.
3. Specific applied forces: which may or may not be
present, but which in any event are entirely indepen-
dent of the presence or absence of motion.
An example of applied forces would be the energy
supplied by a booster pump.
4. Inertia: which comes into play whenever there is a
change from rest to motion or the opposite, or
whenever there is a change in direction or in rate of
motion.
5. Friction: which is always present whenever there is
motion.
Figure 19 diagrams a possible relationship of these factors
with respect to a particle of liquid P in a system. The
different forces are shown in terms of head, or in other
words in terms of the vertical columns of liquid required
to produce the forces. The meaning of Head was
explained previously. At the particular moment under
consideration, a particle of water P is being acted upon
by an applied force equivalent to a head of A, by
atmospheric pressure equivalent to a head of B, and by
gravity head C produced by the mass of the liquid above
it. The particle possesses sufficient inertia or velocity head
to rise to the level Z since head equivalent to F was lost
in friction as P passed through the system. Since
atmospheric pressure B acts downward on the system on
both sides, what was gained on one side was lost on the
other.
If all the pressure acting on P to force it through the
nozzle could be recovered in the form of elevation head,
it would rise to the level Y; or, if account be taken of the
balance in atmospheric pressure, in a frictionless system it
would rise to the level X, or precisely as high as the sum
of gravity head and the head equivalent to the applied
force.
RELATION BETWEEN FORCE, PRESSURE AND
HEAD
In dealing with liquids, forces are practically always
considered in relation to the areas over which they are
applied. But, as shown previously, a force acting over a
unit area is a pressure, and pressures can alternatively be
stated either in that form or in terms of head, which is
the vertical height of the column of liquid whose mass
would produce that pressure.
PRESSURE AND HEAD RELATIONS
IN FLOWING LIQUIDS
All five of the factors which control the actions of liquids
can be expressed either as forces, or alternatively as
equivalent pressures or heads. In each situation, however,
the different factors are commonly referred to in the same
terms, since on this common basis we can add and
subtract them and otherwise study their relationship t o
each other.
At this point some terms in general use should be
explained. Gravity head, when it is of sufficient impor-
tance to be considered at all, is sometimes known simply
as head; the effect of atmospheric pressure is frequently
and improperly referred to as suction; inertia effect,
because it is always directly related to velocity, is usually
called velocity head; and friction, because it represents a
loss of pressure or head, is usually referred to as friction
Fig. 19 head.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC FACTORS
KINETIC ENERGY
It has previously been shown that a force must be
applied to an object in order to impart velocity to it or
to increase the velocity it already has. Of necessity the
force must act while the object is moving over some
distance. It has already been explained that a force acting
over a distance is work, and that work and all forms into
which it can be changed are classified as energy.
Obviously then, energy is required to give an object
velocity. The greater the energy used, the greater the
velocity will be.
Likewise, disregarding friction, for an object to be
brought to rest or its motion slowed down, a force
opposed to its motion must be applied to it.
This force also acts over a specific distance. In this way
energy is given up by the object and delivered in some
form to whatever opposes its continued motion. The
moving object is therefore a means of receiving energy at
one place (where it is stopped or retarded). While it is in
motion it is said to contain this energy as energy of
motion or Kinetic Energy.
The mathematical relationship for Kinetic Energy is stated
in the rule, Kinetic Energy is equal to the force which
created it, multiplied by the distance through which it was
supplied; or to the mass of the moving object, multiplied
by the square of its velocity and divided by 64,3, (metric
units.)
The first three factors - gravity, applied forces and
atmospheric pressure - apply equally to liquids at rest or
in motion. Inertia and friction apply only to liquids in
motion. The first three are the static factors and the latter
two are the dynamic factors. The arithmetic sum of the
first three - gravity, applied forces, and atmospheric
pressure - is the static pressure obtained at any one
point in a liquid at a given time. Static pressure exists in
addition to any dynamic factors which may also be
present at the same point and time.
Pascal's Law states that a pressure set up in a liquid acts
equally in all directions and at right angles to containing
surfaces. This covers the situation only for liquids at rest,
or practically at rest. It is true only for the factors
making up static head. It is for this reason that the most
problems involving fluids at rest disregard friction
completely. Obviously, when velocity becomes a factor it
must have a direction, so that Pascal's Law alone does
not apply to the dynamic factors of liquid flow.
RELATION OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC FACTORS
The dynamic factors of inertia and friction are related to
the static factors in one sense, however. Velocity head
and friction head are obtained at the expense of static
head. On the other hand at least a portion of velocity
head can always be reconverted to static head. As we
already know, force, which can be produced by pressure
or head when we are dealing with liquids, is necessary to
start a body moving if it is at rest, and is present in some
form when the motion of the body is arrested. In other
words, whenever a liquid is given a velocity, some part of
its original static head is used to impart this velocity,
which then exists as velocity head.
FLOW THROUGH PIPE
If ordinary Bourdon tube pressure gauges were installed
in a pipe 200 metres apart, and flow was occuring
through the pipe, the gauge downstream would show a
lower pressure than the upstream gauge. The amount of
pressure would depend on the velocity of the flow. (See
Fig. 21)
Fig. 21
Fig. 20
Consider a system consisting of a chamber (A) under
pressure connected by a tube to chamber (B), which is
also under pressure. (Fig. 20) The pressure in chamber
(A) will be wholly static pressure, say 500 kPa. The
pressure at some point (X) along the connecting tube will
consist of a velocity pressure of say 50 kPa exerted in a
direction parallel to the line flow, plus the unused static
pressure of 450 kPa, which still obeys Pascal's Law and
operates equally in all directions. As the liquid enters
chamber (B) it is slowed down, and in so doing its
velocity head is changed back into pressure head. In
other words, the force required to get the liquid moving
in the first place, so that the static pressure in chamber
(B) will again be equal to that in chamber (A), although
it was lower at an intermediate point.
The situation described disregards friction, and would
therefore not be met in actual practice. Friction also
requires force or head to overcome it, but, contrary to
the inertia effect, this force cannot be recovered again,
although the energy represented still exists somewhere as
heat. Therefore, in an actual system the pressure in
chamber (B) would be less than that in chamber (A) by
the amount of pressure used in overcoming friction along
the way.
At all points in a system therefore, the static pressure will
always be the original static pressure less any velocity
head at the point in question, and less the friction head
consumed in reaching that point. Since both velocity head
and friction head represent energy which came from the
original static head, and since energy cannot be destroyed,
the sum of the static head, velocity head and friction
head at any point in a system must add up to the
original static head. This general truth is known as
Bernoulli's Theorem, and is the second important basic
law of hydraulics. It governs the relations of the static
and dynamic factors, while Pascal's Law states the
manner in which the static factors behave when taken by
themselves.
It therefore follows that flow requires energy and the
energy used is reflected in loss of Static Head,
The loss of Static Head or the pressure difference (AP) in
psi between Pi and P2 can be expressed mathematically
as:
where *
AP - Pressure Differential (lb/in2 )
p(Rho)- Density of the fluid (lb/ft3)
L - Length of pipe (ft) through which
flow occurs.
V - Velocity of flow (ft/sec)
D - Inside diameter of pipe (ft)
&
- Acceleration due to gravity ( 32, 2)
f - Friction factor
(determined experimentally)
The above is a form of the Darcy Formula which is the
general formula used for pressure loss.
FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES
The proceeding has been devoted to flow of fluids in
general to achieve an understanding of the causes and
results of flow of fluids.
When a fluid is flowing steadily in a long straight pipe of
uniform diameter, the flow pattern, as indicated by the
velocity distribution across the pipe diameter, will assume
a certain characteristic form. Any impediment in the pipe
which changes the direction of the whole stream, or even
part of it, will alter the characteristic flow pattern and
create turbulence, causing an energy loss greater than that
normally accompanying flow in straight pipe. Because
valves and fittings in a pipe line disturb the flow pattern,
they produce an additional pressure drop.
The loss of pressure produced by a valve consists of:
1. The pressure drop within the valve itself.
2. The pressure drop in the upstream piping in excess of
that which would normally occur if there were no
valve in the line. This effect is small.
3. The pressure drop in the downstream piping in excess
of that which would normally occur if there were no
valve in the line. This effect may be comparatively
large.
From the experimental point of view it is difficult to
measure the three items separately. Their combined effect
is the desired quantity, however, and this can be
accurately measured by well known methods.
Fig, 22
Figure 22 shows two sections of pipe line of the same
diameter and length. The upper section contains a globe
valve. If the pressure drops, APl and AP2 were measured
between the points indicated, it would be found that APl
is greater than AP2.
Many experiments have shown that pressure loss due to
valves is proportional to a constant power of the velocity.
For all practical purposes, it can be assumed that
pressure (or head) loss due to the flow of fluids (in the
turbulent range) varies as to the square of the velocity
(W
When the pressure loss caused by a valve has been
determined experimentally at several rates of flow the
losses can be plotted and losses at all flow rates predic-
ted. The plot is usually on logarithmic coordinates and
the curve is therefore a straight line.
Pressure loss through valves is normally given for a wide
open valve. Not all valves are wide open during flow.
The pressure (or head) loss caused by valves can be
expressed in several different terms, each having its
specific value to engineers in their work.
These terms are:
Differential Pressure (AP)
Equivalent Length in Pipe Diameters L/D
Resistance Coefficient K
Flow Coefficient Cv
These terms are explained as follows:
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE AP
Expresses directly the loss in static head caused by the
valve at the specified rate of flow.
EQUIVALENT LENGTH IN PIPE
The LI D factor is the equivalent length, in pipe diameters,
of straight pipe which will cause the same pressure loss as
a valve under the same flow rate.
In general usage, the L/D factor is converted to length of
pipe of equivalent size.
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENT
Since velocity in a pipe is obtained at the expense of Static
head and the loss of head through a valve is also at the
expense of Static Head, this reduction of static head can be
expressed in terms of Velocity Heads.
FLOW COEFFICIENT Cv
In metric units the characteristics of a valve is expressed in
terms of the quantity of water that will flow through the
valve with a pressure loss across the valve of 1kPa.
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
(HYDRAULIC GRADELINE)
If open water columns were installed at intervals along a
pipe line in which water is flowing, the water in these
columns would rise to a height equal to the pressure head
at each point. The imaginary line connecting the points to
which the water would rise in these columns is called the
hydraulic grade line or Hydraulic Gradient.
When designing a water system or transmission lines. the
engineer usually constructs a graph that will reflect the
pressures in various points in the system. The resulting
hydraulic grade line helps in determining the need for
pressure reducing stations or pumps and their proper
location.
WATER HAMMER
This is the series of shocks, like hammer blows, produced
by suddenly checking the flow of water in a pipe. If a
valve, turbine gate, or faucet is suddenly closed, the kinetic
energy of the arrested column of water is expended, if no
relief devices are provided, in compressing the water and in
stretching the pipe walls. Starting at the suddenly closed
valve, a wave of increased pressure is transmitted back
through the pipe with constant velocity and intensity. The
shock pressure is not concentrated at the valve, but if a
bursting pressure is produced it may show its effects near
the valve simply because it acts there first. The velocity of
the pressure wave for ordinary cast-iron pipe, 50 to 150
mm in diameter, is about 1300 m/per sec.; for a 600 mm
pipe it is about 1000 m/per second. It depends on the
elasticity of the metal and upon the ratio of its thickness to
the diameter of the pipe. If the pipe were perfectly rigid
the velocity would be that of sound through water (about
1450 metres per second).
The increase of pressure is proportional to the destroyed
velocity of flow and to the speed of propagation of the
pressure wave. This increase is about 1350 kPa for each
metre per second of extinguished velocity for 50 to
150 mm pipes, and about 1000 kPa for each metre per
second for 600 mm cast iron pipe. These increases of
pressure will be attained only where the valve is closed in
less time than one round trip of the pressure wave.
When the pressure wave has travelled upstream to the end
of the pipe where there is a reservoir or a larger main (the
whole pipe then being under increased pressure with
checked flow throughout), the elasticity of the compressed
water and that of the distended pipe reverse the flow at
that end of the pipe, and a wave of normal pressure (that
of the reservoir or main) travels downstream. the flow
being progressively reversed as the compressed water
expands. When this wave of normal pressure reached the
valve, the kinetic energy of the column of water with
reversed flow tends to create a vacuum at the valve. There
the reversed flow is checked and the checking proceeds
progressively upstream accompanied by a wave of
subnormal pressure. Then this wave reaches the upstream
end (the whole pipe then being under subnormal pressure),
the greater normal pressure in the reservoir or large main
starts flow into the pipe, and a wave of normal pressure
travels forward downstream. When this wave reaches the
valve there is forward flow throughout the pipe, the
conditions being the same as when the valve was suddenly
closed, and a wave of increased pressure and of checked
flow again starts upstream. A complete cycle of pressure
waves and reversals of flow occupies the time required for
two round trips. The amplitude of the pressure vibrations
becomes less with the succeeding cycles because of friction,
but the time interval remains constant.
If a high pressure wave in its travel through the pipe,
enters a branch pipe with a closed, or dead end, there will
almost be a doubling in the increase of pressure when the
wave strikes the closed end. In some pipe systems
dangerous water-hammer pressures are built up, for if the
back wave from a branch pipe with dead end has access to
another branch the high pressure may receive further
augmentation.
As the intensity of the excess pressure in the hammer wave
depends on the amount of extinguished velocity, the same
excess pressure is produced by suddenly reducing the
velocity from 2 to 1,2m per second as by entirely stopping
a velocity of 1 metre per second. If the flow is not checked
rapidly so that the wave from the first movement of the
gate has time to travel upstream to the end and back again
several times while the checking is in progress, the excess
pressure is very much reduced. Hence, the wisdom of using
slow-closing valves on long pipe lines.
Much work has been done concerning the study of water
hammer surge pressures created by quick closing valves.
However, very- little has been published on water hammer
surge pressure caused when pumps stop under power
failure conditions.
It can be assumed that the surge wave will be similar to
the surge wave created by a quick closing valve.
The surge pressure would, however, be started in a
different manner than when the surge pressure is caused by
a quick closure of the valve.
When a pump stops, the fluid continues to flow up-stream
with diminishing velocity until the energy provided by the
pump is expended. The extent of the low pressure wave
thus created is very difficult to predict. It can be a minor
sub-normal pressure, or the pressure can go to below
atmospheric, and the water column in the conduit can
actually separate. The magnitude of a low pressure wave
will depend upon the initial velocity, the length of
transmission line, the gradient of the transmission line, and
the abruptness with which the pump will stop, and also the
inlet pressure conditions at the pump.
The extent of the sub-normal pressure created, and the
distance that the flow moves upstream, will determine the
velocity of the return flow. The velocity of the return flow,
then it reaches the closed check valve, will generate the
surge pressure wave in a similar manner as the quick
closure of the valve.
Power failure pump stops, or a pump stop without pump
control valves can cause damaging surge pressure waves to
be generated in the intake ol a booster pump when the
supply line to the pump is relatively long and velocities are
fairly high. These surge pressures are generated in the same
manner as by a quick closing valve. Should the high
pressure surge in the inlet line and the high pressure surge
in the discharge line meet at the pump, considerable stress
will be imposed upon the pump and serious damage could
result.
Several means of protection from, and elimination of the
surge pressures due to a power pump stopping are
available by use of the proper surge relief valves.
Inlet or suction line surges can be prevented by the use of
quick opening, slow closing, relief valves installed at the
pump and discharging to atmosphere.
Discharge line surges, being generated by the sudden
stopping of the return flow, can be successfully eliminated
by installation of a surge control valve that operates on the
principal of opening upon power failure and subsequent
low pressure conditions, being open when the returning
flow reaches the check valve, and then slowly closing and
gradually stopping reverse flow.
It is generally acknowledged that an analysis of precisely
what happens hydraulically is quite difficult, and experi-
mental data is not readily available to determine what will
happen under various conditions,
Fluids Handling in
Various Industries Establishing maximum steam
consumption of plant 15 - 17
Condensate recovery 18,19
Water supply using submersible
Pumps 20 - 22
Practical de-watering in deep
level gold mines
Handling pulp stock 25- 31
Ash handling systems 32,33
Non-Newtonian fluids - Flow
properties of fluid foods 34 - 39
Pumping solid and semi-solid
food products
Spraying systems 43 - 46
Sewage Handling 47 - 49
Establishing Maximum Steam Consumption of Plant
If a steam system is t o be designed correctly, it is essential
to know the steam consumption or rate of condensation
of individual pieces of plant. This enable the pipe size t o
be calculated, while ancillaries such as control valves and
steam traps can also be sized t o give the best possible results.
Steam consumptions can be arrived at in one of three ways.
In many cases they can be calculated from first principles.
A second alternatve may be t o use information on thermal
rating provided by manufacturers. A third way is t o measure
consumption.
1. Calculation
In most cases the heat in steam will be required t o do two
things. It will be required t o produce a change of tempera-
ture in the plant or product (warming up). It will also be
required t o make good heat transferred by design or lost by
accident (running).
The heat required t o produce a temperature change is t he
product of : --
Mass x Specific Heat x Temperature Rise
Since specific heat is virtually a constant the calculation
is relatively easy.
The problem is t o decide the time over which the tempera-
ture rise takes place so that the rate of steam usage can
be calculated. It is obvious that the rate of steam consump-
tion will be doubled if warming up due t o take an hour
is accomplished in 30 minutes.
The heat required t o make up running losses is the product
0f:-
Heat transfer area x Heat transfer coefficient x
Temperature difference across the surface
The difficulty here is that the heat transfer coefficient is
not such a predictable constant.
The reason relates largely t o resistant films. A modest
temperature head at the heat transfer surface will mean
relatively slow movement of the boundary layers and a low
heat transfer coefficient. A higher temperature head will
involve more movement and a higher heat transfer co-
efficient. Velocity over the surface will also tend t o remove
the resistant films and improve heat transfer.
Heat transfer is not an exact science, especially when the
variables of water, air and fouling due t o scale or other
solid build-up are considered. Some discrimination is there-
fore required in selecting the heat transfer coefficient for
a particular situation. However the calculations outlined
here should give results which are sufficiently accurate for
most purposes.
Having calculated bot h warming-up load and the running
load. there can be problems in some cases in deciding what
the maximum total load might be. The warming-up
load will, in fact. be high when heating is started and will
fall off as the plant comes up t o temperature. Alternatively
the radiation or running load will reach a maximum when
the plant is up t o temperature, by which time the warming-
up load has fallen t o zero. It is therefore wrong t o add these
maximum figures together.
2. Manufacturing ratings
Some items of manufactured plant are supplied with
information on thermal out put . These ratings can be both
helpful and misleading.
Ratings will usually involve raising a stated amount of air
or water through a given temperature rise using steam at
a specified pressure. They are generally published in good
faith with a reasonable allowance for fouling at the heat
transfer surface.
It must be clear that changing any factor at all will alter
the anticipated heat output and thereby the steam consump-
tion. Colder than specified air or water will increase the
rating while steam at less than the specified pressure will
reduce the rating. Temperatures and pressure can be measur-
ed easily so that corrections can be applied. The flows of
air or water are far more difficult t o measure and undetected
belt slip or impeller wear can lead t o losses.
A more common source of error arises from the assump-
tion that the manufacturers rating equates t o actual load.
A heat exchanger may be capable of a given duty but the
connected load may be a fraction of this.
Clearly it is useful t o have information on the thermal
rating of plant but care must be taken in interpreting this
as a heat load.
3. Measurement
It is only in comparatively rare cases that steam can be
measured by reading a meter. Where this can be done
care should be taken t o ensure that the prevailing steam
pressure is correct for the meter and that there is no for-
gotten calibration factor t o be taken into account.
In most cases, steam consumptions have t o be estimated,
either from first principles or from reference t o design
ratings. However, there are cases where steam consumptions
can be established rather more directly by measuring the
condensate.
I t is rarely possible t o make an exact calculation of the
steam consumption of a particular piece of plant. However,
it can be estimated with sufficient accuracy for most
purposes by studying the following examples.
STEAM MAINS
In any steam system, account must be taken of the steam
consumption of t he mains themselves. During the warming
up period, the rate of condensation will be at its highest
and this will govern the sizing of steam traps for mains
drainage. With the steam main in use there will be a smaller
but continuous heat loss due t o radiation from the pipe.
Both of these components can be readily calculated.
Warming up rate
Heat will be required initially t o bring the cold pipe up t o
working temperature. The warming up rate will depend on
the time which is allowed and this should be based on a
practical assessment. If 20 minutes is accepted instead of
10 minutes, then t he steam load is cut by half and the
system may benefit from reduced stresses. A warming up
time of 30 minutes would cut the warming up load yet
again. Warming up rate can be expressed as:
Q = Wx ( T - t ) x S p x 6 0
L x m
where Q = Rate of condensation kg/h
W = Total weight of pipe plus
flanges and fittings kg
T = Steam temperature 0 C
t = Ambient temperature 0 C
Sp = Specific heat or steel
0, 49 kJ/kgO C
L = Latent heat kJ/kg
m = Time taken in warming up minutes
Table 1 gives typical weights of steel pipe, flanged joints
and stop valves.
Since any main may be warmed through more quickly than
anticipated, a factor of 3 should be applied t o the calculated
warming up rate for the purpose of sizing steam traps.
Proper provision must also be made t o vent t he air con-
tained in the pipework at start up. It is no good providing
traps with capacity t o handle condensate if t hey are unable
t o vent air and allow the condensate t o reach the traps.
Example (SI Units)
Find the rate of condensation in warning up 91, s m of
100 mm steel main which includes 18 flanged joints t o
BST 'H' and one st op valve. The starting temperature
(ambient) is 8, 0 C and t he steam pressure 1,4 MPa gauge
(latent heat 1947 kJ/ kg - temperature 198,SC) The time
Table 1. Mass of steel pipe
taken t o warm up is 30 minutes.
Q = Wx ( T - t ) x S p x 6 0
L x m
To find W, find the weights of the various steam main
items from Table 1 .:-
100 mm Steel main 1 4,9 kg/m
100 mm Flanges t o BST 'H' 16.1 kg each
100 mm Stop Valve 90, 7 kg each
then W = ( 913) x 14,9) + (18 x 16, l ) + (1 x 90,7)
= 1743,8 kg
Rate of condensation
(Q)= 1744 x (l 98, 5 - 8,O) x O,49 x 60
1947 x 30
= 166,3 kg/h
This rate of condensation now has t o be multiplied by a
factor of 3 and divided by the number of traps fitted in
order t o arrive at trap capacity.
Radiation losses
Once a steam main has warmed up, condensation will con-
tinue as heat is lost through radiation, the rate depending
on t he steam temperature, ambient temperature and the
efficiency of t he lagging. Table 2 gives rates of heat emission
which can be expected from bare steel pipes.
If the main is flanged, each pair of flanges will have approxi-
mately t he same surface area as 0,3 m of pipe of the same
size.
Distribution mains will usually be lagged, and it will
obviously be an advantage if flanges are also included. The
effect of this on heat losses will depend on the type and
thickness of the lagging material and on its general condi-
tion. For most practical purposes it can be taken that lagg-
ing of steam lines will reduce the heat loss t o 25% of that
of an unlagged line. The heat loss from lagged mains can
Pipe Approximate mass Approximate mass per pair of flanges Typical mass of
Size of steel pipe including bolts and nuts flanged steel stop
mm
BST 'E' BST 'H' valves BST 'H
kglm kg kg kg
therefore be expressed as:
where Q = Rate of condensation kg/h
E = Heat emission from Table 2 w/ m
1 = Effective length of pipe, allowing for
flanges and fittings metres
L = Latent heat
kJ/kg
Note: To enable Q to be expressed as kg/h instead of g/s
the constant of 3.6 has been added t o the SI formula.
Example (SI Units)
Using the same figures as the previous example:
100 mm Steel main 91, 5m
100 mm Flanges BST 'H' 18 off
100 mm Stop Valve 1 off
Steam pressure 1,4 MPa gauge
Starting temperature (ambient) 8, 0
Find the rate of condensation due t o ratiation losses.
The latent heat of the steam is 1947 kJ/kg and the heat
emission rate from Table 4 is 1271 W/m.
Rate of condensation Q = 1271 x 98,1 x 3,6
1947 x 4
Having calculated the amount of steam required t o warm
up t he main, and the radiation loss under the worst con-
ditions, there is still t he problem of computing the total
heat up l oad. The warming up load will in fact be very high
initially and will fall off as the main is brought up t o
temperature. The radiation loss on the other hand will
start at zero and will build up t o its maximum only when
the main is up t o full pressure and temperature.
For practical purposes, it would be reasonable t o add t wo
components, thus allowing a slight margin. However, as far
as steam trapping is concerned, the radiation loss is in any
case a small part of the t ot al . Trapping based on the warm-
ing up load with a factor of three, as already indicated,
will adequately cope with radiation losses.
Assuming an allowance, equivalent t o 0,3 m of steel main
for each flange and 1,2 m for each stop valve, the total
effective length (1) of t he steam main is:--
9 l S + (18 x O,3) + (1 x 1.2) = 98, l
The temperature of the steam at 1.4 MPa gauge is 198,S
and therefore the temperature difference is 190,5 C
Table 2. Heat emission from pipes
Heat emission from bare hor i ~ont al pipes with ambient temperatures between 1 0 ~ and 2 1 ~ and still air conditions
Temp diff. Pipe size
Steam to Air 15 mm 20 mm 25 mm 32 mm 4 0 mm 5 0 mm 65 mm 80 mm 100mm 150mm
Acknowledgement: Spirax Sarco (Pty) Ltd
Condensate Recovery
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Non-electric Fluid Recovery Pumps provide substantial
operating economies in the transfer of high-temperature
liquids such as condensate from a low point, low pressure,
or vacuum t o an area of higher pressure or elevation.
Functioning as both a pump and pumping trap, the fluid
recovery pumps return hot condensate t o the piping return
system. Energy is conserved and savings achieved in three
primary areas: water costs, water treatment chemical costs,
and the steam costs t o preheat cold water for boiler
make-up.
Another primary benefit is the savings gained where envir-
onmental regulations prohibit the dumping of hot conden-
sate into the sewer system. A recovery system eliminates
the use of cooling water equal t o as much as 80% of the
condensate load.
The end result is a cost savings of up t o 20% of fuel
costs and greatly increased energy conservation.
The non-electric design offers significant advantages. It
performs reliably in remote areas where electrical service is
not readily available. Safety concerns are minirnised on
applications involving hazardous explosive atmospheres.
Installation and maintenance can be far more economical,
especially when the application requires electrical panels,
starters, and accessories.
Requiring no rotating seals which could leak or motors t o
burn out , the non-electrical pump is easier t o maintain. In
addition, condensate can be reclaimed above the 100' C
limit of a conventional electric pump, resulting in less flash
loss.
STEAM SUPPLY
CONTROLLED BY
TEMPERATURE
REGULATOR
GRADE LEVEL n
CHECKVALVE OUTLET
Pig. 2 Submerged sump pump application
The fluid recovery pump unit can easily be installed t o
collect condensate, or other liquids, from single or multiple
return lines. On most applications, a vented receiver ahead
of the pump is not necessary.
APPLICATIONS
Applications for the non-electric fluid recovery pump
include vacuum systems, condensers, turbines, or any other
steam condensing equipment.
Applications where liquids must be transferred t o a higher
pressure or elevation, including draining sump pits, can
use the advantages of this new equipment.
HEAT EXCHANGER
ATOR
CHECK VALVE
I " &. 1 Typical heat cxcliangcr application
A typical application is shown in Figure 1. The pump is
draining the heat exchanger t o an overhead return line.
The fluid recovery pump is activated when t he liquid level
inside the case rises t o a certain level. The float t hus activates
the mechanism.
CONSTRUCTION
The fabricated steel body has been constructed t o ASME
material and welding specifications and t he stainless steel
internal working mechanism provides corrosion resistance.
The hardened stainless steel valves and seats in the pump
mechanism are easily replaceable and inlet and outlet
check valves are interchangeable.
Unique stress single over-centre compression spring mech-
anism contributes t o reliability.
Internal tank baffle plates prevent damage t o t he mechanism
and reduce surge flow readings on t he sight gauge. A large
size drain port allows complete drainage and maintainability.
An optional, low-position inlet port allows for extremely
low inlet pressure.
With no external packing glands or seals t o leak, the
fluid recovery pump require no lubrication. Operation is
practically maintenance free.
PUMP OPERATION
With n o liquid in t he body, t he float is in its lowest position
Liquid flowing through t he inlet port check valve causes the
float to become buoyant and rise. When t he float has risen
t o its highest position. t he inlet valve is snapped open and
t he exhaust valve simultaneously closes. Gas flows through
the inlet valve and develops a pressure within t he body,
forcing the liquid out through the discharge check valve
port.
As liquid level decreases, the float's position is lowered.
With t he float in its lowest position, the gas inlet valve
snaps closed and t he exhaust valve simultaneously opens
and exhausts t he gas in the case. Liquid again flows t o
fill the pump body and repeat the cycle.
Steam, compressed air, or gas can be used t o operate the
pump. Operation can be from a minimum of 35 t o 1700
kFa maximum without any adjustment.
Each kPa of inlet pressure lifts condensate a height of
approximately 88 mm. Height t o which t he liquid is
pumped as well as pressure in the system into which t he
liquid is being transferred determine minimum operating
pressure. The pump will continue t o operate as long as
7 kPa inlet/back pressure differential exists.
The spring-operated mechanism requires no energy and will
not cycle until liquid height in the body is sufficient t o
cycle t he spring-loaded, over-centre valve mechanism.
Steam consumption is approximately 3 kg per 1000 kg of
liquid pumped when t he exhaust is vented t o atmosphere.
By piping this exhaust back into a closed syst em, t he
steam t o be recovered as well as actual consumption is
reduced.
When pumping with compressed air, consumption is
353 kg/ m3 per 1000 kg of liquid pumped. The air should
be exhausted t o t he atmosphere and not returned t o the
system.
Three factors influence t he pumping capacity:
Operating pressure of t he pumping gas used.
The liquid filling head determines t he time required for the
body t o fill.
Total lift or back pressure on the pump. This is t he sum of
the pressure due t o the lift height and any existing pressure
in t he return system. This determines t he discharge cycle.
Acknowledgement: Iron Fireman S. A. ( Pt y) Ltd
Provision of Water Supply using Submersible Pumps
INTRODUCTION
The last decade has seen submersible electric pump units
gain a dominant position throughout the world for water
supply. Their ease of installation, operation and lack of
surface buildings has become so widely recognised in indus-
trial, commercial and agricultural applications that the
position has now been reached where this type of machine
is used for every possible water pumping requirement. The
advantages of minimal installation and maintenance costs
have led to this change from the conventional lineshaft t o
the submersible motor drive unit.
Submersible motors, operating in extremely hostile environ-
ments, have special requirements exceeding those of their
surface mounted counterparts.
GROUND WATER SITUATIONS
All over the world usable groundwater is available.from sand
and gravel deposits, from underground lakes, from springs
and artesian type wells. By far the major course is that from
sand and gravel deposits which are of glacial origin, being
outwashes from ice sheets, flood plain deposits and terraces
formed by river action. It is these sources known as 'alluvial
aquifiers' which are exploited by public supply authorities
and large industrial concerns by the sinking of wells or
drilling of boreholes t o extract the water by pumping.
WELL CONSTRUCTION, DIAMETERS AND YIELDS
There are four main types of water yielding well. First there
is the dug shaft with diameters from 1,5-3,O m. In recent
years these have been mechanically excavated with caissons
sunk by special jacks while the spoil is removed in grab-
buckets.
The second type of well is the drilled borehole. Usually
from 100-900 mm diameter, these are made with auger or
percussion drivers and may or may not be lined with tubes
for wall support depending on the nature of the ground
through which they are drilled. This feature has given rise
to the name tubewell being used for such lined boreholes.
Thirdly there is the multiple well system comprising a
number of small wells connected t o a single suction main at
a pumping well. The fourth type is the collector well. This
may consist of porous or slotted pipes laid in trenches to
carry water t o a sump or series of sumps, or it may be a
large diameter shaft from the bottom of which slotted pipes
are driven horizontally into the surrounding gravels.
The yields from water wells vary enormously depending on
the aquifier conductivity and the general homogeniety of
the sub-soils.
From dug wells, yields as high as 10 M/ (10 000 m3 per
day) have been obtained. From drilled boreholes normal
yields are up t o 2 or 3 m/ are not uncommon and some
collection systems though difficult t o compare directly with
other types have been known t o allow abstraction rates of
7 MQ/d .
PUMPING METHODS
The pumping of water from wells has always been limited
by the fact that in an open circuit the suction 'head' or
pressure is limited by the barometric pressure. In order to
lift water from depths greater than 100 kPa (approximately
10 m) the pump needs t o be lowered down the well to near
or below the normal standing water level. This has been
achieved in two ways:
a) The pump only is lowered down the well leaving the
motive power on the surface. This results in a deep well
turbine pump driven by a long vertical shaft assembly. A
vertical shaft totally enclosed fan ventilated electric
motor is the usual driver for this type of pump.
b) Lowering both the pump and a close coupled driver
down into the water (which requires the driver to be
capable of submersion) results in a submersible motor
and pump unit.
Other uses distinct from the ordinary borehole pumping
operation to which submersibles have been put are:
1. Drainage and water level control in mines, tunnels and
underground workings.
2. Firefighting on ships and oil-rigs.
3. Propulsion motors for submarines and for semi submer-
sible rigs as sea-water ballast pumps.
4. Circulating water in high pressure boiler systems.
5. Nuclear power station duties.
The application to deep well and borehole pumping is,
however, the greatest use to which these fully submersible
pump units have so far been put. Throughout the world
national and municipal water supply and land irrigation is
now dependent on the efficient deployment of submersibles.
With this worldwide need for water so essential t o the con-
tinuity of life this situation is likely t o remain unchanged
for the foreseeable future.
INSTALLATION
A typical installation is shown in Figure 1. The submersible
is suspended by the rising main from a simple head piece
which usually takes the form of a right angle swept bend
with a suitable mounting plate.
If possible the unit is suspended above the water inlet t o
the well to ensure that the pumped water passes over the
motor exterior. This ensures that all the electrical losses
from the motor are rapidly carried away from the motor
cage exterior allowing the motor internal temperatures to
be as low as possible. If, due to the construction ofthe well,
this is not practical, it is advisable (but not always required
depending on motor rating) to fit a simple flow shroud t o
direct the water tlow over the motor. A minimum velocity
of 0,15 m/s is preferable.
The unit should always be mounted clear of the bottom
of the well t o prevent any build up of sand, silt or sludge
covering the bottom of the motor, which will reduce the
cooling effect and restrict the pressure balancing diaphragm
movement.
The electrical supply cable must be suitable for continuous
use under water at the temperature of the pumped water.
With regard t o the latter, due attention must be paid t o the
motor rating. Most units are designed t o operate continuous-
ly at full rating in water at 30' C, some units up t o 40C
Above these temperatures a slight de-rating is required. The
supply cable must be suspended adequately, as many
failures occur due t o the cable slipping through poorly
designed cable clips. This can result in an earth fault, requir-
ing costly removal and reinstallation and possible loss of
the motor stator due t o unbalanced supply conditions.
Water levels are generally prevented from falling below the
pump by suction electrodes positioned 1 or 2 m above the
pump. Dry running of a submersible pump must be avoided
as the units are designed t o 'live' under water.
Attention must be paid t o above ground equipment. Many
applications have been carried out satisfactorily up t o this
point but have then been spoilt by not fitting suffiicient
control and protection circuits. As a minimum safety
requirement, overload trips must be fitted. Optional features
such as under and over voltage relays, earth leakage, lightning
protection etc are desirabk especially in countries where
continuity of electrical supply cannot be guaranteed. On
deep installation, interlocks are used to prevent starting
until complete run back of water in the rising main has
occurred. To switch on while this is occurring can lead to
excessive transients.
On the hydraulic part of the installation the pipework must
be capable of suspending the live weight on the unit. On
smaller applications a non-return valve is usually fitted at
the pump discharge. Larger units have this valve at the well
head with an air release valve t o allow air t o enter the
rising main on shut down. Failure t o fit this item may lead
' o high water surge with consequential damage t o the
pumping unit. Any pipework circuit should be checked for
surge conditions and the necessary surge vessels fitted if
required.
In conclusion, a good submersible pumping unit, once
installed, uses very little above ground equipment and the
only obvious sign of such a system can be a simple manhole
cover with control equipment located some distance away.
If applied correctly, most submersibles will operate satis-
factorily for many years, with units requiring service only
at extremely long intervals. In some cases as much as 25
years have passed before such units have re-appeared in the
manufacturer's works. Manufacturers are often asked to
comment on the life expectancy of submersible units, but
obviously poor installation and inadequate safety instrumen-
tation can seriously shorten the unit's life.
-a
FLOAT SWHCH OR
MAIN SWITCHFUSE PRESSURE TANK
FLOAT SWITCH
MOTOR STARTER
BOREHOLE COVER
WELL CASING
CLIP OR TAPE
BLEEDER TEE
WHERE SUPPLIED)
RISING MAIN PIPE
STANDING WATER
LEVEL I N WELL
LOWIHIGH LEVEL
PENCIL ELECTRODE
CABLE JOINT
(I F REQUIRED)
PUMP NON-RETURN
Note:
*
Horizontal supply line pipe may be buried
below frost line
With some installations riser pipe diameter
may have t o be reduced to accommodate
cable joint
Fig. 1.
Acknowledgement: Howden Pumps
Irrigation using -- Submersible Pumps
Wherever available, surface water is used for irrigation but
many areas are not in the fortunate position of having
sufficient water for their complete irrigation needs; in
others the use of river water is not permitted, due t o the
downstream effect. The most useful source for irrigation
needs therefore is groundwater, which can be tapped by
using submersible motors and pumps in wells or drilled
boreholes. The depths of these boreholes will depend upon
the thickness of t he water-bearing strata, which may lie
from 10 t o 150 m deep, although in some areas of the
world it is not unknown to have boreholes as deep as 500 m.
The diameter of the boreholes for irrigation purposes can
be between 100 and 500 mm, this usually being governed
either by the size of the pump required or t he yield of the
borehole. Depending upon the strata, the wells can usually
be drilled direct but in most cases they are lined and fitted
with slotted lining tubes, sand screens or gravel packs if
required.
The submersible motor and pump provide an excellent
means of extracting water from these sources and the water
can be supplied either t o surface booster pumps, or as is
usually t he case now, direct t o the irrigators.
IRRIGATORS
Irrigators can fall into many types but there are t wo main
ones. In one of these, spray lines are permanently laid in
position and sprinkler heads are fitted at various points
along the spray lines. or simple plastic spray hose systems
may be used. Alternatively, self-propelled hose systems may
be used to cover large areas; these can be electrically driven
as in the case of centre-pivot irrigators, or be sledge-mounted
rain guns propelled by the water being pumped.
With typical centre-pivot irrigators, water from tne sub-
mersible unit is supplied t o the centre pivot point and passes
along the boom arms, which are fitted with a number of
sprinklers. In desert regions each of t he booms can be up
t o 500 m long, allowing the irrigation of 80 hectares in a
circular pattern. The booms are generally driven by electric
motors at intervals along their length, with a control system
t o ensure stability of rotation. The speed of t he boom
rotation is variable, to cater for different application
requirements and use is made of these systems even in
awkwardly-shaped fields, with rain guns fitted at the end ot
the boom t o water the comers of the field.
The self-propelled rain gun is mounted on a lightweight
sledge and is pulled out across the field by a tractor. It is
then slowly pulled in by an internal water-driven piston or
turbine mechanism and the hose re-winds ont o a large reel
mounted on a chassis assembly at the headland. These rain
guns cover widths up t o 100 m and t o achieve these dis-
tances large flows and relatively high pressure are required.
CORRECT PRESSURE
- LOW PRESSURE
- - - - -
HI GH PRESSURE
Fig. 1 Effect of pressure on the sprinkled pattern
Stability of pressure is extremely important for all irrigators
t o ensure correct atomisation of the water. The effect of
pressure on the geometric pattern of a sprinkler is shown
in Figure 1. Low pressure on the rain gun will give similar
results, but with an increase in the proportion of large
droplets and a higher application rate as a result of the
reduced wetted area. Higher pressures may sometimes
be acceptable, especially with rain guns giving a greater
'lifting' effect, but the rain gun speed has t o be increased t o
maintain acceptable application rates. High pressures in a
system can result in a need for smaller nozzles t o be fitted.
These points illustrate the importance of maintaining pres-
sure control at t he sprinkler heads and this is related t o the
submersible pump selection.
The water quantity depends on many factors, including
soil texture and structure, drainage, crop requirement and
local metrology conditions. Only with all this data available
is it possible t o estimate the water requirements; each case
will vary from farm t o farm or country t o country and each
will involve considerable planning. When deciding on
required water quantities, long-term plans need to be taken
into consideration t o ensure that water will be available for
alternation crop and worst-weather conditions. Having
determined the maximum likely water quantity, the pump
head requirement can be decided from maximum well draw-
down conditions and pressure requirements at t he well
head, taking i nt o account pipeline friction losses and
pump service wear. Although it is usually t o fit a pressure
control device at the well head t o maintain the correct
pressure for the discharge nozzles, the selection of excessive
heads at t he ground surface should be avoided, t o limit
losses in efficiency and t he need t o select higher-rated pipe
flanges.
Acknowledgement: Howden Pumps
Practical De-watering in Deep Level Gold Mines
On the Witwatersrand the gold-bearing reefs are overlain by
approximately 1300 m of Transvaal dolomite which is a
major water-bearing formation. This dolomite structure is
separated into a number of ground water compartments by
a vertical dyke.
Certain mines during the course of development had water
entering the underground workings at rates of more than 50
million litres per day. Because of the inconvenience of these
large quantities of water, the compartments have t o be
practically dewatered, resultingsin a large capital outlay
and considerable planning on behalf of all the mines involved
in a particular area.
It must be appreciated that unlike United States mining
conditions, South African gold mines average at depths of
2000 m below surface and at these depths water is an ever
present factor.
As a safety measure, boreholes are drilled from carefully-
selected points to ensure that advance workings do not
inadvertently intersect possible undrained water fissures.
When located, such fissures are either drained through the
boreholes or sealed by injecting cement into the borehole.
However, water still enters the underground workings in
quantities of 100 to 200 litres per minute and this water
must be pumped to the surface.
All South African gold mines are equipped with under-
ground pumping stations utilising large multistage high-
pressure pumps, often arranged in parallel and driven by
electric motors of 2000 kW and over.
These underground stations and large reservoirs, known as
'settlers' are an extremely expensive excavation and capital
project; consequently economics play an important part in
the actual underground location. It is therefore unecono-
mical and time-consuming to provide additional settlers as
development increases or greater depths are attained.
For the pumping of run-of-mine water from great depths
and extended development areas to the main settlers,
single-stage centrifugal pumps are used (Figure 1). These
pumps are designed to handle dirtylgritty water up to a
specific gravity of 1,04. Run-of-mine water normally con-
tains between 20% and 5% solids by mass, with a maximum
particle size of 3 mm. It is gravitated t o convenient catch-
ment sumps on each level from where it is transferred by
single pumps, or pumps in series to the main settlers.
In order to prevent the settling of the finer particles in
these rock catchment sumps, a smaller rubber-lined slurry
pump is connected to the suction line feeding the main
pumps. This enables water t o be drawn from the bottom of
the sump for recirculation to a point above the maximum
water level, t o ensure agitation of the impurities. This
pump is stopped when the main pump arrangement is started.
There are a number of installations where three or four
pumps operating in series will be found on every second
level below the main settler. Storage pumps on each of
these levels collect the water which in turn is pumped to
the next set two levels above, again discharging into open
sumps. Another set of pumps will draw the liquid from this
sump and deliver it two levels above and the cycle is repeat-
ed until the water enters the main underground settler.
These units are sometimes urgently required to meet
emergency conditions. A recent example after heavy summer
rains and subsequent threat of flood in a West Rand gold
mine resulted in an order covering eight units of 6900 kPa
capacity being placed on the pump manufacturer on condi-
tion that they be supplied within two days, with a further
two units supplied within a week. The pumps were all
placed on floating rafts and connected to the main column
by flexible piping, and successfully coped with rising water
level.
DISCHARGE TO SETTLER
SLURRY PUMP
Fig. 1 Typical mine de-watering system below main settler
The pumps described are more commonly used as shaft
bot t om pumps and as such are usually situated 20 t o 60 m
below the main or pass.
Spillage from the loading bins together with water which is
ever present in mine shaft is collected in a sump after the
larger fraction is screened off. The water is then pumped
t o the main settlers and t he heavier material transported t o
t he surface i n t he usual way.
These pumps may also be mounted on portable trailers and
driven by closed coupled diesel or petrol engines. The units
are frequently arranged on the trailer complete with priming
t ank, flexible rubber suction and delivery hoses, valves et c.
and are towed t o the various dewatering points of the
alluvial diggings.
In some of the deeper underground operations, temperatures
rise well above ambient and under these circumstances bear-
ings can run hot and precipitate premature bearing failure.
MAIN DE.WATERING
PUMP STATION
22 LEVEL &-a-D
PUMPS I N
24 LEVEL SERIES
^
Development work is being continually undertaken by
manufacturers t o help alleviate this problem through im-
proved design, with consideration t o improved maintenance
and t he elimination of augural bearing misalignment.
t
28 LEVEL
,
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS WITH PORTABLE
PUMP UNTI L DEPTH WARRANTS
I
Fig. 2 Typical mine de-watering system
Acknowledgement: Weir-Envirotech
Handling Pulp Stock
HEAD
Normally, a pump lifts liquid from a lower t o a higher level.
Pumping takes place through a system of pipes, valves and
equipment of various types.
The pump must create a certain pressure, or head i n order
t o ensure that t he required transport of liquid through the
system will be obtained. The head of a pump is composed
of:
geodetic level difference
pressure difference
friction losses
Geodetic level difference is the vertical difference between
the liquid levels on t he suction and delivery sides.
Pressure difference is t he difference between t he absolute
pressure on the liquid surfaces on the suction and delivery
sides. Normally, the pressure is the same on bot h sides
when pulp is being pumped. Thus the pressure differential
is zero.
Friction losses occur in pipes, pipe bends, valves, etc. when
a liquid flows through a system of pipes. The friction losses
vary with the -
volumetric flow
size, type and construction of t he included pipe fittings
type of liquid
According t o Figures 1 and 2, t he total head for the pump
will be
H =
where
H =
hs =
hd =
Ps =
Pd =
e =
-
hfs -
-
hf d -
Fig. 1. Mounting of pumps with suction lift.
t 1
Fig. 2. Mounting of pumps with positive suction head.
In pulp pumping, Pd is generally equal t o P and conse-
quently equation (3) may be written:
total head in liquid column (m)
geodetic level difference on suction side in
liquid column ( n ~ )
geodetic level difference on delivery side in
liquid column (m)
pressure on liquid surface on suction side
(bar) *
pressure on liquid surface on delivery side
(bar) *
density of liquid (bar) *
friction losses on suction side in liquid column
m )
friction losses on delivery side in liquid column
m )
* 1 bar = 100 kPa
The geodetic head h is composed of h = h + hd
Equations (1) and (2) give:
FRICTION LOSSES IN PULP TRANSPORT
The friction losses in a pipe system for water and similar
liquids - so called Newtonian liquids - can in principle be
calculated easily with the :id of a technical handbook. The
laws valid for t he flow of Newtonian liquids i n pipes are
well known. Figure 3 shows i n principle t he friction losses
for water as a function of the liquid velocity. As the chart
has logarithmic scales on bot h axes the loss curve will be a
straight line.
When calculating the friction losses for t he flow of pulp
suspension in a pipe system, the above mentioned loss curves
cannot be used as pulp is not a Newtonian liquid. Various
theories relating t o t he flow of fibre suspensions are t o be
found i n technical literature, but since these theories have
not been fully evaluated it is necessary for pulp loss curves
t o be based largely on practical trials.
Representing various test results graphically produces a
curve that has the appearance shown in Figure 4. A com-
parison is obtained between the loss curves for water and
pulp if this curve is inserted in water chart Figure 3 (see
Figure 5).
The appearance of t he pulp loss curve can be explained in
the following manner:
Curve part 1 - 2
The pulp moves at a low velocity and the flow is laminary.
In this region friction occurs between t he pulp fibres and
the walls of the pipe, resulting in greater losses with increas-
ing velocity.
Curve part 2 - 3
When the pulp velocity reaches a certain value (point 2)
the losses decrease, the reason being that t he pulp moves
like a greased plug. Between t he pulp plug and the wall
of the pipe there is a t hi n, fibreless layer of water.
Curve part 3 - 4
At a certain velocity (point 3) turbulence occurs in t he
boundary layer. Turbulence increases with increasing velo-
city, whereupon t he pulp plug disappears completely. The
losses are at first lower t han for water, due t o t he presence
of the pulp fibres which restrict whirl formation. At higher
velocities the pulp losses will be roughly the same as the
water losses.
A comparison between different test results A, B, C and D
for a certain pulp concentration and pipe diameter is illus-
trated by Figure 6. The variations between t he different
loss curves are partly due t o the difference in test equipment,
type of pulp, degree of heating, temperature, fibre length
and t he internal surface of the pipe.
In characterising a pulp suspension, t he pulp concentration
is stated as the dry matter content in percentage by weight.
But also when the concentration is t he same suspensions
differ from one another where build-up of the fibres is
concerned, depending on t he type of tree, growth site and
the t ype of process used t o manufacture t he pulp. Tests
show that different types of pulp can result in different
friction losses, but for practical purposes these differences
can usually be disregarded.
The results of various tests show that t he effect of t he degree
of beating, temperature and fibre length on the friction
losses is negligible. On t he ot her hand, t he friction losses are
affected by t he internal surface of t he pipe.
Figure 7 shows t he principle of a friction loss chart for
pulp of different concentrations. For practical purposes
curve part 2 - 3 can be replaced by a straight line and
curve part 3 - 4 by t he friction loss curve for water. The
friction loss curves for pulp are based on studies of previously
published test results, experience and calculations.
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
log v
Fig. 3. Friction loss for water.
Fig. 4 Friction loss curve for pulp.
ioy v
/
Up t o a pulp concentration of 1. 5% t he friction loss curve
for water can be used with sufficient accuracy. Fig, 5. Comparison of friction loss curves for water and pulp
SYSTEM CURVE
Equation ( 3) shows that the total head for apump system is:
The sun1 of the geodetic head and the pressure differential
is called the static head, HstaL , and the sum of the flow
losses is called the dynamic head, Hdyn
The above equation can consequently be written as follows:
The static factor in the equation is independent of the volu-
metric flow, whereas the dynamic factor varies with the
volumetric flow.
Figure 8 shows equation ( 5) drawn into a diagram in which
the head is a function of t he volunletric flow. The curve
obtained describes the required head for the system. The
cutve IS referred to as the systems curve of the plant. For
a required volumetric flow Qi the necessary head Hi for
the pump can be found with the aid of the diagram.
If the head curve of the pump is inserted in t he diagram
(see Figure 9) the operating point is obtained at the point
of intersection with the system curve.
When the delivery side of the pump is throttled the system
curve changes. and the volun~etric flow of the pump de-
creases from Ql t o Q2 .
STARTING RESISTANCE IN PULP PUMPING
The liquid flow limit of a liquid must be exceeded in order
to be able t o move a stationary pulp suspension in a pipe.
This limit shows in t he form of a starting resistance. The
resistance drops when the suspension begins t o flow and
follows the n~anufacturers standard performance curves.
The starting resistance in a pipe can be calculated according
to the following equation:
starting resistance in rn liquid column/100
in pipe.
liquid flow limit of pulp suspension in kg/ m2
pipe diameter in rnm
constant (sk)
The diagram, Figure 10. is based on this formula. Curve 1
shows schematically a case where the starting resistance
exceeds the pump head with the outlet closed. Consequently
transport of the liquid cannot commence. The easiest way
t o overcome this is t o adapt t he head at closed outlet t o
the starting resistance (QH curve), by for example, increasing
the impeller diameter. This means that the volumetric
flow will increase (Q2). If this cannot be accepted the flow
can be throttled t o the originally calculated Qi . The dis-
advantage is that the power consumption will increase. It
log v
Fig. 6. Results of different tests with pulp.
Gv
Fi g. 7 . Friction loss curves for pulp.
Fig. 8.
I
SYSTEM CURVE '
AFTER THROTTING, '
Q2 Q 1 0
Fig. 9.
may sometimes be suitable t o use a variable speed mot or H
This is particularly important if the pipes are long.
CAVITATION - SUCTION HEAD - NPSH
Vapour bubbles form if t he pressure at any point in t he
pump drops below t he vapour presusre of the pumped
liquid at the prevailing liquid temperature. These vapour
bubbles follow the liquid flow t o zones with a higher pres-
sure, where the bubbles are compressed. This process is
1 2 3 4 5 6%
called cavitation and results in a change in the head curve of
for the pump if t he power losses are great. The pump starts
at a speed which results in QH curve 2 and the speed can
trations higher t han 1, 5%. Figure 11 shows t he ratio between
the starting resistance Hst art and the maximum value of the
friction losses at t he ' hump' (H max.) of t he pulp curve.
-
the pump. Figure 12 shows how the head curve drops during
cavitation. The volumetric flow is decreased from Qi t o Q2 .
STARTI NG
RESISTANCE
' ' I
Cavitation in pumps may also erode the material of the
impeller and pump casing and result in vibrations of the
pump unit.
then be reduced to QH curve 1. Naturally it is also possible
t o adapt the starting resistance t o the pump head by reduc-
ing t he concentration. If required the concentration can
then be increased when the pump has started. However, the
concentration must again be reduced before t he pump is
stopped.
The starting resistance should be checked firstly for concen-
In order t o avoid cavitation there must be a certain amount
of positive pressure in excess of the vapour pressure of t he
liquid in the pump suction inlet. This pressure is called
NPSHreq which is an abbreviation of Required Net Positive
Suction Head. Figure 13 shows a pump diagram with an
NPSH curve inserted. The curve shows the required positive
pressure as a function of the volumetric flow.
When using t he NPSHreq, the available positive pressure in
the pump system in excess of t he vapour pressure. NPSH,?
caused by t he system in t he suction inlet of t he pump, is
calculated. The following connection is found according t o
This curve shows t hat the risk for a high starting resistance
Figure 14.
P P
NPSHw = -2 . lo4 . (hs - hf) - (-^. l o4)
(6)
e e
1
where:
Q2 Qi Q
is greatest with a pulp concentration of 3%. In general i t
can be said that the starting resistance should also be checked
Fig. 10.
for low concentrations if t he velocities i n the pipes are l ow.
NPSHav = available net positive suction head in m
liquid column.
Ps = pressure on liquid surface on suction side i n
kp/ cm2 (bar).
Y
= density of liquid in kg/ m3.
hs = geodetic level difference on suction side in m
liquid column.
hfs = friction losses on suction side in nl liquid
column.
pv
= vapour pressure of liquid in kp/ cm2 (bar).
CONCENTRATION
Fig. 11.
The following connection is valid in operation free from
cavitation:
NPSH> NPSHreq
If NPSHav = NP S HR, the border connection derived
from equation (6) will be:
where: + h means geodetic suction lift
and - he means geodetic suction head
The above connection is used in installation calculations
in which t he given NPSH value for t he pump is inserted.
POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD IN PULP PUMPING
In pulp suspensions containing air there should be no negative
pressure in the impeller inlet, as the volume of the incoming
air would then increase and the pump may unprime. Where
thick pulp concentrations are involved, it is also necessary
to have a certain amount of positive pressure in the suction
inlet in order to force the pulp into the impeller.
To ensure troublefree pump operation, it is necessary t o
have a certain positive suction head, hr eq, in the suction
branch. The required positive suction head depends on:
Pump type
pump size
impeller design
inlet velocity
speed
type of pulp
air content of the pulp
The required positive suction head increases with increased:
inlet velocity
speed
pulp concentration
air content of the pulp
When warm pulp suspensions are being pumped, it is also
necessary t o take the risk of cavitation into consideration.
The pressure in the pump must not be below the vapour
pressure of the pulp at the prevailing liquid temperature.
Since the cavitation process for pulp suspensions is relatively
unknown, it is recommended for practical purposes to
regard pulp suspensions as water.
From Figure 15, the geodetic suction head in pumping pulp
is obtained according to the equation:
where :
hs = geodetic suction head in m liquid column
hfs =
friction losses on suction side in m liquid column
hre(] =
required positive suction head in the suction inlet
in m liquid column.
The starting resistance, Hst a, should also be checked.
The highest value of hs and Hfs should be used as the
positive suction head of the pump.
When pumping warm pulp suspensions with temperatures
above about 70' C, check that the geodetic positive suction
head hs above is sufficient, from the cavitation point of
view. The connection in equation (7) is used to check the
calculation.
Fig. 13. Pump chart with NPSH curvc.
Fig. 14. Calculation of NPSHav
Fig. 15, Calculation of positive suction head,
I PULP
\
PULP \
WATER
Fig. 16. Changes inhead and power curves when pumping pulp
PUMP CURVES IN PULP PUMPING
Pulp
The head curve and the power curve for water and for pulp
differ from each other to a greater or lesser extent depending
on the pulp concuitration and on the hydraulic design of
the pump. The hydraulic losses in the pulp are greater for
pulp than for water and increase with increasing concentra-
tion. This results in a reduction of the pump head curve.
The power requirement of the pump is also affected by the
pulp concentration, so that the power requirement becomes
greater with increasing concentration. The pump curves
change according t o Figure 16.
Figure 17 shows water and pulp curves for different pulp
concentrations. The head and power curves remain largely
unaltered for concentrations under about 3%.
Air i n pulp
The head and efficiency curves for the pump will be reduced
if the p ~ mp e d liquid contains air. Figure 18 shows how the
pump curves for water are reduced with different contents
of air, .4t a certain air content the pump ceases t o work.
Pulp suspensions have an ability to bind air (gases) easily.
This ability increases with an increasing pulp concentration.
The head curve will therefore be reduced bot h because of
the pulp concentration and because of air in the pulp.
Figure 19 shows the reduction (of the head curve when
pumping pulp containing air. The syst en~ curve for a pump
installation has been inserted irk the diagram, bot h for
water pumping and for pulp pumping. The point of inter-
section between the respective head curve and system curve
shows the resulting volumetric flows. The diagram also
shows how the volunietric flow is reduced when the pulp
contains air.
PULP PUMPS
When selecting a suitable type of' pump for pulr) pumping
the following i t en~s must be taken into consideration:
Mounting branch direction depending on -
p~11p concentration
air in thc pulp
Itnpeller design depending on
pulp concentrat ion
air in pulp
type of' pulp
Changes in the pump curve depending on -
air in t he pulp
pulp concentration
Figure 20 sliuws schematically a pump selection table for
different pulp concentrations in accordance with the
tecl~nical considerations as specified. In principle, the
table is valid for pulps which do not contain air.
Fig, 17, Head and power cumes for different pulp concentrations.
- 0%
- - - 1 70
* / - - 2%
a
Fig. 18, Head and efficiency curves for different cont ent s of air.
SYSTEM
0
0 WATER Q
0 PULP + AI R
Fig, 19; Reduct i on of volumetric flow with air in the pulp.
The pump selection table shows that for pulp concentrations
exceeding approximately 3%, horizontal mounting with an
axial inlet and with the outlet directed upwards should be
selected. The axial inlet is chosen in order t o ensure that
the pulp will enter the impeller in the easiest possible
manner. Outlet should be directed upwards in order t o
facilitate self-venting.
For pump concentrations exceeding approximately 3%, t he
pump must be fitted with an open impeller in order t o avoid
the risk of clogging. Also when lower concentrations are
pumped it is advisable t o choose a pump with an open
impeller if there is any reason t o suspect that the impeller
can become clogged.
Pulp with long fibres, knot s or bark and when t he air con-
tent is high should be pumped with a special pulp impeller
PULP CONC. %
APPROX. VALUES
MOUNTI NG
DIRECTION OF RRANCHES
developed for this purpose. This impeller has a special inlet
edge which prevents clogging and homogenises the pulp.
This homogenisation means that with a high air content
becomes easier t o pump. The slot at the back vanes is
specially designed t o counteract the clogging tendencies
between impeller and cover plate.
When selecting a suitable impeller i t should nevertheless be
borne in mind that a roomy, closed impeller can often deal
with the operating conditions involved just as well as an
open impeller when pumping moderate concentrations.
Horizontal mounting with the delivery outlet directed
upwards should be chosen if the pulp contains much air.
With regard t o changes in the pump curves, the pump
supplier should be consulted.
I MPELLER DESIGN
CLEANED UNS CREENED P ULP UNSCREENED P ULP
SCREENED PULP KNOT PULP KNOT PULP
WAS r E PULP WASTE PULP
SCREENED PULP S CRE E NE D P ULP
UNSCREENED PULP UNSCREENED PULP
Fig, 20, Pump selection for pulp pumping
Ash Handling Systems
INTRODUCTION
The increasing use of coal in fossil plants and the continued
concern for the ecological environment has created a need
for sophisticated ash handling equipment. Ash must be re-
moved from the boiIer and flue gas area and disposed of in
a way which meets with the E P A standards.
The cod and lignite which are used in the fossil units, vary
greatly in the amount of ash that they contain. The type of
fuel t o be burned may depend upon what is available in the
plant area. As soon as a source of coal i.s found, analyses
are made t o determine its chemical composition and heat
value properties. Two of the chemical components that are
determined are the sulphur and ash content. If the sulphur
content is low enough t o meet the E P A requirements for
SO2 stack emissions, an SO2 scrubber system will not be
required. Some of the recently designed units have been
able t o meet the requirements of stack emissions by dis-
persing them over a greater area, This is done primarily by
tall stacks up t o 300 m high. However, if the sulphur con-
tent is high, it is necessary t o install an SO2 scrubber system.
Once t he ash content of the coal has been determined, the
designer can determine the quantity of ash that must be
handled under various load conditions. A set of specifica-
tion will be written around the type of ash handling system
the utility desires. and the capacity required of i t , and then
issued for bid t o the ash system vendors. Once the successful
bidder has been chosen, the pumps required for the system
can be determined.
OPERATION OF ASH HANDLING SYSTEMS
Ash handling generally comprises bottom ash and fly ash
systems, Bottom ash is the ash collected in the furnace
bottom and the pulveriser mill rejects (pyrites). Fly ash is
collected in the economiser, air heater and precipitators. It
is important that this differentiation be made between the
two because they are different in their properties and as
such are handled separately.
Furnace bottom ash is collected i n a hopper beneath the
boiler furnace which is filled with water and is provided
with a grinder t o break up the larger pieces of ash (clinkers)
and an ejector for sluicing the ash and water mixture away.
Water supply for the furnace bot t om ash removal system is
provided by low and high pressure ash water pumps. Pulver-
iser mill rejects are collected at each mill in a small hopper
and, once each watch, is sluiced by means of an ejector t o
a larger transfer tank which serves all the pulverisers. Periodi-
cally, usually once each eight hour watch, the mill rejects
in the transfer tank will be sluiced away .Uusally the furnace
bottom is sluiced first followed by the transfer tank. Motive
power for the ejectors at the furnace bot t om, mill hoppers
and transfer tank is supplied by high pressure ash water
pumps. Pressure required at the ejectors will vary in each
unit because of the quantity and density of the ash and the
physical layout of the ash system. An average pressure,
however, would be about 2 MPa at the ejector.
The ash slurry being sluiced contains approximately 20-25 %
ash by volume. This slurry is sluiced to steel bins where the
mixture dewaters leaving the ash in the bin, and the decanted
water flows by gravity t o settling ponds. There in the pond,
any ash still in suspension in the water will drop t o the
bottom thus providing a relatively ash-free recycle water
for the feed t o t he high pressure and low pressure ash water
pumps. Ash in the bins is unloaded through a door in the
bottom t o trucks which carry i t away t o a disposal site.
An alternate arrangement utilises settling tank and surge
tank in lieu of the recycle ponds. Overflow from the de-
watering bins carries over into the settling tank and then
into the surge tank which provides the 'clean' suction
source for the high pressure and low pressure ash water
pumps. Sludge off the bottom of the tanks is then pumped
back into the dewatering bins.
The economiser and air heater ash is also handled with
bottom ash. At this point -the ash is actually fly ash and
would normally be part of the fly ash system. However, the
quantity of ash that will accumulate in the economiser and
air heater hoppers is small and, therefore, it is more economi-
cal t o treat it as part of the bottom ash system. Most fly
ash will harden v e q quickly if it gets wet and is allowed t o
dry. Therefore, in order t o keep moisure out of the hoppers,
the fly ash is drawn out by vacuum. A single ejector at the
end of the hoppers creates a vacuum in the line beneath
t hem, drawing the ash out and mixing it with the water at
the ejector which is then sluiced to the transfer tank. It
would then be sluiced away with t hr pyrites.
Most of the fly ash is collected in the precipitator hoppers.
The electrostatic precipitator is a large enclosure containing
electrically charged plates which is placed in the flue gas
stream t o collect the fly ash particles. Each precipitator
hopper section is equipped with a pressure lock feeder
system so that the dry fly ash can be removed sequentially
from each feeder by air pressure into a piping system which
conveys the ash t o concrete silos, Motive power for the fly
ash removal system is provided by low pressure blowers,
When the silo is full, a rotary unloader under the silo feeds
the ash into trucks or rail cars. In order t o prevent large
amounti of dust in transit, the ash is wetted slightly as it
passes through the rotary unloader. Some systems have a
separate pump for providing the spray t o the fly ash and it
takes suction from the same source as the high pressure and
low pressure ash pumps.
PUMPING REQUIREMENTS
The system described is called a closed system in that the
water used for sluicing is reused over and over. Because of
stringent environmental regulations, most new plants are
being designed with this type of system. Since they are new
in concept, very little operating experience has been develop-
ed and uncertainty remains as t o t he quality of t he recycle
water which is being pumped b> the high pressure and
low pressure ash water pumps and fly ash unloader pump.
If the dewatering bins and recycle pond do not properly
decant t he water. the ash in suspension can cause severe
abrasive wear. If the water is not treated, pH can cause
corrosive attack, and lack of proper blowdown can lead t o a
high chloride build-up resulting in an almost brackish water
situation. The importance of water quality cannot be
stressed enough. The procedures for requirements treating
decanting and blowdown of t he recycle water can be quite
dema3ding and the lack of sufficient attention or improper
handling of any one of t he above can cause an adverse water
situation.
These probl en~s are compounded by t he fact that t he heads
required are quite high and require either high speed
(3600 r l n~i n) pumps and/ or multi-stage pumps. Hori ~ont al l y
split multi-stage units do not have the capability t o flush
their interstage bushings and will, therefore, wear very
quickly causing thrust and radial bearing problems. It is
therefore desirable that pumps with t he following features
be selected:
High head capacity
Medium speed
Self-flushing of all bearings and bushes.
Although a wide range of equipment is supplied with an
ash handling system, t he pumps are generally not included
in the package and purchase of t he pumps is made either
by the engineer or the utility. It is therefore important that
the pump manufacturer be consulted in order that all
pumping requirements within the ash handling plant are
met .
Non-Newtonian Fluids - Flow Properties of Fluid Foods
The design of fluid systems is based t o a large extent on the
application of the Bernoulli equation and the Hagen-
Poiseuille relationship
f is a dimensionless number known as the Fanning friction
factor which i s a function of (Re). t he Reynolds number
(vDp/p.). and Len t he equivalent length which includes the
equivalent length of fittings in t he system. These methods
are well documented for Newtonian fluids and will not be
further considered here. However, many fluid foods (and
fluids encountered in other process industries) are not
Newtonian and require special or modified design equations.
VISCOSITY
There are a gre. number of other properties which are
important in t he design of equipment - specific heat ,
.thermal conductivity. surface tension. solubility. osn~ot i c
pressure, vapour pressure. heat of crystalization etc.However
for design problenls in fluid flow. the most important fluid
properties are density and viscosity.
It is unlikely that there is any liquid food product with a
density below 750 kg.m"3 and none with a density above
about 1 420 kg.m"3. This represents a total range of less
than 100% or a factor of 2.
In the event of t he properties of a particular substance not
being available, a calculated guess of the density is likely
t o be sufficiently accurate. However, t he figures quoted for
viscosity must be more precise as they can vary between
0.3 n1Pa.s for hot water t o 30 000 mPa.s and indeed much
higher for some syrups and fruit purees and spreads or
mayonnaises. Also t he variation with temperature over a
one hundred degree temperature range might be as high as
a factor of 10 or 100.
Furthermore. viscosity is not only temperature dependent
but it is also dependent on shear rate. Increase in the rate
of shear might have the effect of increasing or decreasing
the measured viscosity. Figures obtained can also vary. in
some cases with time.
Whereas. in t he case of density and other properties the
values can often be linked t o and evaluated from the corn-
position in t ei ms of t he niajor non-aqueous ingredient (fat
content in t he case of milk or percent soluble solids in the
case of fruit juice). this is not so in the case of viscosity
measurements. Take, for example, t he case of t omat o
puree or paste. Other properties can easily be linked t o
concentration with the danger of only a small error, The
viscosity measurement however. will be linked not only
t o the total soluble solids content but also t o the pectin
present. This, in t ur n. is a function of t he variety, the
ripeness of the fruit. the efficiency of the hot-break system.
etc. It is also a function of shear rate, possibly of time and
it will be highly affected by temperature.
RHEOLOGY
Rheology may be defined as the science devoted t o the study
of deformation and flow. Although much of Rheology has
t o do with the deformation of solids under stress. it is alsr
absolutely vital t o the study of fluid flow. as follows.
Stress strain relationships
There are three ways in which an ideal material may behave
under strain and these are:
Elastic
Plastic
Viscous
In other words t he three fundamental rheological parameters
are elasticity, plasticity, and viscosity. Food products do
not exhibit any of these parameters ideally very often and
t he concepts serve only as a basis for developn~ent of a
more complex theory.
The ideal elastic benaviour exists when the stress. T on a
body is directly proportional t o the strain. 7. This relation-
ship is known as Hooke's law the the constant is the modu-
lus of elasticity. or Young's modulus. Mathematically.
Hooke's law may be written:
This equation is only applicable when the body is under
tensile or compressive stress. However. t he same type of
relationship will apply when t he body is under shear stress
or hydrostatic pressure. The coefficients involved become
t he shear modulus and t he bulk modulus respectively. As
far as food products are concerned these are ideal situations
which are seldom, if ever, found.
The ideal plastic behaviour is best described by visualising
a block of a material on a flat surface. Application of a
force t o the block does not result in movement until a
certain yeild stress is attained. After reaching this yield
stress, flow or movement ot the material continues in-
definitely.
Unlike elastic or plastic behaviour. many liquids. and among
t hem. many fluid foods, can be described by ideal viscous
behaviour. This is illustrated in Figure 1 .
APEA A
FORCE F ---W
Fig. 1 Theoretical determination of shear rate and shear stress
Two plates of area, A, are separated by a distance z , filled r
with fluid. A force F is applied t o one of the plates t o
maintain a relative velocity, v between the plates. Then, if
the stress F/A = r and the velocity gradient between the
plates is ($ ), for an ideal viscous fluid.
The constant, p is the viscosity. (dv/dz) is the shear rate and
has the units reciprocal seconds. What the equation states
is that for ideal viscous fluids (Newtonian fluids), the shear
r
stress is proportional t o the shear rate and the proportional-
ity constant is known as the viscosity. It follows that for
any Newtonian fluid, viscosity is a constant and is indepen-
dent of shear rate. The - sign in equation (3) is conventional
and is often omitted.
NEWTONIAN
The value of the shear rate is something which causes a
lot of difficulty mainly because it cannot always be defined.
dz
However one situation in which we can define it is the case
of a fluid flowing under laminar conditions in a long,
straight, round tube. Here, the equation:
I
where vm is the mean fluid velocity
Dl LATANT
Thus, for a flow of 1 m/s through a 50 mm tube, the shear
rate should be 20 sec-1. Shear rates for turbulent flow con-
dv 1 dv
aT dz
ditions and in plate heat exchangers will be much higher.
The behaviour of Newtonian fluids is shown graphically in
PSEUDOPLASTIC
Figure 2.
Fig. 2 Fluid behaviour
As mentioned above, a large proportion of fluid foods are
non-Newtonian. That is to say, shear stress is not directly
proportional t o shear rate. Put another way, the viscosity
varies according t o the value of the shear rate and in some
A great many fluid foods fall into these two categories.
instances with time as well.
Where n<l , the fluid is pseudoplastic (shear thinning),
There are a number of different Rheological models that
when n > l the fluid behaviour is known as dilitant (shear
have been put forward t o describe the behaviour or non-
thickening), and when n=l the fluid is ~ ~ w t ~ ~ i ~ and k=p,
Newtonian fluids.
Apparent Viscosity
Bingham Plastic
In many cases we use the term apparent viscosity. The
The behaviour of this is one in which a finite yield stress apparent viscosity is the viscosity that would be exhibited
5 is required before viscous response is obtained. Once this
by a Newtonian fluid exhibiting the same resistance t o flow
has been obtained, the Bingharn plastic material behaves
at the chosen rate of flow (and at the same temperature).
like a Newtonian fluid.
(From here-on the symbol, p., will be used t o denote the
Mathematically, apparent viscostiy, which, of course is the same as the real
viscosity for a Newtonian fluid).
('1 The apparent viscosity for Pseudoplastic and dilitant fluids
is given by:
Pseudoplastic and dilitant fluids
These are described by the equation:
FLOW CURVE
t
in !y w 5
SHEAR RATE
VISCOSITY CURVE
SHEAR RATE
VISCOSITY T I ME CURVE
t
I
I
I
21 D - C ON S T ' D - 0 SAMPLE
SHEAR ' AT REST
RATE I
--
T I ME
Fig. 3 Diagrams illustrating thixotropy
In the case of pseudoplastic fluids (fruit purees are a good
example) the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing
rate of shear. These are also known as shear thinning types
In the case of dilitant fluids (for instance some starch sus-
pensions), the viscosity increases with increasing rate of
shear.
Power law fluids
Power law fluids obey the law:
These are also known as mixed types. In fact, this is the
general case for all which the models discussed so far
(Newtonian, Bingham Plastic, Pseudoplastic and Dilitant)
are special cases.
Time dependent models
Some fluids show a change in apparent viscosity with time,
whenever they are placed under shear. If the shear stress
increases with time, then the fluid is called Rheopectic. If
it decreases with time, which is more common, the fluid
is called Thixotropic.
The behaviour of a thixotropic fluid is shown in Figure 3.
A number of theories exist as t o the reasons for the rheo-
logical behaviour of non-Newtonian fluids. Most of these
theories are concerned with the alignment of the longer
chain molecules.
The effect of temperature
Viscosity is highly affected by temperature. A relationship
is given in the standard texts for assessing the effect of
temperature on the consistance coefficient. Expert opinion
is that for many products the consistancy coefficient varies
but the flow behaviour index is not greatly affected.
Viscosity of slurries
Empirical relationships have been proposed for the cal-
culation of the viscosity of slurries For instance:
where is the viscosity of the pure liquid,
and xC is the weight fraction of the solid.
MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY
More accurately, this might be termed the measurement of
Rheological Parameters. As has been shown, there is more
to the problem than the simple measurement of a property
termed viscosity.
There are, according to a manufacturer of viscometers,
three approaches to the problem of viscosity measurement.
1. The 'Pragmatic Approach'
This approach is to measure a reading on a dial and to use
this reading purely as a comparison with similar readings.
2. The Theoretical Approach'
Here, apparent viscosity is recorded under known conditions
of shear rate and this is used without complete definition.
3. The 'Academic Approach'
Precise parameters are established in terms of the power law.
If it is the purpose of the viscosity measurement to provide
information which can be put into theoretical equations,
then it is only the so-called 'academic approach' to viscosity
measurement which is of any use.
Types of instrument
There are several types of instrument which can be used for
the determination of Rheological Parameters:
1. Rotational Viscometers
(a) Coaxial cylinders
(b) Cone and plate
(c) Disc spindles
(d) Cylindrical spindles
(e) Tee spindles
2. Capilliary Viscometers
(a) Rheological dye
(b) Gravity
(c) Melt indexers
(d) Orifice
3. Falling ball
4. Flow in tubes
Rotational viscometers are the most commonly used in the
food industry and only these will be considered here.
Rotational Viscometers
Rotational viscometers consist of a rotating element and a
static element. In most cases, the speed of rotation is set
and the torque required t o move the rotating element is
measured. The rotating element is usually attached t o the
motor via the torque sensor. This is known as the 'Searle
System'. However, the alternative 'Couette System' where
the outer element is rotated while the torque is measured
on the now static inner element, is also possible.
For present purposes, it is more convenient t o consider the
Searle System. The rotational viscometer consists of a rota-
ting drive where the speed is accurately set. There is a
torque measuring device which gives a reading (either analog
or digital). If the geometry of the rotating element in
relation t o the container is suitably defined, then the absolute
Rheological parameters can be measured.
Narrow gap coaxial cylinders
This consists of a static outer cylinder with a rotating inner
cylinder. If rc is the radius of the outer cylinder and rb is
the radius of t he inner cylinder and if (re - rb) is less than
10% of rb, then a straight line velocity profile may be
assumed across the gap. In this case the shear rate (dv/dz) is
given by:
Fig. 4.
COAXI AL CYLI NDER SYSTEM
STATOR
ROTOR
TEST
SUBSTANCE
CONE AND PLATE SYSTEM
and the shear stress by 7- =
M
277, rb! .L where
Calculation of results for narrow gap and cone and plate
viscometers
M is the torque exerted by the viscometer
Variation of the rotor speed will give a range of shear rates
L is the length of t he cylinder
and different values of r , the shear stress.
v is the linear velocity of t he cylinder A plot of shear stress against shear rate will give a value of
the yield stress, if any.
Cone and plate viscometers Plotting log r against log dv/dz in the case of dilitant and
Here the rotating element is a cone which makes a very
pseudoplastic fluids will give a straight line of slope n and
small angle, a, with the flat static plate. Shear rate is defined:
intercept log k.
where N is the rotational speed of the cone and,
where M is the torque exerted on the cone and r is the
radius of the cone.
The advantage of this type of instrument is that only very
small samples are required.
dv
then log r = n log [&I + log k (10) If F k[ =]
Constants that apply t o a particular spindle are usually
given by t he manufacturer. The plot of equation (10) can
be drawn t o give n and log k or regression analysis can be
applied.
Disc Spindles and Single Cylinder Spindles
Here the geometry of the system does not easily lend itself
t o analysis. However, relationships do exist in special cases
and some of these are given in texts and handbooks of the
manufacturers of equipment.
It can be shown, for instance that for a single cylinder
spindle where the container is large -
FLOW OF NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Non-Newtonian fluids differ from Newtonian fluids only
insofar as the measurement and application of their Rheo-
logical properties are concerned. The apparent viscosity of
a non-Newtonian liquid is dependent on the shear rate. The
only term in the energy balance that is affected is the pres-
sure drop due t o friction.
In practice, the problem is not as difficult as it might be
because:
1. Most non-Newtonian fluid foods have high apparent
viscosities with the result that flows tend to remain
laminar.
2. It has been found that most non-Newtonian fluid foods
obey the power law. The bulk are pseudoplastic and
only a few are dilitant.
3. In the exceptional case of thixotropic fluid foods, mathe-
matical solutions are not readily available either with
regard t o the behaviour of the product or the resultant
flow systems. These must be treated on a case for case
basis or as power law fluids.
Laminar flow in round tubes
In this special case, there are two available methods:
1. Making use of the calculated shear rate
2. Making use of a modified or generalised Reynolds number.
Calculated Shear Rate
For laminar flow in circular channels, the shear rate is given
by Bv/D where v is the average fluid velocity.
This shear rate may be applied t o the equation
and assuming that bot h k and n are known, the apparent
viscosity,
Modified Reynolds Number
Several modified Reynolds numbers are quoted in the liter-
ature for use with Power Law fluids. For instance, for laminar
flow in tubes, the following may be drived from equations
(4) and (1 1).
(Re) =
Dn. v (2-n) p
k, 8
For more complex situations, other modified Reynolds
numbers have been derived and are given in the standard
texts.
Example
A fruit puree has t he following Rheological characteristic:
and its S.G. is 1,2, What is the pressure drop if it is flowing
through a 10 m long smooth tube of 100 mm diameter at
1, l m/s.
Answer
D", v p-"). p
(Re) =
k . ("-1)
This can be applied in the Hagan Poiseuille equation t o give
a value of AP = 701 13 Pa.
Turbulent flow
For smooth tube only, there are plots in the literature o f f ,
the friction factor against the modified Reynolds number.
These are not often needed.
Pressure drop through fittings
The factors used for Newtonian fluids for pressure drop
through valves and fittings do not strictly apply t o non-
Newtonian fluids. However, if better data is not available,
these provide the only resort.
can be calculated and applied in the Hagan-Poiseuille relation-
ship in exactly the same way as before.
SYMBOLS USED
area
diameter
Young's modulus
friction factor
acceleration due t o gravity
consistancy coefficient
length
equivalent length
torque
flow behaviour index
rotational speed
pressure
radius
Reynolds number
velocity
mean fluid velocity
mass fraction
height or distance
strain
viscosity or apparent viscosity
pure liquid viscosity
density
shear stress
yield stress
shear rate
m
2
m
Pa
dimensionless
m . s - ~
(Pas:)"
m
m
N.m
dimensionless
s-
Pa
m
dimensionless
m.s-I
m .s-I
dimensionless
m
dimensionless
Pa.s
Pa .s
kg.m-3
Pa
Pa
s-
REFERENCES
Information from the following texts was used in the com-
piling of this section.
CHARM, S.E. The Fundamentals of Food Engineering.
(AVI 1971).
HELDMAN, D.R. & SINGH, RP. Food Process Engineering.
(AVI 1981).
JACKSON, A.T. & LAMB, J. Calculations in Food and
Chemical Engineering. (Macmillan, 198 1).
McCABE, W.L. & SMITH, J.C. Unit operations of Chemical
Engineering. (McGraw-Hill, 1956).
Reference is also made t o, and diagrams taken from, the
sales literature of the manufacturers of BROOKFIELD and
HAAKE rotational viscometers.
Acknowledgement: Andrew Murray, Pr.Eng. BSc. (ChemXng.)
M.S.1.A.Ch.E (Andrew Murray is a consulting food process engineer
and part-time lecturer in the Department of Food Science at the
University of Pretoria.
Pumping Solid and semi-solid Food Products
The way in which foods and beverages can be transported
and processed largely depends on the nature of the
products. The author proposes three solutions for the
pumping of viscous and particulate foods.
1. For gentle action there is the screw impeller centrifugal
pump where water can be used as a carrier.
2. The peristaltic pump is ideal for higher viscosity
products.
3. For very viscous foods the twin piston pump provides
an effective solution.
Should the reader have any problems regarding the practical
applications of this article, the author may be contacted
direct :
Mr Andrew Murray Pr.Eng. B.Sc(Chem Eng.) M.S.1 .A.Ch.E.
P 0 Box 797, Fourways, 2055
Tel: (011) 705-2018
Introduction
There has been a trend in the food and beverage industries
over the last few decades towards pre-processed and con-
venience foods. Preparation which has traditionally been
handled manually by the housewife on a small scale i n the
kitchen. is now done on a large scale in a factory environ-
But a parallel trend has been t o the provision of a healthier
and more natural diet.
The food processor is required t o make his juices juicier, his
pulps pulpier and t o retain t he natural flavour and texture
of particulates such as peach pieces in syrup, mushrooms in
sauce and precooked meat products. Moreover, chemical
preservatives are now far less often acceptable.
A third trend is towards greater automation and less labour
in factories and food packing and processing plants are not
an exception in this regard. In fact, automated processing is
often a food industry requirement not from an economic
but rather a quality standpoint.
The way in which one can handle the transport and process
of food products, particularly solid and semi-solid foods is
largely dictated by t he nature of t he products.
Foods are subject t o microbiological spoilage and although
this can often be prevented by heat, many food products
are sensitive t o heat.
Any heat treatment that is used t o preserve them must
therefore be sufficiently gentle not t o damage the structure,
the flavour, or the nutritional properties of the product.
For instance, over-processing in retorting of fruits in syrup
can resultsin a 'cooked' taste and also a softening of the
ment.
texture.
39
It has been found that in many other cases (both for high
acid and low acid foods) that t he continuous pasteurisation
or sterilisation in a high-temperature-short-time (htst) type
operation is preferable t o t he traditional batch or in package
treatments from a quality point of view.
The additional spin-off of continuous as opposed t o batch
processing is that it involves less handling and therefore less
labour usage.
Food products are also easily damaged methanically. The
smallest bruise inflicted on an apple in the packhouse will
be a large blemish by the time the fruit reaches the con-
sumer.
Similarly, french fries, spaghetti and meat products can be
damaged or deformed by rough handling.
Furthermore, many foods are very sensitive t o shear forces.
Cream, for instance can be converted t o butter by sufficient
shear action, and similarly, t he viscous nature of many
sauces and mayonnaise products can be permanently re-
duced by incorrect application of shear, such as can occur
if the wrong type of pump is used, or if t oo many pump-
ing stages are employed in t he process.
With the increased requirement for continuous processing
and therefore pumping of foods, it has become necessary
t o develop new machinery for moving food products more
gently and t o adapt existing machines.
These work at the types of pressure that are encountered in
the continuous processing apparatus that is replacing many
of the batch heat treatment operations.
It is a further requirement in any food processing operation
that t he equipment should be constructed from compatible
materials and should be cleanable in situ.
This is the more so in modern continuous processing opera-
tions and the design engineers have had t o take special note
of it.
Bulk solids transport - screw impeller centrifugal pumps
One of the requirements in high speed continuous processing
is the movement of large tonnages of raw and semi-processed
material within the plant where water can be used as a
carrier.
Fish, fruit and vegetable processes typically might have
this requirement. It is usually an entirely transport operation
although in some cases some processing may occur en route.
Continuous slicing of potatoes maybe done by means of
knives mounted inside a pipeline. Cooling or heating by the
carrier medium might be envisaged.
Conventional hydraulic transport in flumes does have the
advantage over mechanical handling that it is gentle and
causes little mechanical damage. However, mechanical
conveyors must be brought in wherever i t is necessary t o
elevate the product.
This, and changes in direction can be achieved if the material
is pumped in a closed pipe rather than an open channel.
Fig. 1 The screw impeller centrifugal pump cut away to show the
impeller (Courtesy Hidrostal Pump Co.)
But the product must not be damaged as it passes through
t he pump.
A number of axial flow, recessed impeller and other centri-
fugal pumps have been used for this type of operation.
However, probably the most successful, because ofitsgentle
action, is t he screw impeller centrifugal pump
Essentially, this type of pump is similar t o a single vane
centrifugal ont o the front of which an Archimedian screw
has been added (Figure 1 .).
The result is a pump with very smooth product handling.
m e screw on the front of the impeller pulls the solids in
and propels them through the centrifugal section of the
pump. Solids as large as 150 mm and more can move
through without damage or clogging provided that there is
sufficient carrier fluid.
It is usual t o allow a ratio of six t o one carrier fluid (water)
t o product. The carrier fluid will be drained from the product
and recirculated by gravity or through another pump.
Screw impeller pumps of this type are essentially low head
machines but two or more units can be combined for higher
pressure operation.
Although t he screw impeller centrifugal pump was originally
developed for pumping live fish, the range of solids that can
be handled is wide and includes:
Shrimps and mussels
Seaweed
Apples (whole or sliced)
Spinach
Potatoes (whole, chipped or peel waste)
Soft fruits
Carrots (whole or cut), beans, peas
Chicken waste, including feathers.
The screw impeller gives the pump very good suction charac-
teristics and also permits handling products than can be
pumped by conventional centrifugals (about 800 mPa.s as
opposed t o 300).
This allows the pumping of some syrups, worts, and starch
suspensions at high capacities. This feature is useful, for
instance, in the high circulation rates required in forced
circulation evaporators.
' Peristaltic pumps
Higher viscosity products cannot usually be pumped by
centrifugals. It is therefore necessary t o make use of posi-
tive displacement pumps.
Most of the PD pumps used in the food industry arc
either lobe or eccentric screw (or progressive cavity)
pumps.
These have a very real place in the industry, particularly
the new generations of cleanable eccentric screw pumps.
but there is often a problem with difficult suction con-
ditions, with large solids which may be damaged with
abrasive materials such as kieselguhr and with shear sensi-
tive liquids such as cream.
Cleaning can also present a problem in some cases.
Under these conditions, peristaltic pumps (see Figure 2)
have come t o the fore over the last few years. The peri-
staltic pump consists of a flexible tube or hose element t o
which a squeeze action is imparted along a predetermined
length.
The pumped product is positively displaced by each squeeze
cycle, output being governed by the bore of the tube,
cycle frequency and the speed at which the tube recovers
its shape after occlusion.
The flexible hose is usually mounted inside a circular casing
and the squeeze action imparted by t wo or three rotating
rollers or fixed shoes.
Early peristaltic pumps were limited, through the hose
materials available, t o low pressure operations. Modern
elastomers allow pressures up t o 1500 Wa discharge t o
be reached in pumps with solid shoes and virtually no slip
t o occur. Acceptable hose life can now be achieved.
Because of the slow rotational speed of the pumps, there
is no shear damage t o the product. And because the squeeze
action touches only intermittently on the product and is
essentially bot h flexible and gentle, there is very little
damage to particulates.
Cleaning of the pumps is easy in that there is only the
smooth bore of the tube t o be considered.
However, sterilisation is difficult on presently available
pumps due t o temperature limitations on the elastomers
used for the hose construction.
A further problem is that there tends t o be pulsation in
the discharge pressure. This can, however, be minimised
by the use of special pulsation dampers.
PRESSING SHOE HOSE COMPRESSED
PRESSING SHOE FRONT COVER
Fig. 2 Cut away of a peristaltic pump
(Courtesy Bredel Machine en Constructicbcdrijf)
Typical modern applications for peristaltics include the
following:
Small whole shrimps
Feta cheese in brine
Strawberries (28 mm pieces) and pineapple pieces for
yoghurt manufacture.
Salads including asparagus, celery, chicken, ham mandarin
orange segments, mushrooms, pasta and walnut halves, etc
in a mayonnaise base.
Potato waste
Spent pulp and peel after dejuicing of guava or tomato
Kieselguhr
Accurate dosing of yeast or syrup (including crystals in
suspension).
Piston pumps for foods
Where peristaltics and other positive displacement pumps
depend on the liquid t o be pumped flowing easily enough
so that it will enter the pump suction, even more viscous
liquids can be pumped using special piston pumps.
Piston pumps provide, i n theory, a method of pumping
products with virtually no shear and against very high
pressures.
However, in a standard-type piston pump there is the
problem of pulsation and also the valve arrangement
prevents the pumping of highly viscous or particulate
foods.
These problems have been overcome by a manufacturer
who has adapted t he piston principle by making the whole
sleeve move away t o allow entry of the fluid.
B A B A
RI GHTSI DE -^ -<^- LEFTSI DE v *
STEP1 STEP 2 STEP 3
Fig. 3 Operation of a double piston food pump
(Courtesy Mailen Research Corp.)
The principle is illustrated in Figure 3. The unit is a con-
tinuous twin piston pump that alternates pumping from
one piston t o the other. As the left (B) piston is moving
forward, the right (A) piston and sleeve retract.
This makes a void, creating a strong suction that draws
the product into the pumping chamber ahead of the sleeve.
The right sleeve then moves forward t o trap the product
and seals against the outlet. The right piston then begins
its forward movement t o compress the product t o t he
same pressure as used for pumping (step 2).
chunks, cheese products with bits of bacon etc.
The list is almost endless.
The local situation
Only three of the solutions for the pumping of viscous and
particulate foods have been listed. There are obviously
many others.
Despite increasing costs of capital equipment one cannot
compromise on quality or inovation.
As the left piston nears the end of its pumping stroke the
product valve shifts t o open flow from the right side
(step 3). The left side can now retract and reload in the
same way as the right side did in step 1.
By synchronising the pistons, a continuous non-pulsating
flow can be produced and, as indicated above, very viscous
products can be pumped under conditions of minimal shear.
These pumps are driven hydraulically and this allows t he
operation t o stop without any product over pressure valve
being needed when there is any blockage in t he line.
Another development is the possibility of de-aeration
through the pistons.
Typically, this type of pump achieves flows of 8000 Q/h
and pressures of 2,s MPa depending on the application and
the model.
The following are typical uses for twin piston food pumps:
Diced or sliced fruit pieces in syrup up t o 80% drained mass..
Low acid foods for aseptic packaging - soups, stews,
pet foods.
Hamburger patties, sausage, frankfurters and delicate whole
muscle meats like ham.
Corn massa prior t o extrusion
Diced tomatoes
Acknowledgement: Andrew Murray, Pr.Eng. B.Sc. (Chem.Eng.)
M .S .I .A.Ch.E (Andrew Murray is a consulting food process engineer
Cookie dough with chocolate chips
and part-time lecturer in the Department of Food Science at the
In the cheese industry, fragile curds, hard t o pump cold University of Pretoria).
Spraying Systems
FUNCTIONS OF A NOZZLE
Though requirements of a nozzle differ from one application
t o another, the basic functions of nozzles are:
1 , To meter liquids.
2. To atomise or break up liquids into droplets.
3. To disperse these droplets in specified patterns.
4 . To provide hydraulic momentum or impact.
Energy is required t o separate a liquid into small droplets.
This is usually supplied as pressure energy from a pump.
Pressure as such will not break up a liquid unless it is first
converted into velocity energy by forcing the liquid through
restrictive nozzle passages. The resulting velocity energy is
then utilised t o disperse and atoniise the liquid.
NOZZLE FLOW RATE
Flow rate or capacity is basically determined by nozzle
design, prinicpally by the size of the metering passages.
However, flow is also affected by operating conditions, the
most important of which are listed below:
Pressure
Other factors remaining constant, increase in pressure causes
an increase in pressure causes an increase in flow. Theoret-
ically, flow rate is proportional t o the square root of pres-
sure. This relationship is approximately true for most
industrial nozzles.
Liquid Density
In theory, volun~etric flow through a nozzle varies inversely
with the square root of liquid density. Since it is usually
impossible t o vary density without changing other liquid
properties, this relationship must be interpreted cautiously.
Liquid capacity = Water capacity x Conversion factor (see
following table).
Conversion factor
Flow rate of aliquid = flow rate of water x conversion factor.
Flow rate of water x flow rate ofliquid + conversion factor.
For convenience the following table is given:
Specific Gravity 0,8 1,O 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8
Conversion Factor 1,12 1,O 0,92 0,84 0,79 0, 75
Liquid Viscosity
The effect of viscosity is complex. Under certain conditions,
a higher viscosity will increase flow rate; sometimes it has
the opposite effect. In cone spray nozzles, a moderate in-
crease in viscosity is likely t o increase flow,At higher viscosi-
ties and with other types of nozzles, flow rate usually
decreases with an increase in viscosity. The exact effect must
be determined experimentally for the specific nozzle design
and operating conditions involved.
SPRAY ANGLE AND PATTERN
The tabulation given in the spray coverage table gives
theoretical spray coverages, neglecting the effect of gravity
and outside influences such as gas flow past the discharge.
In actual spraying, the spray angle and resultant coverage
will vary with distance. Critical requirements should be
handled by correspondnece or discussion on the specific
application.
The spray angle tends t o be decreased by a liquid of greater
viscosity than water; increased by a liquid with lower surface
tension than water.
The operating variables that affect nozzle flow rate also
influence spray angle and pattern. These are explained
briefly as follows:
Pressure - A certain minimum pressure (usually at least
70-100 kPa) is necessary for a well developed spray.
Beyond this point, pressure has a relatively minor effect on
spray angle, particularly if measured close t o the nozzle
orifice. Above 1 300-2000 kPa cone sprays tend t o draw in
and become narrower because of induced air.
Liquid viscosity - Viscosity is the only liquid property that
has a significant effect on spray pattern. An increase in
viscosity generally produces a narrower pattern and smaller
spray angle. At very high viscosities, the spray may collapse
and approach a straight stream.
Spray Velocity
The theoretical velocity of a spray leaving the orifice of a
nozzle is proportioned t o the square root of the pressure
supplied at the nozzle. The velocity is also determined by
the design characteristics of the specific nozzle. Direct
stream nozzles have the highest discharge velocities; wide
angle nozzles the lowest. The impact force of a spray
depends upon flow and velocity - and hence depends on
supply pressure and nozzle design.
SPRAY ATOMISATION AND DROPLET SIZE
All t he variables mentioned thus far influence the degree of
atomisation; that is, the size of the droplets produced by a
nozzle. Most commercial atomisers do not spray droplets
of equal size. Liquid breakup is caused by the collapse of
unstable fluid sheets, jets, or ligaments, or by the tearing
action of air. These mechanisms produce tiny droplets of
1 or 2 micrometres as well as medium and large droplets
extending up t o several hundred micrometres. (There are
25 400 micrometres per inch.) This assortment of sizes may
be described by a mathematical equation or distribution
curve. It is also possible t o calculate mean and median
droplet diameters which are simpler t o use.
The drop sizes generated and their distribution are extremely
important for spray performance (efficiency and effective-
ness) in many applications. An understanding of drop size
data is especially important for critical applications such as
gas cooling, nuclear containment, control of hazardous
chemicals, gas scrubbing, spray ponds, dust control and
pollution control t o list a few.
Droplet size may vary within the pattern of a given spray.
In hollow cone sprays, for example, there is usually a
greater number of larger droplets at the outside of the
pattern. If other factors are equal, cone spray nozzlesusually
produce somewhat finer droplets than do flat-spray or
flooding nozzles. However air atomisation is generally
required for extremely fine droplets. Listed below are
general guidelines t o droplet size ranges.
Degree of
Atomisation
Drop Size Range
micrometres
Fog
Fine mist
Fine drizzle
Light rain
Thunderstorm rain
For further comparison the following are approximate
diameters:
Material Size range
micrometres
Talcum powder Up t o 10
Human hair 50-70
Table salt 70-100
Wire diameter of staple 500
Wire diameter of paper clip 100
Common pencil lead 1 800
DEFINITIONS
Droplet size is usually expressed by a mean of median
diameter, and there are several commonly used. Since an
understanding and correct usage of diameter terms are
essential, the following definitions are given for the most
frequently used mean and median diameters:
Arithmetic mean
The arithmetic mean is a simple weighted average based on
the diameters of all the individual droplets in the spray
sample.
Surface mean
The surface mean is t he diameter of a droplet whose surface
area, if multiplied by the total number of droplets, will
equal the total surface of all the particles in the spray sample.
Volume mean
Volume mean is the diameter of a droplet whose volume,
if multiplied by the number of droplets, will equal the total
volume of the sample.
Surface-length mean
Surface length mean, also correctly called 'surface diameter
mean', is the diameter of the droplet whose ratio of surface
area t o length (diameter) is equal to that of the entire
spray sample.
Volume-length mean
The volume length mean, also correctly called 'volume
diameter mean,' is the diameter of the droplet whose ratio
of volume t o length (diameter) is equal t o that of the
entire spray sample.
Sauter mean
The sauter mean, also correctly called 'volume-surface mean',
is the diameter of a droplet whose ratio of volume to
surface area is equal t o that of the entire spray sample.
Note:
The differences between the various mean and median
diameters suggest a convenient method of specifying the
'spread' of droplet sizes. Had the spray drops been of uniform
size, the mean and median diameters would have been
identical with the uniform size.
DROPLET SIZE DISTRIBUTION
The droplet size distribution is a most fundamental charac-
teristic. Droplet size distribution means the number of drop-
lets which occur within each of several specified size ranges.
The distribution may be expressed in many ways, but
droplet size data is most readily understood when represent-
ed graphically. Histograms, which are the incremental
frequency plot, may be constructed directly from droplet
size distribution data by plotting the relative frequency
diameter (band). Another convenient technique is t o plot
the data on a probability curve, which represents the
cumulative volume percentage of droplets smaller than a
particular diameter.
Mass (volume) median diameter
The mass (volume) median diameter is the diameter which
divides the mass (volume) of the spray into two halves.
This definition can be put in other words: one-half of the
total mass (volume) is made up of droplets with diameters
smaller than the mass (volume) median diameter, while
the other half is made up of droplets with diameters larger
than the mass (volume) median diameters.
Number median diameter
The number median diameter is the diameter which divides
the number of the droplets into two equal halves.
All the previous various mean and median diameters have
different numerical values which vary widely. Mass (volume)
median diameter is t he largest of all while number median
diameter is t he smallest. Sauter mean diameter can be esti-
mated at about 80-85% of the mass (volume) median
diameter.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
The energy efficiency of superior spiral and impingement
nozzles maximises spray system performance and efficiency.
Conventional whirl nozzles cannot mat ch this high efficiency
operation in demanding applications.
The energy efficiency benefits exhibited by these nozzles
can be expanded upon as follows:
1 . High discharge coefficients which equate t o higher flow
and lower losses for given supply pressures.
2. The generation of a population of required drop sizes
at approximately 50% of system supply pressures
required for conventional nozzles.
3. The generation of drop sizes 30% t o 50% smaller in
diameter for the same system supply pressures.
4. A reduction in wasted energy appearing as noise.
5. The production of effective patterns. Very wide patterns
allow replacing several nozzles with one.
Energy and performance benefits will be realised in the
following ways:
1. In new spray system design, the required drop size
population and pattern can be realised at lower flow
and/ or pressures. Reductions in flow and pressure direct-
ly reduce power and system size requirements. Thus
there will be lower investment in pumps and systems and
lower energy usage.
SPRAY COVERAGE (width of spray pattern - mm)
2. In existing spray systems, replacements with these nozzles
will boost system performance. Marginal spray systems
can be made effective performers.
3. Lower operating pressure results in reduced system wear.
This higher energy efficiency reflects through the entire
spray system with lower operating and system costs and
also be significantly reduced by application of nozzles
capable of operating at extremely low pressures.
SPIRAL DESIGN NOZZLES
These nozzles have proved t o be one of the greatest innova-
tions in the spray nozzle field. They have been developed
over t he years t o suit a vast range of applications.
No other design can match t he spiral nozzle for the hand-
ling of large liquid volumes with a physically small body.
The compact design results in significantly reduced cost per
litre of liquid sprayed. The progressively reduced spiral
impingement surface breaks up the sprayed liquid into
smaller droplets with a much ligher discharge velocity than
standard vortex nozzles. The large numbers of tiny droplets
greatly enhances scrubber efficiency because they will
agglomerate with finer pollutants. However, these tiny drop-
lets have a low inertial velocity which allows them t o be
swept up by the larger drops as the spray pattern develops
and disperses. Carry-over is minimised, and mist eliminator
loading does not become a problem.
The full-cone patterns are developed from a series of con-
centric hollow cones. Thus. in confined areas such as
ducts or process pipes, the passing gases must go through
several permeable sheets of liquid, with each sheet providing
extensive contact or transfer action.
- -
Spray
Angle
Degrees
15
-
25
30
40
45
50
60
65
70
73
75
80
90
100
120
130
140
-
150
160
-
170
- - - - - - -
DISTANCE FROM NOZZLE ORIFICE (mm)
50 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 700 800 1 000 1 250 1 500 1 750 2000
-
13 26 39 53 66 79 110 130 160 180 210 260 330 400 470 520
22 44 66 89 110 130 180 220 270 310 350 440 550 670 780 880
27 54 80 110 130 160 210 270 320 380 430 540 670 800 930 1080
36 73 110 150 180 220 290 360 440 510 580 730 910 1 090 1 270 1 460
41 83 120 170 210 250 330 410 500 580 660 830 1 030 1 240 1 450 1 660
4 7 93 140 190 230 280 370 470 560 650 750 930 1 160 1400 1630 1860
58 120 170 230 290 350 460 580 690 810 920 1 160 1 440 1 730 2 020 2 320
64 130 190 260 320 380 510 640 760 890 1 020 1 270 1 590 1 910 2 230 2 540
70 140 210 280 350 420 560 700 860 980 1 120 1400 1 750 2 100 2450 2800
74 150 220 300 370 440 590 740 890 1040 1 180 1480 1850 2220 2 590 2960
77 160 230 310 380 460 610 770 920 1 070 1 230 1 540 1 920 2 300 2 680 3 080
84 170 250 340 420 500 670 840 1010 1170 1340 1680 2100 2520 2940 3360
100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1 000 1 200 1 400 1 600 2 000 2 500 3 000 3 500 4 000
120 240 360 480 A 0 0 720 950 1 190 1 430 1 670 1 910 2 380 2 980 3 570 4 170 4 760
170 350 520 690 870 1 040 1 390 1 730 2 080 2 420 2 770 3 460 4 330 5 200 6 070 6 920
220 435 650 870 1090 1310>40 1965 2615
280 555 835 1 110 1 390 1 670 2 090 2 505
380 760 1135 1515 1890 2275 2845
575 1155 1727 2301 2870
1165 2330
The lack of internal parts admirably suits these nozzles to
applications requiring 100% emergency availability. Any
obstruction that would cause a spray pattern interruption i s
readily visible through the continuous opening. Infinite
variations of the spiral design are available, many from
stock, making i t one of the most versatile nozzle designs
available to industry.
SPRAY NOZZLE SELECTION
spray Pattern
Full and hollow cone
Full and hollow cone
Square full cone
Fan
- -
Homogeneous Fog
Rectangular
Straight jet
Cone and flat patterns,
Multiple fan
ypes
spiral
Impingement
- -
rectangular
Special purpose
i i gh energy efficiency
- .
-mer atomisation
Mon-clogging design
i i gh discharge velocity
Small physical size
complete line of full and
hollow cone patterns
Jniform distribution
Zoarse atomisation
relatively large free passage
2omplete line of flat for
sprays
Uniform distribution
Fine atomisation to high
impact coarse spray
High energy efficiency
Fine atomisation
No internal parts
Unique intersecting pattern
Operates at low pressure
Low coefficient of discharge
High impact
One-piece design
Laminar flow a t orifice
Max. power and range
Air atomising
Air and steam diffusers
Multiple fan sprays
Manifold mounting
Roof cooling
Rain simtilation
Tank washing
Acknowledgement: Spray Nozzle (Pty) Ltd
Sewage Handling
SEWAGE PUMPS AND PUMPING PLANT
The purpose of this is for t he conveyance from point of
accumulation t o place of treatment and/or disposal,
It is an essential requirement of sewage raising mechanisms
that they should pass on all the entrained or solid matter
t o t he next stage of treatment and/or disposal with the liquid.
This exerts a profound influence on their design. Firstly,
centrifugal solids handling pumps are practically restricted
t o single stage designs. Fortunately, however, these can be
made to suit most sewage pumping head requirements, but
where they cannot, separate units have t o be connected in
series, either adjacent in the same installation or in successive
stations along the line of flow.
The commonest approach t o capability of handling sewage
solids is t o design pumps which can pass 90 t o 100 mm
spheres representing the largest solid which can come down
the standard glazed earthenware domestic drain. With
applications for stormwater onl y, the solids passing require-
ment is arbitrary, but it is not unusual t o cater for this same
solids size. Reference is frequently made to the use of
screens at the entrances t o sewage and/or storm water pump-
ing stations, but there is a tendency today t o avoid these to
obviate the unpleasant task of cleaning t hem; in any event
their use should not be allowed t o detract much from the
solids size passing requirement, as it is possible for .colitis
of length greater than diameter to pass through screens.
This solids passing requirement imposes severe restrictions
on pump design as regards securing maximum efficiency,
particularly for small flows against high heads. The best
answer depends on many factors. One solution is t o increase
the pumping rate to the most economic figure (providing
the head is t hen within the pump capability) having regard
to the conjunction of pump and system characteristics.
However, this may entail larger drive equipment: moreover
rising main friction losses may be such that most economic
pumping rate obtains where pump efficiency is still low.
Some means of obtaining higher pump efficiencies at low
pumping rates is therefore desirable. These include:
Accepting lower t han 90 t o 11 mm solids passing cap-
ability.
Slow speed recprocating pumps.
Ejectors.
Reducing the size of solids by mechanism inside the
pump, so that the pump passages may be proportioned
t o secure best efficiencies at lower pumping rates without
impairing solids acceptance capability.
Separating t he solids from the liquid, enabling the latter
t o have the required head impressed by pumps free of
solids passing considerations and thus open t o design
for best efficiency on the specific dut y, then re-uniting
solids with liquid for delivery.
Of these alternatives -
1 . reintroduces t he undesirable need for screens.
2. usually means considerably higher cost.
3. can entail noise, nuisance, maintenance problems and
higher costs.
HANDLING OF SEWAGE AT TREATMENT WORKS
The essence of sewage treatment is t o separate the solids
from the liquid. The trend is, therefore, for the solids to
become more and more concentrated, and the liquid pro-
gressively more clarified, as treatment proceeds. This is
reflected in a divergence of the types of respective raising
mechanisms. On the liquid side there is progressively less
emphasis on solids passing requirement until at the final
effluent stage, standard clear liquid type pumps may some-
times be used. Alternatively, on the solids side the emphasis
on solids and thick suspension handling capability increases
to the point where extra size slow speed solids handling
centrifugal pumps, slow speed positive displacement pumps
and even purely mechanical material handling devices such
as chain and bucket elevators or scrapers have progressively
t o be considered, and the attendant extra costs and main-
tenance have t o be evaluated against any advantages of
higher solids concentration
PUMP CONSTRUCTION
Essential Components
For all pumps working on a mechanical principle the essen-
tial components are:
1. The working member, whereby the energy required for
movement is imparted to the fluid. In centrifugal pumps
the working member is the impeller.
2. The casing, which conveys the fluid t o the working
member, contains it while the working member acts on
i t , and collectsit from the working member for redelivery
3. The shaft, through which power is transmitted from the
source t o the working member for impartingto the fluid,
and the support system, whereby the shaft is carried and
maintained in correct relation to the casing. The shaft
and bearings may in practice belong t o the power unit.
4. The seal, isolating the pumped fluid from the external
environment at the point where the shaft emerges from
t he casing.
Details of sewage pump construction
Pumps vary in t he flow and head for which they require to
be designed. Naturally these, a i d required solids passing
capacity, govern their size and shape, and to also their
speed. The larger the flow and head, the larger the pump,
also in general the larger the ratio of flow t o head, the lower
the speed and t he larger the pump.
Pumps for small and medium output against moderate heads,
which accommodate the majority of sewage duties, fall
within the radial vane field. Solids passing considerations
dictate that impeller passages should be as large as possible
consistent with t he hydraulic design. This leads t omi ni mun~
number of blades and outlets, of approximately square
cross-section. In consequence, sewage pump head-volume
characteristics are usually inherently stable, though not
necessarily steep nor the power characteristic non-over-
loading. Impellers are usually of t he two-outlet channel or
t he t wo blade t ype, though a single-blade design is a pcc-
sibility. With increaing size a third blade may be introduced:
also, solids passing considerations exert diminshing restric-
tion on design, and highly stable head-volume and non-
overloading power characteristics become possible and
indeed usual.
Casings for radial flow pumps are of volute type with entry
along line of shaft and outlet in plane at right angles. At
t he other end of t he scale, axial flow pumps for largest
flows against low heads have bot h entry and discharge
along line of shaft and hence entail bowl t ype casings.
Between radial and axial flow is a wide intermediate range
in which flow direction from impeller is partly radial and
partly along line of shaft - mixed flow. Casing may be
either volute or bowl. Mixed flow impellers and bowl
casings usually involve more blades and therefore relatively
lower solids-size capacity.
Shafts and bearings must, as for all 'hydraulic transport'
pumps for liquids conveying solids, be of generous propor-
tions t o withstand t he shocks and stresses arising from solids
passage and t o provide exceptional stiffness for carrying
heavy sewage type impellers without support from seal
parts. Two adequately spaced heavy capacity bearings
and large diameter shafts with minimum impeller overhang
are essential.
The seal is t o stop either (1) liquid getting out or ( 2) air
getting in. For (I), soft packing which, under the force of
the gland moulds plastically t o a close fit in the stuffing
box and round t he shaft, may be sufficient, but for (2)
a pressure fluid barrier, is necessary. The function of the
packing then changes to containing the fluid barrier
rather than the pumped liquid. Such a barrier is also
essential in pump handling sewage liquors which are prone
t o contain abrasive grit, so as t o oppose travel of abrasive-
charged liquid between shaft and packing. The barrier
fluid may be either clear water or soft grease introduced
by way of a 'seal-cage' or 'lantern ring' distributor. The
barrier fluid pressure must exceed that from the pump.
However, sewage pumps and others handling liquids carrying
solids, the most essential factor in seal security is a well-
developed system of auxiliary vanes on .shroud outsides
t o oppose access of abrasive bearing liquid t o the seal.
The principle of t he mechanical seal is t o have stationary
and rotating faces in contact under pressure and lapped t o
mate so closely as t o prevent entry of liquid between t hem.
Normal respective face materials are carbon and i ~ardeucd
chrome steel. Clean water flooding of seal faces is usual
for fluid sealing against air entry, and for seal face cooling!
but certain designs and material combinations dispense
with clean water service.
Mechanical seals for sewage pumps
Mechanical seals have become standard equipment ofpumps
for many processes, chemical and industrial applications,
and can be expected t o extend ever more widely, both
as regards numbers, and variety of make and t ype, into
other fields.
One type which has already found wide acceptance in
sewage work is the 'Universal' seal. This is mounted
external t o t he stuffing box and has stationary and rotating
faces of tungsten carbide and Deva metal respectively,
self-adjusting as t o pressure between them through the
medium of, and in accordance with, the fluid pressure in
t he stuffing box. No clean fluid service is necessary, and the
rotating face ring can be split.
FULLY AUTOMATIC SOLIDS DIVERTER
This self-contained plant provides the solution t o problems
which frequently arise when small flows of unscreened
sewage and other waste matter have to be pumped into
existing gravity sewers or treatment plant.
It is designed for installation as a complete package, and
separation of solids matter within the tank permits
t he use of smaller standard pumpsets. Completely automatic
dut y and stand-by pumping is achieved with minimum
maintenance requirements. Inflows from 1,6 t o 9,s Q/s and
discharge rates from 7, s t o 21,2 C/s can be obtained.
. . .
TYPES OF PUMPS FOR SEWAGE HANDLING
Sewage pumps are available from manufacturers under the
name of 'fullway' or 'freeway' pumps and are capable of
handling unscreened sewage, paper stock, other liquids
containing solids in suspension, as well as stringy materials.
Consequently t hey are also used extensively throughout the
paper manufacturing industry.
Impellers are of the single inlet overhung type with large
passages t o pass solid matter. The 'fullway' pump has two
vanes giving a large single through passage, whilst the
'freeway' impeller, being generally of a larger size. incor-
porates three vanes. All impellers are rounded at the entry,
and smoot h throughout t o prevent rags and other stringy
materials from catching. Back vanes are normally incorpor-
ated in the impeller t o keep the stuffing box under a
slight suction pressure when turning, and thereby obviating
the danger of damage t o the packing due t o grit. Pumps are
supplied for mounting either horizontally or vertically.
These are specially designed t o handle the dual operations
of cutting and pumping simultaneously. They deal effectively
with faecal matter. rags, pieces of wood, bricks, and other
materials. The adjustable blade arrangement is shown in
Figure I .
The geographical location of the sewage treatment works
often necessitates that a part , and in some instances, the
whole of t he flow to be treated has to be pumped. The
sewage lift station provides means of lifting crude sewage
from low lying areas to the treatment works. In sewage
lift stations it is common practice to install unchokeable
t ype pumps. Hmidling the flow by this method can give rise
to failures caused by stringy matter wrapping round rotating
parts.
The installation of steieophagus or disintegrator pumps in
the sewage lift station positively eliminates this problem
and further, obviates t he need for screening of the incoming
flow since all solids which enter the pump suction are
disintegrated.
Where the total flow t o the treatment works is pumped,
application of stereophagus or disintegrators cancels the need
for mechanically raked screens or comminution at the
intake t o the works thereby effecting considerable saving in
capital expenditure and maintenance cost.
In rising mains, designed t o carry up t o six times dry
weather flow, there is a tendency for solids settlement t o
occur during dry weather flow conditions especially at
points where the contours of the mains change. The reduc-
tion in solids size effected by stereophagus and disintegrator
pumps ensures that settling out does not take place under
dry weather flow conditions since smaller particles produced
by stereophagus or disintegrator can be conveyed with
lower water velocities. By reducing the solids content to
small particles the digestion rate during treatment is accele-
rated, which in itself reduces civil engineering cost since
size of digestion plant may be reduced accordingly.
Mixed Flow Pumps
The mixed flow pump combines the ability t o produce
large flows of clean or turbid water with efficient handling
of liquids containing solid particles. The specially developed
hydraulic design produces very high efficiency figures up t o
89%, depending on size. This results in efficient performance
together with low running costs.
This pump is ideally suited for irrigation and drainage
schemes when coupled t o a low speed diesel engine. The
semi-open impeller design provides for the efficient handling
of liquids containing solid particles.
Fig. 1.
Acknowledgement: Howden Pumps
Pump Applications
Slurry pumping using centrifugal
Pumps 51 -56
Basic pump data 56.57
Slurry pumping using positive
displacement pumps 58.59
Diaphragm pumps for abrasive1
viscous liquids 60,61
Submersible pumps in mining
applications 62 - 65
Portable submersible pumps 66 - 68
Applications of progressing
cavity pumps 69.70
Leak-proof pumping 70.71
Fire pumps 72.73
Vacuum pumps 74 - 77
PistonIPlunger pump systems 78
For further information on pumps and
principles of pumping refer to our reference
books titled:
Pumps, Principles and Practice
Pumping and Processing
Slurry Pumping using Centrifugal Pumps
INTRODUCTION
Centrifugal slurry pumps play an important role in the
hydraulic transport of solids. They are used in a wide range
of applications from suction dredging, dewatering of open
cut mines, transportation of slurry in mineral processing
plants to the long distance high flow rate pumping of con-
centrate and tailings. The demand for centrifugal slurry
pumps in the mining industry is promoting a continuing
development of them t o increase their resistance t o abrasive
wear and reduce maintenance costs. Reliability, long life
and ease of maintenance are important factors in reducing
downtime which itself can cause costly loss of production.
Initial capital cost and initial hydraulic efficiency should be
secondary in importance t o sustained efficient performance
on slurries.
CENTRIFUGAL SLURRY PUMP DESIGN
As compared with clear fluid, the more important additional
requirements for handling slurries with centrifugal pumps
are summarised as follows -
1. Parts must be constructed from abrasion resistant
materials and such materials necessitate the use of special
methods of assembling and fastening.
2. Greater thickness of wearing parts is essential.
3. Larger passages are necessary t o avoid blockage,
4. Fine running clearances must be avoided.
5. Special design of shaft sealing is required.
5. Stronger shafts and bearings are required t o accommodate
heavier impellers and possible out-of-balance due t o
uneven wear. The greater width of slurry pump impellers
result in increased side loading from the asymmetrical
pressure distribution in the casing.
The general effect of larger passages and thicker vanes is
that slurry pump impellers have fewer vanes than would be
otherwise considered optimum. This, combined with the
greater wetted surface of the impeller and casing, results in
somewhat less head being developed at the same peripheral
speed and somewhat lower efficiency.
PUMP HEAD CONSTRUCTION
To meet economically the wide range of slurry pumping
requirements a number of alternative pump head construc-
tions is necessary. The t wo main types of pump head avail-
able are the lined casing type and the unlined hard metal
casing type.
Lined casing type head
This type of head comprises an outer casing split on the
vertical centreline. The outer casing supports various types
of abrasion resistant liners. (hard iron, rubber, or a combina-
tion of both). Mineral process plant pumps are usually
constructed in this manner. A typical slurry pump incorpora-
ting this type of head is shown i n Figure 1.
FITTED WITH RUBBER LINERS
AND GLAND SEAL.
Hard metal type pump casing.
Pumps constructed with a hard iron casing are usually lower
in initial cost than pumps fitted with renewable liners;
however the cost of replacement wear parts is higher. Pumps
required t o handle very coarse rough material are often made
with a hard iron casing. Dredge, gravel and mill discharge
pumps are an example of this type of construction. A
typical dredge pump incorporating a hard metal casing is
shown in Figure 2.
IDENTICAL PUMP HEAD FITTED WITH
INTERCHANGEABLE METAL LINERS
AND CENTRIFUGAL SEAL.
Fig. 1 Typical lined casing type slurry pump
IMPELLERS SUPPORT FRAME AND BEARING ASSEMBLY
Impellers of closed design are most commonly used in
slurry pumps as they are not as sensitive to loss of perfor-
mance when wear takes place in the clearance space between
the front shroud of the impeller and the casing liner, Wear
in this region can be compensated by axially adjusting the
running clearance between the impeller and casing on the
intake side. Periodic checking and resetting of the impeller
clearance ensures maximum wear life of parts. An easy
means of axially adjusting the bearing assembly is thus
required.
For rubber liners the front clearance should be slightly in
excess of the normal maximum particle size being pumped.
For metal liners the front clearance can be kept t o a mini-
mum.
Auxiliary side vanes should be provided on the front and
back shrouds of the impeller. These auxiliary vanes produce
a head of the same order as the head produced by the
pumping vanes of the impeller. The effect of the front
vanes is to tend to pump back any slurry entering the
clearance space between the front shroud and the casing.
The back vanes act in the same manner and tend t o reduce
the pressure at the shaft seal to approximately the same as
the pressure at the suction inlet of the pump. The amount
of abrasive solids entering the shaft seal area is thus minimis-
ed and excessive wear of the shaft seal is prevented.
SHAFT SEALING
The selection of the most suitable type of shaft sealing for
slurry pumping duties is important in minimising the
amount of maintenance required. The three main classifica-
tions of shaft sealing used are as follows -
1. Packed gland seal
2. Centrifugal seal
3. Mechanical seal
Each pump frame and bearing assembly has speed and torque
capacities which can suit a range of pump duties covered by
a number of different pump heads.
Consequently it is important to ensure that each frame can
be fitted interchangeably with a variety of pump head
assemblies. Suchsinterchangeability gives the user greater
flexibility, enabling him t o cover a wide range of pump
duties, or alterations of duty, with a minimum of frame sizes
and the least outlay in stores inventory of replacement
parts. As an example, a pump having a 75 mm diameter
discharge delivering 50 litres/second at 90 metres head can
be mounted on an identical frame and bearing assembly as
a pump having a 300 mm discharge delivering 400 litresl
second at 20 metres head.
The principle design features required for slurry pump bear-
ing assemblies are as follows -
1. The bearings and shaft should be contained in one co-
plete cartridge assembly which can be easily removed
from the pump. This allows quick interchange of bearing
assemblies t o be carried out and the worn bearings can
be replaced under clean workshop conditions rather than
in the plant. In this way downtime due to bearing failure
is reduced by keeping a spare bearing assembly in stock
for each size pump frame.
2. Because of the severe and varied conditions encountered
by slurry pumps, adequate precautions must be made to
prevent the ingress of dust or liquid into the bearing.
Eithei grease of oil lubrication of the bearings can be
used. Due t o the low operating speeds of slurry pumps
grease lubrication is quite adequate and has the advantage
of helping t o prevent foreign matter from entering the
bearings. Labyrinth seals are commonly used and can be
INTERCHANGEABLE
CENTRIFUGAL
SEAL
GLAND SEALED DREDGE PUMP
Fig.2 Typical hard metal casing type slurry pump
52
fitted with grease nipples so that under severe operating
conditions the grease helps to seal the bearing assembly.
This method of shaft sealing is illustrated in Figure 1.
Bearings should be heavy duty and of sufficient capacity
to provide a calculated bearing life of at least 30 000
hours under normal conditions of service. A rigid, large
diameter shaft is required to accommodate the heavy
impellers and possible out-of-balance due t o uneven wear
of the impeller.
On large size pumps the removal of the impeller can be
made much easier by having a split collar fitted on the
bearing side of the shaft sleeve. The collar should be so
designed as to facilitate easy removal whilst under the
high axial compressive load imparted by the impeller
tightening onto its thread. Thus when removal of a
worn impeller is necessary, the collar can be removed
and the axial load on the impeller threads reduced to
zero.
An easy means of axially adjusting the complete shaft
and bearing assembly must be provided t o allow the
adjustment of impeller clearance.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Many factors influence the selection of materials for wear-
ing parts of slurry pumps. Some of these include the size,
hardness and shape of the suspended solids, the corrosive-
ness and temperature of the liquid and the speed and power
consumption of the pump.
The materials most commonly used t o provide abrasion
resistance in slurry pumps are -
Elastomers
Natural rubber is the most widely used elastomer with
various synthetic rubbers and polyurethane being used to a
lesser extent.
Hard alloy cast irons
Hard alloy irons are used for slurry pump liners where con-
ditions are not suited to rubber such as with coarse or sharp
angular particles or on high head duties. They are relatively
cheap and resist abrasion by virtue of their hardness. The
most common alloys in use are the martensitic nickel-
chromium cast irons known as Ni-Hard and the high
chromium martensitic cast irons.
THE EFFECT OF SOLIDS CONCENTRATION ON
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP PERFORMANCE
Published pump performance curves for centrifugal slurry
pumps are normally for clear water only. When assessing the
pump requirements for slurry handling duties it is necessary
t o make certain allowaces. Solids in suspension adversely
affect both head developed and pump efficiency. Correction
in respect to specific gravity of the slurry to determine
power requirements is not sufficient.
PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS ON
SLURRY
The adverse effects on centrifugal pump performance caused
by solids in a slurry as compared with performance on
clear water are due principally to -
1. Slip between the fluid and the solid particles during
acceleration and deceleration of the slurry while entering
and leaving the impeller. This slip of solids and the con-
sequent energy loss is highest with particles of greatest
settling velocity.
2. Increased friction losses in the pump. These losses in-
crease with the density and bulk viscosity of the slurry.
PIPELINE TRANSPORT VELOCITY
The selection of pipe diameter is important in the design
of slurry pumping installations because this determines the
transport velocity of the slurry. Solid particles larger than
approximately 150 micrometres are transported in sus-
pension by a liquid in a pipe provided a certain minimum
slurry velocity is exceeded. This velocity is called the limiting
settling velocity and is denoted by V,. If the velocity is less
than VL, the tendency of the particles to settle under
gravitational force exceeds the turbulent forces tending to
maintain the particles in suspension. This will result in a
layer of stationary or sliding particles being deposited on
the bottom of the pipe and can lead to blockage of the
pipeline.
Particles finer than about 100 micrometres affect the carry-
ing liquid by altering its viscosity and consequently slurries
of finer particles require special consideration.
PIPELINE FRICTION LOSSES
Coarse slurries are known as heterogeneous slurries and
must be pumped at velocities exceeding the limiting settling
velocity to maintain turbulent flow conditions so that the
solids will remain in suspension.
Slurries of fine particles at high solids concentrations, such
as cement film feed slurry or clay slurry, are known as
homogeneous slurries and can be transported under laminar
flow conditions in short pipelines. The rheological proper-
ties of this type of slurry must be determined by test in
order to predict friction losses.
CENTRIFUGAL SLURRY PUMP INSTALLATION
REQUIREMENTS
When designing slurry pumping installations there are a
number of requirements which must be satisfied to ensure
satisfactory performance of the installation. The more
important requirements are as follows -
Power requirement
Sufficient power should be made available at the pump shaft
to perform the maximum duty when the wear parts of the
pump are at the point of economic discard. As the impeller
and liners wear, the efficiency of t he pump is reduced
resulting in an increase in the power demand. A margin of
at least 20% in excess of the calculated power demand for
an unworn pump should be allowed when selecting a drive
motor.
Speed requirements
The pump operating speed should be sufficient t o allow the
performance of the maximum duty required when t he
pumping parts are worn to the point of economic discard.
The head developed is reduced as t he pump wears and may
be depressed by up t o 15% when the impeller has reached
throw away conditions. The pump should be speeded t o
meet the required head when parts are worn.
Hard metal or rubber impellers cannot be reduced in diameter
t o meet specific duties and thus slurry pumps are rarely
direct coupled t o fixed speed motors. For duties up t o about
250 kW V-Belt drives are used and speed changes can be
achieved by selecting different pulley ratios.
On higher powered drives gear reducers can be used. Variable
speed drives can be used if variations in the pumping rate
are required or if static head or pipeline length varies such
as on tailings disposal duties. Speed variation can also be
beneficial in reducing power consumption and increasing
wear life as the pump can be run at a lower speed when new
and the speed increased as parts become worn.
Some of t he variable speed drives in use are direct current
motors, slip ring induction motors, squirrel cage induction
motors with frequency variation and variable speed couplings
such as fluid couplings and eddy-current couplings.
Pipework
Careful design of pipework is of great importance for slurry
installations. The following points should be noted -
1. Any pipeline fittings which cause hydraulic losses also
cause localised wear as wear is approximately propor-
tional t o the energy dissipated. Therefore bends should
be of as large a radius as possible and where valves are
necessary they should provide a full line-size opening.
2. For pipelines handling coarse slurries where the lower
portion of the pipe sustains greater wear, provision
should be made for rotating straight horizontal pipe
sections.
3. Pipework should be supported separately from the pump.
Flexible connections t o the pump flanges by short hose
sections or short pipes with rubber ring type joints
facilitate pump maintenance.
4. Where pipeline designs are such that slurry will remain in
the pipe during routine or emergency shutdown, provision
should be made for flushing or draining the line.
Pump intake system
A common gravity feed intake system for a centrifugal
pump is showns in Figure 3. The pump feed hopper is
sufficiently small that solids entering it will pass into the
01SCHARGE FLEXIBLE
PIPE
JOINT
I
WERFLOV.' PIPE
Fig. 3 Typical pump-hopper arrangement
pump intake without settlement occuring. The inflowing
feed provides sufficient agitation t o keep solids in suspension.
The hopper bottom and t he pump intake pipe slope down-
wards towards the pump so that any air entrained with the
feed may escape t o atmosphere upwardly along the t op of
the pipe. A minimum slope of 30i recommended.
The intake pipe should be as short as possible and incor-
porate a flexible pipe coupling and a drain plug. The space
between the pump inlet flange and the hopper must be
sufficient t o allow the removal of the pump cover plate.
If a pump is t o be fed from a large storage tank either
mechanical agitation should be provided to maintain solids
in suspension or provision should be made to agitate settled
solids in the vicinity of the suction pipe inlet with a high
pressure jet.
The amount of intake head at the pump determines t he
type of shaft seal that can be used. If the intake head at the
pump is less than about 15% of t he pump discharge head
then a centrifugal seal can be used and gland flushing water
is not required. For greater intake heads, centrifugal sealing
may still be used if assisted by a differential impeller which
has the diameter of the main pumping vanes reduced while
maintaining the diameter of the back sealing vanes the same
as a standard impeller. The differential impeller must run
at a faster speed in order t o develop the required discharge
head and consequently the higher speed increases the sealing
effect of the expeller and back vanes.
In cases where a centrifugal seal cannot be used such as for
high positive intake heads or high suction lifts, a gland seal
must be used and supplied with clean sealing water under
pressure.
A limiting factor on the suction performance of a centrifugal
pump is the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) required
at the pump intake, t o avoid cavitation.
Series operation of centrifugal pumps
The pumping of tailings or some concentrates is usually one
of t he major operations in any mineral treatment plant.
Because i t is often necessary t o transport tailings over con-
siderable distances, the heads required for pumping are
often higher than for ot her operations in a treatment plant.
By arranging centrifugal pumps in series, it is possible t o
obtain pump discharge pressure of 5000 Wa. Pressures
up t o 7000 kPa are t o be provided by centrifugal pumps
currently under development.
Where large flow rates are t o be handled series operation
will often provide a more economical installation than
positive displacement pumps,
An installation of centrifugal pumps in series may consist of
several pumps, close coupled in one pumping station or
single pumps spaced at intervals along a pipeline.
Advantages of arranging pumps collectively in one station
include -
1. Simplicity and convenience of control, inspection and
operation.
2. Grouping of electrical controls and instrumentation in
one centre.
3. General maintenance and spare parts handling is sim-
plified.
The main objections t o t he grouping of t he pumps are
associated with the higher pressure t o be contained and its
effects on pipelines, glands, bearings and pump casings.
If steel pipelines are being used, pipeline pressure is not an
important consideration unless special conditions apply.
If pumps are spaced at intervals along a pipeline, pressures
are reduced which allows t he uses of cheaper pipeline
materials such as polythene or asbestos cement. Lower
pump intake pressures also allow t he possible use of centri-
fugal sealing thus avoiding the necessity for gland sealing
water.
For close coupled multi-pump systems, a reliable supply of
gland sealing water t o each pump is required. Each pump in
the series requires sealing water at a different pressure. One
method of supplying the sealing water is t o use a single
gland sealing water supply pump feeding into a manifold. A
connection is t hen made from t he manifold t o each pump
gland incorporating a restriction t o dissipate t he excess
pressure not required by t he lower pressure pumps. Lengths
of small-bore tubing can be used t o produce t he pressure
reduction.
Special care must be given t o t he layout of pumps and pipe-
work in multi-pump installations. Pumps should be arranged
with the discharge of one pump feeding as directly as
practicable into the intake of the next pump. Thrust loads
on pipework between stages can be quite large and special
pipe connections designed t o reduce t he amount of load
transmitted can be used. Usually, at least one pump is fitted
with a variable speed drive t o provide control of the pump-
ing rate.
EXAMPLES OF MULTISTAGE PUMP INSTALLATIONS
High pressure duties have in the past been t he exclusive
domain of positive displacement pumps. However, with
plants processing materials at higher rates, the use of centri-
fugal pumps arranged i n series has become more attractive
for high flow rates.
PUMP TESTING
With t he increasing demand for hydraulic transportation of
solids and t he subsequent awareness of t he technological
feasibility of centrifugal pumps t o perform such duties,
i t is important, if not essential, for pump manufacturers t o
have in-house water testing facilities as a means of substan-
tiating t he wide range of pumping performances called for.
The availability of such testing facilities for development
work, sales promotion and customer satisfaction should not
be underestimated. It follows that t he facility must comply
with appropriate standards.
SLURRY PUMPING FORMULAE
Specific gravity of slurry
Sm = SL + Cv (S - SL)
roo"
s m = SL
1 - cw (S- SL)
-.-
100 s
Solids concentration
Cv = (Sm - SL) x 100
(S - SL)
Slurry Flowrate
Q = M x 1000
3,6 x C
Average velocity of flow
Pump input power
P = Q x H m x S m
102 x em
(k W)
(when HR = ER)
For nomenclature see following page.
Nomenclature
Solids Concentration (grams per litre)
Concentration of solids in mixture by true volume (%)
Concentration of solids in mixture by weight (percent)
Pipe inside diameter (metres)
Pipe inside diameter (mm)
Average particle size (sieve size that retains 50% by
weight of solids) (mm)
Efficiency Ratio = eml er
Efficiency of pump when pumping slurry (decimal)
Efficiency of pump when pumping water (decimal)
Limiting settling velocity factor
Gravitational acceleration (metres per second2)
Total head developed by pump (metres)
Friction head loss (metres of mixture)
Pump total head of slurry (metres)
Pump total head of water (metres)
Head Ratio = Hm/Hw
Mass of solids pumped (tons per hour)
Volumetric - Flowrate (litres per second)
Specific gravity of solids
Specific gravity of liquid or transporting medium
Specific gravity of mixture
V Average velocity of flow through pipeline (m/s)
VL Limiting settling velocity (metres per second)
Z Static Head (metres)
REFERENCES
1. Cave, I .
Effects of suspended solids on the performance of centrifugal
pumps. Proceedings Hydrotransport 4, Organised by BHRA
Fluid Engineering (1976).
2. Wasp, E.J., Kenny, J.P. and Chandi, R.L.
Solid-Liquid Flow Slurry Pipeline Transportation. Trans
Tech Publications (1977).
3. Dur and, R.
The Hydraulic Transportation of Coal and ot her materials
in pipes. Colloq. of National Coal Board, London (1952).
4. McElvain, R.E. and Cave, I.
Tailings Transportation. World Mining Tailings Symposium,
November 2, 1972.
5. Pumps - Principles and Practice
Published in collaboration with the South African Pump
Manufacturers Association by K. Myles and Associates.
Acknowledgement: Warni an (Afri ca) (Pt y) Lt d.
Basic Pump Data
PUMP SELECTION
Engineers, technicians salesmen working with pumping
equipment are familiar with those factors which must be
considered in standard installations involving clear water at
normal temperatures. There are however, many installations
of uncommon nature presenting new ptoblems which require
far more detailed consideration. These should be referred t o
pump manufacturers and specialists.
Through careful planning and selection of t he pump and
t he installation, better economy can be achieved through
longer, more efficient and trouble free service.
The following factors must be taken i nt o consideration
when selecting a pump.
a. The liquid
If not clear water, t hen define and consider:
liquid t ype
specific gravity
viscosity
temperature
solids content
The installation
Consider:
the liquid supply and availability
t he required pumping capacity
t he total dynamic head
t he suction conditions
t he prime mover and t ype of drive
Other factors
type of shaft seal or packed gland
pump materials of construction
pump rotational speed
available net positive suction head
required net positive suction head
connecting pipe sizes
pipeline anchors and flexible connections
pipeline valves
electric power supply and limitations
testing of pumps
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP PERFORMANCE CHARACTER-
ISTIC RELATIONSHIPS
The head-volun~e performance curve of a pump for a differ-
ent speed, may be determined from a given speed
ance, by applying the following relationships.
If output Q, head H power absorbed P, are known for
given speed R, then q, h, p, corresponding to a new speed r ,
may be calculated from the following equations;
Qr
= !! therefore, q = - -
q r R
H _ R2 H r2
- - - therefore, h = -
h r2 R2
P r3
1 = therefore, p = -
P r3 R3
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH)
Text book definitions whilst strictly correct, can often be
confusing and difficult t o assimilate.
A typical definition of this type is:
'the suction head (gauge pressure at the suction flange,
corrected to the pump centre line, plus velocity head),
minus the gauge vapour pressure of the liquid at pumping
temperature'.
There are two values of NPSH that must be considered:
1. The NPSH that is available at site, and
2. the NPSH that is required by the pump if it is t o operate
in accordance with its performance curves.
TESTING OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
There are published international Standardsproviding details
of test requirements for three classes of tests, A, B and C.
Class A testing is the most accurate and class C the least
accurate, Class A and B tests are restricted to special
precise, individual pump tests, and class C t o mass-produced
stock type pumps.
Class A and B tests require more accurate methods and test-
ing apparatus, and these do increase the costs of testing.
All these tests apply t o works test-bed methods for testing
a pump individually without reference t o the final installa-
tion conditions.
International standards do, in addition, make recommenda-
tions concerning the procedures t o be adopted at site tests.
The two main international standards with permissible test
tolerances are as follows:-
1 BSS 599 : 1966 A B C
Rate of flow
Pressure head
1
Available NPSH
If a centrifugal pump suction is connected via a pipeline to
liquid supply, flow into the pump is caused by -
Speed
Torque
(a) creation of low pressure within the pump by the action
of the impeller.
(b) atmospheric pressure on the liquid surface.
(c) the static position of the liquid in relation t o the pump
(this may be positive or negative).
At the same time, retriction of flow is caused by -
(a) friction loss in the pipeline.
(b) vapourisation of the liquid at low pressure (breaking of
the liquid column).
Hence, the available NPSH at a particular site is :
atmospheric pressure at site, plus (or minus) the vertical
height of the liquid surface above (or below) the pump
centre line (horizontal pumps), or pump impeller bottom
(vertical pumps), minus friction loss in the suction pipeline,
minus the vapour pressure of the liquidunder site conditions
of altitude and temperature.
The net result is a total pressure head which is available at
site to force the liquid through the suction line into the pump
when low pressure is created within the pump suction.
20, 5% 1, 5 3, 0
Required NPSH
This is a design characteristic of the pump and represents
the lowest value of NPSH on which the particular pump
will operate without loss of performance.
Electric power input,
Overall efficiency
(computed) 0,7% 2,0% 4, 0
Pump efficiency 0,8% 2,3%, 4,5
2 I S0 2548 : 1973 (E)
Tolerances against published curves, mass produced pumps,
class C tests
Total head 6%
Rate of flow 8%
Power input 8%
Slurry Pumping using Positive Displacement Pumps
INTRODUCTION
A umque system of pumpmg slurry has been developed
which, in many ways, is far superior t o systems employing
high pressure centrifugal pumps. The pump arrangement
(Figure 1) provides a pressure range from 1 t o 35 MPa with
flows from 1,s t o 1000 m3 / h on standard models. It is
capable of pumping slurries of up t o 80% solids by mass.
with specific gravities of 2.6 and particle sizes up t o 3 mm.
Highly viscous slurries can also be handled from 500 to
1 000 000 centistokes, and abrasive levels of slurries can
range up t o Miller 250.
Delivery pressures are infinitely variable from zero t o full
working pressure, and delivery capacities are variable
between 20 and 100% of designated flow volume.
COMPONENTS
The basic components of the pump consist of the outlet
and inlet check-valve block, the pressure vessels with dia-
phragms. t he stroke-control cylinder, hydraulic oil reservoirs
motor and pump. a hydraulic transfer valve, oil cooler. oil
filter, safety -relief valves. and the control panel.
Assembly
The basic components when assembled can be divided into
t wo parts; the hydraulic portion of the system, and the
product portion of the system. The product portion of the
system can be further divided into t wo identical pumping
systems which alternate.
Moving parts
The number of moving parts are few, and only two of t hem,
the balls in the valves and the diaphragms, contact the
product. The balance of moving parts, i.e. the control
cylinder. the hydraulic pump and hydraulic valves are com-
pletely isolated from the product.
PRESSURE
VESSEL
FLEXI BLE
CYLINDER
OIL
SLURRY
Fig. 1 Slurry Pump capable of 10 m3/h at 20 000 kPa
OPERATION
The pumping action of the high pressure pump is as follows:
The slurry enters into the inlet check-valve and flows into
one set of pressure vessels. Oil from the hydraulic pump is
diverted t o one side of the control cylinder which in turn
fills the diaphragms with oil under pressure. As the dia-
phragms fill, they displace the slurry around t hem, which
flows through the discharge check-valve and hence into the
line. Simultaneously, slurry is being drawn into the opposite
set of vessels. When the pistons in the control cylinder
reach the end of their stroke, the transfer valve diverts oil
t o the other side of the control cylinder and the cycle is
repeated. As one set of pressure vessels are filling, the
other set is discharging.
These diaphragm pumps are designed in such a way that it
is virtually impossible t o over pressurise the pumping com-
ponents. This is accomplished by installation of safety
relief valves in the high pressure hydraulic system, The safety
valves operate on clean hydraulic oil for optimum reliability.
CHECK VALVES
The valve system is contained within a rugged sealed block.
The block is of modular design and contains ball-valve
cartridges of stainless steel which are installed in series,
quantity and size dependant on the specific application.
The valves are designed t o operate at the very low rate of
10 cycles per minute, which reduces volumetric inefficiencies
t o a negligible amount and the ball itself has the advantage
over the other types of valve of offering infinite seat-to-ball
contact combinations as the ball rotates. This results in
long valve life, and experience has shown that 2 000 to
8 000 hours between maintenance checks is not uncommon.
The valves are pressure-operated so the greater the working
pressure t he better the seal.
The balls are initially installed greatly oversized t o allow
for optimum wear and long life (see Figure 3).
Fig 3
CYCLE RATE
The very low cycle rate of 10 cyclesper minute is maintained
t o assure a long operating life of all components and in
particular the two components in contact with the product
i.e. the valves and t he diaphragms. At this low rate the
diaphragms are extremely durable and in most applications
will last over a year of continuous use.
STROKE CONTROL CYLINDER
The functions of t he stroke control cylinder is t o maintain
the cycle rate at a constant rhythm and t o fill the dia-
phragms with high-pressure oil. The cylinder meters the
exact amount of oil required into each diaphragm and can
never over-extend the diaphragms even if the pressure
vessels are empt y. The cylinder also functions as a barrier
between the oil and t he product, thus ensuring that the
hydraulic units are kept contamination free.
PRESSURE VESSELS
The pressure vessels are manufactured t o BS5500 category 2
1982, of the British Standards Institute code for unfired
vessels. The vessels are of modular design and may be fitted
in any desired quantity and in a number of configurations
depending on the application.
FEED SYSTEM
The unique design of the stroke control cylinder is such
that whilst it is pressurising one set of diaphragms it is
simultaneously sucking oil from the opposite set of dia-
phragms, thus creating a suction lift within the pressure
vessels which assists in drawing the product in.
When the product is of a high viscous nature the assistance
of a charge pump is necessary to pressurise the feed system.
The feed unit is usually selected from one of the following
types:
1. Positive displacement pump
2. Peristaltic (tube) pump
3. Centrifugal pump
4. Screw auger
Charge pressure requirements can vary depending on the
product pumped, but from experience a charge pressure
between 5-200 kPa is suitable for most applications.
APPLICATIONS
High pressure dirty water pumping
Backfilling
Pressure leaching
Shaft pumping
Sewage pumping
Slurry pumping
Fly ash pumping
High pressure stope washing
Hy dro-hoisting
Mud pumping (oil rigs)
Paper mill sludge
Fire clay
Slip and glaze
Coal slurries
Industrial wastes
Acknowledgement; Hi-Vac (Pty) Ltd
Diaphragm Pumps for Abrasive/Viscous Liquids
Abrasive and viscous fluids present handling problems
particularly when centrifugal or piston pumps are employ-
ed. The use of air operated diaphragm pumps eliminates
most of these problems. and they are therefore preferred
in industries wliere 'difficult' fluids are handled.
Principle of operation
Two flexible diaphragms connected by a common shaft
move sin~ultaneously in a parallel path. Diaphragm move-
ment is powered by con~pressed air directed behind one
diaphragm while air is exhausted behind the ot her. On com-
pletion of the st roke, an air valve automatically transfers
the air flow t o the diaphragm on the other side of the
chamber while the air in the first chamber is exhausted.
This continuous reciprocating motion creates an alternative
suction and discharge of the liquid in eachchan~ber. Suction
anddischarge flaps or valves control t he flow of liquid from
intake through the chambers. and out of the discharge
port. There are no moving ports other than those previously
mentioned.
Advantages of diaphragm pumps
Discharge porting can be easily connected t o any arrange-
ment t o best suit t he pumping applications, as no porting
arrangement is best for all pumping applications. Top dis-
charge is best for highly viscous materials and for low
rate-of-flow application t o prevent the possibility of
trapped vapours in pumping chambers. Bottom discharge
is best for suspended solids which tend to settle out .
Side discharge offers an excellent compromise.
Diaphragm valves are available with ball valves or flap valves
and diaphragms made from Neoprene. EPDM, Buna-N,
Viton, Rupplon. Teflon, or elastomers approved for
food industries. They are available with wetted metal ports
in 380 die-cast aluminium 355-76 aluminium. cast iron,
316 stainless steel and Hastelloy alloy C. An infinitely
variable pressure (head) range is available which provides
more versatility, model or model, than any other type of
pump. As they are air powered, no electric motors or costly
control equipment is needed and motors need no longer be
sized with impellers for specific applications.
With regard t o mechanical components, no close-fit rotors,
impellers, pistons, gears, vanes, mechanical seals, packing
glands or rotating ports are needed and consequently there
is no wear-related loss of performance as occurs in those
pumps which embody these components.
As there are no mechanical parts in contact with the liquid
being pumped, diaphragm pumps can pump abrasive and
other problem materials. With less mechanical parts, lower
parts-replacement costs are incorred and repairs are quick
and simple.
Infinitely variable flow control varies from a few grams a
minute t o over 1000 litres a minute simply by increasing
or decreasing the air supply or by opening or closing a
valve on the discharge. To match the operating range of a
single 75 mm diaphragm pump, some 15 different models
of centrifugal pumps or around 13 positive displacement
pumps would be required. The air used is in direct propor-
t i on t o actual pumping performance, The less work required,
t he less energy expended.
Diaphragm pumps can run indefinitely with no damage, and
even with air supply wide open and discharge closed, can
sit for any length of time without damage, no energy
consumed, no heat build-up, no movement and therefore
no wear.
Fluid flow is achieved immediately when air supply and
discharge are opened. No expensive by-pass installations or
pressure-relief devices are needed. The pumps are self-
priming, can operate fully submerged, and are portable
unless required. There are no drive couplings t o align on
installation.
Diaphragm pumps are safe in explosive environments
including underground mines. They are free from electrical
hazards and can even handle radioactive wastes with
appropriate safeguards, provide pollution-free operation
with no exhaust fumes and even improve air environmnet in
confined areas.
AI R
Dl $ l HI HI I TI O! ~
VALVE
SFAINLESS STEEL
VALVE SEATS
FLAP TYPE
CHECK V/i!.Vl:S
DI APHRAGM
DI APi i RAGM
CONNECTI NG
. HAF
BOTTOM
DI SCHARGE
LEFT SIDE DISCHARGE. RI GHT SIDE I NTAKE RI GHT SIDE DISCHARGE, LEFT SIDE INTAKE
Pumping operation is gentle, an important factor when
handling shear-sensitive liquids such as foods and latexes.
Types of diaphragm pumps
Although operating principles are virtually identical, pumps
are available in flap-valve, ball valve and combined ball/
diaphragm arrangements - each specifically designed t o
best solve varying pumping problems:
Flap valves (Figure 1) - encourage passage of near pipe-
sized solids and handle a broad range of viscous fluids.
Ball-valves - which alternatively seal and unseal themselves
on intake and discharge strokes - are contained within,
but are not mechanically attached to,stainless steel seats.
Ball-valves maintain the best long-term suction lift capabili-
ties while handling a broad range of viscous substances with
limited solids-handling capacity,
Combination ball/diaphragm pumps feature chemicals-
resistant Teflon ball-valves as well as Teflon pumping
diaphragms so as to provide across-the-board pumping
capabilities for almost every known solvent, acid, alkali and
other chemical substances which attack conventional
elastomer diaphragms and valves. In these virtually
impervious pumps, 'standard' diaphragms become driver
diaphragms and larger-diameter Teflon diaphragms become
pumping diaphragms. Sandwiched in between the two is a
cell of water, anti-freeze or other appropriate liquid com-
patible with the substance being pumped. Pumping action
provided by the driver diaphragms is transferred through
the liquid cells to the Teflon pumping diaphragms which, in
turn, move less than one fourth the stroke length of the
driver diaphragm. Thus, the limited flexing ability of Teflon
is overcome.
Also available are two pumps in one. Instead of the two
pumping chambers being manifolded together, each chamber
has its own inlet and outlet connection. Each end is thus a
single-acting diaphragm pump. As the pump operates each
pumping chamber alternates from a suction stroke t o a
discharge stroke resulting in intermittent pumping. This
unit was developed for applications where two separate
pumps were previously required, such as in the printing
industry for supplying ink with one pump and returning
excess ink with another pump.
Most pumps are equipped with an externally serviceable
air distribution system which cuts maintenance costs and
downtime by at least 50% when service becomes necessary.
Choice of materials
The choice of the correct diaphragm and valve elastomer
t o suit specific applications is very important and is influen-
ced by the following factors.
The compatibility of the elastomer t o the product being
pumped is the first consideration and the manufacturers
recommendations should be sought.
The flexibility of the diaphragm, which has t o flex countless
times during its pumping life, is important. Diaphragms of
Neoprene elastomer are preferred, but the choice will be
dictated by the elastomer compatibility to the product being
pumped.
The influence of the temperature of the product being
pumped needs t o be considered. An EPDM elastomer offers
the best resistance t o both high and low temperatures. In
order of merit descending from the high temperature capa-
bility of EPDM are the following elastomers: Viton, Buna-N
and Neoprene. In ascending order from the low temperature
are EPDM, Buna-N, Neoprene, and Viton.
Tuffrupp or Teflon diaphragms should be avoided when
pumping solids in suspension. Fine solids as found in paint
pigments can however be pumped.
Size and Performance Range
Pump sizes are normally based on intakeldischarge pipe
sizes of 25, 38, 5O and 75 mm.
Capacities are infinitely variable from zero up t o 988 litres
per minute depending on pump size,
Heads of up t o 88 metres of water are available.
Acknowledgement: Linatex (Africa) (Pty) Ltd
Submersible Pumps in Mining Applications
INTRODUCTION
The submersible pump comprises a number of impellers
mounted on a shaft, supported by journal bearings and the
impellers are housed in suitable casings fitted with guide
and return vanes. The pumped liquid enters the first or
lower impeller and is passed progressively through the unit
with an increase of head at each impeller stage and finally
is discharged into the rising main pipework. For most
submersible pumps, impellers are radial or mixed flow types.
The submersible radial pump components are housed in one
external pressure casing, each stage consisting of impeller,
guide vanes and return vanes, with the whole assembly
retained within the tube by two casings; the inlet, which
also serves as an adaptor to the motor counting flange and
the outlet, to couple the pump to the pipework (Figure 1).
Bearings are imposed at various points along the shaft,
dependent on shaft stiffness and critical speed limitations.
Impellers are generally fitted with single wear rings, unless
excessive thrust loads are encountered, when balanced
pumps may be used.
The pump components of the mixed flow unit (Figure 2)
differ from the radial in as much as each stage consists of
an impeller and bowl, the latter having a casing capable of
withstanding total working head and housing the guide and
return vanes. These bowls are stacked progressively, to
obtain the desired pump performance and each bowl con-
tains a bearing to support the shaft; generally only one wear
ring is used. The assembly is completed by inlet and outlet
castings.
Submersible unit
To complete the unit the motor and pump are close coupled
with the pump normally above the motor, the shafts butting
and being coupled with a simple muff type coupling. Water
enters the pump through a large mesh filter at the joint
area between motor and pump and discharges directly into
the pipework;a typical radial pump coupled to a wet motor
is shown in Figure 1.
Although, outwardly, pumps appear not to have changed,
manufacturers continue to increase pump efficiencies and
improve bearings and other parts. Consideration of NPSH
on larger units and maximum allowable solid content must
be made, t o ensure that the unit life is satisfactory.
In some mining applications the wet submersible motor is
able to be safeguarded against seal damage and water loss
by connecting a low head expansion tank, instead of the
pressure balance diaphragm which normally caters for water
expansion.
In general therefore, the application ot the submersible
pump/motor unit to mining applications needs extra engin-
eering to ensure that environmental conditions do not
interfere with the cooling and operation at high efficiency.
When considering a new submersible pumping installation,
or converting an existing pumping station to submersible
PUMP SUCTION
CABLE SHEATH
STATOR SHELL
MICHELL TYPE
THRUST BEARING
(SELF ALIGNING!
Fig. 1 Typical section through pump and motor
pumps, it will be necessary for an accurate assessment to be
carried out and the following detailed information should
be obtained to select the most efficient unit:
Capacity of water to be pumped
The point where the water can be collected for pumping,
or alternatively, where gravity may be used.
The height and distance the water must be pumped, allowing
for friction losses. Special regard must also be given to
future operating conditions, where an ochre build-up or
other deposits can occur on the inside of the rising main
and discharge pipes.
A chemical analysis of the water to enable the most suitable
pump material to be specified.
Details of ventilation.
Access for installation, repairs and renewals and the distance
the operators will have to travel.
OUTLET CASING A
HYLOMAR
JOINTING
COMPOUND
OR PUMP
BOWL GASKET
HEXAGON
HEADED
BOLT
RUBBER
BEARING
RUBBER ERG.
RETAINING
CLIP
TAPERED
SLEEVE
PUMP STAGE
BOWLIBOLTEDI
IMPELLER
NECK RING
PUMP SHAFT
COUPLING
SLEEVE
COUPLING
KEY SCREW
COUPLING
KEY
STRAINER
I -
ATTACHMENT SCREW \ COUPLING SCREW
OR BAND STRIP
STRAINER
Fig, 2 Mixed flow submersible pump
Type of discharge, where sited and whether water treatment
will be required (this may add to pump head).
An accurate assessment of how critical the controlled water
level is, in order to determine the amount of back-up
required to cover all eventualities, such as complete power
failure or unexpected water inrushes.
An assessment of the above information will probably
indicate that submersible pumps will be found to be the
most economical and can be operated remotely with less
expenditure and without fear of the motor being flooded.
Because the motor is filled with water and the whole,unit is
submerged, fire hazards are correspondingly much less.
There will also be a capital cost saving on remote indication
equipment. As the motor and pump bearings are water
cooled and submerged, the only remote indications neces-
sary are running 'amps' and water level.
WNICAL
-MOTOR TOP
COVER
STATOR WINDINGS
. SEALED I N EPOXY
RESIN FOR
RELIABLE
INSULATION
- MOTOR SHAFT
. OUTER
CASING
JOURNAL
BEARINGS
THRUST
,BEARING
MICHEL TYPE
CAGED
D1APHRAGI-l
SKID
RING
Fig. 3 Canned motor
Submersible pump control can be by means of electrodes,
float switch, bubbler (open end), bellows and bell (open or
closed end), or water pressure, if positive suction.
In choosing the method of pump control, it is necessary t o
consider the type of water, the amount of vertical difference
in level, the amount of turbulence in the water and any
other local factors which may affect control. Remote
indication of water levels on a continuous chart basis give
details such as which pump is operating, the length of time
it operates and the length of time the lodge takes t o refd.
Alarm for high and low water and low circuit zero (both at
pumping stations or on the transmitting lines) can also be
given, using continuous-tone transistorised equipment,
which is found t o give the best and safest cover at the lowest
capital cost.
It must be remembered that t o provide economical pumping
at off-peak times and give the necessary required standby in
times of emergency, it is normal t o install two pumps, each
of which is capable of dealing with twice the average make-
up. Both pumps are fully automated, but one control mech-
anism is set t o initiate when the water level is 0,3 m higher
than the standby unit.
A separate control panel should be installed for each pump,
along with t he appropriate recording ammetter. The mini-
mum tripping facilities on the pump control panel should
be earth leakage, low load, overload and t oo frequent start.
(The clock for the t oo frequent start should be capable of
being set so that the rising main has ample time t o emnty
itself and the motor comes t o rest before it resets).
At the shaft t op t he two deliveries should be kept separate,
but , if this is uneconomical, a non-return valve must be
fitted in each delivery before coming into a common dis-
charge pipe. It will also be necessary t o fit an air release
valve at the t op of each rising main on the pump side of the
non-return valve so that the column of water is broken
when the pump stops and also t o prevent a vacuum forming
in the rising main. It is not always necessary t o fit a non-
return valve on the pump discharge, as the pump and motor
should be designed t o accept 'turbining' so that in an
ochreous condition, back flushing can take place.
TYPICAL MINING APPLICATIONS
The following is a selection of some submersible applications
currently employed in the Mining Industry.
Figure 4 shows a typical installation of t wo submersible
units on mine applications.
Figures 5, 6 and 7 illustrate the versatility of submersible
pumping from the vertical round t o the horizontal position.
These units are not large for this type of application, but
range between 25 t o 55 kW.
Figure 5 shows an arrangement whereby existing horizontal
conventional pumps have been replaced by automated
submersibles. It will be seen that bot h the roof and floor
have been excavated t o allow these pumps t o operate in a
vertical position. Sufficient headroom has been allowed for,
and girders installed for ease of installation and removal for
maintenance. By operating in this way it will be noticed
that much more standage has been provided when comparing
previous and new high water levels. High and low water
levels are controlled by mercury switches and the submer-
sible pumps are installed in suction shrouds t o allow the
water level t o be pumped down below the pump inlet
strainer position. The water from this installation is pumped
up t o a 1 in 50 gradient 1, 6 km t o the shaft bot t om, where
it is then taken by submersible pump with the rest of the
mine water t o the surface.
'A' frame is generally made
high enough so that w o
l engt h of rising main can be
withdrawn at one l i f t (check
the bolts on the unbroken
flange for general condition
A and security!.
SEE SKETCH FOR VIEW ON ' A'
Support girders are always
sized to suit 'live' load con-
ditions.
For ease of dismantling,
setscrews thro' flanges are
sized so that they enter nuts
for full depth and no more.
Stainless steel cable cups used
on deep shafts to protect
against corrosion and eventual
cable slip due to loose clips.
Low water level is generally set
by pumping down to low load
cut-out point (i.9. air entering
pump suction) and then raised
by relevant amount.
LOWEST WATER LEVEL
Check silt level below unit to
ensure adequate depth of clear
Concrete plug i s sometimes
installed above silt leve.
BREATHER VALVES These
are nearly always fitted, where
shown, on each length of rising
main, to break the column of
water when the pump stops
and prevent the formation of a
vacuum, with the resultant
problems upon re-start. The
only time these are not fi tted
is when the length of discharge
pipe above ground is very
short, and open to atmosphere.
When two lines are taken into
common discharge pipe, non-
return valves are, fi tted t o
prevent running unit pumping
b a c ~ down standby line.
When i wo pipes are taken i ni o
a common discharge line, a
symmetrical 'Y' piece i s always
used.
GATE VALVES
VIEW on 'A'
Fig. 4
--
,7--r^-----z--- I = = =-----------.r
PUMPI NG I N- BYE
1 MI LE TO SHAFT
ORI GI NAL CONVENTI ONAL
BOTTOM 1 I N 50 GRAD
PUMPS AND PIPES
Fig. 5 .
Fig. 6.
The arrangement in Figure 6 shows how the lowest point in Figure 7 'illustrates another in-bye pumping variance that
a roadway has been excavated and a brick sump built to has been utilised. On this occasion a brick dam has been
accommodate a submersible pump in a horizontal applica- built across the roadway, and the water level allowed to
tion, operating underneath a false wooden floor. Due to the rise to give a good standage. As shown, submersible pumps
ingress of silt that would take place with the water flowing (1 operating, 1 standby) are installed at an angle over the
down the roadway, a trap has been built to keep the silt dam and the water pumped away in-bye.
away from the suction of the pumping unit, and the water
levels are again controlled by mercury switches. The pump-
ing unit in this application is enclosed in a shroud so that
adequate cooling of the motor takes place, otherwise the
motor could overheat through being in stagnant water.
Fig. 7 Acknowledgement: Howden Pumps
Portable Submersible Pumps
In principle the submersible sludge pump is derived from
the drainage pump, but has different hydraulic parts. A
vortex impeller well retracted in the t op of t he wide pump
housing gives this pump a large throughflow. The impeller
accelerates the liquid in the pump housing by a vortex
created i n t he inlet.
The advantage of t he vortex impeller is that it allows
totally free passage through t he pump. Consequently large
solids, sludge and long fibrous materials can be pumped.
SUBMERSIBLE PUMP FEATURES
There are very few pump types which have such a wide
field of application as electric submersible pumps.
The number of submersible pumps and their applications is
constantly increasing, due t o their proven superiority over
'conventional pumps' . There are many factors i n favour of
submersible portable electrically-driven pumps.
Easy t o install. Plug in the pump, lower it into the water,
switch on t he power and the pump is in operation.
Low mass. It is easy t o move from one worksite t o another
when needed.
No suction lift limitations. 'Conventional' pumps have t o be
moved down as the water level sinks, since t hey have a
maximum suction head of about 9,3 metres. The submer-
sible pump, however, does not have this limitation as it is
immersed in t he water and operates by pressure only.
No priming. No priming is needed as the pump is 'self-
primed' by t he surrounding water.
No refuelling. An electric mot or does not need refuelling
No fumes. The electric mot or creates neither exhaust fumes
nor pullotion.
Silent. The pump operates silently as it operates under water.
No supervision. The submersible pump needs no super-
vision when it is in operation.
No risk of flooding. The conventional pump can stop
operating due, for example, t o lack of petrol. The water
level may then rise and destroy the pump by 'drowning' i t .
If the worksite is affected by a power failure, the submer-
sible pump stops. It will remain operable, however, as it is
submerged and starts immediately when t he power is
restored.
No risk of damage due t o freezing. As long as the pump is
submerged it cannot freeze.
DRAINAGE PUMP OPERATION
When power is switched on, the electric mot or will start
and rotate t he impeller. Through centrifugal force,
t he impeller vanes move the water into the diffuser channels
where the velocity of t he water creates pressure. Additional.
water t hen enters through the strainer holes before reaching
t he impeller. After leaving the diffuser, t he water passes
Fig. 1. Section through sludge pump.
Fig. 2(a) Fig. 2(b)
Drainage pump impeller Sludge pump impeller
between the outer casing and t he stator housing and provides
a cooling effect t o t he mot or. The air valve, which is
normally open, will be closed by t he water pressure and
pumped water will leave t he pump through the discharge
opening.
As water is pumped away, t he water table decreases.
Finally, when the water table is at the same level as the
strainer holes, air will mix with water as it enters the strainer
holes, and the pump will start running on snore. This
pumping stage is easily recognised by t he sound t he impeller
makes when i t handles a mixture of water and air.
When a pump runs on snore, t he capacity drops and con-
sequently t he water pressure also drops on t he air vent of
t he pump. If t he pump has reached the dry-run stage, when
there is more air entering t he strainer holes t han water, the
air vents will automatically open. Since t he pump mot or is
still operating, t he impeller, which now serves as a cooling
fan, lets the air circulate around the motor and out through
the open air vents. This improves the cooling of the electric
mot or as well as t he bearings and shaft seals.
Pumps fitted with air vents are thus air cooled when running
dry, and can continue t o operate for days, or even months.
SLUDGE PUMP OPERATION
When the power is switched on, the electric mot or rotates
and at the motor shaft end, t he retracted impeller starts
spinning. The operation can now easily be compared with
spinning a spoon in a full glass of water. The moment the
water starts t o rotate in the glass, a pressure is created on
the sides of the glass. The spinning spoon forces more and
more of the water t o the sides of the glass; some water will
even overflow the brim of the glass. In t he pump, the
spoon is the impeller and the pump housing, the glass. The
spinning impeller accelerates the liquid in t he pump housing.
The faster t he liquid rotates, t he more i t is forced against Fig. 3.
the walls of the pump housing. On one side of the pump
housing there is a discharge opening which allows the liquid
t o leave the pump housing. As the liquid is discharged, it is
replaced by liquid drawn into the pump housing inlet.
An interesting feature of the sludge pump is that whatever
is being pumped does not necessarily have t o touch the
impeller.Whatever enters the pump housing inlet is caught
by t he vortex created in the pump housing.
On the sludge pumps the electrical mot or gets additional
cooling by a circulating system which allows some of the
pumped liquid t o circulate around the motor. The air valve
which is normally open will be closed by the pressure of
the circulated liquid.
The pump is air-cooled when running dry and t he air valves
open automatically. Since the pump motor is still on, the
impeller, which now acts as a cooling fan, lets air circulate
around the mot or and out through the open air vents. This
improves the cooling of the electric motor as well as the
bearings and shaft seals. This type of pump can also run dry
for days, weeks or months.
SUBMERSIBLE PUMP SELECTION
There are two things t o consider when selecting a submersible
pump :
Head (in metres)
Flow (in Q/min)
Head
The effective pump head is always measured from water to
water, i.e. from the well in which the pump works t o the
level at the end of the hose. It is important that t he correct
level should be established in order t o determine from which
water level the head should be calculated.
Refer t o Figure 3. When pumping starts, the pump head
will be H, . (m). The water level will gradually be lowered
until i t reaches H , (m). This means that t he pump head
will be higher at the end of the pumping than at t he beginning
It is therefore important t o calculate the head from the
lowest water level t he pump will work at , up t o t he outlet
of the hose.
FLOW
Fig. 4,
Flow
The pump capacity needed can be determined by cal-
culating t he volume of t he pit t o be drained and estimating
t he water inflow. The rule here is t o have some overcapacity
in order t o handle t he increased inflow i n case of a sudden
downpour.
How to read a pump curve.
When head and flow have been determined, t he next step
will be t o examine t he different pump performance curves
Figure 4 .
These are used as follows:
Suppose a pump is required which can deliver 850 /mi at
14 m head.
Find the point 14 m on the head axis.
Follow the line horizontally straight out t o the pump curve.
Project vertically down to the flow axis, to read 900 l!/min.
This gives 50 K/min overcapacity, which is sufficient.
The power consumption at this operating point is determined
as follows:
Project vertically up from the pump curve until
reaching the power consumption curve.
Project horizontally to the power consumption axis,
to read 4.8 kW.
Friction losses
The pump curve shows the head and the flow at the pump's
outlet. When connecting a hose t o the pump, the capacity
will decrease due t o friction losses in the hose. It is therefore
important t o take friction losses into consideration when
selecting a pump.
POWER CONSUMPTION - POWER INPUT
There are several measurements of a pump's performance.
Reference is frequently made t o pump size in terms of
its discharge connection diameter, or of its rated power
(The output shaft power of the motor).
The correct measurement of the pump's efficiency is the
difference between the power needed to drive the pump,
and the output capacity of the pump, which is equivalent
t o the pump curve.
The measurements required are therefore the power con-
sumption and the pump curve which will give the pump's
efficiency.
All pump manufacturers should be able t o provide power
consumption diagrams for all pump curves.
With drainage pumps particles up t o the size of the strainer
holes can be pumped.
With sludge pumps particles up to the size of the inlet
opening diameter can be pumped.
DENSITY
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. One litre of
water has a mass of one kilogram and a volume of one cubic
decimetre. The density of water is therefore expressed as
1 kg/dm3. The following diagram shows how mixing sand
and water affects the density. For higher densities than
1,5 kg/dm3 a sludge pump should be used.
WATER / \
DENSITY = 1,O kg/dm3
SAND / \
DENSITY = 2,O kq/dm3
MIXTURE / \
DENSITY = = 1,5 kg/drn3
2
VISCOSITY
Drainage pumps are used for pumping liquids with a viscosity
close to water. When it comes t o more viscous liquids such
as sewage water, sludge and pulp, a sludge pump should
be selected. Basically everything that floats and can be
poured out of a bucket without dripping can be pumped
with a sludge pump.
Acknowledgement: Stratford Engineering (Pty) Ltd
Applications of Progressing Cavity Pumps
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The 'Mono' industrial pump is correctly defined as a helical
rotor or progressing cavity pump, Locally manufactured
in cast iron or stainless steeel, the pump has unsurpassed
versatility in handling a wide variety of liquids and sub-
stances.
Being positive displacement it has inherent features which
are often pre-requisites in many industrial processes.
The pump is used for an extremely wide variety of liquids
and substances, whether cold or hot , free flowing or highly
viscous, corrosive or abrasive, or containing hard or soft
solids.
Normal applications include the handling of oils and greases
acids and alkalis, toothpaste, paints, ceramic compositions,
builders' plaster, thick slurries and sludges, hot tar. boiling
jams containing whole fruit, soups containing diced vege-
tables, hot chocolate, confectioners' batter, paper stock and
sausage meat.
Many liquids and substances encountered today are shear
sensitive, making this type of pump the perfect choice,
because of its low shear characteristics.
The materials for the pump housing, shaft and universal
drive depend upon whether t he liquid is corrosive or non-
corrosive.
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
The pumping elements consist essentially of a resilient
rubber stator in the form of a double intenal helix, and
single helical metallic rotor which rotates within the stator
with a slightly eccentric motion.
Figure 2 illustrates four consecutive positions of t he rotor
as it makes one half turn in the stator.
The progressive passages formed by the engagement of the
rotor and stator helices, and the combined axial and rota-
tional thrust of the rotor scroll through the stator is
apparent.
Fig. 2 Pumping principle
To picture this motion it is only necessary t o imagine a
fixed invert wheel or gear with internal teeth and a pinion
running around inside i t , say in a clockwise direction while
rotating about its axis in a counter clockwise direction.
Theoretically t he stator is indeed a helical internal gear with
t wo teeth, and the rotor a helical pinion with one t oot h,
t he helix being extended through a full turn of 360 degrees.
In order t o make this compound motion possible the rotor
is not rigidly connected t o t he shaft of the pump but is
driven through a double universal drive.
The line of contact between rotor and stator forms a com-
plete seal between t he suction and discharge sides of the
pump and this seal progresses continuously through the
pump giving uniform positive displacement.
STATOR ROTOR UNI VERSAL JOINT COUPLING ROD
PRODUCTS AND APPLICATIONS
These pumps have been supplied to the mining industry
since t he earliest days of mineral exploration. At the same
time, it is recognised that the need to keep up with the fast-
moving technology that mining demands and consequently
the manufacturer's objectives are t o produce quality
equipment that will satisfy the needs of this sophisticated
industry both today and in the future.
Collaboration with manufacturers of other equipment has
resulted in specialised products for the mining industry.
One of these, a result of t he pump manufacturer joining
forces with a chemical company, is a foamed product and
applicator t o assist in underground mine ventilation and fire
control. The powder used is a non-toxic, hon-combustible,
inorganic material which, when mixed with water, foams
up to fifteen times its original volume and can be pumped
over considerable distances through the placer unit deve-
loped by the pump manufacturer.
Reverse osmosis systems have also been developed through
the collaboration of different companies, and these have
been installed in mining operations in dry regions such as
the Kalahari, where water has t o be de-salinated before it
can be used for domestic purposes.
'Mono' pumps were used in the first phase of the Southern
Narnaqualand Government water scheme which supplies
desalinated water t o Bitterfontein and Nuwerus. It is the
first time that desalinated borehole water has been used for
drinking purposes in South Africa and the authorities say
that this practice will have t o be widened t o meet the needs
of a growing population.
High-pressure versions are used for gland service of larger
centrifugal slurry pumps which pump slurries through
pipelines from old dumps t o gold recovery plants, and also
through the recovery process.
By injecting clean water under pressure into the glands of
these larger pumps, engineers are able t o reduce wear on
the pump shafts and extend t he service life of each pump.
Further developments of the mono pump include pumps
which meet international food specifications for handling
foodstuffs in hygiene-conscious industries such as food
processing, packing, the production of chemicals and
pharmaceutical products.
This so-called 'clean range', consists of six models with
flows of up t o 35 m3 an hour and are manufactured with
all metallic contact parts in 316 stainless steels.
In addition, a wide-throat pump with a 100% local content
has been developed in order t o handle virtually any viscous
material, from peanut butter t o cement grout. These are
available in a wide range of sizes with flow rates of up to
30m3 an hour and discharge pressures of up t o 1 MPa and
manufactured in stainless steel or cast iron.
Acknowledgement: Howden Pumps
Leak-proof Pumping
PRINCIPLE OF MAGNETIC DRIVE PUMPS
The principle of magnetic drive pumps was first intro-
duced t o the industry in t he 1940's but due t o numerous
problems arising from inadequate magnets the idea was not
exploited locally. However, with t he latest technological
developments that have taken place in the rare earth
magnet field, magnetic drive pumps with all the benefits
that their exceptional features provide are currently no
more expensive t han ordinary centrifugal units with mech-
ancial seals.
The use of magnetic drive pumps is now a firmly established
practice, for the pumping without loss of corrosive liquids,
common in the chemical mining and general industrial
environment. These pumps have also proved extremely
suitable for food processing applications, and are also
recommended where safety is a high priority and where the
loss of product would prove t o be costly.
Magnetic drive pumps are now produced locally in 316
stainless steel, Monel, Hastelloy B and C and Sanicro 28
which are capable of coping with the majority of highly
corrosive liquids.
An additional benefit derived from magnetic drive pumps is
t he environmental aspect which in t he recent years has
become bot h a practical and economical consideration.
This feature assists users in minimising criticism from con-
servationists and other related government bodies. The
first locally made pumps were tested in mid 1988 and over
200 units have already been installed replacing, in many
instances, what would have been imported items, t he call
for magdrive pumps is continuing t o grow.
HOW MAGNETIC DRIVE INCREASES PUMP LIFE
In t he last few years t he magnetically coupled pump has
been increasingly recognised as a sophisticated design t o
solve critical pumping problems.
Inasmuch as no shaft penetrates into the body of the
pump, there is no need for a shaft seal with its constant
drag. The seal/less pump in simple concept is a conven-
tional centrifugal pump without packed glands or mech-
anical seals.
The dynamic seal normally used t o seal the impeller shaft,
has been replaced by a static shroud, t o form a hermetically
sealed liquid end. The drive shaft has been replaced by a
bank of external magnets passing motive force through the
sealing shroud t o the impeller shaft. Magnetic power is
received internally by an internal magnetic ring attached to
t he impeller. The high quality material of the magnets
ensures permanent power transmission. The end result
being no shaft. no seals. no friction and no leaks.
Since t he magnetic torque governs the out put , anyone mis-
applying t he pump, especially with liquids with specific
gravities above 1,2 will find a built-in safety factor that will
protect t he user's investment: the slipping of t he magnets
avoids motor burn out . If a typical seal-type pump is mis-
applied it can overload t he motor and cause a burn out .
Shroud
The shroud is constructed from a material having good
magnetic permeability and high electrical resistivity for
maximum coupling efficiency (70 t o 85%). Hastelloy is
used as a standard but other alloys such asNimonic, Inconel
or Austenitic Stainless Steel are also used where extra
strength or increased chemical resistance is required.
On standard pumps. shrouds are rated for 2 MPa system
pressure, but shrouds are available for pumps operating on
system pressures of 20 MPa.
All shrouds are hydrostatically tested at 15 times their
operating pressure.
Bearings
The internal bearings of the magnetic carrier running within
the sealed wetted end. are lubricated by t he liquid with
which they are in contact. They are usually made of carbon
or carbon and glass filled PTFE but can also be silicon
carbide.
Materials
Casing and impeller together with shaft and other wetted
end components are made of 315L as a standard but can
also be manufactured in Sanicro 28. Hastelloy B and C,
Monel, Inconel and Titanium.
Temperature Range
Closed coupled units from -50 to 150
Separate mounted units from -120 to 40OoC
Pump Data
Capacity up t o 120 m3/ hr
Heads up t o 100 m
Solids permissible up t o 2% Max. W/W 100 micrometres
Viscosity up t o 300 c St maximum
Flange rating up t o A.N.S.1, 300 Ib.
Applications summary
Seal/less pumps are used wherever leakproof design is
required, such as pumping highly corrosive, dangerous,
explosive or toxic liquids.
Quality standards
Magnetic drive pumps are manufactured locally in accor-
dance with SABS 0157.
Acknowledgement: Br ubi n l . ngi neeri ng ( Pl y) Limited.
Fire Pumps
INTRODUCTION
The general trend of rising fire losses throughout the world,
in bot h capital and lives, underlines the increasing need for
effective and reliable fixed fire protection systems. Water is,
of course, by far still the most effective and common
extinguishing medium available today.
Most municipalities have mobile fire-fighting equipment
which includes "pumpers" - trucks equipped with engine
driven booster pumps. These units can extinguish many
kinds of fires - grass fires, family dwellings, low rise busi-
ness and manufacturing establishments. However, there
comes a point where the head flow capabilities of the
mobile "pumper" combination can no longer provide
adequate protection.
In recent years, in bot h industry and commerce, larger
volumes of storage units, (i.e. higher product stacking),
the greater use of plastics, and the increasing development
of high rise builidngs has rendered town mains water
supplies inadequate for many fire protection installations.
In these cases therefore, alternative water supply systems
are necessary, and can be provided in the form of fixed fire
protection pumpsets.
Fire Pump (Design) criteria
A customer buys a fire pump for the stated purpose of re-
ducing his fire risk and also his insurance rates, and in many
instances he is not familiar with its operation or require-
ments. 1t is important, therefore, that adequate provisions
be included in the contract for the supply and installation
of these pumpsets. This is accomplished by the rules laid
down by the Automatic Sprinkler Inspection Bureau
(A.S.1.B) of Sout h Africa, the National Fire Protection
Association (N.F.P.A.) and the Fire Officers Committee
(F.0.C).
The most commonly used centrifugal fire pumps are of the
"End Suction" and "Horizontally Split Casing" type. In the
case of high rise buildings, pumps of the "Multi-stage, Multi
take-off' configuration are used.
Wherever possible, centrifugal pumps should be installed
under positive head conditions where the minimum water
level is above the centre line of the pump.
Where pumps are located above the water level of the
supply source, it is necessary t o ensure that the NPSH
required by the pump conforms to site conditions, and also
the rules laid down by the recognised authority (ie. A.S.1.B).
In certain instances, it is not possible t o install horizontal
pumps under suction lift conditions. In these cases the ad-
vantages of the vertical turbine pump, where t he impellers
are actually submerged in the water, are being increasingly
recognised.
Performance Requirements
When selecting pumps for fire protection applications it
is important not only t o meet t he duty point required, but
also to consider t he inter-relationship between pump and
fire protection system requirements.
Three characteristics of a pump must be examined:
1. The pump performance curve, which shows the pres-
sure (head) generated by the pump against varying
water flow rates. This should be a constantly falling
curve (i.e. the greater the flow rate the less the pres-
sure) t o ensure satisfactory site operation when two or
more pumps are working together, or when high static
heads are involved.
2. The suction lift curve, which shows lift capabilities of
the pump at varying flow rates. Correct interpretation
of this curve ensures that the pump will not cavitate
and lose performance under site suction conditions.
A.S.I.B. rules relating t o fire pumps state that the NPSH
required by the pump does not exceed 5,9 m at the maxi-
mum anticipated flow rate.
3. The power curve, which shows t he power absorbed by
the pump at varying flow rates. The power developed
by the driven would normally be expected t o be great-
er t han that absorbed by the pump, at the maximum
anticipated flow rate, by approximately 10 %.
The two primary fire protection system characterictics that
have t o be considered are:
1. The water demand curve for the most remote (or high-
est) area of the installation.
2. The water demand curve for the most favourable (or
lowest) area of the installation.
When considering t he inter-relationship of the pump and
system curves it can be seen that although the pump pres-
sure must be rated to provide water t o the furthest (or
highest) area of the installation, the assessment of pump
cavitation and driver power must be based on the intercept
of the most favourable demand curve and the pump perfor-
mance curve, which is at a greater flow rate.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Horizontal pumps have casing made of cast iron. Impellers
made of bronze, and bronze case wear rings are used. Stuf-
fing boxes are equipped with bronze lantern rings and
bronze split type packing glands. Shafts are sealed with
asbestos-graphite packing. The impeller shaft, usually steel,
will have a bronze sleeve through the packing; the sleeve
will be sealed to the shaft with either an O-ring or a gasket
(lapped faces with an approved sealant). Ball bearings will
be grease-oil lubricated. In horizontal split-case pumps, the
inboard bearing will be of the single row radial type and
the outboard bearing of the duplex angular contact type.
Vertical turbine pumps will have cast iron bowls, enclosed
bronze impellers, and steel or stainless steel shafts. The
vertical column assembly is of steel construction with either
rubber sleeve bearings or bronze sleeve bearings. Since
some vertical turbine fire pumpsets are installed in sea
water applications (i.e. oil rigs or oil production platforms),
material construction will be selected to suit the immediate
environment.
Drivers
Where pumps form the sole source of water supply to the
fire protection system, two units are normally installed, a
dut y pump and a standby pump, The dut y pump is gener-
ally driven by an electric motor and t he standby pump by
a diesel engine. However, should one pumpset only be
installed, this would be driven by a diesel engine.
On automatically controlled installations, the inclusion of a
small jockey pump ensures that any minor water leakage
in the system is made up without starting t he main fire
pumps.
Operation
The automatic operation of all the pumps is usually govern-
ed by pressure switches situated in t he pressurised fire
protection system. When the pressure in t he system drops
the jockey pump operates, replenishes any small water loss,
and is then cut out .
In t he event of a fire, t he jockey pump is unable t o cope
with t he water demand, and t he pressure in the system
continues t o fall. The main dut y fire pump is then "called
in" via a pressure switch which transmits a signal t o the
electric motor starter. This pump satisfies t he fire demand,
increases the pressure in the system and continues t o run
until shut down manually.
If due to electrical or mechanical failure, t he electric motor
driven pumpset fails t o function satisfactorily, the pressure
in the system will continue t o fall. Another pressure switch,
set at a lower pressure, then transmits a signal t o t he diesel
engine automatic controller, and the stand-by pumpset is
brought into operation. Again this unit is designed t o run
until shut down manually.
Diesel engine driven pumpsets are also fitted with a sep-
arate auxiliary manual starting system.
When a remote alarm panel is installed in t he building,
conditions of operation and alarm are signalled from the
pumphouse equipment.
Location of t he pumphouse
An important aspect to the successful operation of the
'heart' of the fire protection system is the location of
the pumphouse and expensive equipment within.
Regrettably, there are times when fire protection is con-
sidered more as an "after thought" rather than an inte-
gral part of any civil or engineering project. In these sit-
uations. one usually finds that the pumphouse location
is unsuitable for a variety of reasons, or that the pump-
house is so cramped that operation and maintenance
becomes a difficult task.
Listed below are a few points t o consider when locating the
pumphouse.
Is the pumphouse located well away from storage of
combustibles, flammable liquids, or hazardous proces-
ses which through fire or explosion could disrupt the
supply?
Is there sufficient free floor space available around the
equipment for future maintenance?
Are all controls, such as valves and pump controllers.
in easily accessible positions'.'
If the pumphouse is t o be located below ground level,
has provision been made for drainage of the pump-
house?
Is the pumphouse protected from vandalism or possible
sabotage?
The above points are not intended to be taken as a compre-
hensive list, but represent some of the problems that may
be experienced.
Equipment that has been correctly selected. manufactured.
installed and maintained, will provide the fixed fire protec-
tion system - the essential "back-up" to ensure protection
of equipment and most of all . . . . LIVES!
Acknowledgement: Howden Pumps
Vacuum Pumns
INTRODUCTION
Nearly all branches of industry have a need for evacuating
air or gases. Where large quantities of air and corrosive gases
need t o be handled, t he liquid ring vacuum pump is parti-
cularly suitable.
These pumps are simple in design, have only t wo moving
parts with consequently less wear, less maintenance and
long, trouble-free life. Once started, the pump needs no
constant operator at t ent i on.
Large quantities of air or gas can be evacuated in a short
time, leading t o efficient operation of the processes involved.
With water as a sealant, low cost and abundance of supply
makes it an economical system, especially as t he water can
be re-utilised for other processes in the plant. Alternative
sealants norn~ally use closed circuit systems so that sealant
is not lost and can be used repeatedly. A large choice of
sealant liquids other than water t o suit the application can
reduce the cost of expensive filtration equipment with
sealants of low vapour pressure. Corrosion by evacuated
gases within the pump can be minimised with the selection
of a correct sealant.
Where corrosive gases require t o be evacuated, pumps are
employed in a variety of materials which are resistant to
particular gases.
Throughout this aritcle vacuum is quoted in absolute units
(i.e. Torr, where 1 Torr equals 1 mm hg absolute*) and
pumping speeds are quoted in m3/ h. All tables and curves
are based on sea level conditions using water as a sealant at
a temperature of 15'C.
* SI units, now in use worldwide require that t he Pascal be
used in place of the Torr. To convert Torr t o Pascal (Pa)
multiply by 13,33.
Though often quot ed, it can be misleading t o sepcify 'Gauge
Vacuum' when an installation of a vacuum system is being
envisaged. This is due t o the effect of varying barometric
pressures at different altitudes. The ideal method is t o quote
absolute units (i.e. as difference between absolute zero and
the gauge vacuum).
760 TORR PRESSURE SEA LEVEL 0 rn
660 mrn hg
GAUGE
535 rnrn hg
GAUGE
1 ABS, ZERO :Io0 loo TORRi ABS, VACUUM
Fig. 1
DISCHARGE
0
SUCTION
0
t
Fig. 2
A liquid ring vacuum pump is capable of operating at its
designed absolute vacuum, regardless of altitude. Hence, a
pump operating at 100 Torr would have a gauge reading of
660 mm hg at sea level and 535 mm hg at 1500 m altitude.
Figure 1 illustrates the difference between gauge and abso-
lute units.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Brick Manufacturing
Prior. t o compacting t he clay in preparation for baking, it
is essential that all air is drawn out . Air left in the compacted
clay will expand during baking and a high percentage of
cracked and broken bricks is t he result. The higher the
vacuum, the more air is drawn out from the clay resulting
in a better quality and denser brick. The advantage of using
liquid ring pumps is t hat , if particles of clay or silica, with
a specific gravity less than water, are not trapped by the
filter, then they pass through the pump and are ejected
with sealing water.
Plastic forming plants
Thermo-forming of plastic in a mould requires the extraction
of all air and gas in order that perfect forming takes place
without any defects in the finished plastic. Liquid ring
pumps are ideal due t o their ability t o eject any particles
carried over from the mould.
Car assembly plants
Initial bleeding and filling of a braking system on a vehicle
can be particularly troublesome. With a liquid ring vacuum
pump attached t o one end of the system, brake fluid is
sucked through the system as all air is expelled. The advan-
tage of this is that the pump can use the braking fluid as its
sealing medium and any carry over from the vehicle braking
system is expelled through the pump back to the oil
reservoir.
Rock mining
In the case of gold or uranium, it is t he liquor in the slurry
which has t o be extracted. The slurry passes over a filter
and vacuum is applied t o t he filter cl ot h. The liquor is drawn
through the cloth and drops i nt o a receiver. The higher the
vacuum applied, the dryer the residual cake and t he greater
amount of liquor drawn out .
With platinum, it is a dry residual cake that is required.
Slurry passes over a filter and moisture is drawn out . The
cake is t o undergo heating and sintering processes. The
dryer the cake, the lower t he cost of heating t o sinter i t .
Hospitals
Many hospitals have small independant vacuum pumps in
an operating theatre. These pumps work across an intercep-
t or or container for t he residue of blood, plasma etc during
an operation. It is common, however, for modern hospitals
t o have centralised vacuum systems whereby tappings are
taken from pipework located throughout the hospital
buildings.
These are just a few examples of t he processes in which
liquid ring pumps operate. There are many more such as in
foundries, food industry, bot h freeze drying and canning,
packaging and sealing, vacuum handling and positioning of
components, autoclaves. vacuum cooking et c.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
The basic components of a liquid ring vacuum pump com-
prise an impeller, with equi-spaced radial blades, rotating
between t wo end covers and eccentrically mounted within a
casing. The casing is partially filled with a sealing medium,
normally water. As t he impeller turns, t he water is flung
outwards and forms a rotating water ring which seals the
spaces between the vanes of t he impeller. Because the
impeller is positioned eccentrically inside the casing, the
water advances and receeds from the centre boss of the
impeller acting as a liquid piston which compresses the air
or gases in the space between the vanes of t he impeller.
Suction and discharge ports are located within t he pump
end covers.
Referring t o the cross section of t he pump (Figure 2), as
the impeller rotates, t he water is t hrown out by centrifugal
force and a space is formed between the impeller blades.
At the t op position this space is completely filled with
water. As the impeller rotates clockwise t he space increases.
creating a vacuum and air or gas is drawn in through t he
suction port. Continued rotation increases the volume of
space until t he end of t he suction cycle. As the blades pass
t he bot t om position t he volume begins t o decrease and the
air or gas is gradually compressed. Towards t he t op position
the air or gas is expelled through t he discharge port and the
cycle repeats itself, resulting in a continuous build-up of
vacuum. The sealing water and gases are expelled together
through the discharge port , so that a continual flow of
water into t he casing is necessary.
I'ig. 3 Influence of water temperature on pumping speed
45
40
3 5
30
2 5
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
Because of its relative low cost and availability, water is the
most common source of sealing medium used in this type
of vacuum pump. Other types of sealants are used, notably
oil, where a higher vacuum is required. in which case a
recirculating system is employed.
0
lii
ss"5
3
$ 2
0 2
During the compression part of the cycle, the air or gas
temperature is increased. This heat is dissipated into the
sealing water which is expelled through t he discharge port,
t hus keeping the whole cycle in an almost isothermal
condition.
l 5
20
30
35
40
The foregoing description is t he basic principle of a liquid
ring vacuum pump. Variations in design such as a two
stage pump do not alter these principles. In this case the
discharge port of t he first stage becomes t he suction port
of t he second stage and t he air or gas is further compressed
t o create a higher available vacuum.
8 s 45
10 30 40 60 80 110 160 260 460 760 1000
TORR
Particular processes in which liquid ring vacuum pumps are
used call for liquids other t han water t o be employed as a
sealant. Some of these liquids may be of a corrosive
nature and therefore pumps are available in a wide range of
materials t o suit t he application. Materials such as cast iron,
cast steel, stainless steel and bronze make up the most
common types, but ot her materials can be specified and
made available.
THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON PUMPING
SPEED
The temperature of sealing water has a marked influence on
t he pumping speed of the pump. If t he temperature is higher
t han 15' C t hen t he pumping speed of t he pump is reduced
conversely this increases when t he temperature is below
1 5 C. Therefore, it is standard practice for capacity tables
and curves t o be based on water as the sealant at a tempera-
t ure of 15' C (sea level). The graph illustrated in Figure 3
shows t he percentage increase or decrease of pumping
speeds related t o the water temperature.
It is recommended that t he pump is not operated at tempera-
tures and vacua below t he dotted line on the graph other-
wise cavitation can occur within the pump. This can cause
a loud noise and badly damage t he impeller.
SEALANT SYSTEMS
There are three basic systems which can be used, these are:
(a) Non-recovery
(b) Partial recovery
(c) Full recovery
The selection of a sealant system depends on a number of
factors, i.e. the availability and type of the sealant t o be
used. the operating temperature, the process in which the
pump is t o be installed and the economics of the recovery
of a sealant.
Non-recovery system (Figure 4)
This system is used where there is sufficient sealant flow
from an outside source, or the contamination of t he sealant
causes problems in recovery.
Partial recovery system (Figure 5)
A partial recovery system utilises part of t he sealant dis-
charged from the pump into a reservoir t ank, the remaining
amount of sealant required by t he pump is supplied from
an external source. In this manner some sealant conservation
takes place and the sealant entering the pump is cooled
by that from the external source,
Full recovery system (Figure 6 )
The full recovery system is employed where conservation of
the sealant is important due t o economic or chemical
reasons. The sealant is discharged i nt o a reservoir tank from
where it is returned t o t he pump via a heat exchanger.
PUMP AND SEALANT SELECTION
Pump Selection
Various factors determine the type and size of pump t o be
selected t o suit a particular application.
The volume of system t o be evacuated and the vacuum
required must be known. The type of sealant t o suit t he
application is a further requirements. With water as a sealant,
single-stage pumps produce a vacuum of up t o approximate-
ly 150 Torr. It should be noted that it is ineffecient t o
operate a single-stage pump at a vacuum greater t han 150
Torr because the increase in absorbed power is greater than
the increase in capacity. Two-stage pumps using water as a
sealant can produce a higher vacuum, up to approximately
25 Torr. It is strongly emphasised that two-stage pumps
must not be selected for installations with a vacuum lower
than 150-200 Torr otherwise the shaft and/or t he impeller
will eventually break.
S UCT I ON
VALVE
VACUUM G A U G E
SOL ENOI D
OPERAT ED F L O W LI QUI D RI NG
S HUT - OF F CONT ROL
VALVE VALVE
WI RE D
A C R O S S
MOT OR
0 T E MP E RAT URE GAUGE
Fig. 4
SUCTION EVACUATED GAS
GAUGE
LIOUID
- - - - - - -
GAUGE
I
OVERFLOW
FLOW CONTROL
^ VA. .
SHUT-OFF
VALVE
1 FROM EXTERNAL SOURCE
Fig. 5
SUCTION
7
EVACUATED GAS
i l
SHUT-OFF
VALVE
SHUT-OFF
VALVE
LIOUID
- - - - -
- - - -
SHUT-OF
VALVE
TEMPERATURE SAUCE
HEAT EXCHANGER
TEMPERATURE GAUGE
TEMPERATURE
GAUGE
COOLANT-IN 1 1 COOLANT-OUT
Fig. 6.
Using a sealant with a lower vapour pressure can increase
the amount of vacuum which can be obtained. Always
consider the amount of vacuum required in absolute units,
i.e. Torr. The pumpdown time required, that is the time
taken t o evacuate the system from atmospheric pressure t o
the required vacuum, is essential in calculating the size of
pump necessary t o efficiently perform the operation.
A formula for calculating the pumping speed is as follows:
where S = Pumping speed in m3 / h
V = Volume t o be evacuated in m3
T = Pumpdown time in minutes
Pi = Initial Pressure in Torr
P2 = Final pressure required in Torr
Example:
A pump using water as a sealant is t o be operated at 15OC
at sea level. It is required t o evacuate a 50 m3 vessel down
t o 100 Torr in 10 minutes.
Barometric Pressure at sea level = 760 Torr
From manufacturers' tables and curves,
pump can then be selected.
Sealant Selection
the appropriate
Although water is the most common form of sealant used
in liquid ring vacuum pumps, due t o its availaility and low
cost, many other liquids can be used t o suit the process
installation in which the vacuum pump is operating. In
these installations, t he physical and chanical properties of
the gas being evacuated, and of the sealant, must be evalu-
ated. In particular, t he vapour pressure has a direct influence
on the maximum vacuum and pumping speed obtainable.
The lower the vapour pressure, t he higher the vacuum.
Specific gravity, specific heat and viscosity of the sealant
are also important regarding the output of the pump.
Additional equipment may have t o be supplied t o provide
extra power and cooling if the incorrect sealant is being used.
The compatability of t he sealant with the gas being evacu-
ated is another important factor t o consider, especially if a
partial or full recovery system is used for the sealant. The
solubility of t he gasin the sealant can cause expensive separa-
tion problems.
140
130
120
110
100
^ 90
5 80
5 70
$ 60
50
4 0
30
2 0
10
1.0 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80100 200 400 700 1000
VAPOUR PRESSURE -TOUR
Fig. 7 Sealant characteristics
The material used in the manufacture of the pump has been
selected for use with particular types of sealant. Should the
duties of t he pump be changed, it is necessary t o ascertain
t hat the pump material is capable of withstanding the new
sealant.
The graph, (Figure 7) shows t he equivalent curves ofvarious
liquids at differing temperatures can be calculated from
these curves.
Acknowledgement; Hi-Vac (Pty) Ltd
PistonIPlunger Pump Systems
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR PISTON/
PLUNGER PUMPING SYSTEMS
Piston/Plunger types are designed to transfer fluids without
the application of centrifugal force. As liquids are directly
displaced, pump capacity is directly proportional to speed,
These pumps cannot operate against closed circuit lines
without damage to the pump, prime mover, pipelines or
other process equipment. Therefore to prevent this, the
following features are important:
Air Vessels
These are installed as shock absorbers on the delivery side
of the delivery valve. At each delivery stroke of the pump,
air in the vessel is compressed, and on the return stroke it
expands sufficiently to create a gradual reduction in liquid
flow. This considerably reduces hydraulic shock and pre-
vents water hammer (p 2 19 - 22 1). It is important that air
vessels are installed as near as possible t o the delivery
flange of the pump, and with their narrow end down-
ward to minimise the area of contact between the water
and the air inside the vessel in order to reduce the absorp-
tion of air by the water.
There will always be an inevitable amount of absorption
and therefore the vessel must be topped up with air period-
ically, otherwise its efficiency will be impaired. A water-
logged air vessel will cause the pump to be subjected to
excessive water-hammer and likely damage.
Discharge valves
These should not be installed as a means of providing
throttling in the delivery line with positive displacement
pumps as they create excessive pressures when the flow is
restricted. Notwithstanding this warning, pumps are nor-
mally supplied with a shear pin or spring-loaded relief valve
as standard equipment. These should be set or adjusted t o
suit the required site pressure.
Non-friction valve
This is recommended for installation beyond the air vessel
to prevent flooding of the pump house while servicing the
pump or recharging the air vessel.
Pressure gauge
A pressure gauge should be installed with every positive
displacement pump. Excessive fluctuations on the gauge
will indicate a water-logged air vessel so that remedial
action may be taken before damage is done. The gauge
should preferably be wall-mounted and connected as near
to the pump as possible by means of high pressure flexible
hose t o absorb pump vibration. A manually controlled
valve immediately below the gauge serves as an isolator
and can also be used for throttling to steady the gauge
indicator.
Priming Piston/Plunger pumps
Plunger pumps require priming of the suction chamber
only when suction heads are excessive. Flooding the suction
chamber is simplified by priming through one suction plug.
When priming the suction line is necessary, follow the
same procedure.
Removal of a suction valve will alow the liquid t o enter the
suction pipe.
Piston pumps cannot be primed by this method because
the liquid end is totally enclosed, and they should therefore
incorporate provision for priming by means of a by-pass
tube from delivery. This should be installed from a point
beyond the non-return valve t o the suction line controlled
by a valve in the by-pass line. or any other method that
permits water t o enter the suction line without introducing
air when pumping.
Easy starting
For ease of starting, a manually operated waste wheel valve
is recommended. A simple arrangement comprises a tee
branch incorporating the valve from the delivery between
the pump and non-return valve and connected t o the open
end of the valve back t o the supply.
Alternatively, a built-in by-pass from delivery t o suction
can be fitted. Full load starting is always uneconomical,
and considerable reduction in starting load will result when
this valve is opened. It may be closed when the motor
reaches maximum speed or when the engine has warmed
to running temperature.
Oil levels
Dipsticks should be checked periodically to ensure that oil
levels are maintained with the correct grade of oil.
TROUBLE SHOOTING
If pump does not start:
1. Examine discharge lines for obstruction
2. Check for a valve disc detached from its stem
3. Ascertain whether the piston or plunger is frozen. To
check this, with the throttle closed, jack the pump with
a bar t o see if there is excessive friction.
4. If pump still fails t o start, the valve cover should be
removed t o check whether the main valve is stuck.
Erratic operation
The failure of fluid to follow the piston may cause erratic
operation on starting.
1. Ensure that all inlet line valves are open
2. Check line for obstructions
If the pump races without increasing out put , stop pump
immediately and check for:
1. Leaky plunger
2. Leaky, stuck or broken valve
3. Air leakage
Negative lift
Throttle the inlet or fit heavier springs on the inlet valves.
Acknowledgement: National Pump
Control and OnIOff
Valves Valve sizing for liquids 80 - 85
Valve sizing for gases and steam 86 - 91
Principles and applications of
control valves
Factors governing control valve
selection
Control valve selection for
water discharge
Level and flow control valve
systems
Planning valve control schemes 1 1 1 - 114
Energy conservation by using
steam traps 115 - 118
Dripleg sizing 119,120
Testing steam traps for energy
conservation
Effective steam trap separation 123 - 128
Valves for pressure reduction of
steam 129 - 130
Safety valves - back pressure
considerations 131 - 138
Knife gate valve selection for
slurry handling
Pinch valves for slurry handling 142
Applications for block and bleed
valves 143 - 145
Fire testing for valves 146,147
For further information on valves refer to our
reference books titled:
Knowing more about Valves
Fluids Flow and Control
Valve Sizing for liquids
Control valves are selected and sized t o perform a specific fluid is changed from static pressure t o kinetic or velocity
function within a process system. Failure t o fully perform related energy. This change is quantified by using t he con-
the control function results in lossof energy, lossof capacity tinuity equation.
and ultimately higher production costs. Sizing is critical
for successful and efficient plant operations.
FLOW
I
LIQUID SIZING EQUATION BACKGROUND'
The flow equations used for liquid sizing have their roots in
t he fundamental equations which describe the behaviour of
fluid motion - principally, t he energy equation and t he
continuity equation.
The energy equation accounts for t he energy transfer and
content of the fluid. For liquid in steady flow, this equa-
tion can be written as:
(terms are defined in t he Nomenclature Section, page 167)
The three terms within t he parentheses are 'mechanical'
RESTRICTION 1
Fig. 1. As flow is throttled through a fixed restriction the velocity
increases, t he cross-sectional area decreases and the static pressure
decreases. The point of minimum area, maximum velocity and
minimum pressure is called the vena contracta.
Using upstream conditions as a reference, and holding t he
density constant, Equation (3) can be rewritten t o predict
velocity at t he vena contracta.
energy terms and carry a special significance. These quanti-
ties are all capable of directly doing work. Under conditions
v v ~ = ~ ~ ( 2 ~ )
(4)
normally encountered in valves, this quantity also remains
constant. The result is known as Bernoulli's Equation.
Combining this with equation (2) and solving for Pvc
V2 P
determines vena contracta pressure.
- + -+ gZ = constant
2gc P
( 2 )
The ot her fundamental equation which plays a vital role in
VENA CONTRACTA
the liquid sizing equation is the continuity equation. This
is the mathematical statement of conservation .of the fluid
mass. For steady flow conditions this equation is written as:
PRESSURE
pVA = constant ( 3)
Using these fundamental equations, the flow through a
simple fixed restriction such as that shown in Figure 1 can
be examined. For now. assume t he following:
the gZ term zero. A decrease in the pressure term results in Fig. 2. After passing the vena contraeta, velocity and area increase
an increase in the velocity term and vice versa. As the fluid
t o original conditions. Static pressure, however, is less than it wa:
previous t o the restriction. The observed pressure loss represents
passes t he restriction, much of t he mechanical energy in t he energy used in passing the restriction.
I
1. The fluid is incompressible
,
2. The flow is steady
3. The flow is one-dimensional (no elevation change)
I
4. The flow can be treated as turbulent
5. No change of fluid phase occurs
VELOCITY
As seen in Figure 1 , t he liquid flow stream must contract in
area and increase in velocity t o pass through t he flow
restriction. The point in t he flow stream having minimum
cross sectional flow area and maximum velocity is the vena
contracta. Bernoulli's Equation applies well from a point
several pipe diameters upstream of t he restriction t o t he
@:STANCE DOWN~I REAM
vena contracta. Changes in elevation are negligible making
These equations show mathematically that at t he point of
minimum cross sectional area (t he vena contracta) the fluid
velocity is at a maximum (from Equation (4)) and fluid
pressure is at a minimum (from Equation (5)). As t he flow
stream passes through t he restriction, t he velocity increases
while the pressure decreases. Both changes are inversely
proportional t o t he change in flow area. Figure 2 shows
this relationship.
From t he vena contracta point t o a point several diameters
downstam the process is not ideal and Equation (2) no
longer applies. From the continuity equation it can be reason-
ed that as the original cross sectional area is restored, t he
original velocity is also restored. However, because of the
non-idealities of this process, the, total mechanical energy
is not restored. A portion of it is converted into heat. The
heat produced is either absorbed by t he fluid itself or
dissipated t o the valve, piping and environment. Consider
Equation (1) applied from several diameters upstream of
the restriction t o several diameter ownstream of t he re-
striction: No work is done across t he restrictions, so t he
work (w) term drops out . The elevation changes are negli-
gible, so the gZ t erms also drop out . By combining t he
thermal terms (q and U) into a sinde term H i , t he follow-
ing equation can be written:
Since t he upstream and downstream flow areas and densities
are equal, Equation (3) indicates that t he upstream and
downstream velocity is also equal. Hence, Equation (6)
can be simplified as follows-
Thus, we see a decrease in pressure across the restriction
while the thermal terms (internal energy and heat lost t o
the surroundings) increase.
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
FLOW
Thermal changes of this type are generally proportional t o
t he square of t he velocity and can be represented by the
following equation:
In this equation the constant of proportionality, Kl i s
called t he available head loss coefficient, and is determined
experimentally.
Inserting Equation (8) into Equation (7) and solving for V2
yields:
The volumetric flow rate, Q, can be determined by multi-
plying t he velocity times t he area (Q = V2A2). Let
and define:
By solving for t he volumetric flow rate, Q, and inserting
Equations (91, (10) and (1 l ) , t he following equation can
be written:
Equation (12) is t he basic liquid sizing equation used by the
control valve industry. It provides a measure of flow in
gallons per minute (GPM) when pressure in pounds per
square inch is used. With ot her units of flow or flow variables
the equation is the same and only the constantsare different.
t- TEST SPECIMEN
; ,----- I DOWNSTREAM
I ' THROTTLING VALVE
I I
I
UPSTREAM
' ig. 3. To ensure uniformity of Cv reporting, ISA has developed standards for equipment set u p
for control valve capacity testing. Accuracy of coefficients t o 5% is typical.
UQUID FLOW COEFFICIENTS (Cv)
Classes 150 - 600
Linear
Characteristic
Trim
f>n
-..-
Stage
Fig. 4, Sizing coefficients are tabulated as a function of valve type, trim and characteristic. Size t o size variation
is significant in valves. Thus, testing and publication of coefficients at various travel is important.
:::!
Inch
1
1-112
2
2-112
Stage
DETERMINATION OF FLOW COEFFICIENTS
Rather t han experimentally measure Ki and calculate Cv, it
is more straight-forward t o measure Cv directly. Once t he
Cv is obtained, Equation (12) can be used t o relate pressure
drop t o flow rate.
In order t o assure uniformity and accuracy, t he procedures
for bot h measuring flow parameters and their use in sizing
are addressed by industrial standards. The Instrument
Society of America (ISA) standards are t he most widely
used and accepted. Meansurement of Cv and related flow
parameters is covered extensively i n ANSIIISA Standard
S75.02, 198 1. The basic test system configuration is shown
in Figure 3, Specifications, accuracies and tolerances are
given for all hardware installation and dat a measurements
so that coefficients can be calculated t o an accuracy of
approximately 5%. Fresh water at approximately 68 degrees
F is circulated through t he test valve at specified pressure
differentials and inlet pressures. Flow rate, fluid tempera-
ture, inlet and differential pressure, valve travel and baro-
metric pressure are all measured and recorded. This yelds
sufficient information t o calculate t he following sizing
parameters.
Flow coefficient (Cv)
Pressure recovery coefficient (FL or Km)
Piping correction factor (Fp)
Reynolds number factor ( FR)
The value of each of these parameters depends on valve
style, t ri m, travel and size. Numerous tests must be per-
formed t o arrive at t he values published by t he valve manu-
facturer for use in sizing. I t is i mport ant , also, t hat these
factors be based on tests. not estimates since the results
are not always predictable.
. 3'
4
6
8
The piping correction factor (Fp), t he Reynolds number
factor (Fp), and t he Pressure recovery coefficient (FL or
Km) will all be discussed in detail in t he upcoming sections.
Figure 4 shows a typical chart of Cv and Km values for a
given valve design.
Port
Diameter,
Inch
1-511 6
1-718
2-511 6
2-718
1. Valves should not be required to throttle at a Cv less then the specified minimum Cv
for an extended period of time. Erosion damage to the valve seats may result.
1
1.112
2
2.112
, 3
4
6
8
~p~
BASIC SIZING PROCEDURE
The procedure by which valves are sized for normal, liquid
flow is straight-forward. Again, t o ensure uniformity and
consistency, a standard exists which delineates the equations
and correction factors t o be employed for a given applica-
tion. This standard is entitled 'Control Valve Sizing Equa-
tions' , ANSI/ISA S75.01 - 1977.
The simplest case of liquid flow application involves t he
basic equation developed earlier. Rearranging Equation (12)
so t hat all of the fluid and process related variables are on
t he right side of t he equation, we arrive at an expression for
the valve Cv required for t he particular application:
3-71? 6
4-3/8
7
8
Remember t hat Cv is a dimensionless, tested value t hat is
published by valve manufacturers. It will vary with valve
design, size and valve travel.
Maximum
Travel,
Inch
1
718
1-1 /8
1-112
1
1-5/16
1-718
2-5/16
2-718
2-718
5-318
7
Based on a given flow rate and pressure drop, a required Cv
value can be calculated. This required Cv can then be com-
pared t o Cv 's for a particular valve size and valve design.
Generally, the Cv required should fall in a range between
70% and 90% of t he selected valve's Cv capability. Allow-
ance for minimum and maximum flow pressure conditions
1 -5/8
2-1 /8
2-114
3-318
Mlninum
Throttling
g( i )
1.9
2.5
3.9
4.2
1
1-112
2
2-1 /2
3
4
4
6
4.6
5.2
10
15
0.28
0.44
0.92
1.10
1.20
1.90
3.00
7.00
KB,
.81
3 6
.87
.82
Valve Opening, Percent of Maximum Travel
1.65
3.47
4.6
16.2
0.11
0.22
0.80
1.75
3.14
2.83
6.05
19.8
.
10
25
59
8 4
.84
10.8
22.7
30.0
70.2
40
5.04
0.41
1.20
3.05
5.25
8.23
11.2
22.5
47.2
20
.48
.72
1.49
6.83
22.3
43.3
65.3
124
30
2.36
2.54
6.68
16.2
1.08
2.23
5.29
8.71
13.3
19.4
38.0
74.5
12.8
22.1
41.2
50
7.36
34.3
63.4
99.7
176
60
9.47
70
11.2
1.75
3.26
7.56
12.2
18.5
27.4
53.7
101
15.6
26.7
48.8
45.3
81.8
134
227
80
13.1
2.43
4.29
9.83
15.6
23.5
35.5
69.4
129
18.2
30.9
55.5
55.5
100
165
276
90
14.6
3.10
5.31
12.1
19.1
28.7
43.2
85.2
156
100
15.5
20.8
34.4
61.7
64.7
116
195
324
22.5
36.1
64.4
3.78
6.35
14.3
22.6
33.8
50.5
100
184
72.7
131
219
370
4.45
7.37
16.5
26.1
38.9
57.1
115
211
80.0
144
241
412
5.12
8.40
18.8
29.6
44.0
63.2
130
238
86.7
151
259
439
.79
.81
.83
.89
5.80
9.40
21.0
33.0
49.0
69.0
144
265
.96
.96
.96
.96
.96
.96
.96
.96
~ -
should also be considered. It is important to realise that
the valve size is only one aspect of selecting a valve.
Once a valve has been selected and Cv is known, the flow
rate for a given pressure drop, or the pressure drop for a
given flow rate, can be predicted by substituting and solving
for the appropriate quantities in Equation (12).
This basic liquid equation covers conditions governed by the
assumptions listed earlier. Unfortunately, many applications
fall outside the bounds of these assumptions and outside
of the basic liquid flow equation. Rather than develop
special flow equations for all of the possible deviations, it
is possible to account for different behaviour with the use
of simple correction factors. These factors, when incorporat-
ed, change the form of Equation (12) to the following:
Fig. 5. Use of t he sizing equation suggests t hat as AP is increased,
flow will proportionally increase forever. In reality, this relation-'
ship holds for only certain conditions.
0. GPM
, - PREDICTED FLOW
USING ACTUAL AP
, a # 4
Pig. 6. Choked flow caused by vapour bubble formation in t he flow
stream imposes a limit on t he liquid f l ow relationship. The limiting
pressure dr op is called '&'allowable .... i t is a function of fluid pro-
perties and valve geometry.
All of the additional factors in this equation are explained
in the following sections.
CHOKED FLOW
A plot of Equation (12) implies that, for a given valve, flow
could be continually increased by simply increasing the
pressure differential across the valve (Figure 5). In reality,
the relationship given by this equation holds for only a
limited range. As the pressure differential is increased, a
point is reached where the realised flow increase is less than
expected. This phenomenon continues until no additional
flow increase occurs in spite of increasing t he pressure
differential. This condition of limited maximum flow is
known as choked flow (Figure 6).
To understand more about what is occurring and how t o
correct for it when sizing valves, it is necessary to return
t o some of the fluid flow basics described earlier.
Recall that as a liquid passes through a reduced cross-
sectional area, velocity increases to a maximum and pressure
decreases t o a minimum. As the flow exists, velocity is
restored t o its original value while the pressure is only
partially restored, thus creating a pressure differential across
the device. As this pressure differential is increased, the
velocity through the restriction increases (thus increasing
flow) and the vena contracta pressure decreases. If a suf-
ficiently large pressure differential is imposed on t he de-
vice, the minimum pressure may decrease t o or below the
vapour pressure of the liquid under these conditions.
When this occurs, the liquid becomes unstable and partially
vapourises. The fluid now consists of a mixture of liquid
and vapour which is no longer incompressible.
While the exact mechanisms of liquid choking are not fully
confirmed, there are parallels between this and critical flow
in gas applications. In gas flows the flow becomes critical
(choked) when the fluid velocity is equal t o the speed of
sound in the fluid. Incompressible fluids have very high
sound speeds so, practically speaking, they do not choke.
Liquidlgas or liquid/vapour mixtures, however, typically
have very low sound speeds (actually lower than that for
a pure gas or vapour). It is possible for the mixture velocity
to equal the sonic velocity and choke the flow.
Another way of viewing choking is t o consider the density
of the mixture at the vena contracta. As the pressure
decreases, the density of the vapour phase, and hence the
mixture, decreases. Eventually this decrease in density of
the fluid offsets any increase in the velocity of the mixture,
to the point where no additional mass flow is realised.
It is necessary t o account for the occurrence of choked
flow during the sizing process to ensure against under-
sizing a valve. In other words, the maximum flow rate a
valve can handle under a given set of conditions must be
known. To this end, a procedure was developed which
combines control valve pressure recovery characteristics
with the thermodynamic properties of the fluid t o predict
the maximum usable pressure differential, that is, the
pressure differential at which the flow just chokes.
A pressure recovery coefficient can be defined as:
Note that ISA defines FL as a pressure recovery co-
efficient, while Fisher Controls uses Km. In either case,
t he definition as shown in Equation (15) is correct since
Km = (FL)^.
Under choked flow conditions i t has been experimentally
established t hat :
The vapour pressure, Pv, is determined at inlet temperature
since the temperature of t he liquid does not change apprec-
iably between t he inlet and t he vena contracta. The term
rc is known as t he critical pressure ratio and is another
thermodynamic property of t he fluid. While i t is actually
a function of each fluid and t he prevailing conditions, data
for a variety of fluids show that rc can be generalised
according t o Figure 7 . The value of K,,, is determined
individually by test for each valve style and accounts for
the pressure recovery characteristics of the valve.
VAPOR PRESSURE, PSIA - CRITICAL PRESSURE, PSIA
Fig. 7. The critical pressure ratio of the fluid is a required input to
calculate AP allowable. Based on the fluid vapour pressure and
critical pressure this factor can be accurately predicted using this
graph.
By rearranging Equation (15), the pressure differential at
which the flow chokes can be determined and is called the
allowable pressure differential:
When this allowable pressure differential is used in Equation
(12), t he choked flow rate for the given valve will result.
If t he choked flow rate is less than t he required service flow
rate, the valve is undersized, it is then necessary t o select
a larger valve and repeat the calculations using the new
values for Cv and Km.
Another way t o look at choked flow sizing is to compare
APallowable t o APact ual . The smaller value should be
used t o solve Equation (13).
The above procedure is t he method used by Fisher Controls
for sizing liquid flow control valves. ANSI/ISA S75.01 uses
essentially the same equations, except that the nomenclature
has been changed as follows:
where :
F L= ^Km
FF = rC
Nl = units factor
Other phenomena that are closely associated with choked
flow are cavitation and flashing.
Viscous flow
One of the assumptions implicit in t he sizing procedures
presented to this point is that of fully developed, turbulent
flow. Turbulent flow and laminar flow are flow regimes
which characterise the behaviour of flow. In laminar flow,
all fluid particles move parallel t o one another in an orderly
fashion with no mixing of t he fluid. Conversely, turbulent
flow is highly random in terms of local velocity direction
and magnitude. While there is certainly net flow in a partic-
ular direction, instantaneous velocity components in all
directions exist within this net flow. Significant fluid
mixing occurs in turbulent flow. As is true of many physical
phenomena, there is no distinct Ime between these two
regimes, so a third regime of transition flow is sometimes
recognised.
VALVE REYNOLDS NUMBER. Re,
Fig. 8. The standard sizing equation is based on fully turbulent
flow. For very viscous fluids correction factors must be applied.
The physical quantities which govern a flow regime are t he
viscous and inertial forces, t he ratio of which is known as
the Reynolds number. When the viscous forces dominate (a
Reynolds number below 2000) the flow is laminar. If t he
inertial forces dominate (a Reynolds number above 3000)
the flow is turbulent.
Consideration of these flow regimes is important because
the behaviour of t he flow changes when the flow regime
changes. The primary behaviour characteristic of concern in
sizing is the nature of the available energy losses. As described
earlier, for turbulent flow, t he available energy losses are
proportional t o t he square of the velocity. I n t he laminar
flow regime, these same losses are linearly proportional t o
t he velocity; in t he transitional regime, these losses tend t o
vary. Thus, for equivalent flow rates, t he pressure differen-
tial across a restriction will be different for each flow regime.
To compensate for this effect (the change i n resistance t o
flow) in sizing valves a correction factor was developed
The required Cv can be determined from t he following
equation:
^V req'd '^R ^V rated
The factor Fn is a function of t he Reynolds number and
can be determined from a simple nomograph procedure
(see Figure 6).
To predict flow rate or resulting pressure differential, t he
required flow coefficient is used in place of t he rated flow
coefficient in Equation (1 2).
Piping considerations.
When a valve is installed in a field piping configuration
which is different from t he specified test section, it is some-
times necessary t o account for t he effect of t he altered
piping on flow through t he valve. Recall that t he standard
test section consists of a prescribed length of straight pipe
up and downstream of t he valve. Field installation may
require elbows, reducers, and tees, which will induce addi-
tional pressure losses adjacent t o t he valve. To correct for
this situation, t wo factors are introduced: Fp and F, p. The
former is used t o correct t he flow equation when used in
the choked flow range. The expressions for these factors are:
The term 2 K in Equation (20) is t he sum of all loss coeffi-
cients of all devices attached t o t he valve. In t he absence
of test data, loss coefficients may be estimated from various
sources of information.
The factors Q and Fin would appear in flow Equations
(14) and (18), respectively, as follows:
For incompressible flow:
For choked flow:
Fisher Controls does not use F or F l p when sizing globe
style control valves. The reason is simply that for globe
style control valves losses due t o piping concerns are usually
negligible. However, for high capacity valves such as ball
and butterfly valves, these flow losses are significant. Co-
efficients t o account for piping are published based on
line size t o body size ratios for these products.
Use of simple flow equations can accurately predict control
valve sizing and flow capability. Caution is indicated, how-
ever, when viscous material is flowed, when piping is un-
usual or when choked flow exists. These situations can
be handled by use of correction factors.
Summary
The liquid sizing equation is simple t o use and based on a
single, empirically determined sizing coefficient.
A valve size should be selected which gives t he required
application Cv at 70% t o 90% of travel.
Sizing and trim selection are influenced by choked flow
and the presence of cavitation. These phenomena limit
flow and may cause significent damage.
The recovery coefficient, Km. varies with valve geometry
and is an indication of a valve's tendency t o cavitate. For
a given valve size, Km is inversely proportional t o valve flow
efficiency or capacity.
Viscosity and piping corrections must be made in many
liquid sizing situations. Piping considerations are especially
important when high recovery valves are specified.
Nomenclature
A = cross sectional flow area
Cv = flow coefficient
d = diameter of valve inlet
D = diameter.of adjacent piping
Fd = valve style modifier
FL = critical pressure ratio
Fi = pressure recovery coefficient
F = piping correction factor
FD = Reynolds number factor
g = gravitational acceleration
gc = gravitational constant
G = liquid specific gravity Q =f l ow rate
Hi = available headloss U = internal energy of fluid
Kc = Bernoulli coefficient V =velocity
Kl = available headloss coefficient w = shaft work done by (or on) fluid
Km = pressure recovery coefficient Z =elevation
Nl =uni t s factor
p = fluid density
P =pressure
v = kinematic viscosity
PC = absolute thermodynamic critical General Subscripts:
pressure =upst ream
q =heat transferred out of fluid = downstream
Rev = Reynolds number v =vapour
rc = critical pressure ratio vc = vena contracta
Acknowledgement: Fisher Controls Inc.
Control Specialists (Pty) Ltd
85
Valve Sizing for Gases and Steam
I t used t o be common practice in t he industry t o select
valve size strictly as a function of pipe size. I t soon became
apparent t hat this practice contributed t o very poor control
and resulting process problems. Selecting the correct valve
size for a given application requires a knowledge of the flow
and process conditions t he valve will actually see in service
as well as information on valve function. The technique for
using this information t o size t he valve is based upon a
combination of theory, experimentation and experience.
The results are now predictable and consistent.
Early efforts in t he development of valve sizing theory cen-
tered around t he problem of sizing valves for liquid flow.
Daniel Bernoulli was one of the early experimenters who
applied the science of fluid flow theory t o liquid flow. Sub-
sequent experimental modifications t o this theory produced
a useful liquid flow equation.
where :
Qgpm = Liquid flow in gpm
Cv = Valve sizing coefficient
AP = Valve pressure drop
G = Liquid specific gravity
This equation rapidly became widely accepted for sizing
valves on liquid service and most manufacturers of valves
began testing and publishing C data in their catalogues.
It was inevitable t hat t he valves, which had worked so well
on liquids, would sooner or later be used t o control t he
flow of gases, such as steam or air.
It was just as inevitable that the good results obtained from
the Cv equation would strongly tempt its use t o predict the
flow of gas. The results. however, were unfortunately in-
accurate. It was apparent that other factors were involved.
Modified CV equation
In order t o use the liquid flow equation for air it was neces-
sary t o make t wo modifications. The first step was to intro-
duce a conversion factor t o change flow units from gallons-
per-minute t o cubic-feet per hour. The second step was t o
relate liquid specific gravity in terms of pressure, which
would be more meaningful for gas flow.
These additions. plus a temperature correction based on
Charles' Law yields t he following equation. It handles any
gas at any temperature.
The ' 520' is the product of t he specific gravity and temper-
ature of air at standard conditions. The specific gravity is
1,O. The standard temperature is 520R (60 degrees F). The
G and T represent the specific gravity and absolute temper-
ature of t he gas being worked with.
The simplicity of Equation (2) obscures a serious problem
springing from indiscriminate use of a simple conversion.
Limitations that result from compressibility effects and
critical flow factors are ignored - in this situation t hey are
very important.
A plot of flow vs.AF' using Equation (2) shows a linear
relationship. The slope of t he line is a function of the valve
sizing coefficient Cv. The greater t he C of t he valve, the
steeper the slope. Unfortunately, test data and field practice
shows results different from the prediction.
An actual flow vs. pressure drop curve shows good agree-
ment with the theoretical curve at low pressure drops.
However, a significant deviation occurs at higher pressure
drops. Equation (2) was based on an assumption of incom-
pressible flow. When the pressure drop ratio (&'/PI)
exceeds approximately 0, 02 the gas is undergoing com-
pression as it flows through the valve restriction.
Fig. 1. Use of a modified liquid sizing equation gives an accurate
prediction of gas flow only for small AP/Pl ratios. The actual
flow curve deviates from expected due to compressibility.
A much more serious [imitation on successful use of this
equation involves the phenomenon of 'critical' flow. A
control valve, at any flow opening, can be represented by a
simple restriction in the line. As t he flow passes through
the physical resutriction, there is a necking down, or
contraction, of the flow stream. The minimum cross-
sectional area of the flow stream occurs just a short distance
downstream of t he physical restriction at a point called the
vena contracta. Since this is the point of minimum flow
area the velocity must simultaneously be the greatest.
As t he AP across t he valve increases, flow also increases,
and the velocity at the vena contracts increases. At some
value of AP the gas reaches sonic velocity at t he vena con-
tracts. Since a gas cannot normally travel at speeds faster
than sonic velocity, a flow limiting condition is reached.
This is critical flow. A valve operating in this mode is refer-
red t o as 'choked'.
When critical flow is reached, Equation (2) becomes absol-
utely worthless for predicting flow since the flow no
longer increases with increases in pressure drop. The equa-
tion we have developed so far produces flow predictions
which deviate significantly from actual flow for pressure
drop ratios greater t han 0,02. Further, it is totally wrong
once critical flow is reached.
FLOW -
I
Fig. 2. The minimum cross-sectional area of the flow stream known
as the vena contracta. This point is a short distance down-
stream from the actual flow restriction.
The Cv equation was modified further in an attempt t o
predict t he behaviour of gases at bot h critical and subcritical
flow conditions. The modified equation was now expected
t o take care of accurately predicting gas flow. As it turned
out , three equations were developed which did a fairly
decent j ob of predicting gas flow through standard globe
style valves at pressure drop ratios less than 0, s.
Globe style valves in common usage at t he time, reached
critical flow at a pressure drop ratio of about 0, s . In t he
low pressure drop region t he slope of the flow curve plotted
from any of these three equations is t he same as t hat estab-
lished by the original C equation (Equation 2). If t he
pressure drop ratio is equal t o 0, 5, each of t he modified
equations will predict a flow which approximates t he actual
critical flow. At this poi nt , all three of t he modified equa-
tions reduce t o the form of a constant times C and t he
absolute inlet pressure. This indicates that once the critical
pressure ratio is reached, t he flow through the valve will no
longer be dependent upon t he pressure drop across the valve.
The flow will change only as a function of the inlet pressure.
High recovery valves
The broader application of rotary ball and butterfly valves
started t o highlight shortfalls in t he equations. These valve
styles performed differently due t o their geometry and t he
equations made no provision for change. Rotary valves have
very straight efficient flow passages compared t o t he cir-
cuitous pat hs through globe valves. These valves are known
as 'high recovery' valves.
High and low recovery refer t o t he valve's ability t o convert
velocity at t he vena contracta back into pressure down-
stream of t he valve. Given t wo valves with equal flow areas
and passing t he same flow, t he high recovery valve will
produce less pressure drop t han t he low recovery valve.
FLOW -
------
"\:^ HIGH RECOVERY
/
\ /
p.
\ I 1 LOW RECOVERY
I
I
I
I
I
LOW RECOVERY
!
Fig. 3. A comparison of the pressure profiles of high and low recovery
valves is shown. Given equal flow rate and Cv, the high re-
covery valve will exhibit observed pressure drop.
The pressure profiles for two valves having t he same pressure
drop and flow rate are shown in Figure 3. If critical flow
is the concern, it is apparent t hat t he critical pressure drop
ratio (AP/Pl) for t he high recovery valve will be much less
than for t he low recovery valve. Globe style valves typically
exhibit critical flow at a pressure drop ratio of 0,5. While
more efficient, high recovery valves can exhibit critical flow
at pressure drop ratios as low as 0,15.
Consider further a sizing example involving a high recovery
valve and a low recovery valve with t he same Cv, since t he
initial slope of the flow curve is related t o C , this portion
of the curve will be t he same for both valves. It has already
been shown, however, that t he high recovery valve will
exhibit critical flow at pressure drop ratios as low as 0,15.
Thus, t he equations grossly overstate the flow through t he
high recovery valve at critical pressure drop conditions.
This point is important enough t o warrant repeating. A
high recovery valve with t he same C a n d tested under
similar conditions as a low recovery valve will have much
less critical gas flow capacity. Thus, if the modified Cv
equations, intended for low recovery valves are used t o
size a high recovery valve, the critical flow capacity of the
valve can be over-estimated by a much as 300 per cent.
This may sound like a strange circumstance, but it should
be realised that for bot h valves t o have the same C the high
recovery valve would be much smaller than the low recovery
valve. The geometry of the valve greatly influences liquid
flow, whereas, the critical flow of gas depends essentially
only upon t he flow area of t he valve. Thus, a smaller high
recovery valve will pass less critical gas flow, but its greater
streamlined flow geometry allows i t t o pass as much liquid
flow as t he larger low recovery valve.
1 -0.5
LOW RECOVERY
Fig. 4,Critical flow will occur at lower &/Pi ratios with a high
recovery product. Thus, recovery characteristics must be
considered i n sizing.
observation formed t he basis for a new, improved and, now,
universally accepted prediction means.
Universal gas sizing equation.
Based on test programme results, a Universal Gas Sizing
Equation was developed in 1963. This equation is universal
in the sense that it accurately predicts t he flow for either
high or low recovery valves, for any gas and under any
service conditions. This equation incorporates bot h the basic
Cv equation and t he Cg critical flow equation into a single
dual-coefficient equation. Additionally, a new factor, Cl
is introduced.
where :
C l is defined as t he ratio of the gas sizing coefficient and
the liquid sizing coefficient. This numerical value tells us
the valve is high or low recovery or someplace i n between.
A simple illustration will help clarify the relationship
between C, and t he valve recovery characteristics.
Example:
C a gas sizing coefficient
High Recovery Valve Low Recovery Valve
v
Because of t he problems in using C t o predict critical flow
in bot h high and low recovery valves, tests were carried
out on all valves, using air as well as water. From these
a gas sizing coefficient, Cg was defined t o relate critical
flow t o the absolute inlet pressure. Since C isexperimental-
ly determined for each style and size of vage, i t can be used
t o accurately predict t he flow at critical conditions for both
high and low recovery valves. Equation (6) shows the de-
fining equation for C .
g
Assume t wo valves with identical flow areas. One is a high
recovery valve, and one is low recovery. Since Cg is deter-
mined under critical flow conditions it is relatively inde-
pendent of the recovery characteristics of t he valve. The
^ critical =
(6)
critical flow is primarily a function of the valve area only.
Thus bot h valves will have t he same Cg. Flow geometry,
C is determined by testing t he valve with 60 degrees F air
g
however, has a significant influence upon liquid flow. The
under critical flow conditions. To make the equation appli-
greater efficiency and better streamlining of t he high re-
cable for any gas at any temperature, the same correction
covery valve will allow it t o pass nearly twice as much liquid
factor can be used that was applied previously to the origi-
flow with t he same port area. The Cv, therefore, will be
nal Cv equation.
nearly twice as large as that of the low recovery valve.
So far two gas sizing equations have been developed. One
equation (Equation 2 ) applies only t o very low pressure
drop ratios while the other (Equation 7) is good only for
predicting critical flow. The transition region, however, is
still relatively unknown.
Tests were done on every different style of valve available
in an effort t o better understand t he transition region.
Results of these tests were normalized with respect t o
critical flow and t hen plotted. It was noted that all of t he
test points in the sloping portion of the flow curve could be
quite closely approximated by a standard sine curve. This
Cl varies with valve recovery characteristics in the general
range from about 16 t o 37.
In order t o accurately predict the gas flow for any style
valve, t wo sizing coefficients are needed. Cg helps t o pre-
dict the flow based upon the physical size or flow area,
while Cl accounts for differences in valve recovery charac-
teristics. The Universal Gas Sizing Equation (Equation 8)
incorporates both of these coefficients. This equation may
appear somewhat complex upon first encounter, but a look
at the t wo extremes of the equation can clear up some of
the mystery.
First. consider the extreme where the valve pressure drop
ratio is quite small (AP/Pi < 0,02). This means that the
angle of the sine function will also be quite small in radians.
From basic trigonometry recall t hat , for small angles, t he
sine of t he angle can be approximated by the angle itself
in radians. Under a small pressure drop ratio assumption,
the universal gas sizing equation reduces t o t he original Cv
equation (Equation 2). We already know t hat this equation
fits the flow data in t he incompressible flow region where
the pressure drop ratio is less t han 0,02.
The ot her extreme of t he Universal Sizing Gas Equation is
in the region of critical flow. Critical flow is first established
at the point where t he sine function reaches its maximum
value at the end of the first quarter cycle. At this point t he
sine function is equal t o one and t he angle is equal t o n/ 2
radians. The pressure drop ratio at this point is known as
the critical pressure drop ratio.
At t he critical pressure drop ratio, where t he sine function
becomes unity, t he Universal Gas Sizing Equation simply
reduces t o the critical flow equation (Equation 7). This
Universal Gas Sizing Equation was originally developed t o
predict t he critical flow for any valve style based upon the
experimentally determined gas sizing coefficient. Cg.
In summary, t he Universal Gas Sizing Equation takes t he
basic Cv equation at one extreme and t he critical flow
equation at t he ot her extreme and blends the t wo together
with a sinusoidal function that fits the experimental data.
All of this in one universal equation!
Some individuals find it more convenient t o deal with sine
angles in degrees rather t han in radians. This is easily accom-
modated by a simple conversion constant. The new cons-
stant in the angle becomes 3417 rather than 59,64. Now,
t he sine angle will be 9 0 degrees at the critical pressure drop
ratio rather t han 7712 radians.
As the pressure drop across the valve increases, the sine angle
increases from zero up t o 90 degrees. If the angle is allowed
t o increase beyond 90 degrees, the equation would predict
a decrease in flow. Since this is not a realistic situation. the
angle must be restricted t o 90 degrees maximum.
The mathematical development of the Universal Gas Sizing
Equation shown in Equation (9) is based upon the use of the
perfect gas laws. The expression 4520/GT is derived from
the equation of state for a perfect gas. While it is true that
no perfect gases. as such, exist in nature, there are a multi-
tude of applications where t he perfect gas assumption is a
useful approximation.
For those special applications where t he perfect gas assump-
tion is not adequate, a more general form of the Universal
Gas Sizing Equation has been developed.
Equation (10) is known as the density form of t he Universal
Gas Sizing Equation. I t is t he most general form and can be
used for bot h perfect and non-perfect gas applications.
Steam is t he most common application where equation (10)
is used. The steam density can be easily found from publish-
ed steam tables.
Because steam service applications are so common, a special
form of t he Universal Equation was developed. If t he
pressure stays below 1000 psig, Equation (1 1) can be used
which simplifies t he calculation.
Where: (1 1)
Cs = steam sizing coefficient
Teh = Degrees ofsuperheat ( O F )
Equation (10) is more general and can be used in all cases
where Equation (1 1) is valid; however, Equation (10) re-
quires a knowledge of the steam density (d 1 ). For steam
below 1000 psig, a constant relationship exists between the
gas sizing coefficient (Cg) and t he steam sizing coefficient
(Cd.
Density changes that occur as the steam becomes super-
heated are compensated for by t he superheat correction
factor that appears in the denominator of Equation (1 1).
Use of Equation (11) eliminates t he need for steam tables
t o look up t he density of superheated steam.
At pressures greater t han 1000 psig, the steam begins t o
deviate significantly from the constant relationship defined
in Equation (12) and t he superheat correction is no longer
valid. At greater pressures Equation (10) must be used for
accurate results.
Conclusion
The Universal Gas Sizing Equation can be used to determine
the flow of gas through any style of valve. Absolute units of
temperature and pressure must be used in this equation.
When t he critical pressure drop ratio causes the sine angle
t o be 9 0 degrees, the equation will predict the value of the
critical flow. For service conditions that would result in an
angle of greater than 90 degrees, the equation must be limit-
ed t o 9 0 degrees in order to accurately determine the critical
flow that exists.
f he most common use of the Universal Gas Sizing Equation
- .
is to determine the proper valve size for a given set of service
conditions. The first step is t o calculate the required Cu by
Where :
using the Universal Gas Sizing Equation. The second step is
t o select a valve from the catalogue with a Cg which equals
Ql b/ hr = Gas. Steam or Vapour flow (lbs/hr.) or exceeds the calculated value. Care should be exercised to
d l = Inlet gas density (1bs/ft3)
( 10)
make certain that the assumed C value for the Ci; calcula-
tion matches the Cl for the final valve selection from the
catalogue.
It should be apparent by now that accurate valve sizing for
gases requires use of the dual coefficients Cg and Cl . A
single coefficient is not sufficient t o describe both the
capacity and the recovery characteristics of the valve.
There are two other terms which deserve mention as they
will become a part of the Universal Gas Sizing Equation.
The first term takes into account line size swages directly
upstream and/or downstream of the control valve. The
term is designated Fp and is formally called the piping
geometry factor. It is designed to take into account
pressure losses due to fittings such as reducers, elbows or
tees. Fp is calculated using the following equation:
where :
N2 = 890
d = Assumed nominal valve size
C,, = Valve sizing coefficient at 100 percent
travel for the assumed valve size
In the above equation, the term is the algebraic sum of
the velocity head loss coefficients of all the fittings that are
attached to the control valve.
where:
K, = Resistance coefficient of upstream fittings
K2 = Resistance coefficient of downstream fittings
- Inlet Bernoulli coefficient
KBl -
KB2 = Outlet Bernoulli coefficient
The Bernoulli coefficients, Kg and Kg 2, are used only
when the diameter of the piping approaching the valve is
different from the diameter of the piping leaving the valve.
whereby,
where:
d = Nominal valve size
D = Internal diameter of piping
If the inlet and outlet piping are of equal size, then the
Bernoulli coefficients are also equal, Kg = KB2, and there-
fore they are dropped from the equations..
The most commonly used fitting in control valve installations
is the short length concentric reducer. The equations for
this fitting are as follows:
For an inlet reducer:
For an outlet reducer:
For a valve installed between identical reducers
With the addition of Fp, The Universal Gas Sizing Equation
will read as follows:
Q =/SMC,C~F,P~ GT sin (19)
The second correction term that will be inserted into the
Universal Gas Sizing Equation is the C2 factor. Sizing cal-
culations depend on the vena contracta pressure which is
calculated from ideal gas considerations assuming that the
isentropic exponent is equal t o the ratio of specific heats.
Since the Universal Gas Sizing Equation was developed
from air tests, it is inherently based on a ratio of specific
heats of 1,4. This value changes for various gases and can be
rapidly accounted for using 'C2' as shown in the following
form t o the Universal Gas Sizing Equation:
Q =/ ""c~c~c~F~P~ GT sin (20)
C2 can be calculated using the following:
The C2 factor can be plotted on a curve of C2 vs. k where k
is the specific heat ratio.
In addition t o the Universal Gas Sizing Equation, it is
important t o be aware of the ANSI/ISA/IEC valve sizing
equation. It is presented in the form for volumetric flow
rate as follows:
Where:
Cv = Valve sizing coefficient
q = Volume rate of flow
NT = Numerical constant for different systems
of units
Fp = Piping geometry factor
Pi = Upstream absolute static pressure
Y = Expansion factor (ratio of flow coefficient
gas t o that for a liquid at the same Reynolds
Number)
x = Ratio of pressure drop to upstream absolute
static pressure (AP/Pl)
Gg = Gas specific gravity
Ti = Absolute upstream temperature
Z = Compressibility factor
While being slightly different in form, the substance of the
equation is equivalent t o the Universal Gas Sizing Equation.
They will yield the same results - preference should guide
your usage.
The proper selection and sizing of a control valve for gas-
service is a highly technical problem with many factors to
be considered. Technical information, sizing catalogues,
graphs and computer programmes that remove the guess-
work and make valve sizing a simple and accurate procedure
are available.
Summary
Sizing valves for gas flow involves physical principles similar
t o liquid flow. However, effects of compressibility and
critical flow factors must be considered.
Control valves reach critical flow and are said to be 'choked'
when the fluid velocity at the vena contracta reaches the
speed of sound. Above this point, increase in valve AP will
not produce more flow.
Valve geometry has a major influence on critical flow. High
recovery valves such as ball and butterfly valves exhibit
critical flow at AP/Pi levels as low as 0,15. Low recovery
valves, such as globe style, do not go critical until AP/Pi
of approximately 0,s.
The universal gas sizing equation will accurately predict gas
flow for all pressure drop ratios and gases. It requires use of
two valve coefficients - one for capacity (Cg) and one for
valve goemetry (Ci ).
Correction of sizing can be done to account for piping and
non-ideal gases by using appropriate factors. Sizing may
also be influenced by noise considerations.
Acknowledgement: Fisher Controls Inc.
Control Specialists (Pty) Ltd
Principles and Applications of Control Valves
I nt r oduc t i on
The control of water has traditionally had a large effect on
t he design of new valves. As t he demand for water increased
over t he years, so valve technology had t o grow in order t o
keep up with the ever-increasing demands on valves in terms
of pressure, pressure drop and physical capacity.
The purpose of this section is t o revise some of t he basic
principles that govern t he operation of control valves. This
will give t he design engineer a better understanding of t he
limitations of control valves, and help him t o distinguish
t he merits of different valve designs. This, in t urn, will
hopefully result in better valve selection.
Types of Control Valves
Control valves can generally be classified i nt o t wo broad
categories: -
(a) Self-actuated valves utilizing line fluid t o operate t he
valve ;
(b) Electricity or pneumatically operated valves.
In the waterworks industry the former is normally prefer-
red due t o its inherent simplicity, reliability and t he lack of
external, often unreliable source of power.
The latter category is more complicated as sophisticated
instrumentation such as transducers and positioners are
required for its operation. There are, however, a number of
benefits t o t he process industries as follows:--
(1) Greater flexibility in trim selection t o suit various
chemicals.
(2) Dirty and incompatable chemicals do not come i nt o
contact with controls.
(3) Electric and pneumatic power are normally readily
available in process plants.
Although most of t he points discussed i n t he rest of this
section are also relevant t o t he second category of valves, it
is essentially t he self-actuated control valves, as used on
water systems at municipalities, mines and general indus-
t ry, that is discussed here.
Physics Behind Control Valves
The purpose of a control valve, whether it be used for pres-
sure control or flow control, is t o destroy energy. This is
very simply achieved by t he valve imposing a restriction t o
flow. When any fluid flowing inside a pipe passes through a
narrower passage or restriction, it must accelerate. The
energy for this acceleration must be taken from t he pres-
sure of t he fluid, or t he static head. After passing t he re-
striction, t he fluid slows down again and part of t hi s head,
or pressure, is recovered. The unrecovered part of t he pre-
sure has been converted i nt o internal energy by friction.
Figure 1 shows t he pressure gradient around a restriction.
What distinguishes one control valve from another is t he
flow path through t he valve, which in t urn has direct effect
on t he amount of pressure recovered downstream of t he
Fig. 1 Pressure and velocity changes caused by a restriction in a line.
valve. This factor influences t he degree t o which a valve is
resistant t o cavitation. For purposes o f comparison, t he
ball valve in a throttled position recovers a large amount of
pressure, t he globe valve a fair amount whereas an axial-
flow t ype valve recovers t he least pressure. The benefits of
a low pressure recovery valve will be discussed in t he next
section.
Cavitation
Cavitation is a two-stage phenomenon, t he first stage of
which is t he formation o f voids or cavities within t he liquid
system, due t o t he pressure dropping below vapour pres-
sure. The second stage is the collapse o r implosion of
these cavities back i nt o an all-liquid stage. Most of t he
damage t o valves or piping is caused during t he second
stage, when bubbles collapse during t he pressure recovery
stage, as pressure increases above t he vapour pressure of
t he fluid. Hence most cavitation damage is normally evi-
dent i n a valve's pressure recovery zone on t he outlet side.
It now becomes apparent why t he pressure recovery
characteristics of a valve is so important t o its cavitation re-
sistance properties. Figure 2 shows a valve with a high
pressure recovery. In order t o achieve its control set-point
pressure (Pa) t he pressure at t he lowest point (vena con-
tracts) has t o drop below t he vapour pressure of t he liquid.
In t he case of t he low pressure recovery valve, Figure 3 t he
lowest pressure is still above vapour pressure for the valve
t o achieve t he same control pressure P2 .
Why do some valves have high pressure recoveries and ot her
not ? It is all related t o t he flow pattern through t he valve.
In a globe-type valve for instance, t he column of fluid
moves through the valve in a fairly unbroken pattern and
relatively few water particles are actually in contact with
the valve body t o induce friction This type of valve, there-
fore, depends t o a large degree on increasing the fluid's
velocity t o produce the required degree of friction and
turbulence loss. The higher the velocity through the valve,
the more of this 'velocity head' will be reconverted into
'pressure head'at the valve outlet, resulting in the high
pressure recovery. Some sophisticated process control
globe-type valves such as is shown in Figure 4, increase the
flow path through the valve by introducing a cage trim
which consists of a 'maze' of small orifices. The end result
is that the velocity through this valve does not have to be
very high t o produce a certain amount of pressure loss t o
friction.
In an axial flow type valve, as shown in figure 5, the col-
umn of fluid entering the valve is broken up t o result in a
large proportion of the fluid being in contact with the
valve. This results in a large proportion of the fluid being in
'boundary layer' flow, where most of a friction loss occurs
at relatively low velocity. The low velocity in turn means
that relatively little 'velocity head' has t o be converted into
'pressure head' at the valve outlet, resulting in little pressure
recovery.
The importance of all this t o the design engineer is that the
lower a valve's pressure recovery characteristics, the higher
pressure drop it can accept without incurring cavitation
damage.
In high pressure systems the limitation t o pressure drop is
normally related t o the high velocity generated and not t o
the danger of cavitation. The higher the pressure drop re-
quirements through a valve, the higher the velocities gener-
ated. Velocity through a valve can be approximately cal-
culated from the formula:
v=J2gAP
where: V is in m/s
g = 9 3 1 m/s2
AP is in metres
For 2 MPa pressure drop, the velocity through the valve
is:
~ = ^ / 2 x 9,8l x 200 = 63 m/s.
In reality the velocity would be higher still due t o the 'Vena
Contracta' effect. Under such conditions damage is caused
to the valve by virtue of erosion and 'wire drawing' effects.
Under low pressure conditions such as in reservoir control
valves, the limitation t o pressure drop is very definitely
related t o cavitation. If one, for instance, had a pressure
drop of say 800 kPa through a reservoir control valve, cavi-
tation would be severe even though the total pressure drop
is relatively low. The reason for this is that the downstream
pressure P is so close to atmospheric pressure, that the
chances are very good that the 'vena contracta' pressure will
drop below the fluid's vapour pressure. Even with 'low re-
covery' control valves, these applications have t o be very
carefully considered.
INLET -+
-OUTLET
GLOBE TYPE VALVE
p I
PRESSURE
P2 .......................
P VAPOUR .......................
Fig. 2 Typical valve with high pressure recovery characteristic.
INLET PI + P2 OUTLET
AXI AL FLOW TYPE VALVE
P VAPOUR ............................................................
DISTANCE
PI
PRESSURE
Pi
Fig. 3 Typical valve with low pressure recovery characteristic.
'
......................
Rangeabilit y
Rangeability can be defined as:-
maximum controllable flow
minimum controllable flow
SECTION AA
/--b
In practical terms, it means that if a control valve is sized
for a certain flow rate, there are maximum and minimum
flow rates that the valve can cope with. Because of the wide
range in demand often experienced in water systems,
rangeability has t o receive the careful attention of the de-
sign engineer.
With the traditional globe-type control valve which has a
maximum rangeability of 20 : 1, this problem was alleviated
by installing different size valves in parallel t o cope with
this varying demand.
The new breed of axial-flow type control valve has an
almost infinite rangeability. This means that the engineer
only needs t o size a valve t o cope with the maximum flow
demand and be quite assured that this same size valve will
also cope with the minimum demand and be stable over the
full range of flows.
Reservoir Control Valves
Because reservoir or tank level control has traditionally
been a problem with waterworks engineers, it is appropriate
t o review some of the problems and suggest some solutions.
Cavitation and excessive flow rates are the major causes of
noisy operation and excessive wear on reservoir control
valves, and the two normally go hand in hand. Because the
downstream pressure on a reservoir control valve is usually
only the static back pressure from the reservoir control
head, this pressure is usually below 100 kPa. With an up-
stream pressure of say 600 kPa, some engineers may at-
tempt t o overcome the limitation of traditional globe valves
t o a 3 : 1 pressure drop by adding an additional function of
pressure control on the reservoir control valve. The inten-
tion is to reduce the pressure t o 200 kPa and hence stay
within the 3:1 pressure drop ratio. Because static back-
pressure from t he reservoir is only 100 kPa, the balance
has t o be made up in friction loss in the normally very short
length of pipe into the reservoir. The effect is that the valve
opens fully t o create a back-pressure of maybe 150 kPa and
the combined effects of cavitation and excessive flow rate
would produce disastrous results. Some engineers assume
that a control valve will perform any function required of
it. One needs t o look very carefully at the overall hydraulic
circuit t o ensure the correct application of control valves.
Three alternatives are suggested t o overcome high pressure
problems on reservoir control valves:
(a) Rate of Flow Control Combined with Differential
on-off Level Control.
Because of the non-modulating mode of level control,
flow rate into the reservoir is always constant as deter-
mined by the rate of flow control. Under these condi-
tions back pressure is always constant, and if the pres-
sure drop problems are marginal, an orifice plate can
Fig. 4 Stacked disc, long-stroke valve design reduces velocity and
noise.
provide the additional back pressure required down-
stream of the valve. A small disadvantage with this sys-
tem is that the orifice plate may require changing if at
any time the flow setting has t o be changed t o cope
with a higher average demand.
(b) Pressure Reducing valve in series with Rate of Flow
Control and Differential on-off Level Control.
This alternative is desirable when pressure conditions
are beyond the capabilities of an orifice plate. Because
of the constant flow rate, pressure drops can be set for
the two valves t o ensure that they are always within
either valve's capabilities. Different flow settings mere-
ly means a re-adjustment of either pilot settings.
(c) Pressure Reducing Valve in Series with Modulating
Level Control Valve
Many engineers prefer the Modulating Level control in
order t o prevent unnecessarily frequent valve closure.
Because flow rates at certain times can be very low,
friction losses would be negligible and one should
select pressure drops for this worst case.
With Modulating Level control valves, orifice plates
provide a limited benefit as they can only be sized for
the maximum flow rate and lose their benefit under
low flow rates.
Fig. 5 Axial flow type valve.
Because axial-flow type valves can accept a higher pressure
drop without cavitation, the first alternative should provide
a solution for most applications. A further advantage with
this type of valve is that it can accept higher flow rates
without excessive wear.
Safety
In high pressure systems where pipe ratings downstream
of a pressure reducing valve have been decreased for eco-
nomic reasons, possible failure of the control valve in the
wide-open mode should be considered and catered for.
Safety features that can be incorporated are:-
(a) Monitor valves t o take over the function of primary
control valves in case of failure.
(b) Safety relief valves downstream of pressure reducing
valve.
(c) Excess flow shutdown t o close the system in case of
downstream line break.
These features can normally be included with little addi-
tional cost or complexity t o the system, and provide a great
deal of peace of mind.
Figure 6 illustrates a pressure reducing 'station' which in-
corporates all the above safety features. This type of ar-
rangement can be built onto a modular skid form and is
becoming popular in the mining industry where 'closed cir-
cuit' water distribution is gaining acceptance, resulting in
higher pressures off the supply column.
Besides all the safety features mentioned, the illustrated
'station' also incorporates a parallel run to ensure con-
tinuous water supply in case any of the primary run valves
fail in the closed position, or if maintenance has t o be car-
ried out during mining hours.
Conclusion
Although the factors involved in control valve selection and
sizing are not extremely complex, the design engineer often
has other priorities that require his attention. Wrong
selection and/or sizing of control valves can cause endless
problems and really deserves more of the engineer's time.
Control valve suppliers are often equally t o blame in that
they do not have the ability t o consider the whole hydrau-
lic circuit and make appropriate recommendations. They
are often too eager to supply the 'right' answers that will
secure the sale, ignoring some of the basic principles of
control valves. It is desirable that such malpractice should
be minimised by a better understanding of control valves
by the design engineer.
1. Tee-Piece 5. Pressure Regulator
2. Ball Valve 6. Ball Valve
7. Relief Valve
4. Line Break Controller 8. Control Panel
Fig, 6 Pressure reducing station with duplicate parallel leg.
Factors Governing Control Valve Selection
A suggested check list of general criteria for selecting a type
and brand of control valve is provided as follows:
Body pressure rating
High and low temperature limits
Material compatibility and durability
Inherent flow characteristic and rangeability
Maximum pressure drop (shutoff and flowing)
Noise and cavitation
End connections
Shutoff leakage
Capacity versus cost
Nature of flowing media
1. Pressure ratings
Body pressure ratings are normally considered according t o
ANSI pressure classes, t he most common ones for steel and
stainless steel being 150, 300 and 600. (Source documents
are ANSI Standards B16.34, 'Steel Valves', and ANSI B16.1,
'Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings'). For a given
body material, each ANSI class corresponds t o a prescribed
profile of maximum pressures that decrease with tempera-
ture according to the strength of the material. Each material
also has a minimum and maximum service temperature based
on loss of ductility or loss of strength. For most applications,
the required pressure rating is dictated by t he application.
However, since all products are not available for all ANSI
classes, it is an important consideration for selection.
2. Temperature considerations
Required temperature capabilities are usually also a foregone
conclusion, but one which is very likely t o further narrow
the valve selection. The considerations here include the
strength or ductility of the body material as well as relative
thermal expansion of various parts. Temperature limits may
also be imposed due t o disintegration of soft parts at high
temperatures or loss of resilience at low temperatures. The
soft materials under consideration include various elastomers,
plastics, and TFE. They may be found in parts such as seat
rings, seal or piston rings, packing, rotary shaft bearings
and butterfly valve liners. Typical upper temperature limits
for elastomers are in the 100-180 range, and the general
limit for TFE is 230C
Temperature affects valve selection by excluding certain
valves that do not have high- or low-temperature options.
It also may have some effect on the valve's performance.
For instance, going from TFE t o metal seals for high tem-
peratures generally increases the shutoff leakage flow.
Similarly, high temperature metal bearing sleeves in rotary
valves impose more friction load on t he shaft than do TFE
bearings, so that t he shaft cannot withstand as high a pres-
sure-drop load at shutoff. Selection of valve packing is also
done largely based on service temperature.
0 20 40 50 80 100
PER CENT OF P A T E 0 TRAVEL
Pig. 1. Many control valves offer a choice of charac-
teristic. Selection t o match process requirements
is guided by simple rules. Adherence t o these guide-
lines will help assure stable operation.
3. Material selection.
The third criterion -material compatibility and durability -
is a more complex consideration. The issue here may be
corrosion by the process fluid, erosion by abrasive material,
flashing, cavitation or simply a matter of process pressure
and temperature. The piping material usually indicates the
body material. However, since velocity is higher in valves
other factors must be considered. When these items are
included, valve and piping materials will often differ.
The trim materials are usually a function of the body
material, temperature range and qualities of the fluid. When
a body material other than carbon, alloy or stainless steel
are require, use of alternate types such as lined or bar stock
should be considered.
4. Flow characteristic
The next selection criterion - inherent flow characteristic -
refers t o the pattern in which the flow at constant pressure
drop changes according t o valve position. Typical character-
istics are quick-opening, linear and equal-percentage. The
choice of characteristic may have a strong influence on the
stability or controllability of the process, since it represents
the change of valve gain relative t o travel. Most control
valves are carefully 'characterised' t o exhibit a certain flow
characteristic by means of contours on a plug, cage, or ball
element. Some valves are available in a variety of character-
istics t o suit t he application, while others offer little or no
choice. To quantitatively determine the best flow character-
istic for a given application, a dynamic analysis of the control
loop can be performed. In most cases, however, this is un-
necessary; reference t o established rules of thumb will
suffice.
Figure 1 illustrates typical flow characteristic curves. The
qui ck, opening flow characteristic provides for maximum
change in flow rate at low valve travels with a fairly linear
relationship. Additional increases in valve travel give sharply
reduced changes in flow rate, and when t he valve plug nears
t he wide open position, t he change in flow rate approaches
zero. In a control valve, the quick opening valve plug is
used primarily for on-off service; but i t is also suitable for
many applications where a linear valve plug would normally
be specified.
The linear flow characteristic curve shows t hat t he flow rate
is directly proportional t o t he valve travel. This proportional
relationship pioduces a characteristic with a constant slope
so that with constant pressure drop t he valve gain will be
the same at all flows. The linear valve plug is commonly
specified for liquid level control and for certain flow control
applications requiring constant gain.
I n the equal percentage flow characteristic, equal incre-
ments of valve travel produce equal percentage changes in
the existing flow. The change in flow rate is always pro-
portional t o t he flow rate just before t he change in valve
plug, disc. or ball position is made. When the valve plug
disc, or ball is near its seat and t he flow is small, the change
in flow rate will be small; with a large flow, t he change in
flow rate will be large. Valves with an equal percentage flow
characteristic are generally used on pressure control applica-
tions, and on other applications where a large percentage of
the pressure drop is normally absowed by t he system itself,
with only a relatively small percentage available at the
control valve. Valves with an equal percentage characteristic
should also be considered where highly varying pressure
drop conditions can be expected.
Rangeability. Inherent in a valve's flow characteristic is
its rangeability. which is t he ratio of its maximum and mmi-
mum controllable flow rates. Exceptionally wide range-
ability may be required for certain applications t o handle
wide load swings or a combination of start-up, normal and
maximum working conditions. In general terms, rotary
valves -- especially partial ball valves - have greater range-
ability than sliding stem varieties.
Use of positioners. A positioner is an instrument which
helps improve control by accurately positioning a control
valve actuator in response t o a control signal. They are
useful in many applications, and are required with certain
actuator styles in order t o match actuator and instrument
pressure signals or t o provide operating stability. To a certain
extent, a valve with one inherent flow characteristic can also
be made t o perform as though it had a different character-
istic by using a nonlinear (i.e. characterised) positioner-
actuator combination. The limitation of this approach lies
in the positioner's frequency response and phase lag com-
pared with the characteristic frequency of the process.
While often fitted as standard, positioners can be detrimental
t o good control for fast processes such as liquid flow loops.
Since they also add t o initial cost and system con~pl exi t y,
their use should be studied carefully.
5. Pressure drop.
The maximum pressure drop which t he valve can tolerate
at shutoff and when partly or fully open is an important
selection criteria. Sliding stem valves are generally superior
in bot h regards because of t he rugged. well-supported
nature of their moving parts. Unlike most sliding stem valves,
many rotary valves are limited t o pressure drops well below
t he body pressure rating - especially under flowing con-
ditions, due t o dynamic stresses imposed on the disc or
ball segment by high velocity flow.
6. Noise and cavitation
These are t wo considerations which, while unrelated, are
often grouped together because t hey bot h usually accom-
pany high pressure drops and flow rates. They are handled
by special modifications of most standard valves. Cavitation
is the noisy and potentially damaging implosion of bubbles
formed when the pressure of a liquid momentarily dips
below its vapour pressure when passing through constric-
tion. In controlling gases and vapours, noise results from
t he turbulence associated with high-velocity streams. When
cavitation or noise is judged likely t o be a problem, its
severity must be predicted from the valve's specifications
according t o well known techniques, and valves with better
specifications must be sought if necessary. Cavitation-
control and noise-control trims for various degrees of
severity are widely available in regular sliding stem valves -
at a progressive penalty in terms of cost and flow capacity.
Rotary valves are much more limited in this regard and are
generally much more susceptible t o cavitation and noise at
a given pressure drop.
7. End connections
At some point in t he selection process. t he valve's end con-
nections must be considered. The question is simply
whether the desired connection style is available in a valve
being considered. In some situations this matter can limit
the selection rather narrowly. For instance if a piping
specification calls for welded connections only, t he choice
may be limited t o sliding stem valves. The few weld-end
butterfly and ball valves that are available are rather
expensive.
8. Shutoff capacility.
Some consideration must usually be given t o a valve's
shutoff capacility, which is ordinarily rated in terms of
classes specified in ANSIIFCI 70-2-1976. In actual
service, shutoff leakage depends on many factors, including
pressure dr op, temperature, the condition of sealing surfaces,
and - very important for sliding stem valves - on the force
load on t he seat. Since shutoff ratings are based on standard
test conditions which may be very different from service
conditions, service leakage cannot be predicted easily.
However, the ANSI shutoff classes provide a good basis for
comparisons among valves of similar configuration.
Valve users tend t o over specify shutoff requirements;
incurring unnecessary cost. Actually, very few throttling
valves really need t o perform double duty as tight block
valves. Since tight shutoff valves generally cost more initially
and t o maintain, serious consideration is warranted. Tight
shutoff is particularly important in high pressure valves
since leakage can cause seat damage leading t o ultimate
destruction of the trim. Special precautions in seat materials,
seat preparation and seat load are necessary t o ensure
success.
9. Flow capacity.
Finally, t he criterion of capacity or size can be an over-
After studying all t he ot her criteria for a given application,
a specifier often finds he can use several types of valves.
From there on, selection is a matter of price versus cap-
ability as discussed here - coupled with the inevitable
personal and institutional preferences. Since no single
control valve package is cost-effective over the full range of
applications that are normally encountered, i t is important
t o keep an open mind for alternative choices.
SUMMARY
Sliding stem valves provide the widest variety of capability
in the industry. Their performance and versatility make them
very popular. In large sizes they may be expensive but for
sizes 50 mm and less they are a first choice.
riding constraint on selection. For very large lines, sliding
Rotary ball and eccentric plug valves provide excellent
stem valves are much more expensive than rotary types.
control and are especially good values in sizes 75-150 mm.
Alternatively, for very small flows, a suitable rotary valve
Erosion resistant designs and trims are available t o extend
may not be available. If the same valve is desired t o handle
their life in many difficult applications.
a significantly larger flow at a future time, a sliding stem
valve with replaceable, restricted trim may be indicated.
Butterfly and high performance butterfly valves are most
Rotaries generally have much higher maximum capacity
popular and economical in sizes above 150 mm. In many
than sliding stem valves for a given body size. This fact
cases, in large sizes, they are t he only choice.
- -
makes rotaries attractive in applications where the pressure Special requirements require special valve solutions. Valve
drop available is rather small. But it is of little or no advan- designs and special trims are available t o handle high noise,
tage i n high pressure drop applications such as pressure cavitation, high pressure, high temperature and combinations
regulation or letdown. of these.
CONCLUSION
At the risk of over generalising, t he process of selection
may be simplified approximately as follows: For the very
least demanding services, in which price is t he dominant
consideration, one might primarily consider economy
sliding stem valves for t he small size applications and
butterfly valves for t he largest. For most general applications,
it makes sense bot h economically and technically t o use
sliding stem valves for t he lower ranges, ball valves for
intermediate capacities, and high performance butterfly
valves for the very largest sizes.
For sizes less than 75 mm, general purpose sliding stem
valves provide exceptional value. For a minimal price
premium over rotary products, they offer unparalleled
performance, flexibility and service life. I n size 75 mm and
larger, t he premium for these devices over rotary products
is warranted. For severe service applications the most
frequently used and often t he only available product is the
sliding stem valve.
The obvious point is t hat : different types of valves are
appropriate t o use in different size ranges, because they
provide the most cost-effective solution in each given
instance. If one utilises t he same type of valve over an
extremely wide range, either performance at t he low end,
economy at t he high end, or bot h, are sacrificed.
MAJOR CATEGORIES AND SUBCATEGORIES OF CONTROL VALVES WITH TYPICAL GENERAL
CHARACTERISTICS
--
Valve Main Typical Typical Typical Typical Relative Relative
Style Characteristics Size Standard Standard Pressure Flow Shutoff
Range Body End Ratings Capacity Capability
mm Materials Connection
Reg. Heavy Duty 25 t o 400 Carbon Steel ANSI Flange To ANSI 2500 Moderate Excellent
Sliding Versatile Cast Iron Welded
Stem Stainless Screwed
Bar Machined from 12 t o 75 Variety Flangeless To ANSI 600 Low Excellent
Stock Bar Stock of Alloys Screwed
Economy Light Dut y 12 to 50 Bronze Screwed To ANSI 125 Moderate Good
Sliding inexpensive (Cast Iron)
Stem (Carbon Steel)
Thru-Bore On-Off 25 t o 600 Carbon Steel Flangeless To ANSI 900 High Excellent
Ball Service (Stainless)
Partial Characterised 25 t o 600 Carbon Steel Flangeless To ANSI 600 High Excellent
Ball For Throttling (Stainless) Flanged
Eccentric Erosion 25 t o 200 Carbon Steel Flanged To ANSI 600 Moderate Excellent
Plug Resistance (Stainless)
Swing-Thru No Seal 50 t o 2400 Carbon Steel Flangeless To ANSI 2500 High Poor
BFV Cast Iron Lugged
Stainless Welded
Lined Elastomer 50 t o 2400 Carbon Steel Flangeless To ANSI 300 High Good
BFV t o TFE Liner Cast Iron Lugged
Stainless
High Offset Disc 50 t o 1800 Carbon Steel Flangeless To ANSI 600 High Excellent
Performance General Stainless Lugged
Service
Acknowledgement: Fisher Controls Inc.
Control Specialists (Pty) Ltd
Control Valve Selection for Water Discharge
Introduction
Flow control valves are normally classified into 'Terminal'
and 'In-line', according t o their position within the piping
circuit.
Terminal control valve
This is positioned at t he downstream end of a pipeline and
discharges freely i nt o atmosphere or, when submerged, into
a stilling chamber. There is no energy or pressure recovery
with this type of control valve as all t he kinetic energy is
conviently destroyed in t he discharging jet of water. Fixed
cone, needle, hollow jet and multi-port sleeve valves are all
examples of terminal outlet regulating valves. Figure 1
shows t he relative proportions of four types of free dis-
charge terminal outlet valves and their corresponding jet
shapes, flow characteristics and t he approximate relative
mass.
In-line regulating valves
These are defined as valves having sufficient length of
downstream piping t o permit pressure head recovery. For
example, when any incompressible fluid flowing inside a
pipe passes through a restriction caused by a partly open
valve, it must accelerate. The energy for this acceleration
is taken from t he pressure o f t he fluid, or t he static head.
After passing the restriction, t he fluid slows down again
and part of this head or pressure is recovered. The un-
recovered part of t he pressure is converted into internal
energy by friction and constitutes t he head loss of t he
valve. Typical examples of in-line t ype of control valve are
needle, ball and butterfly.
VALVE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
Head-loss coefficient
Depending on t he obstruction t o flow and t he internal
surface area, all valves create an energy or head loss due t o
turbulence and friction when subjected t o fluid flow. This
head loss is a function of t he fluid velocity and is defined
where k is t he dimensionless head loss coefficient, deter-
mined by homologous model tests, and V is the fluid
velocity at t he moninal valve diameter.
Normally, in valves used for isolating purposes, t he fully
open head loss coefficient is t he only concern. However,
in valves used for regulating applications, t he head loss
coefficient corresponding t o a range of valve openings is
required in order t o determine t he flow through t he valve
at any control position. Thus, if t he allowable pressure
a) Fixed cone discharge regulator
ki = O,45 to 0,s p= O,83 to O,8l mass=I
b ) Hollow jet
ki=1,05 p=0, 7 mass=2,3
c) Needle
k i = 1,45 to 1,9 p=0, 64 to 0,59 mass=2,9
d ) Vertical sleeve
ki =l,7 p=0, 61 rnass=4,0
Fig. 1 Free discharge terminal outlet valves
drop across a valve is known, t he velocity or flow can be
calculated from the following equations:-
where A is the area of t he valve nominal diameter and g is
the acceleration due t o gravity.
Figure 2 shows the relative headloss coefficients of various
types of flow control valves against percentage valve opening.
Headloss coefficient equation (2) can be used t o find the
headloss or flow at any valve opening by using the appro-
priate headloss coefficient k i .
Discharge Coefficient ( p)
The one disadvantage in using the headloss coefficient ki is
that it is not a convenient characteristic t o plot against valve
opening. This is because its value at small valve openings
increases t o infinity and the resulting curve of ki v percen-
tage opening does not give any indication of the variation
in flow.
For this purpose, an alternative coefficient is used. This is
termed the 'Flow Factor' or 'Discharge Coefficient' and is
related t o the headless coefficient kl as follows:
The discharge coefficient p is the ratio of t he actual flow
through the valve t o t he flow without the valve in the circuit.
Its usefulness is shown in Figure 3, in which t he headloss
coefficient of Figure 2 has been replotted a s p or discharge
coefficient values. It can be easily seen from these curves
how t he change in valve opening will affect t he flow for
different types of control valve relative t o each other.
Flow capacity factor (Cv valve)
The C., value is a convenient standard method, used for
comparing the flow capacity of control valves. Based on
imperial units, the Cv value is defmed as the flow in
gals/minute caused by a pressure drop across t he valve of
1 p s i .
where Q is the flow in g.p.m,
S is the specific gravity of the fluid, and
A p is the pressure difference across the valve in p.s.i.
When t he fluid is water (4) reduces to:-
Fig. 2 Control valve headloss coefficients
open
Percentage wlve opening
Fig. 3 Control valve discharge coefficients
shut
A typical example of this method of determining a valve
flow capacity is given in Figure 4. In this diagram, typical
C values are given for 600 kPa rating flat taper disc type
butterfly valves up t o 72" diameter at valve openings from
1 oO.
The equivalent metric flow capacity fact or (Ck) is defined
as t he flow in litreslminute through a valve under a head
drop of 1 kg/ cm2.
It is particularly important t o note that the given equations
involving t he calculation of flow from the head loss co-
effiicient k i , t he discharge coefficient y and the Cv factor
only apply in situations where t he actual head drop across
t he valve is known. They cannot be used i n cases where t he
specified head drop occurs over t he whole piping system in
which t he particular valve is only a part.
For liquid flow
Where :
Where:
Cv = flow coefficient defined as flow in G.P.M. under
pressure drop across valve of 1 p.s.i.
Q = actual or required flow I.G.P.M.
S = specific gravity.
Ap = required or actual pressure drop across valve p.s.i.
For water flow
Q
cv = (I.G.P.M.)
AP
Thus :
(a)
if valve diameter and allowable pressure drop are
known, find flow Q at any angle from:-
Q = cvy/A? I.G.P.M.
(b)
if valve diameter and flow are known, find pressure
For gas flow
(a)
when -!% < 0,02 and temperatures between
Pl
(b) for other temperatures
Where :
q
= gas flow (standard ft3 /hr.)
G = gas S.G.
Ap
= pressure drop across valve (p.s.i.)
Py
= valve outlet pressure ( ps i . )
PI
= valve inlet pressure (p.s.i.)
T = absolute temperature of gas at inlet (Rankine ' )
closed
Degrees valve opening
open
Fig. 4 Butterfly valves, typical flow control characteristics
(non-metric units)
The effect of system loss coefficient
Normally, a control valve headloss forms only a part of t he
total losses of a system of piping and its effect on the
system flow must be considered in association with these
other losses. If we consider t he typical circuit shown in
Figure 5 involving a reservoir, a pipeline and a terminal
valve, t he effect of t he system headloss on flow through
the valve is shown in t he following example, in which a
1-metre diameter valve operates in t he fully open position
under a reservoir head of 100 metres.
When t he pipeline is short, t he system losses are negligible
and t he effective total loss of t he system is that head lost
in t he valve including t he exit loss. (No pressure recovery).
Equating the heads we have:-
Total Head = head lost in valve + exit loss
in which v is the velocity in the pipeline.
Therefore
Hs = ( I + Kl ) 3
2 g
In the fully open position Ki = 0, 45 and the
headloss equation (2) becomes
Now if we consider t he same fully open valve, under the
identical reservoir head, but with a pipeline several kilo-
metres long in which the pipeline headloss coefficient
K = 20.
It can therefore be seen that the same valve will pass a pro-
portionally smaller quantity of water in a system where the
losses are proportionally high.
The system headloss coefficient will also affect that part of
the valve stroke over which control is effective. The family
of curves shown in Figure 6 illustrates this aspect of flow
control.
In the case where Ks = 1, there is a convenient linear
relationship between stroke and flow and t he adjustment
of flow or valve gain will be ideal for modulating control.
However, in the example where t he system loss coefficient
is high (Ks = 20), the percentage of the stroke where
effective control is available is considerably decreased,'
rendering the valve less suited t o accurate flow control.
Reference t o Figure 6 shows that for t he first 20 per cent
of closure the flow is only reduced by 2 per cent. Whereas
in the final 20 per cent of closure, 50 per cent of the flow
is cut off.
This situation can be rectified by reducing the diameter
of the controlling valve which has the effect of only margin-
ally affecting the maximum flow but greatly influencing
the valve gain or sensitivity.
Figure 3 shows t he approximate inherent valve flow charac-
teristics of control valves. It is interesting t o note that the
butterfly valve is well-suited for flow control applications
as its flow coefficient curve becomes roughly linear when
the effects of the system losses are added. This is known as
an 'equal percentage' characteristic and is suited t o flow
control valve application. The needle valve does not have
t he same advantageous flow curve, as the system losses
decrease t he sensitivity in applications involving long
pipelines.
In many pumping applications involving long pipelines,
similar opportunities arise where the valve and/or the system
designer can reduce the size of the control valve t o obtain
more favourable valve opening/flow relationships. The
added advantage in all these cases is that the valve operating
torque is reduced and the resulting costs are similarly
affected.
The above description on the effect of system loss co-
efficients will illustrate how control valves are sized and
how vital it is for the valve and/or t he system designer t o
know t he complete details of the system before reliable
flow characteristics can be determined. Valve suppliers are
frequently asked t o provide curves of valve opening angle
against flow for condenser outlet butterfly valves and for
terminal outlet fixed cone valves without any knowledge
of the system losses in which they are situated. It is,
however, not normally the valve supplier's responsibility
t o determine the system loss coefficient but it is his res-
ponsibility t o obtain this information prior t o advising the
flow curves. Alternatively, the valve supplier will advise the
system designed of the valve head loss coefficients over the
whole range of openings so that the system designer can
determine t he overall flow characteristics of t he system in
which the valve is situated.
\/ 2
Pipeline loss ks -
\
2g
FLOW CONTROL VALVE DESCRIPTION
Fixed cone valve
The fixed cone valve (Figure 1 a), is becoming t he most well
used terminal outlet valve and has been manufactured up t o
diameters of 3 m and heads up t o 300 m.
The discharge coefficient varies between 0, 81 and 0, 85
depending on t he head and t he number of ribs. However,
if the valve has an integral hood, t he discharge coefficient
will be between 0, 75 and 0, 8 depending on t he hood shape
and t he rib obstruction t o flow.
Reference t o Figure 1 will also know that t he fixed cone
valve is lighter, cheaper and simpler t han any ot her terminal
outlet valve.
In situations where jet confinement is necessary, a separate
hood is preferred, especially at heads above 50 metres, as
the use of integral hoods creates vibration, aeration and
maintenance problems.
Curve (Fig. 7 ) gives t he flow characteristics based on a
0.83 flow coefficient o r alternatively a head loss coefficient
( Ki ) of 0,45. It is therefore possible from the data t o size
a discharge regulator for tender purposes. The head used in
(Equation 6), is t he net head at t he valve inlet. If this head
is not given, then it is necessary t o calculate the pipeline
losses in order to correctly size t he valve.
Alternatively, t he discharge coefficient can be used as
follows:
Hollow jet valves
This is a terminal outlet valve which, although it suffers from
a higher headloss t han ot her terminal valves and is certainly
more expensive, does have advantages in that most of its
body is not subjected t o pressure, and its jet shape does not
require a confining hood when jet divergence is unacceptable.
Relative characteristics are given in Figure lb..
I I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 an <n en 7n on
open
Percentage valve opening
Fig. 6 Effect of system loss coefficient on valve flow control
Valve fully open
k t lkecd ct valve inlet Hn (metres)
l"ig. 7 Fixed cone valve, maximum flow chart
Needle valves
To compare t he flow characteristics relative t o other values,
figures of head loss, flow and maximum head are given in
Figure 1 c.
Vertical sleeve valve
The vertical sleeve valve, (Fig. I d) is a fore-runner t o t he
ported sleeve valve and is successfully used in applications
involving lower head (approximately 100 m).
It is a relatively expensive valve as it involves a 9 0 bend,
straight downpipe, and the construction of a concrete
stilling chamber. The valve's overall headloss coefficient of
1,7 also reflects in its cost. For example, in terms of maxi-
mum flow capacity, a 1,4 metre diameter vertical sleeve
valve is equivalent t o a 1 metre diameter fixed cone valve.
However, t he valve also possesses some good qualities, t he
greatest probably being its ability t o destroy head in a most
convenient piping and space arrangement. A further
advantage lies in its suitability t o introduce a fixed 'porting'
sleeve at t he exit circumference which increases t he head or
energy dissipation and/or improves t he valve sensitivity t o
provide a favourable flow/stroke relationship.
Ported sleeve valves
In applications where the use of fixed cone valves is not
possible, either due t o objectionable spray, high noise level
or cavitation damage, the ported sleeve valve has been
successfully developed by the Metropolitan Water and
District Southern California. This valve possesses ideal
qualities in dissipating very high heads by the multi-port
principle in which relatively small jets are directed into a
stilling chamber. The applications in which these valves are
used involve energy dissipation in densely populated areas.
Butterfly valves
Due t o its desirable 'equal percentage' flow characteristics
and particularly due t o its low cost, the butterfly valve is
frequently being used in applications of 'in-line' flow
control. The valve is suitable for this application but it has
definite limitations with respect t o cavitation and valve
opening and it is unfortunate that many users completely
ignore these limitations, resulting in premature failure of
valves and systems.
OVERCOMING INSUFFICIENT SUBMERGENCE
The results of oversizing a valve in a system of high head
loss have already been indicated. In that example, the valve
effective control will be over the first part of its opening
where instability and serious cavitation will occur.
Alternatively, operation of a valve with insufficient submer-
gence can lead t o similar results. A typical example of this
is in condenser outlet valves which are frequently being
used in heavily throttled conditions with no relative sub-
mergence. By more careful system design and a greater
understanding of the control characteristics of butterfly
valves, this situation can often be avoided. Use of a smaller
by-pass valve in parallel, the inclusion of a downstream
orifice, or the addition of adownstream expansion chamber,
are three of several methods open t o the system and valve
designers t o permit the use of butterfly valves in many
control applications that have previously been fulfilled by
more expensive valve designs.
As a general rule, it is usual t o size a butterfly control valve
t o cater for the required flow beteen 2 0 and 70fro the
closed position. This is because at each end of the stroke
there is very little effective control as can be seen from a
typical flow/stroke diagram (Fig. 8). If a typical and ideal
situation is considered where the system loss coefficient
(ks) equals 10, it is apparent that from the fully open to a
position of approximately 2 0 from open, the change in
flow area is relatively small as the disc wings emerge from
the shadow of the valve shaft hubs. At the other end of the
stroke, the headloss is increasing to infinity, as the valve
flow area is rapidly decreased, with a similar effect on the
valve sensitivity. This effect is aggravated, as shown in the
diagram, when the system headloss coefficient increases.
Therefore,in an application involving the sizing of a butterfly
valve, it is good practice t o consider the 7 0 open position
as being capable of passing the maximum required flow.
This feature has a further advantage in that it allows the
valve t o be sized regardless of the disc thickness or shape.
Figure 9 shows how the head loss coefficient of a butterfly
valve varies with angle of opening and, in particular, it
demonstrates the variation in ki during t he first 20' of
valve opening.
open
shut
Disc angle (degrees)
Fig. 8 Butterfly valve, effect of system resistance on flow control
CAVITATION IN CONTROL VALVES
Cavitation is a potential problem in t he design of control
valves and their associated circuits. It is a two-stage phenome-
non, in which the first stage involves t he formation of
vapour bubbles or voids as a result of sudden pressure
reduction and t he second, a collapse of these voids causing
implosion and t he consequential symptoms of noise,
vibration and material damage.
The process of cavitation is very complex and there is,
unfortunately, insufficient research and published data
t o clearly indicate when it will become a serious problem in
t he control valve field.
The fixed cone valve is normally cavitation free under heads
less than 45 metres when discharging into air, but the
situation is different when operating under submerged
conditions involving energy dissipators. Caution must be
exercised in t he tender and design of this type of dut y.
Whereas t he needle valve is suited t o t he injection of atmos-
pheric air t o extend t he range of use into t he 'cavitation'
regions, t he butterfly valve is not . Unfortunately, t he t wo
jets issuing from t he partly open disc hinder t he direct
admission of air from outside the body t o t he wing tips
where t he negative pressure zones occur.
As a rough guide, t he butterfly valve is unsuited t o flow
control when the cavitation characteristic o r sigma value
is less than 1,5 but should be suitable in conditions where
sigma is greater t han 3 3 .
H2 + Hv
Sigma a =
Hl - H2
Where Hi - H2 = head drop across valve
H2
= head downstream of valve
HV
= vapour press of fluid
v = full open velocity is less than
5 m/sec.
Fig. 9 Butterfly valve head loss coefficient K,
Acknowledgement: H.T. Bramham C.Eng., M.1.Mech.E.
Boving & Co. Limited
Premier Valves (Pty) Ltd.
Level and Row Control Valve Systems
CONTROLLING THE RATE OF CLOSING OF A VALVE
Consider a gravity line of considerable length feeding a
reservoir. Assume that t he flow rate of water in t he pipeline
has reached the maximum in relation t o the hydraulic
plus friction gradient. This flow rate could be as high
as five metres per second.
At some position approaching t op water level the control
valve must commence closing in order t o avoid water spillage.
If the rate of closing is t oo rapid, there will be a pressure
build up in t he pipeline on t he upstream end of t he control
valve. This build up of pressure could result in burst
water mains. Therefore, in general terms, the purpose of a
controlled rate of closing is t o avoid an unacceptable
pressure build up in the supply pipe.
There are five systems in common use for t he controlling
of rate of closing. These are
1. Adjustable needle valve.
Although this is a common system of control, it is highly
inefficient. Consider the case where the pipeline water is
being used as the closing agent. The needle valve is
located in the tube feeding t he valve inlet water from the
upstream end of t he main valve into its control chamber.
If the main valve is t o close slowly, the needle valve will
only be marginally open. It will, therefore, provide a
substantial friction loss in t he feed of water t o t he control
chamber of the main valve.
Consider the main valve t o be in t he open position. In this
position the friction loss across its seat is at its lowest. The
pressure on the inlet and outlet end of the valve are nearly
equal and thus the rate of feed of control of water through
the needle valve will also be at its lowest. Therefore,
just when it is undesirable, t he rate of closing of the main
valve is also at its slowest. This is obviously the exact
reverse t o that which is required, because it is only during
the final third of t he closing stroke that there can be a
significant build up of pressure in t he supply piping.
Assume now that t he control valve has entered the final
third of the closing stroke. There is now likely t o be a
substantial pressure drop across the seat of t he main valve.
This pressure drop is also imposed across t he needle valve.
Thus, just when it is undesirable, there will be an increase
in the rate of feed of control water into the main valve's
control chamber which in turn will cause the main
valve t o close at an ever increasing rate. The graph of
this increasing closing rate will resemble that of the
bottom of the curve of a quadratic equation. The build-up
of pressure in the feed pipeline will correspond exactly t o
this graph.
Result: If the valve must close in two minutes, t he first
1,s minutes will probably account for t he valve closing t o
less than half way. Therefore, the valve will have t o close
from more than half open t o fully closed in only half a
minute.
2. Fixed restriction
All the preceeding factors will also apply to this system.
3. Variable adjustable orifice.
This system is effective. Unfortunately it has limitations
where there is a substantial variation in t he supply pipeline
pressure.
4. Automatic variable restriction
The same factors apply here as in system 3.
5. The 'Pressure sensitive closing' system.
In this system the feed control water is fed through a
pressure sensitive control pilot valve into the control
chambm of t he main valve. This control pilot will sense
the pressure in the main supply columns. Should this
pressure approach a predetermined safe pressure for the
pipeline, it will commence throttling t he rate of feed of
control water into the control chamber of the main valve.
Thus the rate of closing of the main valve will be halted.
In this way the pressure in the main feed line will be
positively limited and will not exceed the safe pipeline
pressure during the closing stroke.
Result: Firstly at the beginning of the closing stroke
there will be no restriction in t he feed water pipe into the
control chamber, so that t he first and unimportant part
of the closing stroke will be rapid. Secondly at no time will
the main feed pipeline be exposed t o undue pressures
and the closing time can be substantially reduced. In
practice, in t he event of the 'pressure sensitive closing' pilot
being prevented from functioning due t o some mechanical
defect, or by a foreign body lodged under its seat, the
main valve is equipped with an extra pressure relief pilot.
This pilot will be set t o open the control chamber of the
main valve t o atmosphere during t he period when there is
a dangerous build up of pressure in the main feed pipeline.
Once the main pipeline pressure has been dissipated,
this pressure relief pilot will close. leaving t he main
control valve in the closed position. In important
installations it is common t o equip this pressure relief
pilot with an alarm system, which can alert appropriate
personnel that a fault has developed.
--
u
KEY:
1. Mai n valve
2. Lower control chamber auxilliary valve
3. Upper control chamber auxilliary valve
4. Al t i t ude control valve
5. Water supply for control ci rcui t
6. Top water level adjustment
7 . Bot t om water level adjustment
Fig. 1. Control circuit for 200 NB reservoir altitude control valve
operating under low supply pressure conditions.
RESERVOIR LEVEL CONTROL
Figure 2 illustrates a somewhat more sophisticated system
applicable to reservoir level control where:
a) there is virtually no mains pressure advantage above the
top reservoir level, and,
b) where the supply water both fills and empties the reser-
voir through the same supply pipeline.
This condition applies where there is a long supply pipe
from the source of water t o the reservoir. This pipeline may
have several take-offs to service points on the way to the
reservoir. Therefore, once the reservoir is full and the supply
has ceased, the valve must reopen to supply these take-offs.
OPERATION (see Figure 2)
A. Closing the supply t o the reservoir
Assume the water level in the reservoir is approaching the
top limit. The sensing membrane in 3-way pilot (No. 3 in
Figure 2), will now be forced upwards against the. spring
compression. This will cause a shuttle t o move upwards,
connecting the pressure supply port to the common port.
The pressure water will now pressurise above the sensing
membrane of No. 4 slave pilot. The shuttle of this pilot
will now be forced downwards thus connecting the
lower diaphragm chamber of the main valve No. 1 to
atomsphere.
Simultaneously pressure water will be fed into the under-
side of the sensing membrane pilot No. 2. Thus No. 2
pilot shuttle will be forced upwards connecting the
upper diaphragm control chamber of the main valve to
the high pressure of the control water. The lower dia-
phragm control chamber of the main valve is already
connected to atmosphere; thus the main valve will
now close.
B. Opening the main valve for flow from the reservoir
Assume the main valve feeding the reservoir is closed and
the supply pumps have been stopped.
Assume there is a withdrawal of water from the supply
column t o the reservoir. This will induce a lowered pressure
at the inlet t o the main valve. This reduced pressure will be
reflected on the underside of the master 3-wav pilot No. 3
sensing membrane. The spring will now force the shuttle
of this pilot downwards, thus connecting the underside of
slave pilot No. 2 t o a low pressure condition. The control
spring of this pilot will now force its shuttle downwards,
thus connecting the upper or closing diaphragm compart-
ment of the main valve No. 1 t o atmosphere.
Simultaneously the upper surface of the sensing membrane
of the opening 3-way pilot No. 4 will be connected to
atmosphere. Thus the control spring of this pilot will pull
its shuttle upwards thus connecting its supply port, i.e.
high pressure port, t o the lower diaphragm chamber of the
main valve. This will result in the main valve being forced
into the open position.
It should be noted that there are two ports t o the underside
of the master pilot, one connected t o the reservoir bottom
and the other t o the inlet end of the main valve. Thus with-
out the needle valve No. 7 the underside of the sensing
membrane of master pilot No. 3 could not be exposed to
a low pressure. The needle valve, No. 7, must therefore be
adjusted t o permit a faster flow out of the compartment
below the sensing membrane than an inflow from the
reservoir.
Note 1
It is necessary t o ensure that there is adequate pressure from
the reservoir t o force the main valve open when the demand
for water exceeds the supply.
Note 2
The control spring of the slave pilot No. 4 is pulling the
sensing membrane upwards, not forcing it downwards.
2. Closing slave pilot
3. Master 3-way pilot
4. Opening slave pilot
5. Isolating cocks
6. Filters
7. Needle valve
8. Check valves
KEY:
1. Main altitude two-way control valve
Fig. 2. Reservoir level control system for two-way flow
PUMP CONTROL SYSTEM
METHOD OF OPERATION (see Figure 3)
A. Start up
1. Pressure sustaining pilot valve No. 3 is closed.
2. Solenoid valve No. 5 is energised and is therefore open.
3. Pump is started.
4. Pump pressure builds up t o duty point. Pressure sustain-
ing valve No. 5 will now open.
5. The main valve control chamber will now be opened t o
downstream of the valve.
6. The auxiliary valve No. 4 will be forced into the closed
position.
7. The pressure connection to the underside of the dia-
phragm which is pressurised from the inlet end of the
main valve will now push the main valve diaphragm into
the open position against the spring in the top housing.
8. The main valve will now assume the fully open posi-
tion.
B. Shut-down
1. The solenoid switch No. 5 will be de-energised and will
close.
2. The control compartment above the main valve dia-
phragm will be pressurised.
3. The force of the spring plus the pressurising of the upper
control chamber will slowly close the main valve.
4. The rate of closing is adjustable by opening or closing
the needle valve No. 2.
5 . As the main valve assumes the closed position, the cam
on the indicator spindle of the main valve will strike the
follower of the h t switch.
6. This will open the pump starting circuit and the pump
will close down.
7. With no pressure from the pump side, the auxilliary
valves No. 4 will open fully, introducing the full down-
stream pressure into the upper control chamber of the
main valve.
Thus the main valve will now be very tightly closed.
KEY:
1. Main valve
2. Needle valve
3. Pressure sustaining pilot valve
4. Auxilliary pilot valve
5. Solenoid pilot valve
6. Limit switch
7. Check valve
t'lg. 3. Typical pump control system
ETHANOL/OCTANE 90 BLENDING SYSTEM
KEY:
1 . 50 mm Combination pressure control emergency shut-off valve
2. 50 mm Proportional fl ow control valve
3. 100 mm Combination pressure control emergency shut-off valve
4. Supply isolating ball plug cock
5. Discharge isolating ball plug cock
6. Supply 'Y' fi l ter
7. Supply pressure gauge
8. Adjustable fi xed deadband pressure switch-
9. Regulating needle valve
10. Pressurekensitive emergency shut-off pi l ot valves N/C
11 .Pressure control pi l ot valve N/ 0
12,Proportional fl ow pi l ot valve N/C
13. Differential pressure orifice plate
A. Remote discharge sensing line
B. Remote HP sensing line
C. Remote LP sensing line
Fig. 4, Ethanol/octane 90 blending system
PILOT VALVE
(Rate of flow control)
0-R ING
COMPRESSOR SEAL
SPRING COMPRESSOR
MAIN HOUSING
CONTROL SPRING
PINTLE LOCK NUT
SEAT HOUSING
RUBBER SEAT
OPERATING PINTLE ASSEMBLY
STEM
CAM FOLLOWER
CAM
BLADE
Fig. 5 .
Acknowledgement: Hayday Valves cc
Planning Valve Control Schemes
FACTORS TO CONSIDER
The following factors should be considered in planning safe,
efficient control schemes.
Environment
Valves handling flammable liquids must not be installed
near hot equipment or an ignition source. Danger could
arise from fluid escape (during maintenance) or from the
formation of explosive vapours. Actuators (with or without
positioners) should be located away from excess heat or
corrosive fumes likely to cause premature component
failure.
Diaphragm valve performance characteristics
A control valve is a variable orifice used t o regulate process
fluid flow. Capacity, characteristics and rangeability are the
three most important factors in valve selection for control.
Capacity
This is normally represented as Cv or and gives an
immediate appraisal and comparison of different valve types
and sizes. The following table compares the C values of
weir type diaphragm valves in the open position.
-
Size Weir type Globe valve
mm diaphragm valve
Characteristics
For control purposes, the most common valve characteristic
(the relation of the change of valve opening to the change
in flow through the valve) are linear, equal percentage and
quick opening. Of these the weir type of valve conforms
most closely to linear. In broad terms, the straight-through
types are quick opening - a major part of the flow is
Percent of rated travel
Fig. 1 Operating principles.
NIP
I I pressure I
0% O,oValve travel from open position 10kO/o
Fig. 2 Typical split of operating air pressure for air closing actuator.
Fig. 3 Flow path - weir type diaphragm valve.
Fig. 4 Flow path - straight through diaphragm valve.
delivered through the valve at 50% open. A ball valve can
be considered as having an equivalent characteristic. The
diaphragm valve characteristic is most easily changed by
the use of a positioner fitted with special cams.
Rangeabilit y
On diaphragm valves, rangeability (the ratio of the minimum
flow that the valve can control compared with the maximum)
is 100:2 or 50: l . This is not high but is adequate for many
control schemes.
VALVE POSITIONERS - PRINCIPLES AND FUNCTION
A valve positioner attached to the valve accurately controls
the degree of valve opening by adjusting the operating
pressure to the actuator and works in conjunction with a
process control instrument which measures unwanted
variations in the process. Pneumatic signals are transmitted
to the valve positioner to effect changes in the valve opening
to correct process variations.
Actuator operating pressure is supplied by a valve controlled
orifice in the positioner. This orifice valve is operated by a
lever mechanism controlled by a bellows system operated
by air pressure from the process control instrument and a
mechanical attachment to the main valve spindle.
The valve positioner also performs the following functions:
Assistance in overcoming friction
Provision of additional power through higher air pressure
Increase in response speed.
Sequence and split range control
Split range
Controlled out put range can be 40 t o 200 kPa or 35 t o 170
OPEN 0.25 0 3 0.75 CLOSED
kPa. Normally a range of 20 t o 100 kPa is employed, and
TRAVEL
this can be split between two or more individual control
valves, F~~ a Split on a common 20 to 100 kpa signal line,
f i g. 7 T y p i c a l v al v e p o s i t i o n e r c o n t r o l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f a i l saf e s pr i ng
o p e n i n g a c t u a t o r .
one valve would operate on 20 t o 60 kPa and the second
valve on 60 t o 100 kPa.
A valve positioner must be used in control schemes on fail Performance compares favourably with globe valves on a
safe spring closing and fail safe spring opening actuators large number of flow,level and temperature control schemes.
except for on/off or coarse control. Positioners reduce hysterisis by a factor of 10 or more.
MEASURING ELEMENT
REDUCING VALVE
20 - 100 kPa -
AIR SUPPLY I 1
CONTROLLER
20 - 35 kPa 35 - 60 kPa
63 - 100 kPa
SEQUENCE OPERATI ON OF FAI L SAFE SPRING OPENING ACTUATORS
UNDER SPLIT-RANGE VALVE POSITIONER CONTROL
Fig. 5 A u t o ma t i c c o n t r o l wi th split r a n g e
AIR 20 - 100 kPa
T 4--- HAND CONTROL PANEL
1 OPERATING
-- SUPPLY
REDUCING VALVE
I I AIR SUPPLY 90 kPa
FAI L SAFE SPRING
OPENING ACI UATOR
FAI L SAFE SPRING OPENING ACTUATOR WI TH POSITIONER
AND CONTROL PANEL
Fig. 6 Ma n u a l c o n t r o l wi th s p l i t r ange.
Excellent control. within 3% of straight line characteristics
have been achieved under tests which normally show the
valve open position with an instrument control signal 01
20 - 100 kPa.
Valve
---k
Program
IDesired value)
r'ih 8 Closed-loop control
Whether opening or closing the valve action will correspond
t o an exact instrument pressure t o return rapidly t o an
exact stem position, giving precise flow. Even in the event
of accidental valve stem movement the direct linkage
between positioner and actuator will return the valve
quickly t o its controlled opening.
For schemes requiring equal percentage characteristics (for
greater effect on flow with a small variation in stem position,
particularly in the upper 50% opening) or quick opening,
different cams can be fitted t o the positioner.
Cams can be profiled t o give a specific characteristic any-
where between the three mentioned. The profile and instru-
ment signal span vary the input of power air t o the actuator
with a particular profile point for each scale point from 30
t o 100 kPa corresponding with a particular valve opening/
flow for stable, repeatable performance.
Output pressures t o t he operating chamber can be as high
as 550 kPa
DI APHRAGM OPERATED SPRING CLOSING
Complete automation - Principles of control valve loops
This involves the use of a sensing element feeding a controller
information on the line condition. The controller measures
t he variation from t he set point, or desired value and sends
a correcting signal t o t he valve positioner.
Sensing element can be: pressure sensitive diaphragm or
bellows, thermo-couple , radio-active device or gas expansion
chamber. The variable measured can be: viscosity, density,
pressure, humidity, velocity, temperature.
Many control applications are not subject to large changes,
so correct valve sizing is more important than control
valve characteristics. The choice of characteristic is also
unimportant in applications with low reaction rates.
Control valve selection is governed by basic parameters:
process fluid pressures, rate of flow, any special conditions
(such as extremes of temperature). Pressure drop available
across t he valve should be determined so t hat good control
is achieved.
Split-range operation of t wo valves can be used where flow
rate required differs from that of a single valve; a large and
small valve being used in parallel.
To specify a control valve, calculate required capacity (Cv),
select body style (flanged, screwed connections). Body
material and diaphragm choice are particularly determined
by t he chemical properties of t he process fluid. Body rating
is decided by material and process fluid conditions (body
end connections dictate maximum pressure and temperature
range).
By-pass and isolation valves
If economically justifiable, by-pass valves around the
control valve with an isolation or block valve on bot h sides
should be used, especially if a plant must remain in operation
with t he control valve out of action.
DI APHRAGM OPERATED SPRING OPENING
CL E AN WATER
OR AI R LI NE
CLEAN WATER
OR AIR LI NE
WH E N THE LI NE F L UI D PRESSURE REACHESA SET WHE N THE LI NE FLUI D PRESSURE REACHES A SET
FIGURE; THE FAI L SAFE S P RI NG CLOSING ACTUATOR WI LL OPEN FI GURE. THE FAI L S AF E SPRING OPENI NG ACTUATOR WI LL CLOSE
CLEAN WAT E R CLEAN WATER
OR AI R LI NE
WHE N THE L I N E FLUI D PRESSURE REACHES A SET WHE N THE L I NE FLUI D PRESSURE REACHES A SET
F I GURE T l l t f AI L SAFE S P RI NG CLOSING ACTUATOR WI LLCLOSE FI GURE THE FAI L SAFE SPRI NG OPENI NG ACTUATOR WI L L OPEN
Fig, 9 Four typical appl i cat i ons
EXHAUST
3.WAY PILOT
VALVE
ONIOF F ACT1011 USING FAI L SAFE SPRI NG OPENI NG ACrUATOR AND THREE- WAY PI LOTVALVE
Fig. 10 Three-way pilot valves, manually or solenoid operated
When a by-pass valve is used, t he control valve, unless
impracticable, should be situated in the straight-through
path. Any isolation valves in series with t he control valve
should be of line size, not valve body size, and introduce
negligible pressure drop or flow disturbance in the fully
open position. The by-pass valve should be the same size as
the control valve. In most cases valves would be installed in
horizontal lines with their actuators vertically above or
below the pipeline.
Pressure regulating valves
These give floating control over the main diaphragm
operated valve. The unit, complete with air output gauge, is
normally supplied ready for insertion i nt o main control
panel cut-out. If high pressures are involved a reducing valve
should be used t o lower pressure t o the control panel.
Output air for full travel should follow manufacturer' s
recommendations for actuator operating pressures. Long
lines between hand controller and valve will result in slower
valve response or lag, due t o large volumes or air in motion.
Remote control benefits
Remote control can also be used where:
1. Valve location may be inaccessible.
2. When ease and speed of operation is required.
3. A number of valves can be controlled from one point.
4. When it may be undesirable for personnel t o be in close
proximity t o the valve. (Pneumatic operation may be an
advantage where risk of fire must be eliminated).
Preset three-way pilot valves
There are many pilot valves and servo-mechanisms available
for renlote control schemes and the design shown in Figure 8
provides a simple method of servo-control. A standard unit
is of a robust bronze constreuction and is fitted with a
neoprene diaphragm which is loaded by adjusting t he spring
tension. Only when the required set pressure in the chamber
overcomes the loading will t he valve change over its ports.
Low and high rated springs are available t o enable respective
set pressures up t o 400, 700 and 1000 kPa t o be accommo-
dated.
Line and operating pressures should not exceed maximum
recommendations. The valve trips within plus or minus 7 kPa
of the set figure and resets once more at a differential of
35 t o 40 kPa at setting pressures up t o 400 kPa.
The pilot valve is shown in four straight-forward applications
(Figure 9).
Piping and systems
Badly designed valve and pipework arrangements can
seriously affect bot h the flow capacity and characteristic
of the system, performance and life of control valves.
Piping arrangements should avoid excessive stresses in the
valve body (particularly cast iron and glass lined) and
should be built t o include the control valve t o avoid stresses
induced if a space is left and the valve fitted later.
Pipework bot h upstream and downstream of t he control
valve should be straight and unobstructed. In extreme cases,
for a close design flow, there should be no bends for a
distance of 5 times t he pipe diameter and no sharp bends
for 10 times t he pipe diameter bot h upstream and down-
stream of t he control valve. If t he valve body is of a smaller
diameter t han t he line size, t he reduction must be made
gradually. Good matching of pipe bores at flanges is essential.
Positioning valve in control scheme
Advantage may be gained in locating the valve near its
controller or other equipment. A time delay is introduced
in t he operation of pneumatic valves by the volumetric
capacity and resistance of air lines together with t he air
flow capacity of the controller. Delay increases when a
positioner is not used. The length of pneumatic signal lines
are governed by t he limits of the response time of the
process and t he valve.
Acknowledgement: Saunders Valves Co. Ltd.
114
Energy Conservation by using Steam Traps
In petrochemical plants, refineries and all other process
plants where there is a concern for energy conservation, the
efficient use of steam cannot be ignored. When capital expen-
ditures are proposed for energy conserving steam systems,
payback periods are used t o justify this outlay of capital. It
has been pointed out , however, that this might be a very
temporary method. Payback periods are not normally used
concerning safety programs (how do you put t he payback
period on a human life)? To determine the payback consid-
erations on pollution oriented projects would quite often
be futile. When we speak of the consumption of energy, are
payback periods really legitimate? As one major petro-
chemical company recently stated, 'we are a profit oriented
company; if we conserve energy or units of fuel, this is
profit t o us. But our real concern is, if in t en t o twelve
years we no longer have t he energy t o produce the chemical,
then regardless of profits there is no company .'
Sooner or later, t he responsibility for energy conservation
must stop somewhere; many governments will be willing
t o accept this responsibility if we don' t. If major oil comp-
anies put emphasis on steam conservation practices and
insist on new project designs that utilize the efficient use
of steam, the overall energy crunch can be softened.
In all plants, where energy conservation is important, the
efficient use of steam is a major consideration. The ineffic-
iencies in steam systems and steam traps are becoming even
more expensive and the importance of designing and select-
ing the proper heat transfer service or heat exchanger has
increased. The justification of well-designed return systems
is inevitable and improving plant heat balance characteristics
and power plant procedures are becoming easier t o justify.
Selecting energy-reducing steam hardware such as steam
traps has taken on much more importance as steam and
energy costs soar.
Firstly, i t is important t o consider the operation and
efficiency of steam traps. It is appropriate t o start with a
brief review of t he different operating principles employed
today in steam trapping equipment. Some may feel that a
steam trap is a necessary evil; i t doesn't heat a fluid or'
produce an end product and is simply an automatic valve
that stops steam (capturing the valuable latent heat of steam)
and discharges condensate and non-condensibles. However,
the efficiency with which it accomplishes this is critical and
a variety of different types of steam traps utilizing the
thermostatic, float and thermostatic, inverted bucket,
and thermodynamic principles is available.
THERMOSTATIC STEAM TRAPS (Figure 1)
Thermostatic steam traps respond only t o temperature
change. When the 'cold condensate or cold non-condensibles'
reach the trap, t he trap opens, discharges and then closes on
'hot' steam. The bellows-activated thermostatic t rap relies
on a charged bellows t o sense t he difference in temperature
between steam and condensate. To make the bellows respond
properly over the pressure - temperature curve, the bellows
is normally internally charged with water. At steam temp-
eratures, the bellows expands and closes the valve to
prevent t he escape of steam (waste). When the trap fills
with condensate or air and cools sufficiently, the bellows
will contract and open the valve t o allow the discharge of
accumulated condensate. Since the pressure-temperature
relationship within the bellows (because of its water fill)
is the same as the pressure-temperature characteristics
surrounding the bellows, a charged balance pressure bellows-
type thermostatic steam trap follows the saturation curve
regardless of pressure or condensate load coming t o the trap.
FLOAT AND THERMOSTATIC STEAM TRAP (Figure 2)
There is always air present in steam. A straight float trap,
one without some method of handling the air, becomes
air-bound on steam service and some sort of air by-pass is
essential. It could be external, but more comn~onl y it is
found internally and is referred t o as a float and thermo-
static steam trap. During t he start-up period, air is quickly
pushed through the open thermostatic air vent in the trap.
When condensate reaches the trap, t he float simply opens
the main valve t o permit flow and the remaining air continues
t o discharge through the open thermostatic vent. When
steam reaches t he trap, the thermostatic air vent closes in
response t o the higher temperature. Condensate continues
t o flow through the main valve which is positioned by the
float t o discharge condensate at the same rate at which
condensate is flowing t o t he trap. Air from the system will
now begin t o accumulate in the t op of the trap, and when
t he temperature drops a few degrees below saturated steam,
the balanced pressure thermostatic air vent opens and dis-
charges the air.
INVERTED BUCKET TRAP (Figure 3 )
Everything entering the trap, condensate, steam, and non-
condensibles, enters underneath the inverted submerged
bucket. As condensate accumulates within the bucket,
t he bucket loses its buoyancy and sinks, opening the valve
at t he t op of t he trap and discharging the condensate until
more steam reaches the trap and floats the bucket. The non-
condensibles - air, carbon dioxide, etc. - pass through the
small hole in the t op of t he bucket called the bucket vent
and collect at the t op of the trap. The result is a higher
concentration of non-condensibles. These non-condensibles
are discharged along with the condensate when the trap
next discharges. Any steam passing through the vent is
less than that required t o offset radiation loss from the
trap. An inverted bucket trap discharges all condensate as
soon as it comes t o t he trap, with no build-up of condensate
behind it.
1. The steam trap is installed in the drain line between
the steam heated unit and the condensate return
heater. At this point the bucket is down and the
valve is widc open. As the initial flood of condensate
enters the trap and flows under the bottom edge of
the bucket, i t fills the trap body and completely
submerges the bucket. Condensate then discharges
through the widc open valve to the return header.
3. When condcnhite is slightly above the floating level,
the bucket exerts a slight pull on the lever. The
valve does not open, however, until the condensate
level rises t o the opening line for the existing pressure
differential between the steam and condensate
return header.
Fig. 1.
Steam also enters the trap under the bottom edge of
the bucket, where it rises and collects at the top,
imparting buoyancy. The bucket then rises and
lifts the valve towards its seat until the valve is
snapped tightly shut. Air and carbon dioxide con-
tinually pass through the bucket vent and collect
at the top of the trap.
Condensate
When condensate level reaches the opening line,
the weight of the bucket times leverage, exceeds
the pressure holding the valve to the seat. The bucket
then sinks and opens the trap valve. Accumulated
air is discharged first, followed by condensate.
Discharge continues until more steam floats the
bucket and the cycle is repeated.
THERMODYNAMIC TYPE TRAPS (Impulse)
The thermodynamic trap is activated by a chaage of phase.
The trap senses the difference between liquid and gas and
closes on gas. When condensate is coming to the thermo-
dynamic trap, the condensate flows under the disc and out
the discharge port. The disc remains open until all condensate
is discharged. When steam or air reaches the trap, the velocity
of flow across the disc increases and the disc is drawn toward
the seat. With the increased flow velocity, pressure builds
up on the top of the disc. As these forces increase, they
overcome the pressure at the inlet orifice and the trap
closes. Once the trap is closed, the pressure trapped on top
of the disc must be relieved before the trap will again open.
The time it takes to relieve this pressure is critical. If the
trap operates too quickly, excessive wear occurs. If the trap
operates too slowly a leg of condensate is built up in the
tracer line or heat exchange equipment. The thermodynamic
trap is often called a time-cycle device which relates to the
time it takes t o relieve the pressure on top of the disc.
Disc trap manufacturers accomplish this pressure relief in
different ways.
One method is t o allow radiation to occur, thus collapsing
the steam into condensate and relieving the pressure trapped
over the disc. This allows the trap to open. Unfortunately,
if excessive radiation should occur due to a rain storm, high
winds, or snow, the trap will probably go into very rapid
cycling or even a straight blow-through condition.
Another method used is a bleed hole such as the hole in the
piston of an impulse trap. A rough grind mating service is
another method t o ensure a 'controlled leak'. A finite
radial groove (scratch) is another method to allow a slight
bleed of steam from the control Jiamber to the discharge
pipe. Regardless of the supplier or the trap design, some
facility for leaking steam or pressure from the top of the
disc must be used. If non-condensibles were trapped above
the disc, radiation could not be relied on to activate the trap.
Some positive leak from within the trap itself must be
provided.
1. On start up, the main float-actuated valve is normally
closed. Air is pushed through the open thermostatic
air vent by system pressure. When condensate reaches
the trap (above), the float opens the main valve t o
permit flow. The remaining air continues t o discharge
through the open vent.
2. When steam reaches the trap, the thermostatic air
vent closes in response t o the higher temperature.
Condensate continues t o flow through the main valve
which is positioned by t he float t o discharge conden-
sate at the same rate as t he rate at which condensate
is flowing t o the trap.
3. Air from t he system will now begin t o accumulate in
the t op of the trap. When the temperature of the air
drops a few degrees below the saturated steam temp-
erature at the existing pressure, the balanced pressure
thermostatic air vent opens and discharges the air.
Key
Ega
Fig. 2.
1. On start-up, condensate and air are pushed ahead of
the steam directly through the trap. The thermostatic
bellows element is fully contracted and the valve
remains wide open until steam enters the trap.
2. As the temperature inside the trap increases, it
quickly heats the charged bellows element, increasing
the vapour pressure inside. When the pressure inside
the element becomes balanced with system pressure
in the trap body, the spring effect of the bellows
causes the element t o expand, closing the valve.
Condensate
Air
Steam
Flashing
condensate
3. When the temperature in the trap drops a few
degrees below saturated steam temperature, imbal-
anced pressure contracts the bellows, opening the
valve.
Fig. 3.
USE OF MAIN TYPES OF TRAP IN DRIP OR TRACER steam t rap selection and shows how various types of traps
SERVICE meet specific operating requirements for tracer line and
The table provides a useful guide when energy conservation drip service.
is NOT of major importance in steam systems designs and
Characteristic Inverted Disc Thermostatic
Bucket *
-
Method of operation Intermittent Intermittent Intermittent
Resistance t o wear Excellent Poor Good
Corrosion resistance Excellent Excellent Excellent
-p-p-pp--p
Resistance t o hydraulic shock Excellent Excellent Poor --
- - -
vent s air and C O ~ at steam temperature
-
Yes No No
Ability t o handle start-up - air loads Fair Poor --- Excellent
Operation against backpressure -- Excellent Poor Excellent
Resistance t o damage from freezing Excellent Excellent Excellent
u w
-
Ability t o operate - on very light loads Good Good Excellent
Responsiveness t o slugs of condensate Immediate Delayed Delayed
--
Ability t o handle dirt Excellent Poor Fair
-
* Drawn stainless steel construction
EFFICIENCY OF STEAM TRAPPING EQUIPMENT
What is efficiency in a steam trap? Aside from t he obvious
answer- zero kilograms per hour steam loss - there is a
more inclusive definition. Efficiency is t he ability t o produce
a maximum quantity of heat at t he heat exchanger while
using a minimum amount of steam. Steam trap operation
can directly affect the efficiency of heat transfer equipment.
An important, costly, and measurable aspect of t he effic-
iency of steam trapping equipment is t he amount of energy
(joule) a steam trap consumes and it is necessary t o determine
the heat loss across the steam trap or the energy in versus
the energy out . All traps consume a measurable amount of
energy. If the t rap is operating perfectly, this amount is
small. However, as t rap parts begin t o wear and dirt accum-
ulates inside t he trap body, there is a remarkable increase
in t he quantity of energy consumed or lost by some types
of traps.
The following curves (Figures 4 and 5) compare trap life
versus steam loss characteristics of t wo types of steam traps.
The inverted bucket type (Figure 4) and t he thermodynamic
or impulse type (Figure 5). These curves were compiled
from accurate heat balance or steam consumption tests
using traps furnished by various companies. In each case,
these traps were taken from refineries and petrochemical
industries throughout t he United States and Canada and
each was tested a minimum of five times. All traps were
tested under identical conditions and the service time of
each trap was noted. All traps came fromeither drip or tracer
line applications and were in working order in service at t he
time of test; no 'scrap heap' traps were used,
New steam traps essentially waste the same amount of
energy regardless of type or make. The problem occurs as
steam traps wear. The inverted bucket steam t rap demon-
strated year-in, year-out service with no increase of energy
waste or steam loss. A thermodynamic type steam trap had
a very predictable life cycle. As it wears, its cycle rate
increases. The closer it gets t o 'machine-gunning' or rapid
Fig. 4.
TI ME I N SERVI CE I YEARS)
Fig. 5.
TIME I N SERVICE IYEARS)
cycling, t he more steam loss occurs. Steam loss curves for
thermostatic type steam traps are also available from
manufacturers. Based on experience, it would appear that
if energy is a major criterion in steam trap selection for
drip or tracer service use traps incorporating the inverted
bucket type principle.
Acknowledgement: Richard L. Hitz
Director of Research and Development
Armstrong Steam
Drip Leg Sizing
Many of the problems that have been accepted as being
inevitable in the operation of a 'typical' steam system are,
in fact, completely avoidable. Occurances such as water
hammer, steam leaks resulting from pipe erosion, short
equipment life, reduced heat transfer, and long start-up
times are often the result of the improper sizing or location
of drip legs. Drip legs are often an afterthought and some-
times forgotten altogether. However, when properly designed
and placed, drip legs do much to eliminate these problems
and improve overall steam quality.
The drip leg provides a path for the removal of condensate
from steam mains. At first glance, it would seem that this
is simply a matter of connecting the piping or equipment
t o a trap, and should not require much engineering. An
analysis of the varying conditions inside a steam system,
however, reveals that the condensate must be drained
effectively as it flows through the system in three unique
ways: at start-up, under perimeter flow conditions, and
under entrained flow conditions.
START-UP CONDITIONS
During start-up, high condensate loads are created as the
steam encounters cool piping and equipment and condenses.
At the same time, the condensing steam leaveslittle pressure
available in the system. Gravity pulls the condensate
toward the drip leg, so on supervised start-ups this presents
no problem. On automatic start-ups, however, there is often
insufficient differential pressure t o allow adequate flow
through the trap. In these cases, the drip leg must be
sufficiently long t o provide the necessary static head
(dimension H - Figure 3). In those applications where
condensate must be lifted, the drip leg should provide
ample volume for the water t o accumulate until there is
sufficient pressure t o elevate the condensate (about 2 kPa
for every metre of lift).
If the system is not properly drained, it will take an excess-
ive amount of time t o reach operating temperature, thus
increasing operating costs. Insufficient drainage during
start-up can also result in steam being injected into pockets
of cool condensate, creating thermal shock (one of the
forms of water hammer).
PERIMETER FLOW CONDITIONS
With relatively large condensate loads and lower velocities
(commonly found in low pressure, modulated heating
systems or upstream of any control valves, for example),
condensate flow takes place mostly on the inside pipe wall.
The steam constantly condenses at the wall of the pipe and
flows by gravity t o the bottom, forming a stream. The drip
leg must be sized appropriately or the stream is only partially
drained away as it flows over the top of the opening. Partial
drainage is likely when a small pipe is 'hot tapped' into a
steam main to provide a drip leg (Figure 1).
Fig, l . The properly sized drip leg will capture condensate. Too
small a drip leg can actually cause a 'piccolo' effect where
pressure drop pulls condensate out of the drip leg and trap.
This condensate stream robs the pipe of flow area, and the
steam of some of its heat, again increasing operating costs.
If the stream builds t o sufficient levels, waves will be formed
by the gases passing at relatively high velocities above it.
These waves can rise t o the point where the pipe is blocked.
With system pressure upstream of this block, and collap-
sing steam downstream, the block or slug is accelerated
down the pipe where it can reach the design velocity of
the system, typically over 80 km/h (Figure 2). Great
damage can be done t o piping and equipment where the
slug is forced to stop or change direction.
ENTRAINED FLOW CONDITIONS
In lower load, higher velocity service,most of the condensate
is picked up from the pipe wall by the passing gas stream.
The water droplets are carried along, mixed with the steam,
at velocities that can exceed 160 kmlh. Because of this high
velocity, the drip leg must be large enough to provide a
zone of pressure that is roughly equivalent t o the pressure
in the steam line. If this is not done, the pressure drop
created at the interface of the steam line and the drip leg
will serve to draw condensate out of the drip leg and
steam trap.
FLASH STEAM
CONDENSATE
-
PITCH DOWNWARD
a
Fig. 2. Formation of a condensate seal,
For instance, a normally operating inverted bucket trap
can be heard as a definite burst of sound when the bucket
sinks and opens t he trap valve.
The normal operating sounds of a float and thermostatic
trap are more difficult t o distinguish as it is a constant flow
device with a more gentle cycle rate than an inverted
bucket or disc t rap. A subcooling thermostatic trap is
similar in operation t o the float trap. It may have either a
bellows or a bimetallic spring as t he actuation device, open-
ing and closing the
differential.
trap according t o a set temperature
VISUAL TESTING
Another highly accurate approach t o steam trap testing is
t he visual method. Like the sonic testing procedure, visual
testing requires considerable experience and training.
On lines that return condensate t o t he boiler, a three-way
valve or a pair of test valves is required, so the condensate-
return line can be shut off and t he trap allowed t o discharge
t o atmosphere.
It is important, but difficult, for the tester t o be able t o
differentiate between flash steam and live steam, which
is created when the trap fails open. For this reason, a coni-
bination of visual testing and sonic evaluation is recommen-
ded whenever practical.
SUMMARY
Reliable evaluation of steam trap operation is necessary for
traps t o work at peak efficiency. Trap testing is a key element
in a complete energy management program and an essential
skill for protecting your investment.
Manufacturers offer a variety of training aids which can
provide users with steam trap testing information. These in-
clude bulletins, video tapes, and troubleshooting flow charts
devoted t o t he subject of trap testing.
0 1 000 2 000 3 000
PRESSURE AT WHI CH CONDENSATE kPa I S FORMED
Fig. 3 .
I I ill
4
Acknowledgement: Walter T. Deacon
Senior Application Engineer
Armstrong Steam
--
STEAM TRAP
TEST VALVE
--
I I
I
--
I
-
Testing Steam Traps for Energy Conservation
The ability t o accurately evaluate steam trap operation can
pay dividends in energy conservation. save countless mainten-
ance hours, and reduce steam system unscheduled down-
time due t o trap failure.
An investment i n learning about trap testing will typically
pay a rapid return. For example, estimated payback for
replacement of a steam trap that is leaking at even a small
rate can be as short as several mont hs. For a larger leak of
perhaps 30 kg per hour, estimated payback may be only a
matter of weeks.
TECHNIQUES FOR TRAP TESTING
Because t he material of steam traps is opaque - cast i ron,
steel, or stainless steel - it i snot possible t o directly observe
a trap's internal operation and determine whether i t is func-
tioning properly in service. Over t i me, three primary trap
testing techniques have evolved for field work. These tech-
niques are temperature, sound, and visual inspection. An
overview of strengths and weaknesses of these test methods
will provide an indication of their effectiveness for trap
testing.
TEMPERATURE TESTING
The simplest and least effective means of testing steam traps
is the temperature technique. This method utilizes a heat-
sensing device infra-red, thermography , pyrometers,
thermocouple, heat sensitive tapes and crayons - t o measure
t he external temperature of t he inlet and outlet pipes to
indicate t he system's upstream and downstream pressures.
The theory of temperature testing assumes temperature
downstream of t he trap will increase when a trap is blowing
steam. Several examples will show why this theory is not
reliable.
Figure 1 shows a steam trap on a 1 000 kPa steam system
with thermocouples placed on the inlet and outlet pipes.
Test numbers 1 and 4 reveal nearly identical downstream
temperatures whether t he t rap is functioning normally or
steadily blowing live steam. These results can occur because
the failed trap is not blowing enough steam t o pressurize
the piping downstream of t he trap.
Test numbers 2 and 3 show t he temperature increasing
downstream of t he t rap as hot condensate is discharged.
The temperature rise is traceable t o the large volume of
flash steam formed by the hot condensate (refer t o Figure
1). According t o t he temperature testing met hod, these
properly functioning traps would appear t o have failed.
The temperature testing method can also prove inaccurate
in a variety of other instances. On a manifold setup, for
example, although back pressure may rise because of faulty
traps, it will rise on all traps on t he system - the good ones
as well as the bad. Alternatively in piping systems where
return piping size is large enough, a failed trap may cause
Test Condition Thern~ocoupl e Thermocouple
No. A B
-
1 Radiation load 1 8 2 C 99O C
only
--
2 Constant condensate 182' C 1 1 8 C
discharge
3 Intermittent cond- 1 8 2 C loo0 C
ensate discharge Valve Closed
(Normal operation) 1 0 5 C
Valve Open
---
4 Steady blowthrough 1 8 2 C 10l o C
of live steam
Fig. 1.
no rise i n back pressure, and the unchanging temperature
differential will give no clue t o t he failure.
Testing steam traps by t he temperature method is capable
of determining whether a trap is hot or cold, but should
not be depended upon as t he sole means of determining
t rap operation.
SONIC TESTING
A more accurate method of testing traps is through the
use of sound. An ultrasonic stethoscope or mechanic's
stethoscope equipped with headphones can be used for this
purpose. Even a screwdriver, with the metal tip pressed
against t he trap cap will transmit sound t o the tester's ear.
The sonic testing method requires a trained ear t o detect
t he differences between a t rap discharging normally and one
that has failed t o open. The tester must also be familiar
with t he operating principles of various types of steam traps.
In order t o separate t he condensate from the high velocity
stcjrn, the drip leg must be sized t o provide an expansion
in flow area, slowing t he gas velocity so that t he conden-
sat e ran drop out . In applications where dry steam i s essen-
t i al , it is preferable to use a steam separator t o provide the
flow reduction, and drain it with an adequate drip leg.
If the condensat? accumulates in the flowing stream, it
reduces the steam quality. This, in t urn, reduces the amount
of heat that can be transferred from t he volume of steam
delivered downstream and, once again, operating costs are
i n~reased. The erosive force of the condenstae droplets
being whipped along at 160 km/h is roughly analogous t o a
mj o r hurricane. As pipe walls and heat exchange surfaces
are eroded by the water blast, they begin t o leak or fail.
Control valves, ends of mains, and expansion loops also
become eroded and eventually fail when subjected t o these
forces
DRIP LEG DESIGN
Given these three flow dynamics, it should be obvious that
to be effective a drip leg must be as carefully designed as
the rest of the s t e m system. Drip legs must be appropriately
siied and must be located wherever condensate is likely t o
collect.
A typical dnp leg is shown in Figure 3. In general, the
diameter of t bc d ~ i p leg should be equal t o t he diameter
of t he main up t o 100 mtn. Above 100 mm the drip leg
should be half the diameter of the main, but never less
than 100 rnm The height of t he drip leg, in millimetres
divided by 103. yields the amount of static head in kPa,
available t o open the trap. Figure 4 gives recommendations
for the siring of steam main and branch drip legs.
rig. 3. Trap draining drip leg on main. Distance 'H' in mm - 103
= kPa static head for forcing water through the trap.
. - -
Steam main Drip leg Drip leg length (min) mm
size dia Supervised ALI tomatic
mm mm warm-up warm-up
12 12 250 700
20 20 250 700
25 2 5 250 700
5 0 50 250 700
80 80 250 700
100 100 250 700
150 100 250 700
200 100 300 700
250 150 375 700
300 150 45 0 700
350 200 525 700
400 200 600 700
450 250 675 700
5 00 25 0 750 750
600 300 900 900
Fig. 4. Recommended steam main and branch line drip leg tizing,
Drip legs should be located at about 100 metre inteivals
along steam mains, and never at intervals greater than 150
metres. In addition, drip legs should be placed:
- at any riser, preferably beyond the point of change in
direction.
- at t he end of mains.
- ahead of expansion joints or bends.
- ahead of valves or regulators.
By following these recommendations, proper condensate
drainage can be assured regardless of the flow profile of
t he condensate. Proper drainage will result in lower operat-
ing and maintenance costs and ensure a more consistent
product.
Acknowledgement: Walter T. Deacon
Senior Application Engineer
Armstrong Steam
Effective Steam Trap Separation
STEAM TRAP OPERATION
In order t o appreciate trap selection, so called 'losses'
or even maintenance, it is essential t o know how steam
traps operate. There are three basic types.
Thermostatic
In the steam space, steam loses some of its heat t o produce
condensate at steam temperature. Continuing heat loss will
mean that t he temperature of this condensate will fall.
The thermostatic trap senses temperature and moves a
valve in relation t o a seat t o release condensate.
Mechanical
These rely for their operation on the difference in density
between steam and condensate. In the ball float trap the
ball rises in the presence of condensate t o open a valve.
Both are essentially 'mechanical' in their method of
operation.
Thermodynamic and 'Change of State'
The third type is not so easily recognised as such and con-
sists of a number of apparently unrelated devices. This group
includes thermodynamic, impulse and labyrinth traps and
even the simple orifice plate. All rely on the fact that hot
condensate, released in pressure can 'flash of f t o give a
mixture of steam and water.
It is worthwhile t o consider these types in more detail.
THERMOSTATIC TRAPS
Liquid Expansion
This is one of the simplest thermostatic traps and is shown
diagrammatically in Figure 1. An oil filled element expands
when heated t o close the valve against the seat. The adjust-
ment allows the element t o be moved relative t o the seat
which effectively alters t he temperature of the trap discharge.
Seal
Fi g. 1 Liquid expansion steam trap
The problem is t hat the temperature of steam varies with
pressure. The trap on the other hand can only be set t o
operate at a fixed temperature. Figure 2 shows the saturation
curve for steam together with the response line of the liquid
expansion trap and illustrates the problem. At pressure PI
condensate would have t o cool by only a small amount and
Fig. 2 Response of liquid expansion steam trap
trapping would be acceptable. However, if pressure is in-
creased t o P2 t hen condensate has t o cool appreciably before
passing through the trap and serious waterlogging will take
place. At reduced pressure P3 the t rap will blow live steam.
Although this type provides a useful device for discharging
condensate at a fixed temperature, it can only be used as a
steam trap on those applications where significant water-
logging can be tolerated.
Balanced Pressure
An improvement is provided by the balanced pressure trap
shown in Figure 3. As t he name suggests. this is 'balanced'
t o cope with pressure (and therefore temperature) variations.
The oil filling is replaced by an evacuated element contain-
ing a small quantity of a liquid with a boiling point some-
what lower t han water.
In the cold conditions which exist at start-up the element
is contracted. The valve is off its seat and is wide open.
allowing the prompt removal of air. This is a feature of
all thermostatic traps and explains why they are also used
as air vents.
+
Fig. 3 Balanced pressure trap
Fig. 4 Response of balanced pressure steam trap
As condensate passes through the t rap, heat is transmitted
t o the liqud in t he element, Before steam reaches the
trap this liquid boils. The vapour pressure within the
element causes it t o expand and the trap shuts. Heat loss
from the trap cools t he water surrounding the element and
t he filling condenses. The element contracts t o open the
valve and releases condensate until it again approaches steam
temperature when the cycle is repeated.
The temperature below steam temperature at which the trap
operates is governed by the filling. At the same time the
fact that the element is thin-walled means that the boiling
effectively takes place at the operating pressure. The result
is the response line shown in Figure 4.
The problem here is the thin-walled element which is some-
times susceptible t o damage due t o waterhammer. This can
be countered by the use of stainless steel while other
designs use a completely filled element. Figure 5
shows a modern element with considerable resistance t o
damage by water hammer or corrosion.
Fig. 5 Improved balanced pressure element
Fig. 6 Simple bimetal steam trap
Bimetallic
The most robust thermostatic traps are those using bimetal
strips of dissimilar metals welded together which deflect
when heated. Figure 6 shows a simple bimetal steam trap.
The trap is wide open when cold and will vent air. As con-
densate passing through the trap increases in temperature
the bimetal deflects so that the valve modulates the flow.
The setting or temperature response depends on the position
of the valve relative t o the seat. As with the liquid expansion
trap, the adjustment can be used t o set the trap t o close at
a predetermined temperature.
Fig. 7 Bimetal trap with downstream valve
Because of this limitation bimetal steam traps commonly
use a downstream valve as shown in Figure 7. Again, con-
densate passing through the trap will deflect the bimetal t o
pull the valve against t he seat while line pressure will tend
t o push the valve away from the seat. As the temperature
(and pressure) of t he condensate increases there is an in-
creased closing force working against an increased opening
force. The result is the sloping response line shown in
Figure 8 (a) This is an improvement on Figure 2 but is
still a long way from following rhe saturation curve.
Use is therefore made of different types of bimetal in a
single stack t o get the response line t o change as shown in
Figure 8 (b). One set of bimetal deflects t o give the response
AB. At higher temperature a second set of bimetal leaves
l ' i g. 8 Response of bimetal steam t rap
contributes to give response BC. At still higher temperature
the third set of bimetal deflects t o produce CD.
The purpose is t o follow the saturation curve as nearly
as possible. Unfortunately bimetal does age and can take up
something of a permanent set. Other designs use shapes,
stacked in pairs to pull the valve onto the seat as shown in
Figure 9. One particularly successful shape is shown in
Figure 10 which indicates the way in which the three legs
of different length come into operation at different temp-
cratures.
The response line can be effectively moved up or down by
adjusting the position of the valve relative t o the seat and
there is a temptation in some cases t o set the trap close t o
the saturation line. This is unwise on several counts. In the
*
Fig, 9 Operation of bimetal steam trap
Valve Closed
first place, bimetal suffers from hysteresis, as shown in
Figure 8 (c). Bimetal will deflect and close a valve when
the surrounding water is at a somewhat higher temperature
than the bimetal. It will only open again when the surround-
ing water has cooled t o a lower temperature than the
bimetal. There is therefore a difference between closing
and opening temperatures and there is no question of setting
the trap at a precise temperature.
Fig. 10 Shape of bimetal element
Similarly, t he setting depends on a balance between the
closing force provided by the bimetal and an opening
force provided by line pressure. Clearly any back pressure
acting on the downstream side of the valve can upset this
balance. Unfortunately many condensate return systems
do impose a back pressure which varies with load conditions
so the trap setting will vary. Obviously if this type of trap
is set t o operate close t o steam temperature then there is
the danger that under certain conditions i t will blow live
steam as shown in Figure 8 (d). Furthermore, operating
around steam temperature can produce wiredrawing of the
valve and seat so that they are incapable of complete
closure.
Bimetallic traps are therefore set down t o ensure that they
will hold back condensate at all times.
MECHANICAL TRAPS
Ball Float
Like other mechanical traps the ball float type senses
the difference in density between steam and condensate.
Fig. 11 Float trap
In the case of the trap shown in Figure 11, condensate
reaching the trap will cause the ball float t o rise, lift the
valve off its seat and release condensate. The problem is
that air cannot pass through the flooded valve so originally
traps of this kind were vented using a manually operated
cock on the t op of the body. Modern traps use a thermo-
static air vent as shown in Figure 12. The air vent will
allow initial air t o pass whilst the trap is also handling
condensate. The air vent is virtually t he same as the element
of a therniostatic steam trap and is situated in the steam
space above the condensate level. After expelling the
initial air. it will generally remain shut unless air accumulates
during normal running and causes t he air vent t o open.
Fig. 12 Float trap ~ i t h thermostatic air vent
In many ways the float trap with thermostatic air vent
is closest to the ideal steam t rap. It will handle air easily
and will get rid of condensate just as soon as it is formed.
It will do this regardless of changes in steam pressure.
Unfortunately the trap is comparatively large while the
ball float and valve mechanism can be damaged by
waterhammer,
Inverted Bucket
The inverted bucket trap is shown diagrammatically in
Figure 13. As t he name implies, the working portion con-
sists of an inverted bucket attached through a lever t o a
valve. An essential part of the trap is the small air vent hole
in the t op of t he bucket. Figure 14 shows the method of
operation.
4
Fig. 13 Inverted bucket trap
Fig. 14 Operation of inverted bucket trap
In (a) the bucket hangs down pulling the valve off its seat
Condensate flows under the bot t om edge of the bucket
filling t he body and flowing away through the outlet.
When steam reaches the trap it collects in the t op of the
bucket making it buoyant . The bucket then rises as shown
in (b) and closes the valve.
The trap remains shut until the steam in the bucket is dissi-
pated. This occurs due t o radiation loss from the body while
some bubbles into the t op of the trap body. In (c) the
bucket is about t o lose its buoyancy. It will then sink, pull-
ing the main valve off its seat. Accumulated condensate is
released and t he cycle is repeated.
Air reaching the trap at start up will also give the bucket
buoyancy and close the valve. Air will not condense so the
air vent hole is essential t o allow air t o escape i nt o the t op
of the trap. The hole is small so the trap is relatively slow at
venting air. At the same time it can waste steam and give a
dribbling action under low load conditions.
Because steam and condensate are discharged into the inside
of a cylindrical bucket. the trap is generally more robust
than the ball float type. On the other hand the trap is poor
at venting air while the intermittent operation means that
the flow of condensate is not always continuous.
MISCELLANEOUS TRAPS
Thermodynamic
This is by far the most popular type of trap relying on the
fact that hot condensate released in pressure will produce
flash steam. The trap is supremely simple, Figure 15 showing
a section through a typical trap. It consists of a body with a
flat working face having a centre inlet and annular groove
connected t o the outlet. The only moving part is the disc
moving inside the control chamber t o cap.
Fig. 15 Typical t hermost at i c steam t rap
Figure 16 demonstrates how the trap operates. In (a) disc A
is raised from the seat C by incoming pressure, allowing air
and condensate t o pass radially outwards under the disc
before discharging through outlet B. As the condensate
under pressure approaches steam temperature it experiences
a drop in pressure at the inlet orifice and some of the con-
densate flashes to steam. This mems that the rate of fluid
How radially outwards under the disc is greatly increased.
In accordance with Bernoulli's Theorem, there is therefore
an increase in dynamic pressure and a reduction in static
pressure. The disc is therefore drawn towards the seat. This
alone is not sufficient t o cause the disc t o seat. However.
Hg. 16 Operation of t hermodynami c trap
further flash steam flows round the end of the disc resulting
in a pressure build up in the control chamber D as shown
in (b). When t he steam pressure in chamber D
acting over the full area of the disc exceeds the incoming
condensate pressure acting on the much smaller inlet area.
the disc snaps shut covering the inlet orifice. This snap
action is important. It removes any possibility of wiredraw-
ing the seat, while the seat itself is tight. ensuring no leakage.
This situation is shown in (c) and will persist until conden-
sation in the control chamber reduces the pressure over the
disc. As shown in (d) the incoming pressure will eventually
exceed the control chamber pressure and the disc will be
raised starting the cycle all over again.
The rate of opening clearly depends on steam temperature
and also on ambient conditions. Most traps will stay closed
for between 20 and 40 seconds. If the trap opens too
frequently, due perhaps to a cold and windy location, t he
rate of opening can be slowed down by the simple expedient
of fitting an Isotub or insulating cover, something which is
standard on high pressure traps.
Some manufacturers take this t o extremes and use a steam
jacket t o make good the radiation losses from the t op cap.
This means that the steam in t he control chamber can never
condense so a radial groove is provided on the underside of
the disc which allows this steam t o leak away. The problem
here is that the groove constitutes a permanent leak. The
trap is unable t o give a tight shut off and tends t o work t oo
frequently. The inevitably large steam jacketed cap is also
more wasteful than the provision of an insulating cover on
a more conventional trap.
Impulse
The impulse trap is shown diagramniatically i n Figure 17.
It consists of a hollow piston A with a piston disc B working
inside a tapered piston C which acts as a guide
At start up the main valve rests on the seat D leaving a
passage of flow through the clearance between piston and
cylinder and hole E at the t op of the piston. Increasing
flow of air and condensate will act on the piston disc B and
lift the main valve off its seat t o give increased flow. Some
condensate will also flow through the gap between piston
and disc, through E and away t o the trap outlet.
As the condensate approaches steam temperature some of it
flashes t o steam as it passes through the gap. Although this
is bled away through hole E it does create an intermediate
pressure over the piston, which effectively positions the main
valve t o meet the load.
Fig. 17 Impulse t r ap
The trap can be adjusted by moving the position of piston
C relative t o the seat but the trap is affected by significant
back pressure. It has a substantial capacity, bearing in mind
its small size. On the other hand the trap is unable t o give
complete shut off and will pass live steam on very light
loads. The main problem however is the fine clearance
between the piston and cylinder. This is readily affected by
the dirt normally found in a steam system. Usage is relatively
small.
an increased volume of hot condensate and flash steam.
The result is a restriction along the length of the trap which
slows down the flow of condensate and prevents the escape
of live steam.
Fig. 18 Labyri nt h t rap
The baffle plates can be moved in or out using the hand-
wheel which alters their position relative t o the body.
However, t he device is fairly crude and requires frequent
adjustment t o cope with varying conditions.
Orifice plate
In conclusion, mention should be made of the fixed orifices.
The theory is simple. By providing an orifice sized t o handle
the condensate load maintenance is simplified and radiation
losses are virtually eliminated. Because of the great difference
in density between condensate and steam, the orifice cannot
waste any great amount of steam even if the sizing calcula-
tions are somewhat adrift. There is no question of a valve
failing in the open position so the device is attractive t o
those concerned with energy conservation.
The main limitation is the size of the orifice. A 1 mm
diameter hole can still waste over 2,3 kg/h under 'no load'
conditions. It is quite inadequate t o cope with air at start
up while such a small hole is not easy t o protect from dirt.
The main danger though is waterlogging as the load increases.
Although it is claimed that the fixed orifice can cope with
load changes of + or -25% start up loads are commonly
3 or 4 times higher than running loads while pressure
fluctuations are another problem in calculating orifice
size.
Labyrinth
This type scarcely qualifies as an 'automatic drain trap' but
is outlined in Figure 18. It consists of a series of baffles
which can be adjusted by means of a handwheel.
Hot condensate passing between the first baffle and the trap
body is subject t o a drop in pressure and some of it flashes
t o steam. The space around the next baffle has t o cope with
Acknowledgement: Spi rax Sarco (Pty) Ltd
Valves for Pressure Reduction of Steam
Every piece of steam-using equipment has a maximum
safe working pressure. If this is lower t han t he main steam
supply pressure, a reducing valve has t o be fitted. This is
not, however, t he only occasion when a pressure reducing
valve can be used t o advantage.
Most steam boilers are designed t o work at relatively high
pressures and should not be run at lower pressures, since
carryover of water is liable t o occur. For this reason, it
is best t o generate at high pressure and fit reducing valves
before any items of plant requiring steam at a lower pres-
sure. Such an arrangement has t he added advantage that
small bore distribution pipes can be used, due t o the rela-
tively small volume occupied by steam at high pressure.
Since the temperature of saturated steam is determined
by its pressure, control of pressure is a simple but effective
method of accurate temperature control. This fact is used
t o good effect on applications such as sterilisers and con-
trol of surface temperatures on contact dryers. Reducing
steam pressure will also cut down t he loss of flash steam
from open vents at condensate collecting tanks.
Most pressure reducing valves currently available can be
divided into 2 main groups:-
Direct Acting Valves
The direct acting valve shown diagrammatically in Figure 1
is the simplest design of reducing valve. Reduced pressure
downstream of the valve acts on the underside of t he dia-
phragm 'A', opposing t he pressure applied by t he control
spring 'B'. This determines t he opening of t he main valve
' C' and hence t he flow through t he reducing valve.
B
I
A
i
Inlet 4
r
Fig. 1 Direct acting reducing valve
In order t o move t he valve from the open t o the closed
position, there must be a build-up of pressure under the
diaphragm. This results in an inevitable variation of the
downstream pressure. I t will be highest when the valve is
closed, or nearly closed, and will 'droop' as t he load in-
creases.
Outlet pressure acting on t he underside of t he diaphragm
tends t o close t he valve as does inlet uressure acting on the
underside of t he main valve itself. The control spring must
be capable of overcoming t he effects of bot h t he reduced
and inlet pressures when t he downstream pressure is set.
Any variation in t he inlet pressure will alter t he force it
produces on the main valve and so affect the downstream
pressure.
This type of valve has two main drawbacks in that i t allows
some fluctuation of t he downstream pressure and has a
relatively low capacity for its size. It is nevertheless per-
fectly adequate for a whole range of simple applications
where accurate control is not essential and where the
stream flow is fairly small and reasonable constant.
D-
E-
G-
Inlet-
Fig. 2 Pilot operat ed reducing valve
Pilot Operated Valves
Where accurate control of pressure or large capacity is
required, a pilot operated reducing valve should be used.
Such a valve is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.
Reduced pressure acts on t he underside of t he pilot dia-
phragm 'C', either through t he pressure control pipe 'F'
or the drilling 'I', so balancing t he load produced on the t op
of t he pilot diaphragm by t he pressure adjustment spring
'BY.
When t he reduced pressure falls, the spring force over-
comes t he pressure acting below the pilot diaphragm and
opens the pilot valve 'E', admitting steam through the
pipe 'D' t o t he underside of t he main diaphragm 'K'. In
t urn, this opens t he main valve 'H' against its return spring
'G' and allows more steam t o pass until t he reduced pres-
sure returns t o t he correct value.
Any further rise in reduced pressure will act on t he pilot
diaphragm t o close t he pilot valve. Fluid from below
the main diaphragm will then flow into the valve outlet
through the pipe 'L' and the orifice 'J' as t he return spring
moves the main valve towards its seat, throttling t he flow.
The pilot valve will settle down t o an opening which is
just sufficient t o balance the flow through t he orifice 'J'
and maintain t he necessary pressure under the diaphragm t o
keep the main valve in t he required position for t he pre-
vailing upstream and downstream pressure and load con-
ditions. Any variation in pressure or load will be sensed
immediately by the pilot diaphragm, which will act t o ad-
just t he position of t he main valve.
The reduced pressure is set by the adjustor 'A' which alters
the compression of t he adjustment spring 'B'.
The pilot operated design offers a number of advantages
over t he direct acting valve. Only a very small amount of
steam has t o flow through t he pilot valve t o pressurise t he
main diaphragm chamber and fully open the main valve.
Thus, only very small changes in downstream pressure are
necessary t o produce large changes in flow. The droop of
the pilot operated valve is therefore small.
Although any rise in upstream pressure will apply an in-
creased closing force on t he main valve, this is offset by t he
force of t he upstream pressure acting on the main dia-
phragm. The result is a valve which gives close control of
downstream pressure regardless of variations on t he up-
stream sides.
In some valves, the main diaphragm is replaced by a piston.
This can be advantageous in bigger valves which would
require very large size main diaphragms. However, pro-
blems with the piston sticking in its cylinder are common
particularly in smaller valves.
Selection and Installation
The first essential is t o select the best type of valve for a
given application and this follows logically from t he de-
scriptions already given. Small loads where accurate control
is not vital should be met by using t he simple direct acting
valves. In all ot her cases, t he pilot operated valve is the best
choice, particularly if there are periods of no dem'and when
the downstream pressure must not be allowed t o rise.
Oversizing should be avoided with all types of control
valve and this is equally true of reducing valves. A clack
working close t o its seat when passing steam can suffer
wiredrawing or erosion. In addition, any small movement
of the oversized clack will produce a relatively large
change in t he flow through t he valve.
A smaller, correctly sized reducing valve will be less prone
t o wear and will give more accurate control. Where it is
necessary t o make big reductions in pressure or t o cope
with wide fluctuations in load, it may be preferable t o
use two or more valves in series or in parallel.
Although reliability and accuracy depend on correct selec-
tion and sizing, they also depend on correct installation.
Fig. 3 shows an ideal arrangement for t he installation of a
pilot operated reducing valve. Since t he majority of reduc-
ing valve problems are caused by t he presence of moisture
or dirt, a steam separator and strainer with fine mesh screen
are fitted before t he valve. The strainer is fitted on its side
t o prevent t he body filling with water and t o ensure that the
full area of t he screen is effective. All upstream and down-
stream pipework and fittings must be adequately sized t o
ensure that t he only appreciable pressure drop occurs across
t he reducing valve itself.
If t he downstream pipework or connected plant is incap-
able of withstanding t he full upstream pressure, then a
safety - or relief - valve should be fitted on t he down-
stream side. This safety valve should be sized at the maxi-
mum pressure which the downstream side will withstand
and it must be capable of handling all t he steam which
could pass through t he reducing valve at that pressure when
failed fully open.
Valve Reducing Valve Pressure
I
Control Stop
Valve
Safety Valve 1
Upstream Pressure
1
Downstream
Gauge
I
Pressure
Control I I G ~ u o ~ ~ ~
1 ~i~~~ T~~~ Strainer with 1 m (or 15 pipe diameters)
Sight Glass Slowdown Cock clear on either side
Fig. 3 Pressure reducing valve station Acknowledgement: Spkax Sarco (Pty) Ltd
Safety Relief Valves - Backpressure Considerations
NOTE :
This article has been compiled with reference t o ASME,
M I , and ot her American authorities. It has therefore
been considered impractical t o convert values t o t he SI.
BACK PRESSURE DEFINED
Back pressure on a safety relief valve is that static pressure
at t he valve outlet when t he valve is closed or open and
relieving. Back pressure may be superimposed or built up.
Superimposed back pressure is that pressure present in t he
discharge pipe when t he safety valve is closed. This type of
pressure occurs when a valve is piped t o a common header
into which ot her valves or processes are discharging or as
would occur in a pump bypass installation.
Built up back pressure is that pressure in t he discharge pipe
that occurs as t he results of flow through t he safety valve.
It only exists when t he valve is open and flowing. Figures
1 and 2 illustrate bot h types of back pressure.
Built up back pressure is t he result of pressure drop in t he
discharge pipe due t o t he resistance of process flow through
it. The longer t he 'effective or equivalent' length of t he
pipe, t he greater t he loss.
CAPACITY RELIEF DETERMINATION OF
SAFETY VALVES
The equation used for calculatiing gas or vapour flow
through a nozzle in a safety relief valve is based on t he con-
tinuity equation and t he perfect gas laws. The formula for
adiabatic, isentropic flow through a nozzle found in stan-
dard thermodynamic texts (1) is:
Where
W = Flow through valve, (lbslhr.)
k = Ratio of specific heats
K = Nozzle coefficient off discharge
A = Nozzle area (sq. in.)
PI
= Pressure at valve inlet during relief, (psia)
P2 = Pressure at valve nozzle exit during relief, (psia)
M = Molecular weight
T = Temperature at valve inlet ( O F + 460)
Pressure Pi at valve out l et exists when Safety Valve
is closed.
Fig. 1 Superimposed Back Pressure
OUT
PI
Pressure Pi at Valve Outl et exists onl y when Safety
Valve i s Open and Relieving
Fig. 2 Built-up Back Pressure
ed by reducing t he pressure at t he nozzle exit. The pressure
at t he exit plane of t he nozzle can never be less t han t he
critical pressure even though t he pressure downstream of
t he nozzle is less t han critical (2). The critical pressure at
t he nozzle exit where sonic velocity occurs is given by t he
following equation (3).
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1) yields t he equa-
This equation is for subcritical flow, meaning that t he tion for critical gas flow through a nozzle.
velocity of t he gas through t he valve is below t he speed of
sound, and t he flow is dependent upon the absolute pres-
sure at t he nozzle entry and exit. As t he pressure differen-
tial across the nozzle increases, t he velocity of t he gas
W = 520 K.A.P.
Jh$ k(qG (3)
, k+l
exiting t he nozzle increases until it becomes sonic. which
means t hat it is equal t o t he speed of sound for that partic-
ular lading fluid at that temperature and pressure. When The familiar form of this equation found in different
sonic velocity is reached, no additional flow can be achiev- standards, codes and manufacturer's literature is:
Where C = 520 /T ( I ) li^
Z = Compressibility factor for deviation of actual
gas from ideal gas.
The flow area A through a valve is determined by t he nozzle
bore in full lift valves and by t he lift of t he seat disc in
restricted lift valves. For either type of valve, any external
condition such as back pressure that reduces lift will reduce
the relieving capacity of t he valve.
Capacity relief of a safety valve for a particular lading fluid
is therefore dependent upon three things; t he flow area, t he
flow effeciency of this area and t he pressure differential
across this area. Depending on the pressure differential,
the relief capacity is described by equations (1) or (3).
The effective flow area of some types of safety valves is
reduced when pressure exists at the valve outlet due t o
loss of lift of t he seat disc.
Derating factors are frequently used in calculating relief
capacities for some types of valves t o account for t he loss
of seat disc lift due t o back pressure. A summary of the
different types of safety valves available in the market
place and their operating characteristics will illustrate
the effects of back pressure on valve operation.
SAFETY RELIEF VALVE TYPES
Safety relief valves are of t wo general types. The first and
most common type is t he conventional direct spring opera-
ted valve. This types of valve consists of a nozzle, seat disc,
spring, body and bonnet. It is illustrated in Figure 3.
A variation of the conventional valve is the balanced safety
relief valve. This type of valve is illustrated in Figure 4.
The second type of safety relief valve is a pilot operated
valve. This type of valve consists of a nozzle, a seat attached
t o an unbalanced moving member, a body, cap and a pilot
or controller. The pilot senses process pressure and responds
to vent or depressurise t he t op side of t he unbalanced mov-
ing'member. Figure 5 illustrates this type of valve.
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SAFETY
RELIEF VALVES
To better understand the effect back pressure has on the
different types of safety valves, it is important t o consider
the principle of operation of these valves. These character-
istics show that t he conventional valve is t he most sensitive
t o back pressure and the pilot operated valve, with balanced
or vented pilot is t he least sensitive.
ADJUSTING SCREW
\
SPRING BONNET
'^,
SPRING
SPRI NG WASHER
GUI DE
DISC HOLDER
SEAT DISC
SLOWDOWN
ADJUSTMENT
RI NG
NOZZLE -4 / \ +\
HUDDLI NG
CHAMBER
NOTE:
Superimposed Back Pressure acting on area of disc
holder (within dotted lines) and opposite nozzle
seating area produces additive force t o increase set
pressure on a one for one basis.
Fig. 3 Conventional Direct Spring Safety Relief Valve
(Unbalanced)
ADJUSTING SCREW
rBoNNET VENT
SPRI NG BONNET
SPRI NG
SPRING WASHER -
SPINDLE SEE
GUI DE
DISC HOLDER
SEAT DISC
OU1
BLOWDOWN.
ADJUSTMENT
RI NG
NOZZLE
HUDDLI NG
CHAMBER
*NOTE:
Bellows area and nozzle area (within dotted lines) are
equal. Superimposed back pressure can only act on area
of disc holder outside area enclosed by bellows, there-
fore no additive force is created to increase set oressure.
Fig. 4 Balanced Direct Spring Safety Relief Valve
NOTE'
Conventional Safety Relief Valve
The conventional safety relief valve is the oldest t ype,
having come into general use with t he advent of t he steam
engine. Referring t o Figure 3, it is seen t hat t he set pressure
of the valve is determined when t he downward force of
the spring equals t he upward force of t he process pressure,
times the disc seating area.This assumes there is no super-
imposed back pressure. When equalisation of these t wo
forces occurs, t he valve is on t he threshold of opening. In
order for a safety valve t o perform its function of relieving
process gas or fluid at a predetermined set pressure, the seat
disc must go into lift without the process pressure increasing
too far beyond t he safety valve set point. For valves where
the flow area is controlled by the nozzle, full lift is theoreti-
cally 0,25 times the nozzle diameter; however in reality i t
can be as much as 0,40. For a valve t o meet the require-
ments of t he American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Section VIII Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, the amount of
overpressure permitted at the valve inlet t o obtain full lift
of the seat disc is limited t o 10%. For ASME, Section I
valves, the overpressure is limited 3%.
To achieve this performance, all direct spring valves are
designed with a huddling chamber downstream of the nozzle
exit. This geometry provides t wo features; it provides a
larger area for t he lading fluid t o act against when the valve
is open and relieving, and it redirects t he flow of this fluid.
Both features result in additional lifting force t o compress
the spring t o achieve full lift of t he seat disc within t he
allowable percentage overpressure.
The balance of forces during the lifting cycle is critical
for proper valve action. If the geometry of the seat disc
downstream of t he nozzle results in t oo much upward
thrust, the valve will not close within the correct limits.
Again, t he ASME Section VIII code states that t he valve
must close within 5% of the opening pressure. This 5%
requirement only applies for capacity certification testing
and only t o valves with adjustable blowdowns. ASME
Section I valves are required t o close within 4% of t he
opening pressure. This requirement applies not only for
capacity certification but also t o installed applications.
Excessive pressure at the outlet of conventional valves
during t he opening cycle can disturb this balance of forces.
The American Petroleum Institute recommends that t he
pressure at the valve outlet of conventional valves be limit-
ed t o 10% of the set pressure for normal pressure upsets
where the pressure in a protected vessel is permitted t o
accumulate t o 110% of set. Most manufacturers also recom-
mend a maximum pressure of 10% at t he outlet for their
valves. For fire conditions, where t he pressure in t he vessel
is permitted t o accumulate t o 120% of set,APIrecommends
the back pressure be limited t o 20%
A typical relief capacity versus built up back pressure per-
formance characteristic for a conventional direct spring
safety relief valve is shown in Figure 6 . These curves show
t hat with built up back pressure equal t o 15%, complete
loss of lift occurs; that is, t he valve closes. If t he process
PRESSURE
SENSE LI NE
PILOT VENT
PISTON SEAL
PISTON LI NER
UNBALANCED
MOVING
MEMBER
(PISTON)
NOZZLE
-SEAT DISC
OUT
PRESSURE PICKUP
I N
Fig, 5 Pilot Operated Safety Relief Valve
overpressure condition has now been satisfied, the valve will
open again, the back pressure will increase and t he valve
will close.
This opening and closing of the valve is known as rapid
cycling or chatter and will continue until t he overpressure
condition terminates o r until t he process pressure increases
t o a higher level. Referring t o Figure 6 again, with 20%
overpressure, that is, with t he process pressure at 120%
of set, the valve can tolerate approximately 10% more back
pressure before chatter begins again. It should be noted that
valve chatter can also occur with any type of safety relief
valve due t o inlet piping pressure losses.
90-
"
' 1
\
80-
- 120% OF
SET PRESSURE
7 0
I
* 110% OF
SET PRESSURE
50
0 10 20 30 40 50
PERCENT BUILT UP BACK PRESSURE
PRESSURE AT VALVE OUTLET, p s i s
( PRESSURE AT VALVE INLET, wi g
Fig. 6 Typical Capacity versus Back Pressure Characteristics of
Conventional Direct Spring Operated Safety Relief Valve
Another characteristic of a conventional safety valve with
respect to back pressure is that the set pressure will increase
on a one for one basis when back pressure is superimposed
at the valve outlet. For example if the spring is adjusted
such that the valve will open at 100 psig, and a 10 psig
back pressure is superimposed at the outlet, the valve
will not open until the process pressure increases to 110
psig. Users of this type of valve must always be aware of
this characteristic t o ensure the safe operating condition of
the pressure vessel being protected is not compromised and
the ASME Code not violated. This code states that the set
pressure, that is the opening pressure of the safety relief
valve, must not exceed the maximum allowable working
pressure (MAWP) of the vessel.
Balanced Safety Relief Valves
This type of valve is illustrated in Figure 4. It has been
designed in an attempt t o protect the sliding surfaces of the
spindle and guide from the corrosive effects of the lading
fluid when the valve opened. In the process of evaluating
this type of design it was observed that by enclosing an area
equal to the nozzle seating area, the valve set pressure
would not be affected by back pressure. The means used t o
enclose the spindle and guide was with a bellows. Sliding
seals have also been used.
The set pressure of a balanced valve is not affected by back
pressure. Although most so-called balanced valves are not
truly balanced, the balance achieved is normally quite
acceptable. A possible exception t o this is the API 'D' and
'E' orifice valves. The geometry of this size valve is such
that a bellows of a small enough area cannot be designed
t o fit around the spindle and guide. Back pressure on these
valves may actually reduce the set pressre. Some manu-
facturers restrict the lift of 'F' orifice bellows valves to
obtain a 'D' or 'E' orifice flow area and thereby avoid
these geometry limitations.
Because the enclosed area around the spindle and guide is
protected from back pressure, the relief capacity is much
less affected by back pressure. Figure 7 is a curve repre-
senting the composite characteristics from a number of
valves from different manufacturers. From these curves
it can be seen that the higher the overpressure, the less
effect built up back pressure has on the lift of the seat
disc. As noted before, capacity and lift of the seat disc
are directly related. As the overpressure increases, the 'knee'
of curves shift t o the right.
The balanced valve, like the conventional valve, will not
open and flow backwards when the back pressure is greater
than inlet pressure. A possible exception would be the 'D'
and 'E' orifices previously noted; however because of the
downward force of the pressure range adjustment spring,
it would be unlikely t o open.
Balanced valves always require that the spring bonnet be
vented t o atmosphere. Any leakage past the bellows or slid-
ing seal would cause an increase in pressure within the
spring bonnet and on top of the disc holder. This pressure
120% OF
SET P RES S URE
1 SET llo% PRESSURE oFl+, 1
HI GHE R SET PRESSURE PERMI TS
LARGER PERCENT BACK PRESSURE 4
PERCENT BUI LT UP BACK PRESSURE
PRESSURE AT VALVE OUTLET, psig
PRESSURE AT VALVE INLET, psig x loo)
Fig. 7 Typical Capacity versus Back Pressure Characteristics of
Balanced Direct Spring Operated Safety Relief Valve
would produce an additional load t o keep the valve closed.
Venting the bonnet to atmosphere will remove this pressure
and maintain the set pressure of the valve at the correct
value. As long as the bonnet vent has a larger opening than
the hole(s) in the bellows, the set pressure of the valve will
remain balanced to back pressure. If the lading fluid in the
discharge header is toxic of flammable, the bonnet should
be vented t o a separate header.
100,
80-
RATIO OF SPECIFICHEAT= 1.3
60-
40-
PERCENT BACK PRESSURE . -
P RE S S URE AT VALVE OUTLET, psia loo)
PRESSURE AT VALVE INLET, psia
Fig. 8 Typical Capacity versus Back Pressure Characteristics of
Pilot Operated Safety Relief Valve
Another characteristic of bellows valves which must be con-
sidered is the collapse pressure rating of the bellows. If
the back pressure exceeds this rating, the bellows will be
damaged due t o excessive external pressure.
Pilot Operated Safety Relief Valves
This type of valve (Fig. 5) is not as common as t he conven-
tional or balanced safety valve; however it has been used for
many years in a wide variety of applications. Instead of
using a spring t o keep the seat disc closed at pressures below
set, the process pressure itself is used. This 'boot strap'
arrangement permits much higher set pressures with larger
orifices than could be obtained with conventional or
balanced valves, where a much larger spring force would be
required. Using process pressure t o keep the valve closed
also results in the seat disc being held down with an
increasing force as pressure increases.
The operation of pilot valves is relatively simple. When the
process pressure increases t o the set point, t he pilot or con-
troller open, permitting t he cavity on the t op side of t he
unbalanced moving member t o depressurise. The seat disc
will begin t o move when the forces acting on t he underside
of t he moving member equal the forces on the t op side.
The amount of unbalance is a function of the pressure
range for which the valve is designed. For low pressures,
inches of water column t o 15 or 30 pounds of pressure, an
unbalance of 2 : 1 or 3 : 1 is common. Valves designed
for higher pressures have unbalance ratios of 1.2 : 1 t o
2.0 : 1.
Because there are no heavy spring loads t o overcome in
order for the seat disc t o lift, full lift will occur at set
pressure. Figure 8 is curve of relief capacity versus back
pressure for a pilot operated valve. Note this curve is
the flow characteristic through a nozzle transitioning from
sonic flow t o sub-sonic flow.
The set pressure of a pilot operated valve is not affected by
back pressure unless t he pilot is vented t o the valve outlet
and is not balanced for back pressure. If it is unbalanced,
it can be vented to atmosphere or a separate header. The
most common type of pilot in use today is the non-flowing
type. The only process flow that occurs through this type
of pilot is the small amount of lading fluid contained on
the t op side of the unbalanced moving member. The non-
flowing pilot is essentially a three way valve. The pilot
connects t he pressure volume on the t op side of the un-
balanced moving member t o the process (valve closed/
closing mode) or t o t he atmosphere (valve open/opening
mode).
Back pressure on a pilot operated valve, unlike a direct
spring valve, will cause t he main valve t o open and flow
backwards if this pressure is greater than t he process or
inlet pressure. The back pressure acting on the unbalanced
area of the moving member downstream of the nozzle,
produces an upward lifting force. Such a condition might
occur if t he valve was piped into a pressurised header and
process pressure at the valve inlet decreased below the
Ps = Supply or Process Pressure
PB = Back Pressure
AN = Nozzle Area
Ap = Piston Area
When PB is greater than Pp, net force acting on piston
will be in lift direction, causing valve to open and flow
backwards.
Fig. 9 Effects of Back Pressure on Pilot Operated Safety Relief
Valve with no Provision t o Prevent Backflow.
header pressure, or if the process was shut down for main-
tenance. Back flow during maintenance could be hazardous.
Figure 9 illustrates the forces acting on the piston of a pilot
operated valve subjected t o a back pressure greater than
process pressure. The forces acting on the piston are:
Where Pb = Back Pressure
P = Supply or Process Pressure
A = Piston Area
P
An = Nozzle Seating Area
When Pb exceeds P , t he net force acting on the piston is in
t he up or lift direction.
An accessory called a back flow preventer is available to
prevent a pilot valve from opening on back pressure. The
most common type in use today consists of t wo check
valves. Figure 10 is an illustration of this type.
One check valve is located in a pressure line connecting the
main valve outlet t o the pressure volume above the un-
balanced moving member and another one is located in the
pilot pressure sense line. This latter check valve is t o prevent
flow from the valve outlet into the process side of t he valve
through t he pilot.
The first check valve permits the back pressure t o pressurise
the volume above t he unbalanced moving member. When
the back pressure exceeds the process pressure, the un-
balanced area beyond the nozzle area is subjected t o equal
but opposite pressures. The area within t he nozzle diameter
is subjected t o the higher back pressure on the t op side of
the unbalanced moving member, thereby producing a net
downward force t o keep the seat closed, preventing back-
flow. The forces acting on the piston are:
When Pb exceeds P , t he net force acting on t he piston is in
the down or closed position.
The preferred back flow preventer accessory for non-flowing
pilots is somewhat different from that described. A double
check valve, referred t o as a 'shuttle' check is used in t he
pressure line connecting the main valve outlet t o the
pressure volume above t he unbalanced moving member.
Figure 11 illustrates this t ype.
The purpose of t he second check valve function is t o
prevent back pressure from discharging through the pilot
vent when the main valve is open and relieving. It has pre-
viously been stated that t he volume above the unbalanced
moving member in non-flowing pilots is ported directly
t o t he pilot vent in t he main valve open position. Back
pressure acting on t he pilot in this manner would impose
additional forces on the internal pressure seating members
causing erratic closure or blowdown of t he main valve.
RECOMMENDED GUIDELINES FOR SAFETY
VALVES SUBJECTED TO BACK PRESSURE
The selection of a safety valve type where back pressure can
occur is very important. From previous details of capacity
relief and operating characteristics, t he preferred valve
type in order of best suitability against t he effects ofback
pressure are:
the pilot operated valve
the balanced direct spring valve
the conventional direct spring valve
As a rule, conventional valves should not be vented into
closed headers or long tailpipes. Figure 6 clearly shows
the relief characteristics of a conventional valve t o be
severly compromised with back pressure. The relief charac-
teristic of a balanced direct spring valve as shown in Figure 7,
is also affected by back pressure, but t o amuchlesser degree.
The relief characteristic of a pilot operated valve, described
in Figure 8, shows this type valve t o be completely unaffect-
ed by back pressure, with respect t o lift. As noted previous-
l y, t he loss in capacity of a pilot valve subjected t o back
pressure is due t o flow through t he nozzle transitioning
from sonic t o subsonic.
The sizes of conventional valves most frequently used
in t he industry show t he area ratio of t he valve nozzle and
Ps = Supply or Process Pressure
PB = Back Pressure
AN = Nozzle Area
Ap = Piston Area
When P is greater than Ps, net force acting on Piston
.B
will be in closing direction, causing valve t o remain
closed.
Fig. 10 Pilot Operated Safety Relief Valve wi th Provision to
Prevent Backflow.
NON-FLOWING
PILOT
PILOT VENT
SHUTTLE CHECK
I I + / VAL VE
PISTON
ps
When PB is greater than Ps and P is below set, shuttle
check transfers to left, blocking f k w of back pressure to
pilot. Cavity on top of piston is then pressurised. When
Pp exceeds Pn, but is below set, shuttle transfers to
right, permitting pressurisation of cavity on top of
piston wi th supply pressure. When Ps exceeds set
pressure, pilot opens, cavity depressurises t o PB, main
valve opens and shuttle transfeis to left blocking flow
of back pressure to pilot and out through pilot vent.
Fig. 11 Non-Flowing Pilot Operated Safety Relief Valve with
Provision to Prevent Backflow
valve outlet t o vary considerably. For example, a 1, s x 2, s
'D' orifice valve has an outlet area 43 times t he nozzle area
while an 8 x 10 'T' orifice valve has an outlet area only 3
times the nozzle area. This area ratio difference would
suggest t he body pressure downstream of t he nozzle in t he
'T' orifice conventional valve is greater t han t he 'D' orifice.
Figure 12 is a tabulation of the various valve sizes and t he
area ratio of valve outlet t o valve nozzle. This tabulation
shows t he 2J3, 3L4, 4P6, 6Q8, 6R10 and 8T10 valve sizes
have the smallest area ratios.
From equations (1) and (3) it can be seen that flow through
an orifice for a particular lading fluid at a given set of con-
ditions is dependent upon t he area of t he orifice and the
pressure differential across it. For a given mass flow there-
fore, t he smaller t he orifice area, t he higher t he pressure
must be. Based on this, t he 2J3, 3L4, 4P6, 6Q8, 6R10 and
8T10 valves sizes have t he highest body pressures down-
stream of t he nozzle.
Flow through t he valve outlet can be sonic or subsonic.
For subsonic flow through t he outlet t he static pressure at
the exit plane is equal t o t he pressure downstream of t he
exit. Therefore any pressure increase downstream of
the valve outlet caused by discharge piping produces an
increase in body pressure for a given flow rate. For sonic
flow through t he valve outlet, back pressures less than t he
critical pressure for t he gas flowing through the outlet
will not increase t he body pressure. This is one reason why
conventional and balanced direct spring valves are more
tolerant t o back pressure at higher set pressures and/or
overpressures.
The use of tailpipes on conventional valves vented t o atmos-
phere should be fully evaluated t o ensure the additional
back pressure created at the valve outlet does not exceed
the maximum back pressure recommended by the manufac-
turer. This evaluation is especially important forthose valves
with t he smaller outlet t o nozzle area ratios. Piping pressure
losses which produce back pressure are generally greater
than casual observation would indicate. Two reasons for
this are a lack of correlation between flow rates and pressure
losses in a pipe, and a lack of familiarisation between t he
actual length and 'equivalent' length of a pipe. Several
examples will illustrate this.
Figure 13 shows a six inch tailpipe into which a 4P6 safety
valve set at 1000 psig is discharging natural gas at 110% of
set. For straight pipe lengths of 10, 50 and 100 feet, t he
percent back pressure at t he valve outlet would be 18%,
28%, and 36% respectively; what appears t o be a rather
simple tailpipe, can in fact make a conventional valve
inoperative based on the valve characteristics shown in
figure 6. Increasing the tailpipe size t o eight inches,
reduces t he backpressure t o 9%, 14% and 18% respective-
ly. Although t he larger pipe size greatly reduces t he back
pressure, it still exceeds t he maximum recommended for
all but t he 10 foot length.
The LID ratio for t he three six inch pipe lengths shown in
Figure 13 would be 20, 100 and 200. Figure 14 shows
I NLET OUTLET ORIFICE AREA RATI O
OUTLET/ORIFICE
Fig. 12
SET PRESSURE 1 DO0 PSIG
n / 4p6
L = IOFT, 50FT, 100FT
t
IN
Fig. 13 Typical Safety Valve Installation
14,7 PSIA
( 1 ATMI
OUT
several discharge piping configurations and their 'equivalent'
length. It is the equivalent length, not actual length that
determines the pressure losses in a pipe. A long radius
elbow, for example, which has an LID equal t o 21 and is a
common tailpipe used on safety valves, would create back
pressures in excess of that recommended by API or manu-
facturers for the valve shown in Figure 13.
Several methods are available for sizing discharge piping t o
avoid piping pressure losses which produce excessive back
pressure. API's Recommended Practice 521, Guide For
Pressure Relief and Depressuring Systems gives one method
in Section 5.3. Another method is given in W W Powell's
report Determination of Flow Losses in Inlet and Discharge
Headers.
Standard Radi us El bow, LID =3 1
Medi um Radi us El bow, LI D = 2 7
Long Radi us El bow, LI D = 2 1
Equal Di amet er Tee, LID = 66
Fig. 14 Equivalent Lengths of Pipe Fittings
SUMMARY
The important things t o determine when using safety valves
where back pressure exists are:
1. Will set pressure change?
2. Will lift and therefore capacity decrease?
3. Will rapid cycle or chatter occur?
4. Will flow become subcritical and decrease?
5. Will backflow occur?
By following the guidelines above, better overpressure
system protection will be provided and the down time due
to disapplied valves will be reduced.
REFERENCES
Stoever, Herman J., Engineering Thermodynamics, John
Wiley & Sons, 195 1, page 39 1.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Section
VIII Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels, Division 1,
1980 Edition, July 1, 1980, Section UG-125 (c).
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Section I
Rules for Construction of Power Boilers, 1977 Edition,
July 1,1977, Section PC-72.
The American Soceity of Mechanical Engineers, Section VIII
Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels Division 1, 1'980
Edition, July 1, 1980, Section UG-131 (c) (1).
American Petroleum Institute, 'Recommended Practice
520 for the Design and Installation of Pressure-Relieving
Systems in Refineries, Part I Fourth Edition. December
1976, Section 7.0, page 16.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Section VIII
Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels, Division 1,
1980 Edition, July 1, 1980 Section UG-134 (a).
American Petroleum Institute, 'Flanged Steel Safety Relief
Valves' Second Edition, November 1969.
American Petroleum Institute, 'Recommended Practice 520
for the Design and Installation ofpressure-Relieving Systems
in Refineries, Part I Fourth Edition. December 1976,
Appendix c, Section C.2, page 39.
Chapman, Alan., et al., Introductory Gas Dynamics, Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 197 1, page 154.
Powell, Walter W., 'Determination of Flow Losses In Inlet
and Discharge Headers Associated with Safety Relief
Valves', Report 02-175-128, 1975 Anderson, Greenwood
& Co., Houston Texas.
Acknowledgement: Donald M. Papa, Anderson Greenwood & Co.
Houston, Texas.
138
Knife Gate Valve Selection for Slurry Handling
INTRODUCTION
The current tendency towards the hydraulic transport of
solids is placing new demands on the various system elements
of a piping system. Valves are no exception. While the basic
valve types for use in abrasive duties have been around for
some time, experience has shown that some valve types and
design features are clearly better suited to slurry applications
than others. This article gives designers the critical points
t o consider when selecting knife gate valves.
Knife gate technology is not new. Nor is the operation
principle complicated. In essence, i t is a valve where the
main working parts are withdrawn completely from the
flow when i t is open. How is it then that some designs will
last up to 800% longer than others in demanding duties?
It is the purpose of this article t o provide the design engineer
with a set of guidelines with which to evaluate the one real
critical aspect of knife gate valve performance; namely
its anticipated service life.
Since all knife gate valves on the market fulfil the basic
open and close functions which they are expected t o
perform when first installed, the article will briefly consider
a number of critical factors which affect the life of the
valve.
BODY CONFIGURATION AND LINER
This is the most critical aspect of the design of the valve.
A full bore flow area should be available t o minimise tur-
bulence within the valve with minimal obstruction in the
flow path. Other than for blade guides and scrapers (essential
to prevent the build-up of product on the sealing element
which will ultimately inhibit the smooth operation of the
valve, cause undue wear on the seal elements and prevent
proper sealing), the body should have no cavities which
can induce turbulence within the valve or hamper proper
sealing of the valve by allowing the accumulation of product
in that cavity. With medium and heavy slurries, the product
will inevitably accumulate in such cavities which will inhibit
smooth operation of the valve. Often turbulence will
occur within such a cavity, leading t o high wear in this
cavity and ultimate failure at this point.
Experience and value engineering has shown rubber linings
t o present the optimum price to durability trade-off in all
forms of valve for slurry dut y. However, a rubber liner
without proper bonding or with weak spots (either by design
or manufacture) can in itself create a cavity, thereby speed-
ing up the ultimate demise of the valve. The purpose of the
rubber liner is t o provide an integral barrier between the
slurry and the metal body (which is there to provide strength
to withstand pressure). It is thus important t o consider the
manner in which the liner is bonded as well as its integrity
at points of high wear, such as on corners or in cavities.
The designer should also consider the efficacy of the sealing
arrangement at the blade slides, since this is often where
wear will occur causing the valve t o leak, either past the
blade or through the body wall.
When working conditions involve high temperatures and /or
aggressive chemicals, the use of thermoplastic linings or
metal platings often provide an effective solution without
the need to use exotic body materials. Coatings are available
which exhibit excellent chemical resistance characteristics
but also have surface roughness which will tolerate light
slurry abrasion. Similarly platings can be selected for special
duties. However, valve manufacturers should be approached
for specific applications. Obviously appropriate seal elements
and packings must be selected.
MATERIALS
While a wide variety of body materials is available, the
selection is generally based on the corrosion properties of
the medium rather than their resistance t o wear. Resistance
t o wear is the function of the liner. Cases where rubber
does not provide the right chemical resistance i n slurry
applications are rare and no general guidelines can be provid-
ed. In such cases the system designer is well advised t o
approach a reputable manufacturer whose design team will
be able t o consider all aspects of the required duty.
Blade material is generally a grade of stainless steel which,
in addition t o its high resistance t o chemical attack, also
has a high wear resistance. This is important since during
closing, the valve will experience high flow velocities across
the blade tip which could lead t o selective wear. Should this
wear cause improper sealing, the valve will soon fail, since
the high flow velocities through a small leak cause high
wear. While it is possible t o stellite the blade tip, this is not
popular due t o the cost of this option.
Selection of blade and body of the same grade of stainless
steel should be avoided, since this may cause binding there-
by making operation difficult.
BLADE GUIDES
It is not possible t o prevent the accumulation of slurry in
the blade guides when the valve is open. However, the
guides should be designed to allow the ingress of the product
onto the seat, thereby preventing proper seating.
BLADE SEAT AND SEAL
Virtually all knife gate valves have '0' ring seals which
provide the seal between the seal and edge of the blade.
The closing action of the blade also scrapes the seal thereby
ensuring proper sealing. The mechanism is simple yet effec-
tive as long as turbulence in the guides is minirnised since
this can lead t o undercutting of the '0' ring foundation
and eventual leaking of the valve. While the seal arrangements
may not be ideal, seal life problems are limited to light
slurry applications since on medium and heavy slurries,
other components generally fail before the seal. For this
reason little emphasis should be placed on innovative new
seals that do not address seat arrangements as well, since
they will have negligible effect on the ultimate life of the
valve.
The crux of the valve life generally revolves around the
efficacy of its seat*. Should this seat fail, i t can be expected
that wear, either in the seat region or on the blade tip,
will soon render t he valve unserviceable. Traditionally some
sort of seat arrangement is located in t he bot t om side of
the valve. The problems with this are:
Accumulation of product i n the cavity would prevent
the valve from seating correctly.
The turbulence created in self cleaning cavities would
often destroy the seat arrangements (and ultimately
t he valve).
The valve would only be suitable for uni-directional
flow.
A number of seat arrangements are currently in use. These
are discussed briefly below along with innovative arrange-
ments designed t o overcome the above problems:
'0' Ring (see Figure 1)
The blade is arranged t o seat rightly ont o an '0' ring seal
located in t he lower surface of t he valve bore. However, due
t o the shape of the .blade tip there is a tendency for the
blade t o cut into t he seal which ultimately destroys it. In
many cases the seal is located in a cavity which can induce
wear problems.
Floating Blade: (see Figure 2)
Arrangements exist whereby the blade is allowed t o float
free from t he seal for its entire travel and only forced onto
the seal by a set of chest buttons located in a cavity in the
lower side of the valve bore. Unfortunately such an arrange-
ment calls for a seating cavity at t he bot t om of t he valve
which tends t o clog with product, thereby preventing
proper location of the blade and thus proper sealing. The
seal may be either of a resilient material or a straight metal-
to-metal surface. In either case similar problems are encoun-
tered.
Integral Resilient Seat: (see Figure 3)
A system has been developed incorporating a resilient seal
as an integral part of the rubber lining. This seal is generally
located in the flow stream thereby preventing the accumu-
lation of product yet, due t o its resilient nature and absence
of turbulating cavities, can be expected t o have a similar
life t o that of the rest of the lining. Such an arrangement
can also be expected t o provide sealing irrespective of the
flow direction. This arrangement has been shown in practice
t o provide superior valve life since the smooth valve bore
minirnises turbulence and prevents initiation of wear.
*The seat is defined as the lower sealing surface against which the
tip of the blade is required to seal.
Fig. 1. '0' Ring seal seat.
Fig. 2. Floating blade seat arrangement
- VALVE BLADE
- RUBBE R LI NI NG
Fig. 3. Integral resilient seat
SPINDLE
GLAND
FOLLOWER
GLAND
PACKING
VALVE
BODY
Fig. 4. Simple bolt-down gland
GLAND
A number of cases have been experienced where blades of
valves are destroyed by leaks occurring through the gland
(due to poor maintenance) following the scouring action
of the slurry leak.
For this reason, the valve should incorporate a gland which
is easy t o adjust and is familiar t o most maintenance fitters
found in the plant. A simple bolt-down gland (as illustrated
i n Figure 4) is recommended since i t is easy t o adjust over
the entire life of the valve and conforms t o the gland
arrangement typically found on other valves and pumps.
Such a gland can also be replaced without removing the
body from the line thereby reducing plant down time.
It also requires no special tools for adjustment over and
above those generally used for plant maintenance.
It should also be noted that the gland generally outlasts the
rest of the valve. The emphasis should thus be on ease of
maintenance.
ACTUATION
In many cases it is worth considering actuation of the valve
even if the plant operation philosophy does not call for
actuation. The principal reason is that actuation allows for
the quick and smooth opening and closing of the valve.
This minimises the time the blade tip spends in the steam
thereby leading to increased valve life. Often the increase in
valve life more than pays for the cost of the actuator, over
and above the cost of plant down-time.
The designer should remember that slurries are extremely
abrasive and that some wear in the valve is t o be expected.
This is acceptable providing the basic function of the valve
is not impeded. Also small leaks can be extremely dangerous,
since velocities in the region of the leak are extremely high,
leading t o rapid erosion in this area and ultimate failure
of the valve. Failure tends t o be catastrophic once leaks
start around parts crucial t o the function of the valve. In
the final analysis, it must be remembered that the purpose
of the knife gate valve is t o provide proper sealing in slurry
applications. The longer it is able t o fulfil this function,
the better it is performing its stated function.
Acknowledgement: P.S. Grobler (Pr.Engl MSaiMechE
G.O. Wilkinson
Pinch Valves for Slurry Handling
The use of rubber hoses as pinch valves has been developed
over the years for many applications, particularly for uses
where abrasion is a factor. Due t o their simplicity they have
a number of advantages over other types of valves.
Most pinch valves have a straight through flow section which
ensures that turbulence and pressure drop are kept t o a
minimum.
The closing mechanism on full bore pinch valves is usually a
double acting vice which has all its working parts outside of
t he t ube.
In applications where t he valves are used as isolating valves
either fully open or fully closed, the user could expect
many years of life with little or no maintenance under
normal operating conditions.
Pinch valves will also give good service as control valves on
slurry, but their use should be limited t o low pressure (400
t o 500 kPa) and low velocity application t o avoid excessive
wear of t he sleeve. Pre-pinched type valves should be con-
sidered for more accurate control. If flow control of slurry
is required for pressures higher t han 400 t o 500 kPa, other
methods of control such as variable speed pumps should be
considered.
The increase in pumping pressures and t he problems result-
ing from pressure surges in pipelines, has led t o a demand
for pinch valves t o operate safely at higher pressures t han
were previously possible.
The strength of a pinch valve sleeve depends on t he type of
reinforcement used in its construction. Where the same
reinforcement is used on different sizes, t he strength will
naturally decrease as t he size increases. Pinch valve sleeves
are usually reinforced either with cord fabric or steel wire.
The steel wire is generally used in sleeves for high pressure
applications. When selecting pinch valves consideration
should be given t o t he strength of t he sleeve as against t he
required working pressure.
A recommendation is that t he maximum working pressure
of a pinch valve sleeve should not be more t han a third of
t he pressure at which t he sleeve will fail. This will provide a
fair margin of safety for t he operator and surrounding
equipment against pressure failure of t he sleeve.
Pinch valve sleeves for pressure applications are usually
hand built, and some companies will physically pressure
test every sleeve t o twice their maximum recommended
working pressure t o ensure that it is suitable for t he pressure
for which it is being supplied.
Pinch valves are supplied with the sleeve and mechanism
either in an enclosed body or in an open frame.
The only advantage of open frame pinch valves, apart from
mass saving, is initial cost. Their major disadvantage is that
in the event of a sleeve failure, t he effect is that of a burst
pipe.
It is recommended that open frame pinch valves should not
be used on high pressure applications or any application
where possible sleeve failure could cause injury t o any per-
sonnel or damage t o surrounding equipment.
Enclosed valve bodies should be strong enough t o contain
at least twice t he maximum recommended working pressure
of t he sleeve.
All working parts of t he valve should be inside the casing,
which will ensure minimum leakage in t he event of a sleeve
failure.
The force required t o close pinch valves at high pressure
and keep t hem closed is very high and increases greatly with
t he size of t he valve.
If pinch valves are t o be operated against high operating
pressures, consult t he supplier for recommendations;
because of t he high forces involved, hydraulic actuation will
generally be found t o be t he most suitable.
With t he very high forces involved in operating pinch valves,
the closing mechanism must be built with this in mind, t o
allow a high level of safety. Spindles and spindle nuts must
be strong enough t o withstand the high torque used in clos-
ing the valve and keeping it closed.
Handwheels must be large enough t o assist the operator in
operating t he valve.
With their long life and low maintenance costs, pinch valves
should be a serious consideration for all slurry applications.
Acknowledgement: Corflex Engineering C C
-
Applications for Block and Bleed Valves
DEFINITION OF BLOCK AND BLEED
The capability of obtaining a seal across the upstream and
downstream seals of a valve when the body pressure is bled
off t o atmosphere through drain valves or vent plugs. Useful
in testing for integrity of seat seals and in accomplishing
minor repairs under pressure.
Traditional 'Double Block and Bleed (DBB) incorporated
two gate valves, a spool piece and a drain valve (Figure 1).
Both of the gate valves were expected t o leak, but the leak-
age would flow out of the drain preventing any through
contamination. The purpose was t o detect and divert the
leakage, not to stop it.
BLOCK VALVE BLEED VALVE Bl OCK VALVF
Fig. 1.
BLEED VALVE
cX"^
UPSTREAM SEAL DOWNSTREAM SEAL
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3 General arrangement
The expanding seal plug valve (Figure 2 and 3) was the very
first design to achieve 'DBB' in a single valve, introduced to
industry in 1951. The upstream and downstream seals are
independent, making their compressive seating action with-
out any friction or wear. Between the seals is a body bleed,
venting above the valve, so that the positive non-leak
performance can be verified, without draining the body
cavity.
The valve has the same face t o face size as a single gate valve.
It is obviously more effective to use a single Twin-Seal valve
in installations where the block and bleed facility is required
and there are, in addition, numerous superior design features
incorporated in this type of valve.
APPLICATION AS MULTI-PRODUCT MANIFOLD
The manifold is the section of a pipeline system that attracts
attention. It is the intersection point where many lines come
together for switching, diverting or routing. Everyone is
interested in the manifold because i t is the point where all
the planning of the company can go wrong. A leaking mani-
fold can alter the blend, contaminate the batch, lose
profits, customers, and time.
The ideal manifold valve must:
1. Achieve positive, tight sealing
2. Provide a method t o prove its zero leakage.
3. Maintain the same quality of sealing over many cycles.
4. Be easy t o operate
5 . Require no maintenance
6 . Hold its seal as the system pressure rises or falls.
ALTERNATIVE TO GATE VALVES
In applications where slight leakage is unimportant, a gate
valve is still the right choice, but where tight shut-off does
matter, two gate valves are no better than only one. The
most damaging factor to the sealing quality and lifetime
performance of most valves is abrasion of the sealing surfaces
during valve cycling. This abrasion is often made worse by
the effect of differential pressure across the valve, increasing
friction between the sealing surfaces.
Although initially more costly than two gate valves, one
Twin-Seal block and bleed valve can soon justify itself
through leakproof and maintenance-free operation.
OPERATION
Rapid seal abrasion is inherent in the designs of most ball,
gate, and plug valves. The Twin Seal design stops this con-
stant seal wear by using t wo sealing slips mounted indepen-
dently on a tapered plug by dovetails (see Figure 4). During
closing, the wedging action of the plug forces the slips
against the valve body. During opening, t he dovetails pull
the slips away from the body. Upper and lower trunnions
guide the plug. The resilient seals are permanently bonded
into grooves in the slips.
In the open position, the slips are out of the flow. When
closing the valve, turning the handwheel rotates the plug
assembly 90 degrees, aligning the slips with seating surfaces
in the valve body. During rotation, clearance remains
between the slips and seating surfaces, allowing free move-
ment . There is no 'rub' - and no seal abrasion.
Further turning the handwheel lowers t he plug, moving the
seating slips against the body, compressing and displacing
the resilient seal material into the grooves in the slips. With
the slips solidly against the body, a secondary metal-to-metal
seat forms. This secondary seat provides fire-safe back-up
for double protection. Closed, the seals compress against
the flow ports, forming bubble-tight closures on upstream
and downstream sides of t he valve.
Unlike most ball, gate, and plug valves, Twin Seal valves do
not rely on springs, line pressure, or grease injection for
positive shutoff, even under low or high-pressure differentials.
THERMAL AND OVER PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
Thermal relief systems are designed t o eliminate pressure
build-ups in the internal body cavity due t o temperature
rise from the sun's rays and its expansion effects on the
volume of the liquid i n the valve. They may be mounted t o
discharge excess pressure back into t he upstream flow, or
directly t o atmosphere. Twin Seal valves which are fitted
with automatic body bleed valve systems do not require
thermal relief devices.
MANUAL BODY BLEED VALVE
Body bleeds that are manually operated can also be installed.
A bleed valve installed in t he valve is opened after the Twin
Seal valve is closed. Seal effectiveness can be immmediately
evaluated, after allowing a few seconds for stabilisation of
cavity volume due t o entrained air or gas. The bleed valve
must be closed before t he Twin Seal valve is opened.
AUTOMATIC BODY BLEED VALVE
Automatic body bleed systems are recommended for Twin
Seal valves t o provide positive assurance t hat the valve has
sealed completely at each cycling operation, and t o relieve
thermal pressure build-ups in t he body cavity.
A high integrity bleed valve connected t o the body cavity
of the main valve is mechanically opened by the valve
actuator when the Twin Seal is closed. Seal integrity is in-
dicated by viewing the discharge opening of the bleed
RESILIENT
SEAL
SEALING
SLIP
PLUG
SLIP
CROS1SECTION RESILIENT SEAL RESILIENF SEAL
SHOWING BEFORE AFTCf l
DOVETAI L COMPRESSION COMPRESSION
Fi g. 4 Twin seal design
- ALTERNATI VE
BLEED HOLE
POSITION
I
y N e e d l e Val ve ( A)
m u s t b e l e f t o p e n
to permit r e l i e f
s y s t e m to r e l i e v e
pressure u p s t r e a m.
Cl o s e only for r e p a i r s
Fig. 5 Manual bleed with differential t hermal relief system discharged
to flow line
valve. The bleed valve is closed by line pressure and spring
assistance when the Twin Seal is opened.
Common practice is t o install a short length of pipe or
tubing at the discharge which is directed into a funnel
alongside t he Twin Seal valve. The funnel is piped to a
common gathering system or sump. The system is provided
with a filter t o protect t he bleed valve, and a shut-off valve
t o permit maintenance.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION AND PRESSURE
CLASSES.
Standard materials for Twin Seal valves have been selected
for long wear under normal operation i n most service con-
ditions.
The body bore and plug are hard-chrome plated for extra
wearability. Seating slips are made from cast ductile iron
which has physical properties that result i n increased valve
life, especially in applications where the valve is cycled
frequently. Seating slips have bonded Viton resilient seals
as standard. Other body and seal materials are also available.
Component Material
Body and Plug ASTM A216 WCB
Hard Chrome Plated
Seal Slips Cast Ductile Iron
Seals Viton
Twin Seals are available i n pressure classes ANSI 150, 300,
600, 900, and 1500 l b.
ACTUATION
The smaller sizes of valves are handwheel operated and take
t wo and a quarter turns t o open and close. One quarter
turn rotates the plug, t wo turns expand or retract the sealing
slips.
Large valves have totally enclosed weatherproof gearing,
but operate in the same manner, requiring proportionately
more turns. Valves may be power actuated electrically or
by hydraulic or pneumatic actuators for the ultimate in
fast operation.
STORAGE TANKS
DESIGN STANDARDS
Twin seal valves are designed t o conform to API-6D and are
inspected and tested t o API 598. Representative samples
have been successfully fire tested, and fully meet the
requirements of API 6FA and BS 6755 Pt 2.
MAINTENANCE
A big advantage is that of 'in line' servicing. All models may
be repaired without removing the valve from the line,
simply by removing the lower plate after the line is de-
pressurised and drained.
The sealing slips slide easily off the plug via their dovetails
for on-the-spot inspection. Should the seals need replacing,
new slips can be inserted using ordinary hand tools. Repairs
may also be made through the t op bonnet if space under
the valve is restricted.
In-line maintenance avoids costly downtime if repairs are
necessary.
APPLICATIONS
Twin seal block and bleed valves are employed in many
industries such as crude oil and product pipelines, petroleum
refineries, petrochemical processing plants, offshore pro-
duction, LNG plants and pipelines, LPG plants and pipelines
marine transportation etc.
Facilities where these valves are utilised are: product
manifolds, tanker wharfs, custody transfer, metering
systems, tank farm and storage, pump and compressor
isolation, pump stations and defence fuelling installations.
Service applications include: positive shut-off, block and
bleed service, isolation valves, pump suction and discharge
valves.
I
I
I
I
I I SURGE MAINLINE
, , + *
PUMP PUMP
I
-
I I I
I I 1 I
k TO PIPELINE
I l l I
TWIN SEAL
Fig. 6.
Fire Testing for Valves
The function of 'fire-safe' is to try t o help to prevent a
fire from becomming catastrophic. Due to the fact that the
term 'fire-safe' has proved difficult to define, and is even
misleading with some products and situations, the new term
'fire-tested' is now employed. Furthermore, standards have
in the past been established by a number of organisations
including the American Petroleum Institute (API), the
British Oil Companies Materials Association (OCMA), the
British Standards Institution (BSI), the International
Standards Organisation (ISO), the French (AFNOR)
organisation, Factory Mutual, Exxon, Lloyds Register (UK)
and U.S. Coast Guard.
The 'fire tested' procedure as set out in BS 5146 is now
redundant, and BS 6755 must now be referred to for the
latest methods. As a result, the CSIR has modified its
testing equipment to conform to BS 6755.
PREPARATION FOR TESTING
Valves must be specially prepared for testing. All glands
should be graphite. On ball valves, the fire lip must be
lapped to ensure a perfect fit to the ball so that when the
PTFE packing meltsunder extreme heat (above 200C the
valve will seal, fire lip to ball. Gate valves should also close
with metal-to-metal contact. In butterfly valves, EPDM
sealing is recommended, as this material retains its sealing
characteristics with water when under test.
It is very important that all air trapped in valves prior to
testing be removed, otherwise inconsistent and unfavourable
test results will be obtained.
VALVE PERFORMANCE UNDER TEST
Through-seat leakage (high test pressure) during burn period
The average through-seat leakage at the high test pressure
during the burn period shall not exceed 400 mC/in/min.*
NOTE: Through-seat leakage does not include leakage from the
bonnet or stem seal.
External leakage (high test pressure) during bum and
cooldown periods
The average external leakage, not including through-seat
leakage, of the valve in the closed position at the high test
pressure during the burn period and the cool-down period
shall not exceed 100 m/in/min
NOTE: External leakage does not include potential leakage from
t he pipework-to-valve end connection.
* The rates are expressed in millilitres per inch of the nominal valve
size per minute for Class rated valves and the PN (nominal pressure)
rated valves to maintain strick comparability with the API specifica-
tions.
KEY:
1. Pressure source
2. Pressure regulator and relief
3. Vessel for water
4 Calibrated sight gauge
5. Water supply
6. Shut-off valve
7. Pressure gauge
8. Piping arranged to provide vapour trap
9. Enclosure for test
10. Minimum height of enclosure above the top of the test valve
11. Test valve mounted horizontally wi th stem i n horizontal
position.
12. Fuel gas supply with minimum of three burners located at 120'
13. Calorimeter cubes
14. Flame environment temperature thermocouples
15. Pressure gauge and relief valve connected to centre cavity of valve
16. Shut-off valve
17. Vent valve
18. Condenser
19. Container
Recommended system for fire type-testing of vahesusing compressed
gas as the pressure source.
Through-seat leakage (low test pressure) after cooldown
The average through-seat leakage at the low test pressure
after the cool-down period shall not exceed 40mQ/in/min.
NOTE: Through-seat leakage does not include leakage from the
bonnet or stem seal.
External leakage (low test pressure) after cooldown
The average external leakage, not including through-seat
leakage, of the valve in the closed position at the low test
pressure after the cool-down period shall not exceed
20 m/in/min
Note: External leakage does not include potential leakage from the
pipework-to-valve end connection.
Operability
After the fire test, the valve is unseated from the closed
position against the high test pressure differential and
moved to the fully open position one time.
External leakage in fully open position
The average external leakage of the valve in the fully open
position at the high test pressure must not exceed
200 mfi/in/min.
Note: External leakage does not include potential leakage from the
pipework-to-valve end connection
Test pressures for PN and Class rated valves
PN rating
High test Low test
Cl as s rat i ng pressure* - kPa pressure* - kPa
* Tolerances on all test pressures are *lo%
TEST REPORT
The test report should include the following information:
(a) a statement confirming that a valve representative of the
type and size supplied has been tested in accordance with
BS 6755 and as required by the produce standard, if
applicable.
(b) the number of the product standard, if applicable.
(c) whether a gear box is fitted t o the test valve or not and
if fitted, the type of box, manufacturer's name, model
number and mechanical advantage.
(d) the size and the PN or Class rating of the test valve.
(e) time of test start, i.e. ignition of burners.
(f) temperature recorded at start and at 2 min. intervals
throughout duration of test with individual records for each
thermocouple.
(g) through-seat leakage (high pressure test) during burn
period.
(h) external leakage (high pressure test) during burn and
cool-down periods.
(i) time required for valve t o cool down t o 100 and if the
valve was allowed t o cool naturally or force cooled.
(j) through-seat leakage (low test after cool-down.
(k) external leakage (low test pressure) after cool-down.
(1) whether the test valve unseated and moved t o the fully
open position and the maximum force required t o unseat
and operate the valve and the method used t o measure the
force.
(m) external leakage in fully open position.
(n) if the valve is asymmetric and intended for bi-directional
installation, the test results in both directions.
(0) observations made during the course of the test that
may have a bearing on the results provided.
(p) whether the test valve complied, or not, with the require-
ments of BS 6755 and with those of the product standard,
if applicable.
NOTE 1. The purchaser of a valve t o a fire tested design should
specify that a test report, giving details of the fire type-test, is t o be
provided on the enquiry and/or order for that valve.
NOTE 2. A witnessing authority may be designated t o officiate at
the first type-test of a valve. A test report should be prepared either
by the test house carrying out the test or by thewitnessing authority.
If prepared by the test house, the report should be endorsed by any
witnessing authority.
Acknowledgement: Industrial and Petroleum Valves (Pty) Ltd
Fluids Handling
Components Basic principles of valve
actuators
Applications of mechanical seals 15 1, 152
Mechanical seal applications in
hot water systems 153,154
Flame arrestors 155 - 158
Valve packing 159
Flexible rubber joints 160- 163
Anti-vibration mountings
Automatic pump control using
pressure accumulators
End connections on valves and
fittings 168
Basic Principles of Valve Actuators
INTRODUCTION
Ever since t he development of the valve industry with t he
coming of t he industrial revolution, t he means of actuating
a valve member has been an essential part of t he valve itself.
Initially, this t ook t he form of a simple lever or screw act-
ing either directly or indirectly on t he valve slide, plug, gate
or disc.
As the size and pressure range increased, more sophisticated
attachments were developed t o deliver more power - re-
duction gear boxes, ratchet levers and t he like. Hydraulic,
pneumatic and electric power actuators soon followed as
technology advanced but still mainly in t he guise of power
to man's elbow.
Over the last few decades, however, t he need has developed
not so much for powerful elbows but for long arms i.e.
remote operation and automatic operation. No longer is
power actuation solely in t he land of giants; valves as small
as 6 mm bore are now commonly remotely actuated.
Whereas earlier valve actuators were more usually built and
supplied as an integral uni t , present day actuators are deve-
loped and produced as separate units by specialists and are
frequently purchased by t he valve manufacturer. The usual
practice is t hen for t he valve manufacturer t o supply fitted
units produced either by themselves or by t he actuator
specialists.
Why Actuate?
There are many reasons why valves are actuated.
Automation - The need t o open or close without human
interference.
Quantity - The larger t he plant becomes, more valves are
required t o be operated simultaneously. Manual operation
becomes impractical.
Size - Large valves require enormous effort.
Remote - Due t o t he location of certain valves, t hey have
t o be operated remotely.
Labour - Both t he unreliability and high cost of labour,
makes automation t he answer.
What is an Actuator?
Although all types of prime movers are oft en described as
actuators, t he term should be confined t o a unit t hat will
act upon a signal and proceed t o open, close or position a
valve. The unit is a slave and will only do what it is told
t o do, providing certain factors are complied with ( eg.
air at correct pressure and voltage at correct voltage).
Types of Actuator
These are, pneumatic, hydraulic, electric and manual, of
which pneumatics is t he most common.
1. Pneumatic
By using air as an operating medium in cylinders, a relative-
ly inexpensive unit can be manufactured producing a rela-
tively large amount of force.
Spring and Diaphragm (Fig. 1)
Earliest actuators incorporated a spring and diaphragm,
housed within two dish shaped containers clamped together
t o form a dish and lid combination, arranged so that t he
Fig. 1 Spring and diaphragm
Fig, 2 Linear cylinder
Fig. 3 Trunnion cylinder and lever
Fig. 4 Scotch yoke cylinder (rotary)
P
SLOT
Fig. 5 Torque actuator 90'
diaphragm is clamped between the two in the centre. When
air is exerted on one side of the diaphragm it moves against
the spring, extending a piston rod, and when t he air is
. . .
e v e 2 :he spring rei.~i.ms the i -i i aphapi 1.0 ii s ~ i i g i i i ~ :
position. This method is still used today on many globe
control valves and low pressure air situations.
Cylinders (Fig. 2)
Due t o increased demands made on the actuator, cylinders
have become more popular, basically due t o t he longer
stroke and higher out put . With the advent of ball and but-
terfly type rotary valves, rotary actuation was required and
this led t o t he development of rotary actuators. The simplest
form is 10 trunnion mount a cylinder (Fig. 3) and use an
arm and lever, so that linear operation of a cylinder acting
on the arm will open or close a rotary valve. This is rather
an untidy and unsafe method but is inexpensive. Due t o t he
problems associated with cylinders, rotary actuators were
developed. There are various forms used - one type is t he
scotch yoke method (Fig. 4). Here torque at t he beginning
and end of stroke is twice that at the centre of t he stroke,
resulting in high breakaway and seating torques from a
smaller cylinder than would be applied using ot her types
of actuation giving constant torques throughout their
stroke such as t he rack and pinion, vane or torque actuator
(Fig. 5) which utilises a linear moving piston with a "skirt"
which has slots at 4 5 . As the piston moves the slots engage on
fixed pins and t he output shafts is rotated throughout 90'.
2 . Hydraulic
There are similar t o pneumatic but use liquid as an opera-
ting medium. Hydraulic cylinders are designed t o operate
at much higher pressure and consequently produce higher
output torques. The liquid normally used is ' a light oil
which is pumped at high pressure t o the cylinder; as t he
operation of t he cylinder is reversed, the oil under pressure
must be exhausted. As it is impractjcable to exhaust to
atmosphere, t he displaced oil must be returned to the
pump reservoir where it can be recycled. Maintenance on
hydraulics is messy. However with the great depths of
today's mine shafts, water at the bot t om of the shaft is now
at very high pressure, and new developments in t he valve
actuator field are under way t o utilise this water pressure
as a convenient operating medium.
3. Electric
Motorised Actuators
Three main catagories exist, single phase, 3 phase and D.C.
The main difference is size and price, otherwise the actua-
tors comprise an electrical mot or coupled t o a series of
gears arranged to provide a high output torque whilst reduc-
ing the speed of the motor, through gearing t o a useable
speed. The gearing would either operate a rotary valve or,
if arranged with a different set of gears, would extend 01
retract a threaded shaft. When the valve comes to the end
of its travel, limit switches are arranged t o cut out the
motor. This type of actuator can incorporate many addi-
tional tailor-made features, including modulating control,
fti.a2binI' ix2on+ii-t-mo+er ~ ~ o - I ? i i - t q Lqi t wi t chss to
indicate valve positions, as well as local hand control for use
in the event of power failure. Electrical actuators are gaining
popularity due t o lack of maintenance, but price still
remains a problem on bigger models.
Solenoid Actuators
Solenoids are electromagnetic devices used t o actuate
control valves by electric impulse. In direct-acting solenoids
me electro-magnet is mechanically connected to open and
close t he valve. Due to power requirements and coil size,
this type of operation is generally limited t o small valves.
Most solenoid valves used with power valve actuators are
of the internal pilot t ype, using a direct acting solenoid to
'pilot' a larger 312 or 412 valve.
Solenoid 'heads' may be used in pairs (dual coil solenoid
valves) or singly and opposed by a spring or differential
pilot (single coil solenoid valves). This t ype of valve can be
used for low pressure services and is commonly used as t he
operator on large pneumatic cylinder actuators. The sole-
noid device is not normally a large actuator and is limited
in application. This is why motorised actuators are prefer-
red. Also, if a spring return unit is required t o remain in one
position for prolonged periods t he unit becomes very hot
and also uses more current, if energised.
Electric Hydraulic
Hydraulics are used where high thrusts are required as hy-
drauhc pressure is delivered at high pressure; however
hydraulic systems are not as easy t o incorporate in a plant
as air and electricity. In view of this units have been deve-
loped t o be self contained using electricity as the control-
ling media. This combination utilizes the best of both
worlds, providing industry with a powerful precise actua-
tor. Through servo controls the hydraulic fluid is pumped
from an internal reservoir into a cylinder t o provide the
required actuator thrust. This is also used t o give fail-safe
operation if required, and additional accessories can also
be provided for feedback, positioning etc. This unit is
rather expensive and is mainly used on large and expensive
applications, although some smaller units are manufactured.
4. Manual
Manually operated valves may be operated in various ways,
either by direct mounted handwheels for rising gates or
handlevers in t he case of quarter-turn valves. However for
larger valves requiring high torque figures t o operate them,
gear boxes may be used t o reduce operating effort and also
t o slow down speed of operation t o prevent water hammer.
These gear boxes may be fitted with chain wheels and
chains, extension shafts and couplings, for manual opera-
tion of valves mounted in high places or underground.
Dead Man Control
Dead man control units are manually operated valves which
will only remain open whilst t he handle is held. Upon re-
leasing t he handle a spring pulls the handle back t o its
original position. This is ideal in situations where an opera-
tor' s attention must be concentrated elsewhere, and release
of the handle allows t he valve to close automatically. Ob-
viously, t he actuators described are t he most commonly
used types and many other types are available.
The main consideration is t hat , for most of the time, an
actuator is merely a slave and will therefore act upon a
given signal. Furthermore, it will only produce the power
for which it is designed when t he stated source is correct.
An actuator is sometimes blamed for valve malfunction,
but it is only a link in a chain - without t he rest of the
chain it cannot verform.
Applications of Mechanical Seals
It is necessary not only t o select materials carefully with
regard t o their chemical resistance but also t o take due
account of growing requirements and new techniques by
using modern seal designs. If all the technical possibilities
are exploited, today's application limits for mechanical
seals are as follows:
Single-stage pressure reduction pi = 25 MPa
Sliding velocity vg = 100 m/s
Loading range p 1 . vg = 1000 MPa. m/s
This article presents a variety of design options for key
fields of application:
High pressure (up t o 30 MPa)
Use of high-wear-resistant and corrosion-proof solid carbide
rings (WC/SiC) and high-strength metal-or synthetic-resin-
impregnated sliding carbons.
Maintenance of an optimal sealing gap geometry by taking
due account of the deformation of the various assemblies
and by using metallic reinforcing rings.
Reinforced torque transmission.
Prevential of interfering heat flow by providing suitable
cooling measures and using thermal barriers.
Hydraulic balancing of the stationary seat housing.
High temperature
Single-acting mechanical seals in tandem arrangement with
a pressureless fluid quench are provided for sealing in the
high temperature range and for readily flammable media.
Fluid quenching of the seal on the atmosphere side prevents
cracked product deposits. At the same time the quench
system stops the hot medium escaping directly into the
atmosphere. Leakage of the produce-side seal can be
measured.
buffer fl ui d buffer f l ui d f l ushi ng
leakage ci r cui t 11 circuit I
1"ig. 1. Mechanical seal in cartridge design for a multistage high-
pressure centrifugal pump. Buffer fluid control is aut o-
matic and product-dependent. Operating data pressure
p = 3 MPa: sliding velocity v = 25 m/ s.
1 e
Fig. 2. Heat transfer oil pump with tandem arrangement on product
and atmosphere sides. Seals on product side are made of
stratotherm @
Operating data: Medium Diphyl: p, = 800 kPa; n = 1450
r/ mi n; t , = 3 4 5 ~ ; cold Diphyl quench (pressureless).
Because standard elastomers and TTV O-rings or solid
PTFE as secondary sealing elements cease t o be resistant
at temperatures above 2 2 0 C, metallic bellows mechanical
seals are necessary on the product side. A standard mech-
anical seal can be employed on the atmosphere side
(Figure 2).
Low temperature
Single-acting mechanical seals with a pressureless fluid
quench are used for sealing in the low temperature range
the same as for high temperatures. The fluid quench prevents
ice forming on the sliding faces due t o moisture in the
ambient air. Metallic bellows seals are an optimal solution
on t he product side.
High velocity
The following design measures have proven successful in
the range up t o 100 m/s:
Face material pairing: rotating carbide / stationary carbon
Rotating counter ring as rotationally symmetric body,
dynamically balanced (Figure 3).
Spring-loaded parts, stationary.
Fig. 3. Double-acting mechanical seal. Operating dat a: p 1 =3, 2 MPa
t = 8 0 " ~ : n = 17 000 r/min: vg x 66 m/ s.
Favourable flow heat curve of the buffer fluid, smooth
surface, minimum eddy loss.
Polymerising, adhesive media
Double-acting designs with rotating counter ring are
provided for lacquer and plastics production. Their special
feature is t he smoot h contour (no dead areas) and polished
surface of components i n contact with the product (Figure
4). On account of their excellent capacity for sterilisation,
seals of this t ype also find extensive application in the pro-
duction of pharmaceuticals and food.
Abrasive media with solid particles
To satisfy t he demand for single-acting mechanical seals
in the presence of a high degree of contamination, i t is
possible t o encapsulate the endangered spring chamber.
The dissipation of heat from sliding faces with deposits
still remains critical, however, and should be assured by a
separate flushing line. It is also recommended t o provide
a quench on t he atmosphere side (Figure 5).
Demands on mechanical seals i n modern power stations
with flue gas desulphurisation systems are even more
exacting - the seal should be single-acting and function
without external flushing.
Mechanical seals have also proved highly successful at
satisfying service requirements in wet and mixed processes,
in spite of the highly abrasive and corrosive media (with
up t o 50% solid content; 1 ... 14 pH-value: 10,000 t o
200,000 ppm max. chloride content). The resultant tech-
nical and economic advantages are enormous:
no maintenance
no dilution of t he medium
no additional investment and operating costs
Cyclone separator
(used in pump circulation lines)
Reducing t he solid cont ent i n t he medium
Pumping screw, flow guide
These auxiliary devices are employed t o dissipate frictional
heat so as t o prevent thermal damage. A contra-rotating
pumping screw integrated in the seal ensures continuous
circulation of a buffer fluid in a quantity matched t o the
size of the pumping screw (Figure 6). Compared with a
single-end pumping sleeve running in a smoot h bush, the
contra-rotating pumping screw pumps four times the volume
at eight times the pressure. Pumping rates of up to lOOQ/min
are possible at a pressure of 200-400 kPa t o overcome pipe
and throttle resistances.
The movable flow guide provides an optimal solution for
directing the circulation flow as close as possible t o the
sliding faces at sliding velocities of over 50 m/ s (Figure 6).
Fig. 4. Douule-acting mechanical seal with rotating counter ring(1)
wiper ring (2), guide sleeve (3), pumping screw (4).
Circulation Quench
Fig. 5 . Single-acting, mechanical seal, encapsulated spring and
quench,
Fig. 6 . Mechanical seal with movable flow guide and contra-
rotating pumping screw.
The flow guide (1) forces t he coolant t o pass the sliding
faces at close quarters. Spacer pins ensure identical circula-
tion flow gaps, even when the carbon seal face (2) is worn
and reset. Being movable, the flow guide guarantees favour-
able flow conditions in each phase of operation.
Acknowledgement: Burgmann Seals ( S A) (Pty) Ltd.
Mechanical Seal Applications in Hot Water Systems
Introduction
When designing mechanical seals for hot-water pumps.
account must be taken not only of the thermal and mech-
anical loads but also of the way the hot water and its addi-
tives affect the seal's running performance. It is necessary
therefore, to be informed about the systemsused to generate
the hot water and about the types of water treatment
applied. And to this must be added a knowledge of the
physical conditions at play in the sealing gap of a mechanical
seal.
Hot-water systems
Three basic types of systems are used to generate hot water
with feed temperatures in excess of 100C A distinction is
drawn between systems with direct heating (Figure I ) ,
systems with indirect heating by way of heat exchangers
(Figure 2), and contact condensation systems (Figure 3).
One advantage of the contact condensation systems (Figure
3) is the thermal pressure degassing action of the cascades.
The return heating water (steam condensate) can be heated
physically and degassed thermally in the cascade by injecting
steam. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are expelled in the
process.
WATER TREATMENT AND CONSISTENCY
Treatment
Steam and hot-water generating systems use only boiler
feed water, boiler water, charge water, top-up water and
circulating water that has been properly treated and condi-
tioned. In directly heated systems and cascade systems it
is imperative for the circulating water t o display zero-
hardness. Circulating water with a certain degree of hardness
is permitted, on the other hand, in systems heated by way
of heat exchangers. Primary heating systems are often
characterised by temperatures up t o 140' C and pressures
as high as 1,6 MPa, whereas the secondary heating systems
can be operated as closed-circuit hot-water heating systems
at e.g. temperatures up t o 9OoC and pressures lower than in
the drinking water network. In these cases, there is usually
no need for any special conditioning of the water in the
secondary circuit. In primary heating systems the mechanical
seal has to cope with more severe operating conditions.
Due to the higher pressures and temperatures, in addition
to the host of possible water additives, the mechanical
seal's selection and its mode of operation must be decided
individually from case t o case.
Water consistency
Natural waters contain undissolved and dissolved inorganic
and organic solids and gases. Dissolved solids occur mostly
in the form of inorganic salts (compounds of calcium and
magnesium) and organic substances. Gases such as oxygen,
nitrogen and carbon dioxide are often dissolved. It is
possible t o prevent the formation of deposits and corrosion
on heating surfaces and in pipelines or heating units during
operation by subjecting the waters to special treatment and
homed
dri nki ng water
dri nki ng wai er
-3
Fig. 1. Direct pressurisation of heating surfaces.
1. Hot-water generator
2. Hot-water pump
3. Heat exchanger
4 . Drinking water heater
Fig. 2. Indirect pressurisation of heating surfaces
1. Hot-water generator
2. Heat exchanger
3. Hot-water pump in the primary network
4. Hot-water pump in the secondary network
5. Heat consumer
6. Drinking water heater
Fig. 3. Contact condensation system
1. Steam generator
2. Storage and expansion tank
3. Hot-water pump in the primary network
4. Hot-water pump in the contact condensation network
5. Heat consumer
6. Feed water pump
conditioning. Continuous, homogeneous and firmly adher-
ing protective and passive layers then form on the metallic
surfaces. The requirements placed on the conditioning are
orientated t o the chemical consistency of the charge water
and top-up water, to any external influences acting on the
circulating water, and to the design of the heating systems.
If there is no thermal degassing of t he charge water and
top-up water, oxygen binders, for example hydrazine (N2H4)
or sodium sulphite (Na2S03) are added for chemical de-
gassing. Some oxygen binders (e.g. Na2S03) produce a
steady increase in the water's salt content, which i n con-
junction with corrosion inhibitors (e.g. N3P04) impair t he
function of t he mechanical seal.
Many other organically and inorganically based chemicals
exist in addition t o t he conditioners mentioned. Agents of
this type undergo such rapid change and new water addi-
tives are being developed continually so i t is not possible t o
provide an overview of these in this article.
EXAMPLES OF DAMAGE TO HOT-WATER SEALS
Blocking of '0'-ring seals
Blocking of metal bellows seals
Sliding face wear
Overconcentration of additives
Sliding face coatings
Corrosion on grey cast iron parts
RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING THE PRESSURE
AND TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS AT THE SEAL
The running performance and t he life of a hot-water seal
depend mainly on the following operating parameters:
pressure at the seal
temperature at the seal
sliding velocity
water consistency
In single-acting hot-water seals t he decrease of pressure
across the seal width causes the medium t o vaporise on the
atomsphere side. Due t o the pressure drop in the sealing gap
at a specific temperature the attendant vapour pressure
is undershot and the medium vaporises in part. The decisive
factor for the seal's running performance is t he position of
the vaporisation relative t o t he sealing width. The damaged
part of the sliding face becomes gradually larger until the
seal fails. For the seal t o function without difficulty a
minimum gap from the boiling point (At) must be observed.
The necessary value of At is determined by the pressure,
the temperature, the sliding velocity and the type of
mechanical seal. The permissible pressure/temperature
operating range of balanced, uncooled mechanical seals has
been determined in trials for the sliding velocities 7 m/ s and
18 m/s. An operating point beyond the permissible ranges
means blistering, roughing and heavy wear of the face
materials, resulting in premature seal failure.
MECHANICAL SEAL RECOMMENDATION
The seal supplier should be consulted whenever seals are
t o be selected. Selection of the seal model is made i n con-
sideration of the actual operating conditions and ot her
specific parameters.
General Notes
The procedure for selecting a seal is:
Examine the mode of operation and the pressure and
temperature conditions at the seal.
Decide on the seal type
Select t he face materials, taking due account of the tem-
perature and water alkalinity
Decide on the secondary seals
Safety measures
Single-acting, uncooled hot-water seals have an inherent
risk of fracturing or developing a severe leak. It is necessary,
therefore, t o take suitable measures t o protect persons
(e .g. a throttle with selective discharge in the seal coverplate).
For operations with product circulation i t is recommended
t o feed in the medium tangentially t o the shaft i n counter
direction t o the rotation.
Using metal bellows seals in hot water
The operating limit of a laminated bellows seal is set not
only by the material pairing but also by the bellows itself.
Figure 4 shows the gap from the boiling point which is
needed t o prevent dry running and hence fracturing of
the bellows.
Face materials
When selecting t he face material combination i t is necessary
t o consider the water consistency along with the customary
operating conditions. The face material combinations
established by the manufacturer should be selected for
mechanical seals in hot-water heating systems.
110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
TEMPERATURE I 1'CI
Fig. 4. Operating limits of a metal bellows seal in hot water Acknowledgement: Burgmann Seals (S A) (Pty) Ltd.
Flame Arrestors
Introduction
The most important immediate response to any outbreak of
fire is a quick reaction to prevent it from spreading. No-
where is this more important than in the context of industry
where a single unchecked flame can .cause extensive damage
to plant and equipment together with the risk of personal
injury or loss of life.
The safest and most effective device for quenching flames
in pipelines and ducts carrying flammable gases or vapours
is the flame arrester. This fixed assembly, involving no
moving parts, acts swiftly and silently t o quench a flame by
absorbing and dissipating its heat to below ignition point.
In any plant or process using flammable gas or vapour a
flame arrester must be used t o ensure high levels of indus-
trial safety; it is not uncommon for flame speeds in pipelines
to reach velocities up t o 10 000 km/h.
Crimped metal flame arresters are safety devices designed to
stop the propagation or spread of flames through flammable
gas or vapour mixtures in pipelines. They prevent flame
entering or leaving plant and can confine flame propagation
to within certain equipment. Flame arresters are passive
devices, operating automatically and normally have no
moving parts.
Flame arrester is a family name and describes both de-
flagration and detonation units.
Flame Arresters
I
Deflagration ~et onat i on
r----l
Confined Unconfined
I
Confined
(In pipeline) (End of pipe vent) (In pipeline)
Deflagration units are used when flame speeds in the burn-
ing gas are subsonic, i.e. below the speed of sound and de-
tonation units when flame speeds are supersonic i.e. above
the speed of sound.
It is common practice in the chemical, petrochemical and
gas industries to transmit or vent flammable gas and vapour
mixtures through pipelines or ducts. If there is air present
in sufficient quantities t o support combustion, then con-
siderable danger exists. The gas or vapour may be ignited
by lightning or some other source of ignition either internal
or external to the system. Unrestricted flames travelling
through a piping system can cause detonations resulting in
extensive damage t o plant and equipment, with possible
loss of life.
When gas or vapour mixtures ignite, a flame arrester prevents
further propagation by absorbing and dissipating heat from
the burning gas or vapour on one side of the arrester lower-
ing the temperature of the combustion products t o below
the auto-ignition point of the gas on the opposite side. This
is achieved as the hot gases give up their heat to the cell
walls on passing through the crimped metal arrester element.
Fig. 1 Sectional view through flame arrester housing showing
position of element
Every burning gas or vapour has its own quenching require-
ments - the appropriate aperture through which a flame
will not propagate - and there is a flame arrester applicable
t o each.
The aperture sizes, through which a flame burning at atmos-
pheric pressure will not pass, are shown for various gases in
Figure 2.
BS5501 : Part 1:1977
EN 50 014 QUENCHING
GAS CLASSIFICATION DIAMETER
Methane Group 1 3,68 mm
Hexane Group 11A 3,05 mm
Butane Group 11A 2,67 mm
Propane Group 11A 2,79 mm
Ethylene Group 11B 1,91 mm
Hydrogen Group 11C 0,86 mm
Fig. 2
Crimped metal flame arresters are available in two basic
forms - in-line and end-of-line - each of which is specifi-
cally tailored to individual applications. This is essential
since the demands placed upon an arrester will vary with
each application, depending upon such factors as the gases
or vapours, the pipe length from arrester to ignition source,
the number of bends, 'changes of section, rate of flow,
temperature and pressure.
A venting arrester often has to be fitted in accessible places
for maintenance purposes. However, this necessitates an
in-line arrester with a lengthy tailpipe to atmosphere which
will often include at least one bend (as in Figure 3). Tests
carried out by the UK Department of the Environment Fire
Research Station at Boreham Wood, England, show that a
single 90 degree bend can increase flame speeds and pressures
by as much as 10 times Wherever possible engineers will
recommend the use of end-of-line arresters t o alleviate the
effect of run-up distances and accelerated speeds. However
the supplier should specify in-line units if tail pipes with
bends cannot be avoided.
Various materials are offered for flame arrester housings
and elements, the main consideration being one of resistance
to corrosion. If the process gases or vapours are corrosive
the element could either disintegrate completely, making
the flame arrester dangerously ineffective, or corrosion
build-up could cause excessive pressure drop and eventually
lead t o complete blockage.
FLAME SPEED COMPARISONS
Gases and vapours, or mixtures of both, do not all present
the same degree of fire explosion hazard and for each the
flame speed and explosion pressures must be taken into
consideration in selecting a flame arrester.
Any bends in pipework or changes in pipe section caused
by valves or other obstructions will induce turbulence
resulting in accelerated flame speeds and increased pressures.
GAS OR GROUP DISTANCE APPROXIMATE
VAPOUR m FLAME SPEED
m/s
Ideal placement for flame arresters is in the end-of-line
mode (Figure 3), which alleviates the effective of run-up
distances and accelerated flame speeds. Where this is not
possible any bends or curves in pipework will greatly
increase flame speed and pressure build-ups.
The Fire Research Station was commissioned t o carry out
extensive tests on samples of the in-line flame arresters
against flames propagated in a 4,3 per cent by volume
propane in air mixture. Piping was of a nominal 50 mm
bore and tests were carried out with a variety of run-up
lengths, with a 90 degree bend added and with tail-pipe
lengths of up t o 7 metres. Flame speeds of up to 2780
metres per second and explosion pressures of up to 1,9 MPa
were successfully contained. Additional work on 150 mm
detonation flame arresters successfully stopped flame
speeds of up to 2350 metres per second and pressures up
to 8,7 MPa in a straight pipe.
ELEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Flame arresters of the crimped metal type are made by co-
winding two strips of metal foil, one corrugated and the
other plain (Figure 4). The standard metals used are
either cupro-nickel or stainless steel. Elements can also be
manufactured from any commercially available material
such as Hastaloy for hydrochloric acid service, Titanium,
Aluminium, Monel etc .
Fig. 3 Flame speeds in straight open pipes - Ignition near closed end
This method of manufacture produces a unique matrix of
uniform triangular cells in circular elements. Cell sizes can
be altered by varying the height of the crimp and elements
are manufactured which relate to the quenching diameters
required for particular applications. Similarly, cell lengths
or quenching lengths can be varied to increase the heat
absorbtion/dissipation property of the elements as necessary.
A key feature of elements manufactured by this method is
repeatability of construction. Tests successfully carried out
on sample arrester elements produced t o the same specifica-
tions gave consistent results. This is particularly important
where elements are supplied as replacement parts.
The element is enclosed in a metal outer casing t o provide
a rigid construction which cannot move under operational
conditions. Its straight cell format reduces pressure drop
t o absolute minimum.
Fig. 4
SOURCES OF IGNITION
It is seldom possible t o eliminate all possible sources of
ignition. Some obvious sources include: lighted cigarettes,
matches, cigarette lighters, naked flames, open fires, petrol
and diesel engines, electric tools, hobnailed boots, sparks or
hot spots produced by electrical or mechanical means.
There are however, some less obvious sources of ignition
which may be more dangerous because they are not general-
ly known or understood.
Aluminium and its alloys, magnesium and titanium can give
high energy sparks on impact with rusty steel.
Steel tools previously used on aluminium or light
alloys can carry smears or particles capable of giving off
sparks if impacted with rusty steel.
Frictional heat can be generated by faulty machinery
or vibrating pipes and can cause ignition.
Formidable hazards are presented by static electricity,
electrical storms and diesel engines.
It is a common misconception that diesel engines can be
used without modifications. Although they do not have
high tension electrical systems, diesel engines can inhale
flammable vapours into their induction systems and over-
speed, with disastrous consequences.
Diesel engines used in potentially hazardous environments
should be fitted with effective engine shutdown devices
which include a suitable flame arrester.
DEFINITION OF FLAME ARRESTER TYPES
Flame arresters are designed not only t o deal with specific
gases and vapours, or mixtures of both, but also with the
different types of flame and explosion which may occur.
There are three principal types of flame arrester -
End-of-line deflagration, In-line deflagration, and in-line
detonation
End-of-line arresters are designed to prevent the travel of
flame caused by an external source of ignition, from enter-
ing a system and also sometimes to prevent a flash-back
of a flame which has been stabilised on the arrester.
Deflagration arresters prevent the progress of a deflagration
along a pipe or duct containing a flammable mixture which
may be ignited and travel at sub-sonic velocities. Their
ability t o stop flame travel depends upon their construction
and the speed and pressure of the approaching flame.
Detonation arresters prevent the transmission of a detona-
tion along a pipe. This type of arrester is dependent upon
the nature of the application and is usually associated with
long pipe runs with bends and is intended t o deal effective-
ly with flames travelling at supersonic velocities.
With a detonation the flame front can be travelling at
between 2000 and 3000 metres per second with temperatures
double that of deflagration and pressure levels can be as
much as 30-90 atmospheres. The arresteir must be designed
to dissipate high energy and withstand considerable pressure
and flame speed.
APPLICATIONS
The number of possible flame arrester applications is almost
infinite.
In any process or plant which uses a flammable gas or
vapour that could conceivably ignite, a flame arrester must
be used.
In the chemical, petrochemical and gas industries, it is
common practice t o transmit flammable gases and vapours
by pipeline. If there is no air or insufficient oxygen for
con~bustion the procedure can be considered safe. However,
if air or oxygen is present a potentially dangerous situation
exists. Should the mixture ignite, flame could travel
through the piping system unless checked by a flame
arrester.
A few of the multiplicity of flame arrester applications are:
Purging gas mains.
A flame arrester should be used when gas mains are new or
during repair and maintenance work if the line is broken.
Trapped air will mix with gas and the pipeline must be
purged through a flame arrester.
Venting tanks containing flammable liquids
When filling tanks, large quantities of vapour will be forced
out of the vent by displacement. It is considered good
practice that the vent pipe be protected by a suitable flame
arrester.
Furnaces using pre-mixed gases
A flame arrester must be fitted as near as possible t o the
burner as a flash-back on start-up or turn-down is a frequent
occurrence.
Heat treatment furnaces using hydrogen atmospheres:
The hydrogen should be burned off through a flame arrester
to ensure there is no possibility of flame flashing back into
the furnace.
Further applications
Methane drainage from coal mines, solvent recovery systems,
flare stacks, crankcase ventilators and intake and exhaust
systems for internal combustion engines, the isolation of
one process from another, passing gas or vapour from one
process vessel t o another, ventilation shafts of areas contain-
ing flammable vapours (solvent stores) and incinerators
for toxic materials.
INDUSTRY APPLICATION
1. Paint Venting of tanks containing flam-
1-k
A,, z x b k zat eri ds.
Adhesive
Pharmaceuticals
Tank farms
Synthetic fibres
Shipping.
Edible oils
Distilling (Whisky)
Cosmetics
Offshore
2. Gas Purging of gas mains
3. Heat treatment Furnaces using pre-mix mas mixtures.
Ceramics/pottery
Oil Refineries Incineration of toxic materials.
4. Steel (heat treatment) Furnaces using hydrogen atmospheres
5 . Cellophane
Pharmaceuticals
6. Oil/gas
7 . Offshore
Refineries
Ammunition
Chemical
Airports
Mining
Solvent recovery systems,
Flare stacks, finger flares and flare pits
Diesel engine intake and exhaust
systems, crahkcase ventilators. Vent-
ing of tanks containing flammable
materials. Hypochlorite systems.
8 Chemical plants Isolation of one process from another
Petrochemical plants
Refineries
9. Gas turbines Ventilation shafts
General engineering
10. Pharmaceuticals Venting mixing vessels
Adhesives
11. Gas Gas analyses
Chemical plant
Refineries
12. Mining
Offshore
Venting liquidpetroleum gas, methane
and natural gas.
13. Battery operated fork Electrical apparatus
trucks.
Switchgear
Electrical motors
Gas analyses
14. Atomic energy Venting hydr.ogen
Chemical
Refineries
15. Pharmaceuticals Venting in conjunction with bursting
Chemicals discs or pressure relief valves.
16. Water and Sewage Venting. Gas compressors.
Authorities.
17. Aircraft and ships Venting turbine compartments and
fuel tanks.
18. Chemical Reaction vessels
P~trnchemical
19. Petrochemical Road tankerlship loading
Refineries
MAINTENANCE
The method of construction described means that any
damage caused t o t he elements is immediately apparent
and can be seen with the naked eye. They should be inspect-
ed frequently as part of routine plant maintenance and
cleaned as necessary - and certainly if excessive pressure
drop is experienced due t o fouling of element cells.
Flame arresters should withstand several flash-backs and
detonations without sustaining damage. However, they
should be inspected immediately after each occurrence. If
there is evidence of any damage or distortion the element
should be replaced.
For cleaning, the flame arrester element should be washed
in any suitable solvent and then blown through by com-
pressed air. Steam cleaning is also effective.
Elements should not be cleaned by inserting any implement
i nt o t he cells as these could be enlarged as a result and the
performance of t he flame arrester would be impaired.
Acknowledgement: National Trading Fluid Control (Pty) Ltd
Valve Packing
This section deals with the various materials and systems
used for valve packing and the conditions for selection of
particular packing type. The bulk of the packing require-
ments today can be met by two packing types: (a) PTFE
V-rings and (b) Graphite. These materials have proved to be
reliable,inexpensive and effective. Indeed they have provided
excellent substitutes for asbestos containing packings of
the past.
PTFE V-RING PACKING
This packing is composed of solid rings of moulded PTFE
(Polytetrafluoroethylene). Generally, in a given packing
set there are two or more packing rings with a 'V' cross-
section, a male adaptor and a female adaptor. The packing
can be used over a temperature range of -40' C to 232' C
and for all chemicals except molten alkali metals and certain
fluorine compounds. PTFE packing should not, however,
be used for nuclear service where the radiation level will
exceed 1 x lo2 J/kg.
The packing can be used with a spring (live loaded) or as
jam type packing. The jam type packing requires adjustment
of the packing gland during the life of the packing, to make
up for either wear or relaxation. Stem friction is low, but
this packing requires relatively smooth stem finish. This
packing is the preferred packing for most applications.
GRAPHITE LAMINATEIFILAMENT PACKING
The graphite packing system is used mainly for sliding stem
valves at temperatures above 2 3 2 C. It has a temperature
range from - 32C to 538'C in non-oxidising service or -32'C
to 370' C in oxidising service. The rings can be certified to
contain less than 200 ppm of leachable chloride and can
be used in radioactive nuclear service up t o 1,5 x 1 0 J/kg
total gamma radiation.
There are three types of rings that make up this graphite
packing system. These are graphite laminate rings, graphite
filament ringss and sacrificial zinc washers. The graphite
laminate rings are usually die cut from sheet made by bond-
ing and curing thin layers of flexible graphite. The final
ring has the laminations perpendicular t o the valve stem.
The graphite filament rings are made from a special graphite
filament yarn with an interlaced braided construction. A
PTFE coating is applied during braiding t o facilitate con-
struction. These rings are used as end rings in conjunction
with the laminated rings described above. One thin sacrificial
zinc washer is used under each graphite laminate ring with
the intent of protecting the valve stem from pitting and
galvanic corrosion.
The zinc washer does not, however, completely prevent
pitting. Pitting of S31600 stainless steel stems has been
experienced on new valves when the valves have been
hydro-tested and shipped without drying out or removing
the packing. Valves shipped dry but with the packing
installed have also pitted when stored in a humid environ-
ment. Laboratory tests have shown that all the stainless
steels and many of the high nickel alloys are resistant are
N06625, N10276, N60022, titanium and zirconium.
All valves with graphite packing should be hydro-tested
using an O-ring packing gland. The graphite packing should
be shipped separately and not installed until the valve is
placed in service. Pitting has not been a problem in service
because graphite is normally used at temperatures above
the dew point. The continual stroking of the valve also
reduces the likelihood of pitting.
SPECIAL PACKING SYSTEMS
Several special packing systems have been used over the
years that make use of asbestos fibre in one form or
another. In recent years, because of potential health
hazards, the use of asbestos has been discouraged and
Fisher, for example, has completely eliminated the use of
asbestos in any of its products for both packing and gasket-
ing. It is frequently possible t o use either PTFE or graphite
packing to replace the formerly used asbestos product;
however, at other times this is not possible. A recent study
was conducted to find replacements for the most frequently
used asbestos products including:
1. Braided asbestos with PTFE impregnate.
2. Moulded asbestos/graphite . Packing also contained
shredded lead and elastomer binder.
3. Braided asbestos and NO6600 (Alloy 600) wire jacket
over an asbestos and graphite core. This product also
contained a lubricant and some sacrificial metal for
corrosion protection.
4. High temperature aluminium packing. This was a system
composed of hard rings (or end rings) and soft rings
(middle rings). The hard rings were a twisted aluminium
foil over an asbestos core. The soft rings or semi-plastic
rings were composed of asbestos, aluminium shreds and
lubricant.
An explanation of the replacements found for each of these
asbestos packings follows:
GRAPHITE DIE MOULDED RIBBON PACKING
Die moulded graphite ribbon packing is generally used for
rotary valves in applications that are not suitable for the
PTFE V-rings. These rings have a useful range from ultra-
lcw temperatures up to 6.50' C. As the name implies, each
ring is formed by wrapping flexible graphite ribbon around
a mandrel and then die forming to size. The resulting ring
has laminations that are somewhere between parallel and
perpendicular t o the shaft. While the ribbon packing does
not have the cycle life of the laminatelfilament system, it
is generally acceptable for most rotary valve applications.
Both graphite systems can be used for a wide range of service
environments.
Acknowledgement: Fisher Controls Inc.
Control Specialists (Pty) Ltd
Flexible Rubber Joints
Flexible rubber pi nt s are used extensively on the suction
and discharge flanges of centrifugal pumps to perform one
or more of the following functions.
1. take up misalignment between pump and piping
2. ensure that flange bolt holes line up
3. facilitate removal of valves and strainers for servicing
without disturbing t he pump
4 act as flange adaptor (when pump and pipeline have
different flanges)
5. piotect pump flanges from carrying the mass of piping
and valves
6. accommodate thermal expansion or other pipe move-
ment
7 . give freedom of movement t o pumps mounted on anti-
vibration mountings
8. absorb vibration from pump t o pipeline and shock from
pipeline t o pump.
9. reduce noise transmission
Types of Rubber Joints
Until about 20 years ago all rubber joints were built by
hand. The ends were wrapped over a spool with built-in
reinforcing wire or rings to contain the pressure and the
rubber was carried up into the flanges. The joint's flexi-
bility was entirely obtained from the narrow fabric-rein-
forced central arch, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Joints made by this slow method of contruction have been
largely displaced and outpriced in the popular sizes up t o
500 mm diameter by moulded spherical joints with fabric
reinforcement, formed and moulded in the fashion of a
cross-ply tyre, as shown in Figure 2. Production is repetitive
and relatively fast. There are no steel wires or rings in t he
carcass, and t he fabric, usually nylon, is stretched over t he
full length of t he joint, with the appropriate number of
plies t o give t he required strength. When a spherical joint
is pressurised it swells slightly until the fabric is stressed
to produce equilibrium. The walls are relatively t hi n, t he
construction is light, and the whole body is used for
flexing.
Spherical joints have also been conveniently developed with
lip ends that fit into specially shaped flanges, allowing them
to be rotated (for lining up the bolt holes). They are avail-
able as single or double sphere (for extra movement) or as
reducers or elbows as illustrated in Figure 3.
Hand-wrapped arch joints, are still extensively used:
1. for special performance e.g. wear resistance (due t o their
extra wall thickness) or resistance t o chemical attack
(for example they can be constructed with a viton lining
and if necessary reinforced with Kevlar)
2. for special shapes e.g. eccentric taper or rectangular t o
round
3. for large axial movement (by means of multiple arches)
or large lateral movement (by means of extra deep
arches)
4. for sizes above 500 mm diameter, with virtually no
upper limit.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Hydraulic Thrust
When a pipeline is under pressure, t he hydraulic thrust
(pressure x area) acts at t he pipe ends, and at each change
of direction. The strength of the pipe prevents it from
stretching. When a rubber joint is introduced into t he pipe-
line (or any other flexible component such as a stainless
steel bellows) this axial rigidity is removed. The pipe is thus
divided into two separate elements t hat , unless otherwise
provided for, are restrained from moving apart only by the
stiffness of t he joint.
If a pipe end is unrestrained, t he flexible joint will stretch
until the axial load required t o stretch it (plus any friction
in supports and guides) is in equilibrium with the hydraulic
thrust. Above a specific pressure t he stretch will be exces-
sive and will damage the joint. Flexible joints can be pro-
tected from stretching excessively by fitting tie rods strong
enough t o contain the hydraulic thrust as illustrated in
Figure 4. Suppliers should be able t o stipulate t he axial
stiffness of their joints for extensions up t o t he maximum
allowable, as well as t he pressure above which tie rods must
be used if t he pipe ends are unrestrained.
The piping and plant layout should be arranged t o avoid tie
rods if possible because they need t o be substantial and
expensive t o be adequately designed, and they reduce the
joint's flexibility.
In practice the load required t o stretch spherical joints up
t o about 250 mm diameter t o their allowable limit is
greater than t he hydraulic thrust at their maximum rated
pressure, so that control rods are not necessary t o protect
the joint. Larger sizes cannot withstand their maximum
pressure rating without over-stretching; for each size there
is a pressure beyond which an unrestrained joint must be
protected by control rods.
In most applications the pipeline is not unrestrained. The
pipe is anchored at some point upstream and downstream
of the joint, and t he designer must then be satisfied that the
anchors are adequate t o accept t he hydraulic thrust. If the
role of the flexible joint is t o accommodate pipe expansion
over the distance between anchors (so that the joint is
required to compress) then the anchors must also accept
the load required to compress t he joint by t he amount the
pipe expands, plus the load required t o overcome friction in
guides.
Figure 5 illustrates two arrangements of rubber joints close
t o centrifugal pumps. Care must be taken t o ensure that the
thrust on the pump, in whichever direction it acts, is not
excessive, or alternatively that the reactions due to flow
and pressure are restrained by suitably placed anchors,
supports or tie rods
EXPANSI ON
JOINTS ifcsi
Fig. 5
Pipe Expansion
Consider a flexible joint installed t o accommodate expan-
sion in a pipeline between anchors (one of which might be a
centrifugal pun~p) . Expansion of t he pipe will be taken up
by compression of the joint. Suppose t he temperature
increase changes the pipe length by 48 mm per 100 metres.
and that the joint selected has a movement range of 16 mm
compression and 8 mm extension.
If the joint was installed in its relaxed condition, its
compression capability would limit t he spacing between
anchors t o 33 metres (16 + 48) x 100. Alternatively the
joint could be installed in a gap 8 mm greater than its
relaxed length and then pulled out to its maximum ex-
tension. This is called "cold-pull". In this case t he joint's
movement capability from maximum extension t o maxi-
mum compression would be 24 mm, the maximum spacing
between anchors could be increased t o 50 metres, and the
number of joints (and anchors) correspondingly reduced.
When dealing with water at ambient temperature in a re-
latively long pipeline, consideration might be given t o t he
temperature of the pipe at t he time of installation. The
joint could at that moment need t o be at its maxinlunl
extension (installed at minimum pipe temperature) or
maximum compression (installed at maximum pipe temp-
erature). To use t he joint's maximum movement capability
it might have t o be cold-pulled or cold-pushed. In practice
the equipment and skill required t o carry out this proce-
dure is unlikely t o be available in the field, and it is safest,
if not most economical, t o install t he joint in its neutral
position and require it t o take up only its allowable move-
ment , in compression or extension, by limiting the anchor
spacing.
Selection of Rubber Joints
Factors t o consider when selecting a rubber joint are:
Pressure rating. Manufacturers should publish burst
pressures; rated pressures are usually set at one third or
one quarter of burst. Typical ratings of spherical joints
are 1 600 t o 2 000 kPa for sizes up t o 300 mm dia and
1 200 t o I 400 kPa up t o 500 mm dia. Pressure ratings
apply t o steady conditions and should be reduced for
shock or surge conditions. Pressure ratings of moulded
spherical joints with nylon reinforcement should also
be temperature de-rated by about 8% for every 10
above 70DC - this does not apply t o hand built joints
with steel or Kevlar reinforcement.
Temperature rating. Natural rubber is good for up t o
about 80 C. Synthetic elastomers can be used at 10O0C
t o 130C oreven more,depending on type of rubber and
of fabric reinforcement.
Allowable movement. Manufacturers publish maximum
allowable movements from t he neutral position i.e . axial
compression, axial extension, lateral displacement and
angular displacement. These movements should not be
exceeded and should be sensibly reduced if axial and
lateral or angular displacements occur at t he same time.
Choice of rubber. With t he development of synthetic
rubber during the Second War, natural rubber was large-
60
5 0
4 0
30 NEOPRENE CONNECTORS.
- NOISE LEVEL AFTER
I NSERTI ON OF
NEOPRENE CONNECTORS.
NOISE MEASUREMENTS I N ROOM
ADJACENT TO PIPING ON 18th FL
2 0
31.5 6 3 125 250 5 00 1000
CENTER FREQUENCY I N CYCLES PER SECOND (Hz1
Fig. 6 (by courtesy of Mason Industries Inc.)
RUBBER JOINT SELECTION
Tear
Abrasion
Dilute Acid
Concentrated Acid
Natural
Rubber
Very good
Excellent
Lubricating Oil &
Petrol
Oxidation
Ozone
Heat 1 Fair 1 Good 1 Excellent 1 Good 1 Very Good 1 Excellent 1 Outstanding
Fair 1 Excellent
Fair 1 Good
I I I
Flame 1 Poor I Good I Poor I Poor I Good I Good I Excellent
Neoprene
Good
Excellent
Poor
Fair
Poor
Sunlight
ly displaced by Neoprene (chloroprene), particularly in
the United States, for its generally superior performance
Excellent
Good
Poor 1 Very Good 1 Outstanding 1 Poor 1 Outstanding 1 Very good 1 Outstanding
in areas such as oil resistance, ozone attack, and resistance
t o sunlight, temperature and flame. Some manufacturers
now offer EPDM (ethylene propylene) as their preferred
standard owing to its broad band of good properties and
compatability with many chemicals (except that it is poor
EPDM
Fair
Excellent
Good
Very Good
Very Good
for oil resistance).
In addition to Neoprene and EPDM. several other synthetic
elastomers are commercially available. Nitrile rubber is
generally selected for its oil resistance. Hypalon has out-
standing ageing and weathering resistance, and performs
well with oxidising acids. Butyl has somewhat higher temp-
erature performance. Viton (fluoroelastomer) has superior
chemical, resistance but is substantially more expensive.
Their performance is compared in the table.
Nitrile
Fair
Good
Good
Good
Poor
Excellent
Outstanding
Vibration and Noise
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Good
When a rubber joint is pressurised, it becomes relatively
Hypalon
Fair
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Fair
stiff and therefore cannot be an efficient vibration elimina-
tor. If you are seeking high efficiency, as in isolating the
vibration of a pipe from the ceiling or wall of the structure
that supports it , you will achieve much higher efficiency by
separating the pipe from the building with soft (low fre-
quency) spring hangers. Nevertheless a rubber joint is soft
relative to the pipeline itself and therefore does act as a
damper or energy absorber t o some extent.
Butyl
Good
Good
Good
Excellent
Outstanding
Rubber joints, especially spherical joints, have the capacity
t o reduce noise transmission, which is carried more by
pressure pulses in the fluid than by the pipe. These pulses
stretch the rubber, increase the joint's volume and relieve
Viton
Fair
Good
the pressure wave. This was demonstrated in acoustical
tests in the United States, in the case of two chilled water
pipelines connecting a pair of 50 kW pumps on the 27th
floor of a building t o chillers located in a plant room at a
lower level. At the intermediate 18th floor the noise was
Poor
Excellent
Excellent
noticeable, not so much due t o its high level, as to its
Excellent
Outstanding
Outstanding
aggravating, pure-tone whine. In Figure 6 the dotted line
shows the acoustical "profile", the noise levels over a
spectrum of frequencies.
Note the peak noise level at 145 Hz. This high energy point
occurred at the impeller blade frequency, the speed of the
pump (1 750 r/min) times the number of impeller blades
(5). The solid line shows the same spectrum after spherical
rubber joints were fitted at the pump suctions and dis-
charges. This shows a drop in sound pressure level at all
frequencies, but with particular success in de-tuning the
resonant frequency, so that it was no longer dominant.
Anti Vibration Mountings
Centrifugal pumps are often supported on anti-vibration
mountings to reduce structure-borne noise and vibration
in buildings. If such a pump is also fitted with rubber
joints the situation requires some consideration.
Figure 7 shows a common pump installation. The downward
load will be the vertical thrust (ofboth suction and discharge)
plus the mass of pump, motor and base. These will cause
the springs t o compress by an amount dependant on their
stiffness plus the stiffness of the rubber joints. Note that
the base can be extended t o support the bends if the pump
casing is not strong enough t o withstand the thrust.
VI BRATI ON
Fig. 7
162
MOUNT
FLOW
In Figure 8 the net thrust (difference between discharge and
suction) displaces the pump laterally to the extent permitted
by the combined lateral stiffness of the mountings and
axia! stiffness of the joints (discharge in tension, suction in
compression). Small spherical rubberjoints actually contract
under pressure; below a certain pressure the pump and
mountings will be drawn slightly towards the discharge side,
then at that pressure they will return t o their neutral
position and only above that pressure will they start t o be
displaced towards the suction side.
If the ultimate lateral displacement is more than the mount-
ings should be asked to accept there are four possible
courses of action; t o use other mountings with more
lateral stiffness, or t o increase the mass of the base, or to
cold pull the joint on the discharge side (install it in a gap
wider than the joint, then stretch the joint t o close the gap
and thereby displace the pump towards the discharge side);
or, in the last resort, to limit the pump's lateral displace-
ment towards the suction side be fitting tie rods t o one or
both joints.
Correct Installation
Observation of the following rules will avoid unnec-
essary problems and ensure maximum service life:
1. Do not exceed the rated (or de-rated) pressure, temp-
erature and movement. Do not use a rubber joint to
take up more than 3 mm of initial lateral misalignment.
2. Rubber joints cannot be expected t o have an indefinite
life. Therefore do not install them in inaccessible places
where they cannot be periodically inspected for cracking
and hardening, and replaced when eventually necessary,
3. If a rubber joint is working against a significant static
head (as on the discharge of a basement pump delivering
through a riser to a tank on the roof) there should be
a gate valve and non-return valve downstream of, and
close to, the joint, so that the joint can be removed for
inspection or replacement, and so that the consequences
will not be catastrophic if the joint should fail.
VIBRATION MOUNTS -
Fig. 8
4. Ensure anchors are correctly placed and strong enough.
If unanchored, check if control rods are necessary t o
ensure that rated axial movement cannot be exceeded.
5. If rubber joints are used with plain ended pipes and
friction couplings such as Viking Johnson, ensure that
each pipe is anchored or otherwise that there is no pos-
sibility of the pipe slipping past the seal of the coupling
- not a problem with flanged, screwed or welded
pipes.
6. Support pipes so that the joint does not carry their mass.
7. Make sure that the sealing faces of the joint bear against
mating flanges that are flat over the width of the seal.
8. Insert flange bolts with the bolt heads facing the rubber
body and the nuts on the outside, to prevent the possibi-
lity of the threads cutting the rubber.
9. Tighten bolts cross-wise, taking up gradually until all
nuts are evenly tightened. Do not overtighten. Observe
the manufacturer's torque figures (if he gives them).
Do not use a gasket. Check that the tightness allows no
leakage after the joint has been brought up to its oper-
ating pressure, and check again after a few days opera-
tion.
10. Do not weld near the joint.
1 1. Do not paint over the rubber body
Acknowledgement: E.M. Arnot (Pty) Ltd.
Anti-vibration Mountings
A centrifugal pump installed in a building may transmit
vibration and structure-borne noise t o the extent that
people or sensitive equipment in t he building are disturbed.
Even if this does not occur when t he pump is new, it may
develop later when t he impeller is worn. Vibration mount-
ings are then necessary t o reduce the input of energy to
the building t o an acceptable level. The bigger t he pump
and t he slower it runs, the more flexible t he building and
the floor on which t he pump stands, and the more sensitive
the people or equipment in that environment, t he greater
the disturbance and t he more t he performance required
from t he mountings.
Principles of vibration
The principles of vibration control are quite straight-
forward. When vibration mountings are put under load,
they deflect by an amount dependent on their stiffness. At
whatever deflection is imposed on them they have a natural
frequency, the rate at which they bounce, designated f n If
they are supporting a pump which is vibrating, that vibra-
tion occurs at a different frequency (called t he disturbing
frequency or forcing frequency - normally the pump/
motor speed), designated fd. The theoretical efficiency of
the mountings is then determined by t he ratio f d/ f n. The
higher t he ratio (or the lower t he natural frequency of the
mountings since the disturbing frequency is fixed) the
hgher the efficiency. Efficiency represents t he percentage
of vibration energy that is trapped by t he mountings and
prevented from reaching t he floor.
The second simple fact is that the natural frequency of a
mounting depends on its deflection when loaded. The
higher the deflection the lower the natural frequency.
Efficiency
The theoretical equations for efficiency (dependent on
disturbing frequency and natural frequency) and natural
frequency (dependent on deflection) are given below. No
practical benefit is obtained if t he ratio fd/fn is less than
2. Resonance, which occurs at a ratio of 1 (i.e. totally
inadequate mounting deflection) is worse than having no
mountings at all, and can be dangerous.
where:
E = Percentage of vibration isolated
fd = Pump disturbing frequency (rlmin)
fn =,Mounting natural frequency (cycles per minute)
and:
947
f n = -
v^"
d = Mounting deflection (mm)
In very broad terms 60% efficiency might be acceptable
in an industrial situation, whereas something close t o
95% would be expected in a modern air conditioned build-
ing such as a hotel or office block. A pump located near a
sound recording studio might require 98 or 99% efficiency.
For example, if a pump was operating at 1450 rlmin and
95 % efficiency was required, these equations indicate
the need for mountings with a natural frequency of 315
cycles per minute, with a static deflection of 9 mm. If the
pump speed is 950 r/min t he same efficiency would require
a deflection of 2 1 mm.
Unfortunately the theory does not work without some
modification. It assumes that the floor on which the
mountings stand is extremely stiff, but t he fact is that it is
flexible, more or less, which is why it transmits vibration t o
other parts of the building. To counteract this the mount-
ings need more deflection to achieve the theoretical effi-
ciency. Also the theory assumes that the mountings have
zero damping; this is almost true for a steel spring mounting
but not for a rubber mounting. Owing to its molecular
structure, rubber absorbs energy when it is worked or
bounced, and the effect is t o increase its dynamic natural
frequency above its static (theoretical) frequency. Rubber
therefore needs to be deflected more than a steel spring
(roughly 50 to 100% more depending on its hardness and
composition) t o give the same natural frequency.
It is also obvious that the size of the pump has to be con-
sidered, as well as its speed. It is true that if two pumps,
a large one and a small one, were running at the same
speed and had mountings with the same deflection, they
would1 have the same isolation efficiency. If that were
90 % what really concerns us is the transmissability, the
10 % t hat gets through. For t he large pump this would
be 10 % of a much larger force than for the small pump.
It would need more deflection in order not t o feed more
energy into the building.
Summary
a) the more efficiency required, the softer the mountings
must be (more deflection) for any given pump speed.
b) the slower the pump speed the more deflection needed
for any desired efficiency.
c) the more flexible the floor on which the pump stands,
and the building in general, the more deflection needed
to achieve a particular efficiency.
d) the more sensitive the location, the more efficiency, and
therefore more deflection that is needed t o keep people
happy.
e) t he larger the pump, the more deflection needed t o limit
t he vibration that gets past the mounting.
f) rubber mountings need much more deflection than steel
springs t o provide the same efficiency.
Anti-vibration mountings
With these considerations it is possible t o summarise the
types of anti-vibration mounting that are commercially
available, now with the understanding that those which
cannot deflect much will not provide high efficiency; they
may provide sufficient if t he pump operates at a high speed,
or if t he pump is small, or if the floor is stiff (as in a
basement), or if the environment does not require much
efficiency anyway (as in a factory). Grading them in order
of deflection:
Low Deflection
Pads (rubber or cork). Little in their favour except low
price, although thick pads giving 3 mm deflection (Fig. 1)
can be useful.
Medium Deflect ion
Rubber mountings with 3 mm t o 10 mm deflection depend-
ing on design. Figure 2 shows a typical heavy duty rubber
mounting, extremely robust, but expensive and suitable
for only 5 mm deflection. Figure 3 is a cheaper design
rated for 10 mm deflection, and generally suitable for
small pumps.
High Deflection
Steel spring mountings, designed for 15 mm t o 100 mm
deflection, and suitable for most pump applications.
Figure 4 illustrates a model incorporating a cast housing,
for lateral stability. They are available with multi-spring
designs giving virtually unlimited load capacity.
Very High Deflection
Steel spring mountings, rated for 50 t o 10 mm deflection,
as in Figure 5, necessary for t he most difficult conditions,
(large pump, slow speed, flexible floor, sensitive location).
Mounting sel ect i on
Because t he theory on its own is insufficient, and factors
such as pump size and building stiffness need t o be
considered, and because nobody really knows what effici-
ency they want, or what, in practice, t hey are going t o
get, and because not t oo much time can be spent in
making t he decision, mountings are generally selected by
judgement rather t han by calculation. Rubber mats may
be used in basements or other non-critical situations.
Rubber mountings are generally restricted t o fairly small
pumps because large rubber mountings cost as much as
spring mountings with t he same load capacity, and are
less efficient. Springs are offered in groups, with deflections
of 25, 50, 75, or 100 mm, each group comprising a number
of sizes for different load capacities. One can calculate t he
theoretical deflection required for t he pump speed, and the
efficiency judged t o be necessary.
A further judgement must t hen be made as t o the amount
the theoretical deflection should be increased t o provide
for pump size and floor stiffness. Springs in the 25 mm
deflection group are by far t he most commonly used, but
for sensitive applications deflections up t o 100 mm may be
necessary. Suppliers of vibration mountings usually have
empirical deflection charts, and should be able t o advise
if t hey have t he facts.
Having selected t he type of mounting and t he required
deflection t he remaining decision is to choose a size in the
range that is suitable for t he load. Note that t he mountings
(usually four but sometimes six or more on a large pump)
do not need t o be t he same size. If t he pump weighs more
than t he mot or, or if t he mountings at t he pump end also
have t o support some of t he mass of piping and valves
Fig, 1
Fig, 3
Fie. 4
Fig. 5
stronger mountings would be selected for that end, with
the objective that all the mountings would be chosen to
give approximately the same deflection.
Concrete bases
Some people believe that large concrete bases do something
useful to reduce vibration. This is totally incorrect. The
only factor that influences vibration efficiency is the ratio
of the disturbing frequency of the equipment t o the natural
frequency of the mountings when loaded (which in turn
depends on their static deflection). What a concrete base
does is to reduce the amplitude of vibration (double the
mass gives half the amplitude), but that does not affect the
transmission of energy. Concrete can, however be used for
other reasons. It forms a very rigid base, allowing no flexing
at the mountings and no shaft misalignment. It provides
extra mass to reduce lateral displacement (which occurs if
the pump is fitted with flexible joints). As already stated,
extra mass reduces the amplitide of vibration (although
this would be more of a consideration for an application
such as a reciprocating compressor than for a centrifugal
pump). Of course, incorporating this extra mass means that
the load capacity (but not the deflection) of the mountings
has to be correspondingly increased.
With steel spring mounts it is very convenient to incorpo-
rate "height saving brackets" in the baseplate. Then the
spring mounts can be placed in position with the baseplate
standing on the floor, and the adjusting bolts of the mount-
ings used to jack the baseplate (plus pump and motor) off
the ground (by say 10 or 15 mm) to its operating elevation.
Figure 6 shows a pump with concrete base as well as height
saving brackets.
Flexible joints
Centrifugal pumps with vibration mountings are often also
equipped with flexible joints (rubber or metal) on the
suction and discharge flanges t o reduce pipe vibration, or
perhaps to facilitate installation and lining up. It must be
appreciated that, in this event, the pump is un-anchored
and that the effect of hydraulic thrust is to displace the
pump until the combined stiffness of the mountings and
of the flexible joints produce equilibrium. Obviously
that must occur at a small and acceptable displacement.
This is no problem with relatively low pressure pumps, or
small joints up to 1000 kPa or more. However for high
pressure pumps, large joints and soft mountings, the loads
and movements should be calculated to ensure that the over-
all design is sound and that the pump is safe. The suppliers
of the mountings and joints should be able to provide the
characteristics of their equipment.
These notes have been simplified by considering vibration
in the vertical plane only. When a machine rotates it is
possible for vibration to occur in all three planes as well as
in three rotational modes, and for a coupling effect to be
present between two or more of this total of six modes. In
terms of transmissibility we may be involving the hori-
zontal as well as the vertical stiffness of the mountings.
However, in the case of reasonably balanced equipment
rotating at a steady speed, and unless there are other
considerations, the floor will normally be less stiff in the
vertical direction; it can thus be assumed that if the vib-
ration treatment is adequate for the vertical mode, it will
be more than adequate for the others.
Fig. 6
Acknowledgement: E M Amot (Pty) Ltd,
166
Automatic Pumo Control using Pressure Accumulators
Pressure accumulators can provide a simple, inexpensive
and reliable method of automatically controlling the start-
ing and stopping of pump sets. A common arrangement is
for the accumulator to be supplied together with the pump,
pressure switch and gauge assembled as a complete unit,
as shown.
Description
The accumulator unit comprises a rigid spherical enclosure
containing an inflatable rubber bladder which fills with
fluid as soon as the pump starts. The space between the
bladder and the enclosure is charged with air. As fluid
enters the accumulator, the air surrounding the bladder is
compressed until the air and system pressures become
balanced. Any increase in fluid line pressure above the
pressure switch setting will result in pump cut-out. As
pressure falls t o the pre-set lower pressure the pump with
cut in.
Operation
The maximum pressure of a typical system should not
exceed 800 kPa, A suitably rated pressure switch is recom-
mended if required to operate beyond 400 kPa. The
accumulator's air charge should be checked regularly to
ensure that the pressure is maintained at 20 kPa below system
switch-on pressure. The pressure switch should be set to
stop the pump below its maximum pressure, and that
there is sufficient differential pressure between start and
stop settings or the pump will stop too frequently. The
pump should not run continuously below 10 kPa, and
normal pump operating procedures should be observed.
Procedure for the selection of accumulators.
Capacity required ( = x + loo
4 Pmax - Pmi n
where :
Q max = maximum system flow required (Clmin)
P max = maximum system pressure required (kPa)
P min = minimum system pressure required (kPa)
N = 1,O for pumps up t o 1,5 kW
1,s for pumps between 2,2 and 3,O kW
2,5 for pumps between 4,O and 5 5 kW
Divide the result obtained by the capacity of the accumu-
lator to determine the size of accumulator required.
AI R VALVE PROTECTED
/ BY PLASTIC COVER
REPLACEABLE RUBBER
LI NED HYDROSPHERE
FOR SYSTEM PRESSURES
PRESSURE GAUGE
UP TO 800 kPa
0 - 1 200 kPa
I I
GATEVALVE 1 \ .-,
, /
t-1
Acknowledgement: Howden Pumps
End Connections on Valves and Fittings
Just as a chain is no stronger than its weakest link, a piping
system is no better than its connecting links. Specifying
the right end connection on valves and fittings is. therefore,
of utmost importance. Select the type of end connection
best suited to the working conditions of the particular
system.
Screwed ends
Screwed end valves and fittings are by far the most widely
used. This type of end connection is found in brass, iron,
steel, and alloy piping materials. They are suited for all
pressures, but are usually confined t o smaller pipe sizes.
The larger the pipe size, the more difficult it is to make
up the screwed joint.
Welding ends
Welding ends, available in steel valves and fittings only,
are used mainly for higher pressure - temperature services.
They are recommended for lines not requiring frequent
dismantling. There are two types of welding end materials:
but t - and socket-welding. Butt-welding valves and fittings
come in all sizes; socket-welding ends are usually limited
to smaller sizes.
Brazing ends
Brazing end connections are available on brass materials.
The ends are specially designed for use of brazing alloys
to make the joint. When the equipment and brazing mat-
erial are heated with a welding torch t o the temperature
required by the alloy, a tight seal is formed between the
pipe and valve or fitting. While made in a manner similar
to a solder joint, a brazed joint will withstand higher
temperatures because of the brazing materials used.
Solder ends
Solder-joint valves and fittings are used with copper tubing
for plumbing and heating lines and for many low pressure
industrial services. The joint is soldered by applying heat.
Because of close clearance between the tubing and the
socket of the fitting or valve, the solder flows into the
joint by capillary attraction. The use of soldered joints
under temperature is limited because of the low melting
point of the solder.
Flared ends
Flared end connections are commonly used on valves
and fittings for metal and plastic tubing up t o 50 mm
diameter. The end of tubing is skirted or flared, and a
ring nut is used to make a union-type joint.
Hub ends
Hub end connections are generally limited t o valves for
water supply and sewage piping. The joint is assembled on
the socket principle, with pipe inserted in hub end of valve
or fitting, then caulked with oakum and sealed with molten
lead.
Flanged ends
Flanged end materials, although made in sizes as small as
12 mm, are generally used for larger lines because they are
easy to assemble and take down. Flanged joints are made
up with much smaller tools than required for screwed
connections of comparable size.
Socket Weld ends - Butt Weld end -
to suit pipe wi th schedule, for schedule pipe i n carbon
Imperial or metric outside steel or 316L Stainless
diameters. steel.
Screwed ends -
ESP taper, ESP parallel or
NPT female.
High Pressure ends -
either screwed or socket
weld wi th extra material
thickness to prevent
'bowing' at pressures
up t o 35 MPa.
Solder ends -
brass ends t o match copper
pipe wi th close tolerance
bore to facilitate capil-
lary brazing.
Fire ends -
any preparation i n carbon
steel or stainless steel
but incorporating a fire
lip on sealing face.
Male threads - Extension pipes -
to BS 1864 RJT type or available i n carbon steel,
to International Sanitary stainless steel or copper
standard wi th male Acme t o allow valve to be welded
thread - i n polished stain- (brazed) i n line without
less steel. dismantling.
Odd Ends -
any two kinds of end can be bolted t o a valve body to
match specific requirements.
Motors and Drives
Electric motor selection 170 - 172
Electric motor installation and
protection 173,174
Electric motor performance 175
Noise levels in electric motors 176, 177
Electric motor faults and
rectification 178, 179
Fluid drive couplings 180, 181
Shaft couplings 182
Wedge and V-belt drive data 183 - 185
Electric Motor Selection
Motor output and speed are generally known and the selec-
tion of a suitable motor will depend on the following factors:
A. Enclosure;
B. Type of motor and methods of starting,
C. Starting torque characteristics;
D. Class of insulation and temperature rise;
E. Electrical protection.
A. ENCLOSURE
The choice of the correct enclosure is important t o ensure
trouble-free service. Enclosures normally available are as
follows:
1. Standard Protected Drip Proof (SPDP)
This enclosure is suitable for clean dry sites - air is
drawn directly through the motor for cooling.
2. Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC)
Used where dirt, dust or moisture is likely - external
air does not pass through the motor, but is directed over
the frame which is ribbed t o facilitate cooling.
3. Totally Enclosed (TE)
A modification t o the TEFC motor for motors mounted
in an air stream where motor heating is not a problem.
4. Closed Air Circuit Air Cooled (CACA)
A totally enclosed arrangement for larger motors using
an air t o water heat exchanger for cooling.
6. Pipe Ventilated (PV)
An adaptation t o the SPDP motor t o enable it t o accept
a separate dueted supply of clean air for cooling.
B. TYPE OF MO fORS AND METHODS OF START:
The type of starting and hence type of motor is dictated by
two main considerations. Firstly, the strength of the electri-
cal supply system t o withstand heavy starting currents, and
secondly, the starting torque required t o accelerate the total
inertia of the motor plus the connected load.
The suitability of the supply system t o withstand high
currents is governed by either the customer's own distribu-
tion systems; i.e., size of transformer, cabling, etc., or by
local supply authority whose regulations may impose
restrictions on what form of starting may be used.
On certain systems i t is necessary t o reduce the starting
current - this is done by using either stardelta, auto-
transformer or primary liquid resistance starters on a
squirrel cage motor, or alternatively resorting t o slipring
motor.
1. Cage Motors
These are well suited t o the majority of normal drives since
they are cheap, robust and require very little maintenance.
When a squirrel cage induction motor is switched direct-on-
line, it draws a current about six times full load current
which falls off t o the full load value as the motor approaches
its full load speed.
Provided t he supply can stand it this is t he best method of
starting a squirrel cage motor.
The effect of a stardelta starter is t o reduce the voltage at
the motor terminals, and thereby reduce the starting
current. However, the starting torque is also considerably
reduced, and this reduction of starting torque means that
it will take longer for the motor t o reach its full load speed.
This is of particular importance on high torquelhigh inertia
drives. Auto-transformer and primary liquid resistance
starting is an arrangement for reduced voltage starting with
starting torque better than star-delta and a starting current
of the order of three times normal full load current. The
major disadvantage is the cost which is far greater than star-
delta starters, but this extra cost can be considerably
justified where high inertia low load drives are involved.
2. Slipring Motors
Slipring motors give maximum torque and lowest current
for the starting of any equipment. Although they appear
t he ideal choice from this point of view in practice their
application is normally limited to a combination of high
torque and high inertia drives, where starting current must
be limited. There are various reasons for this such as a
slipring motor is more expensive than a squirrel cage motor,
and requires more maintenance t o care for wear and tear on
sliprings and brushgear. A final factor is the higher cost of
more complicated starting gear which necessitates additional
connections t o the rotor and the provision of a rotor
resistance.
In the case of slipriftg motors it is possible t o adjust the
starting torque t o any required value up t o the pull-out
value by inserting suitable resistances in the rotor circuit.
Pull-out torque being the maximum torque developed by
the motor.
C. STARTING TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS:
The successful performance of a motor is primarily depen-
dent on the correct matching of power equipments at full
load, but starting requirements of the driven plant are most
important and care must be taken t o ensure that the motor
can meet these requirements.
One of the major causes of motor failure is lack of attention
t o this point.
Total starting torque = Load torque + accelerating torque
or more simply, -
Starting effort = Effort required t o turn + Effort
required t o accelerate.
The accelerating torque is the effort required t o overcome
t he inertia of the drive. For example, a centrifuge, though
easy t o turn, requires a very considerable accelerating torque
t o get it up t o speed because the inertia is high.
When calculating the accelerating torque required by the
drive make sure that the inertia of the drive is referred t o
the motor speed.
The accelerating torque can also be expressed as the differ-
ence between t he torque developed by t he motor and the
actual load torque required at that particular speed.
Percent FL7
cage, which is to be started direct-on-line
-
FLT = 240 N.m Accelerating torque = 240 N.rn
Speed 1 O O O I ~
Fig. 1 Direct-on-line starting of fan with dampers closed
Percent F1.T
I
Speed 1 OO"/o
For star-delta starting, assuming accelerating torque 20%
FLT, the value 240 N.m would then be 4,8 N.m and the
accelerating time 27 s.
Very often the inertia of the rotor is small compared to
the load inertia, and has been temporarily ignored. Since it
cannot be completely ignored, reference must be made to
the manufacturers, in the event that the calculated times
exceed 8 seconds for direct-on-line starting and 30 seconds
when star-delta starting is employed. The times are based
also on a maximum motor temperature of 40C
D. CLASS OF INSULATION AND TEMPERATURE RISE:
In normal practice there are four classes of insulation which.
in relation to a maximum ambient temperature of 4 0 C
allow the following winding temperature rises:
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE RISE
CLASS
THERMOMETER RESISTANCE
Fig. 2 Stardelta starting of an unloaded compressor
E 65OC 75OC
F 85OC 1OO0C
In the examples given, Figure 1 represents a typical starting H 1O.S0C 125OC
condition of a fan with dampers closed. Figure 2 is a typical
curve showing the starting of an unloaded compressor.
Class 'E' is the standard used, with some call for class 'B'
ACCELERATING TIME (See Figures 1 and 2)
and very little for classes 'F' and 'H', Classes higher than 'E'
become progressively more expensive. The continuous
- -
The formula for calculating the time required t o accelerate rated output of a motor is governed by the maximum rise
a drive to full load speed is as follows: in temperature which the insulation used can tolerate.
Starting time (in seconds) = 0,637 x I x N
T
where: 1 = inertia of load (in kg.m2)
N = rotational frequency (in r/s)
T = average accelerating torque (in N.m)
For direct-on-line starting assume an average accelerating
torque of 100% FLT.
For star-delta starting assume an average accelerating torque
of 20% FLT.
Full load torque (in N.m) =
N
where: Pe = motor power (in W)
N = rotational speed (in r/s)
When the load speed differs from the motor speed, (vu.
pulley drive) the load inertia must be referred t o the motor
speed, namely:
Referred W R ~ = Actual W R ~ = Load 'peed
Motor spee (T
E. PROTECTION:
Modern metric motors are continuous maximum rated and
have no continuous overload capacity.
To provide adequate protection for the motor it is necessary
that overloads be set close to the full load current of the
motor. This also affords a measure of protection against
single phasing of the supply system as the overloads are
sensitive to this condition.
It is good practice to back up the motor starter with High
Rupturing Capacity fuses to cover short circuit conditions.
The average starter contactor is not designed t o withstand
full fault conditions and may fail to clear with possible
dangerous results. The H.R.C. fuse has the dual advantage
of not only limiting the damage at the seat of the fault but
also limiting the disturbance to the system.
Single phase motors may be supplied with thermal overload
protection incorporated in the motor, with either automatic
or manual reset.
Example : Mcrotherrn and thermistor are well-recommended forms
A fan impeller is mounted onto the motor shaft has an of thermal protection. For further details, apply t o the
inertia of 85 kg.m2. The motor is 37,5kW, 1 475 r/min manufacturer.
Electric Motors for Flammable Atmospheres
INTRODUCTION
Flameproof motors at one time formed the only type approv-
ed for use in flammable atmospheres; there are now,however
other types of motor available. The purpose of this subject
is t o describe the various types of construction, and the
factors affecting their choice t o suit particular conditions
Selection and specification of electric motors is largely
determined by the environment in which they are t o be
located. For the purpose of defining the hazard, t wo factors
are important, namely the classification of t he area, and
certain characteristics of the flammable gas or gases which
may be present.
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS AREAS
The classification of hazardous areas according t o the likeli-
hood of flammable gases being present is given in IEC 79.10
and described more explicitly in BS.5245 and SABS 0108.
Zone 0 or Div. 0
An area or enclosed space within which any flammable or
explosive substance, whether gas, vapour or volatile liquid is
continuously present in concentration within the lower and
upper limits of flammability.
Zone 1 or Div. 1
Ail area within which any flammable or explosive substance
whether gas, vapour or volatile liquid is processed, handled
or stored, and where during normal operations an explosive
or ignitable concentration is likely t o occur in sufficient
quantity t o produce a hazard.
Zone 2 or Div. 2
An area within which any flammable or explosive substance,
whether gas, vapour or volatile liquid, although processed
or stored, is so well under conditions of control that the
production (or release) of an explosive of ignitable concen-
tration in sufficient quantity t o constitute a hazard is only
likely t o occur under abnormal conditions. The responsibilit>
for classification lies with the owners of the plant.
An area falling within the categord of Zone 2 is sometimes
known as a 'Remotely Dangerous Area'. Although any of
the approved types of motor can be used in Zone 2 areas,
advantage can be taken of the less stringent conditions by
using motors developed specially for use in Zone 2, known
as Types'N' motors, and which are of lower cost than the
other types.
In Zone 1 areas, Type 'N' motors are not applicable, and
one of the other approved types must be used.
No motors are approved for Zone 0, and the use of electric
motors within a continuously ignitable environment is not
recommended.
GROUPING OF GASES
The types of flammable gas present in the environment also
affect t he specification of motors, as follows:
Firstly gases are grouped according t o the dimensions of
maximum safe gaps capable of preventing transmission of
a flame through enclosures in the case of flame-proof motors
shown in Table 1.
Secondly, the ignition temperature of the flammable mix-
ture should be higher than the highest surface temperature
likely t o be attained in service. Table 2 shows examples of
gas ignition temperatures, and their grouping into the six
internationally recognised temperature classes. (BS 5345
Part 1 covers these groupings in detail).
Table 1 Enclosure suitable for a particular
flammable gas or vapour
G~ OUP of enclosure Gas or vapour
I Methdne (fi redamp)
1IA Ammoni a Amy1 acetate
Industrial methane Chloroethylene
Slast furnace gas Methanol
Carbon monoxi de Ethanol
Propane ;so-Butanol
Butane n-Butanol
Pentane Amy1 alcohol
Hexane Et hyl ni t ri t e
Heptane
;so-Octane
Decane
Benzene
Xylene
Cyclohexane
Acetone
Et hyl met hyl ketone
Methyl acetate
Et hyl acetate
n-Propyl acetate
n- Bui yl acetate
JIB Buta-1,3-diene
Ethylene
Di ethyl ether
Ethylene oxi de
Town gas
Hc Hydrogen
Table 2 Temperature classes: Gas ignition
T 1
450 ' C
Acetic Aci d 485
Acetone 535
Ammoni a 630
Benzene 560
Carbon monoxi de 605
Ethane 515
Ethyl acetate 460
Ethyl chloride 510
Hydrogen 560
Methane 595
Methyl acetate 475
Methyl alcohol
(Methanol) 455
Met hyl ethyl ketone 460
Naphthalene 528
Propane 4 70
n-PropyI acetate 455
Toluene 535
Town gas 647
Water gas 570
Xylene 464
T4
135 O C
Acetaldehyde 140
Et hyl ether 170
T2
300 O C
Acetylene
Amy1 acetate
;so-Amylacetate
Amy1 alcohol
n-Butane
n- But yl acetate
n- But yl alcohol
(n-Butanol )
i so-Butyl alcohol
(/so-Butanol)
Et hyl alcohol
(Ethanol1
n-Propyl alconol
(N-Propanol ) 405
Ethylene 425 1
Crude oi l
Cyclohexane
Heptane
n-Hexane
Hexane
(Commercial 1
Petrol
Phenyl glycol
Acknowledgement: Alstom Electrical Machines (Pty) Ltd
Electric Motor Installation
Connection
The winding of a 3-phase motor consists of three winding
phases which are totally identical t o each other. As with a
3-phase power supply system, there are two possibilities
for interconnecting these winding phases and connecting
them t o t he power supply system. A distinction is drawn
between delta connection (connection symbol A ) and star
connection (connection symbol Y).
Delta connection
With a delta connection, each winding phase lies between
two outer conductors. The phase voltage is therefore iden-
tical to t he outer conductor voltage; by contrast t he outer
conductor current is \/3 times that of t he phase current.
Star connection
With a star connection, t he ends of t he three winding
phases are interconnected at t he star or neutral point. The
outer conductor voltage is f i t i r nes that of t he phase
voltage; by contrast the outer conductor current is identical
to that of the phase current.
L3 i 2 Ll L2 L3
DELTA CONNECTION
MOTOR WINDING TERMINAL PLATE
STAR CONNECTION
Examples of mounting arrangements
Mounting arrangements for electrical machines are stan-
dardised in accordance with SABS 948 Pt . 1. A specific and t he letter " V a vertical motor layout. The following
symbol comprising a letter and a number, designates each summary contains a selection of t he versions most fre-
mounting arrangement. The letter "B' denotes a horizontal quently encountered with industrial motors.
Rating plate p33-q
In accordance with SABS 948 Pt.1 the connection symbol Motor is to be connected in star to a 525 V power supply
must be specified on the motor rating plate. for example. system.
L - 1 pmz@iq
Motor is to be connected in delta to a 380 V power supply Motor can be connected in delta to a 220 V power supply
system system or in star to a 380 V power suppl y~yst em.
Degree of protection
Degrees of protection of persons against contact with live
or moving parts inside the enclosure and protection of
machines against ingress of solid foreign bodies as follows:
First
Characteristic
numeral Short designation Definition
0 Non-protected No special protection of persons against accidental or inadvertent contact with live
machine or moving parts.
No protection of machine against ingress of solid foreign bodies.
1 Machine protected Protection against accidental or inadvertent contact with live or moving parts inside
against solid bodies the enclosure by a large surface of the human body; for example, a hand, but no
greater than 50 mm protection against deliberate access t o such parts.
Protection against ingress of large solid foreign bodies (diameter greater than
50 mm)
2 Machine protected Protection against contact by finger with live or moving parts inside the enclosure.
against solid bodies Protection against ingress of small solid foreign bodies (diameter greater than
greater than 12 mm 12 mm),
4 Machine protected Protection against contact with live or moving parts inside the enclosure by tools,
against solid bodies wires, or such objects of thickness greater t h m 1 mm.
greater than 1 mm Protection against ingress of small solid foreign bodies (diameter greater than
1 mmj excluding the ventilation openings (intake and discharge of external fans)
and t he drain hole of enclosed machine which may have degree 2 protection.
5 Machine protected Complete protection against contact with live or moving parts inside the enclosure.
against dust.
Protection against harmful desposits of dust. The ingress of dust is not totally
prevented, but dust cannot enter in an amount sufficient to interfere with
satisfactory operations of the machine.
Degrees of protection of machines aginst harmful Ingress of
water as follo\vs.
Second
characteristic
numeral Short designation Definition
0 Non-protected No special protection
machine
1 Machine protected Dripping water (vertically falling drops) shall have no harmful effects
against dripping water
2 Machine protected Drops of water falling at any angle up t o 1Sofrom the vertical shall have no
against drops of water harmful effect.
falling up to 15' from
the vertical
3 Machine protected Water falling as a spray at an angle equal t o or smaller than 6o0with
against spraying water respect t o the vertical shall have no harmful effect.
4 Machine protected Water splashed against the machine from any direction shall have no
against sul ashi n~ water harmful effect.
. .
5 Machine protected Water projected by a nozzle against the machine from any direction
against water jets shall have no h?.rmful effect.
Electric Motor Performance
Average efficiencies % Average power factors
kW Load 1 0,75 0 2
Load 1
Full load current (A) of 3 phase electric motors
(average efficiencies)
Approximate full load speeds of
alternating current motors
kW Voltage 380 4 15 5 25
Cage motor starting torque and current
Starting method Starting torque % Starting current %
Full load torque Full load current
Direct 100 - 200 350 - 700
Star Delta 33 - 66 120 - 230
Auto transformer 25 - 85 90 -- 300
kN Number of poles RPM
Supply frequency HZ 50 60
Noise Levels in Electric Motors
No-load sound pressure and sound power
levels for TEFC 3 phase, 5OHz Motors.
Synchronous Speed: 3000 rlmin.
Sound Pressu~e Reference is 2 x 1 0-5N, n12
Sound Power Reference i s 10-I 2wat t s
Sound Pressure and Power Levels rneasured
at 3 metre reference radius.
80 1 , I
90s 1,5 I
D90 L 48,7 45,8 1 38,5
DlOOL 1 ::; 1 ;; 1 :if2 1 ?: , 7 1 ;;$ 1 ;iz4 1 %:: 1 ;::: 1 70,4 66,3 62,2
Frame
Motor
1 O ~ ~ ~ ~ t 1 Sound Power
Si z e
--
I
dB ( A )
80 T G 5
D% 1 !!i 1 ii 1
1 33,9 1 35,5 1 34,3 1 36,l 1 36,l 1 40,3 1 36,2 1 25,s
- -
DlOOL 35,4 36,3 39-4 39,2 3 9 , 2 1 38,5 38,3 23,6
DlOOL 3 ,o 35,4 36,3 39,4 39,2 3 9 , 2 1 38,9 33,3 23,6
Mean Sound
Pressure
( dB)
D315S 132 1 106 1 :3,5 1 67 1 65
D315M 150 106,s 69,s 66,5
D315MX 200
D315MXB
-
Noise pressure spectrbm read~ngs { dB) a t m~cl Ibana frequencies ( Hz ' of
Synchronous Speed: 1500 r/min.
76,s
76
84
84
1000 6 3 250 125
8 3
8 5
500
82
82,5
76,5
77
68
74,s
Sound Pressure Reference is 2 x 1 o - ~ N / ~ *
Sound Power Reference is 10-I 2watts
Sound Pressure and Power Levels measured
at 3 metre reference radius.
Synchronous Speed: 1000 r/min.
90s 0,75
DgOL 1 i:; 1 6 3
1 : : , 6
1 Z3:; 1 30,9 1 T?:: 1 43,8 1 34,2 1 30,2 1 315 1 15,3
DlOOL 6 7 38,3 45,6 36,4 45,9 29,9 17,5
Synchronous Speed: 750 r/min,
DlOOL 0,75 69 50,7 28,s 36,s
DlOOL 1 ,I 69 50,7 28,3 36,s
Dl 12M 1,s
Mean Sound
Pressure
l d8)
Frame
Size
Noise pressure spectrum readi ~gs (dB) at mid band frequenc~es ( Hz) of
(kW1
Motor
Sound Power
(dB)
4000 8000 1000 63 2000 250 125 500
Electric Motor Faults and Rectification
ELECTRICAL FAULTS
The following notes are for guidance and apply generally
to all types of electric motors.
Motor fails t o start
Check that supply is reaching the noto or. Check all fuses.
Check wiring with circuit diagram. Locate any open-
circuit in starter. cabling or terminals. Check overload trips.
l l sconnect rnotor from load and try starting it unloaded.
Verify that the load has not become seized or stalled and
that excessive friction is not present. With pulley drives
the belts may be t oo tight.
Spin the rotor by hand to ensure freedom of rotation.
If the machine has sliprings ascertain the brushes are making
good contact with their sliprings.
Check that the mot or windings are not burnt out .
Motor starts but does not rdn up t o speed on load:
If motor starts then trips. check that overload trips are set
correctly - slightly above full load current. If starter has
oil-fdled dash-pots. set that these are filled with the correct
grade and quantity of oil, and correctly set. If the motor
has a reversed phase. this should trip the starter overloads.
In this event it would be noisy.
Check voltage supply at the motor terminals. The motors
are designed to cater for a 5% drop or surge of voltage, any
variations greater than this will affect performance.
Check that the voltage stamped on the ratingplate is correct
for the supply voltage.
Motor may be overloaded due t o under-design of the load
requirements. Use a larger motor.
The moment of inertia of the load may be tov h g h . Reduce
i t , or refer the problem t o the manufacturer.
General overheating:
When a motor fails t o run up t o full speed, due t o a high
inertia load, it will overheat. This overheating will cause the
motor to burn out if no overheat protection is employed or
is inadequate.
Due t o the high current surging through the windings during
the run-up or accelerating period. this time must be limited.
Another cause of overheating is that the ambient tempera-
ture is excessive. The motors are designed for satisfactory
operation in an ambient temperature not exceeding 40' C.
Reduce by better ventilation or use a motor designed for
operation in the higher temperature, e.g. having class 'F'
insulation.
Motor may be wrongly connected. Check connections in
terminal box with wiring diagram for the machine.
Three phase rnotor may be running single phase due t o bad
starter contacts. blown fuse or fault in wiring cabling or
connections. in which case motor would be noisier and speed
slower. or if stationary. will fail t o start.
If blown fuse determine cause S L K ~ as earth fault. short
circuit or inadequately rated fuse. check all supply lines
are alive and carry balanced currents.
Short-circuit may exist in windings. Consult repairers. or
if still under guarantee. refer t o manufacturer.
Excessive electrical hum:
Some magnetic noise is emitted by all induction motors.
If hum is excessive, motor niay be overloaded - check line
current against full load current which is stamped on the
motor rating plate.
One phase of the winding may be reversed. With this fault
the motor will run at reduced speed when only slightly
loaded, will refuse t o take load and trip the overloads in the
starter. Check winding connections at terminal box. On a
single phase motor starting winding may not be disconnected
from the supply. Check the centrifugal switch mechanism,
which should detatch the starting winding from the supply
at approximately 80% of its full load speed.
The capacitor of a capacitor-start mot w may be burnt out .
In this condition, the motor will fail t o reach full load
speed if the load should be t oo high. Check capacitor and
renew.
MECHANICAL FAULTS
Mechanical noise:
This may be due t o foreign matter in the air-gap. Dismantle
the machine and clean. The bearings may be damaged or
worn excessively. Examine, clean and if necessary replace
with new bearing.
The drive may be out of alignment, if the machine is direct
covpled. Check alignment. Although a flexible coupling
allows greater tolerances than a solid coupling, it must
nevertheless also be carefully aligned,
Vibration:
Poor and uneven foundations or misalignments of machine
with drive may cause vibration. If possible strengthen
foundation and at the same time realign set.
Rotor may be unbalanced after repair. Re-balance. Note
that the driven load may be unbalanced and not the motor.
Check this by running separately and re-balancs as ne c e s s q.
DOS AND DON TS:
Dos :
Maintain correct brush pressure.
When changing brushes see correct grade of brush is
fitted.
See brushes are free in boxes.
Maintain sliprings in clean condition. 3.
Keep the machine free from oil and other extraneous
4.
matter.
See that bearings are charged with the correct grade of
5.
grease. 6.
Ensure that the correct motor is selected for power
and for site condition. 7.
Do not use metal polish on sliprings.
Do not change the grade of brush without first consult-
ing the manufacturer.
Do not allow brush dust t o accumulate on the windings.
Do not allow dust and dirt to correct on the windings,
brushgear, etc.
Do not leave tools or other equipment on the motors -
they may restrict the flow of cooling air.
Do not allow an accumulation of dust on the frame -
Don'ts:
this can insulate the motor frame from the cooling air
1. Do not mix greases of varying grades. and burn-outs will occur. This type of fault is particu-
2 . Do not overgrease - too muchgrease can be more harm- larly vulnerable in crusher plants, cement plants,
ful than too little. fertiliser plants, etc.
TYPICAL SPEEDITORQUE CURVES
Percent FLT Percent FLT
5001
Fig. 1 Typical Spced/Torque Curve
Fig. 2 Typical Speed/Torque curves of Fig. 3 Typical Speed/Current curve of
3-Phase Cage capacitor-start induction-run motors 3-Phase cage induction motors
FULL LOAD TORQUE
FULL LOAD CURRENT
---
(Using average efficiencies
3 000 rl m in 1 500 rl mi n 1 000 rl mi n 750 rl mi n and power factors)
15,O 48, 8 97,6 148 197 3 1 27,2 2 2
18,5 61,O 122 183 244 3 8 33 28
22 73,2 146 220 293 4 6 40 3 3
3 0 96, 3 193 290 390 6 1 54 44
37 121 24 1 363 484 7 6 5 7 5 5
45 145 290 437
580 9 0 79 65
55 180 362 542
724 110 9 7 8 0
75 240 483 723 960 140 123 10:3
9 0 301 602 903 1201 168 148 122
no 3 59 72 I 1 082 I 443 210 184 151
132 420 839 1 262 1 684 242 213 175
150 480 960 1 443 1 924 280 246 203
185 60 1 1197 1 854
2 406 3 54 31 1 2 56
220 720 1439 2 224 2 886 420 369 376
Acknowledgement: Alstom Electrical Machines (Pty) Ltd
Fluid Drive Couplings
Fluid couplings provide the engineer with an efficient,
simple and reliable means of transmitting power t o driven
machinery hydrodynamically with no mechanical connec-
tion, and with the following advantages -
1. Light start-up for the motor and corresponding cost
saving reduction of current.
2. Smooth controlled acceleration.
3. Overload protection.
4. Stepless speed regulation.
5. Non-wear clutching.
6. Smaller motor size.
7 . Torsional isolation and rugged reliability.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Inside every fluid coupling are two basic elements, the
impeller and the runner, and power is transmitted by oil
being pumped from the impeller t o the runner.
This can best be illustrated if one considers two electric
fans facing one another as shown in Figure 1. If one fan is
switched on the other fan will start to rotate and will in
fact become a form of generator.
To achieve the maximum force from the first fan the fans
should be set in a tube (Figure 2), so that all the draught
generated by the first fan is directed onto the second fan. It
will be found that after a short period of time the second
will be running in excess of 90% of the first fan.
To complete the illustration the whole set-up should be
encased in an airtight housing (Figure 3), so that the same
air will keep recycling, which is exactly what happens to
the oil inside a fluid coupling.
In the case of the fluid coupling the impeller can be con-
sidered a centrifugal pump and the runner a turbine. These
are placed face to face within a casing which is partially
filled with a suitable fluid. When the impeller is rotated by
the prime mover the fluid is forced out radially by centri-
fugal force and guided axially across to the runner. causing
it to rotate, and as the torque is absorbed by the runner the
fluid returns to the axis of the casing and back to the
impeller (see Figure 4).
PERFORMANCE
Fluid couplings are designed to minimise frictional losses;
the runner will reach very nearly the same speed as the
impeller, and efficiencies of up to 98% can be achieved in
practical applications. The difference in speed between
impeller and runner is known as 'slip' and for most applica-
lions is between 2% and 4% of impeller speed. The torque
output from a fluid coupling is always approximately equal
to the input torque, even at 100% slip, for example when
the output shaft is held. There are certain fundamental laws
which apply t o all fluid couplings, and are worth rembering
Fig. 1. V V
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3,
Fig. 4
as follows -
Power transmitted varies as the cube of the input speed.
Torque output varies as the square of the input speed.
Torque input = torque output under working conditions.
power input = power output x input speed
output speed
For variable filling couplings there is a small torque loss and
additional power loss (nominally 2%).
TYPES OF FLUID COUPLING
DELAYED FILL FLUID COUPLINGS
In practice, there are two basic types of fluid coupling :
'Constant Filling', where the oil filling quantity cannot be
varied after the initial fill; and 'Variable Filling' (also known
as 'Variable Speed') where the quantity of oil in the working
circuit can be varied whilst running to give control over the
amount of 'slip' between impeller and runner, and so give
speed regulation of up t o 5 : 1 for centrifugal loads, or 3: 1
for constant torque applications. Variable filling fluid
couplings also provide a means of declutching a machine
from its drive, and are used extensively in conveyor drives
t o control accurately the torque applied during acceleration
to give easy load balancing using external automatic controls.
CONSTANT FILLING FLUID COUPLINGS (TRACTION)
This type of coupling always has a constant volume of oil
in the working elements. They are suitable for use with
machines subject to heavy loads on starting, and those
with high rotational inertia. The drive motors are not tied
to the load and are free to run up t o near top speed where
they can develop twice full-load torque for rapid accelera-
tion of the load, at the same time as reducing current con-
sumption.
VARIABLE FILLING FLUID COUPLINGS (SCOOP)
By varying the amount of fluid circulating between the
impeller and runner, the degree of slip can be varied con-
siderably. Variable filling fluid couplings are ideally suited
for : control of pumps, blowers, compressors, fans etc.,
off-load starts, clutching duties, and also controlled accele-
ration of belt conveyors, rod and ball mills, mixers etc.
Two types of variable filling fluid couplings are available -
scoop control and scoop trimming.
These couplings were developed for applications that require
a softer start than the traction coupling can provide, but
that do not warrant the expense of the variable speed fluid
coupling. On starting, only a small quantity of oil is in
the working circuit. The remainder is held in a separate
reservoir in the coupling; as the speed increases this reserve
of oil is drawn into the main working circuit through pre-
determined orifices thus providing a more gradual accelera-
tion.
100
POWER SAVING B Y
900 SPEED CONTROL OF
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
800
WI TH VALVE
I \- 70
1 I I I I I I 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Elmin
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FLOW PERCENT
Fig. 5.
The variable speed fluid coupling consists of the standard
traction coupling encased into a reservoir drum. To vary the
output speed of a fluid coupling it is necessary to vary the
TYPICAL PERFORMANCE DETAILS
FLUID DRIVE COUPLINGS
Figure 5 shows typical performance taken from an actual
installation (a crude reduced pump - bottoms pump).
This shows the effect of eliminating valve losses by using a
fluid couuline.
L w
amount of fluid in the working circuit. In operation, oil
in the working circuit escapes centrifugally through small
leak-off nozzles in the drum of the traction assembly, and
forms a ring inside the rotating reservoir casing. The tip of
the hollow scoop tube picks up oil from this rotating ring
and returns it t o the working circuit via an external cooler,
if needed. The volume of oil retained in the working circuit
depends on the radial position of the tip of the scoop tube.
An external control lever on the scoop housing bracket
enables the position of the scoop tube t o be adjusted while
the unit is running, thus varying the output speed, or the
torque transmitted. Acknowledgement: Stratford Engineering (Pt y) Ltd
Shaft Couplings
FLEXI BLE METALLI C MEMBRANE
COUPLI NGS TO AP I 67 1
Me mb r a n e t y p e s
Two basic membrane types, discs and rings, are used in
flexible metallic membrane couplings. In t he disc t ype,
torque is transmitted from t he inner diameter t o t he out er
diameter by shear loading of t he memb~ane, and limited
flexibility can be obtained by using very thin sheet. This
flexibility can be considerably increased by forming spokes
in t he membrane as shown in Figure 1, t hus allowing a
greater degree of misalignment within any given coupling
diameter.
The ring type membrane transmits torque by t he tensile
loading of alternate sections or links. The remaining links,
which are in compression, provide t he radial stiffness and
bidirectional torque carrying capacity necessary in any suc-
cessful coupling. A careful arrangement of t he driving bolts,
together with waisting of t he links, as shown in Figure 2 ,
will enable t he opt i mum power and misalignment capacity
t o be achieved within a given coupling diameter.
By clamping packs of either type of membrane together, it
is possible t o combine an adequate level of torque trans-
mission with a reasonable angular and axial misalignment
capability. Two such membrane assemblies, separated by a
spacer and fastened t o t he machinery shafts, provide the
basis for a flexible coupling which, dependent upon spacer
length, will accommodate any normal misalignment likely
t o be encountered in service.
Advant ages
Whilst all metal membrane couplings offer t he basic ad-
vantage of no lubrication, adjustment or any ot her form of
maintenance, t he spoke shape also offers its own special
safety feature. Should, for whatever reason, a failure of the
membrane occur, t hen t he inner and out er parts of t he
membrane assembly can rotate independently, and the
pump will be disconnected from t he driver. A loss of drive
is usually detected very rapidly, a no-flow signal in a pump
circuit being a typical example, and t he driver can be shut
down t o prevent damage t o seals, bearings and shafts, etc.
Recently, tangential link membranes have been developed
into ranges of couplings providing t he same ease of shaft t o
shaft connection. Their major advantage lies in their reduced
diameter, lower mass and greater flexibility t han the
equivalent spoke form coupling. The smaller diameter per-
mits higher operating speeds which make them particularly
suitable for high speed pump drives. Conversely t o that of a
spoke form membrane coupling, a failure of t he ring form
membranes will result in torque transmission being con-
tinued via t he drive bolts. Under this condition, considerable
dynamic loading will be applied t o t he pump and t he
coupling itself and, therefore, early detection of t he failure
is needed. Today, on high speed pump drives, vibration is
normally monitored and failure will be detected before t he
vibfation has had time t o cause serious damage. It is perhaps
worth noting here t hat a continuation of drive under failure
conditions can be an advantage, for example, when t he
driving unit is a turbine and runaway must be prevented.
Fig. 1. Spoked form
Fig. 2. Ring form
Membrane couplings can be run at temperatures between
0 t o 30O0C. As t he coupling has a low diametrical stiffness
characteristic, loads on bearings are greatly reduced.
This type of coupling is normally designed t o permit
dismantling without disturbing other drive components.
If balancing is required for high speeds, this can be achieved
t o G2,50 or even finer balancing t o G1.25.
Fig. 3. Membrane coupling with reverse hubs.
Acknowledgement: Flexibox (Pty) Ltd.
182
Wedge and V-belt Drive Data
BEARING LOAD CALCULATIONS CALCULATING WEDGE AND VEE BELT DRIVE
To find actual bearing loads it is necessary t o know t he
DYNAMIC TENSIONS
mass load of machine component s and values of all ot her A simple approach based on the setting force met hod.
forces contributing t o t he load. Sometimes i t becomes
Us = static tension . Us = 16 x 2 x F x B = N
desirable t o know t he bearing load imposed by the belt 2
Uc = centrifugal tension - Uc = in x v x 2 x B = N
drive alone. This can be done if you know bearing spacing
with respect t o t he pulley centre and shaft load and apply it
Ud = dynamic tension - Ud = L's - Uc = N
t o the following formulae: 16 = a constant
2 =t wo strands per bel t , i.e. t he tight and slack sides
PULLEY
Bearing Bearing Shall
Load Load Load
A 8 (ud)
Fig. 1
Overhung Pulley
Shaft Load x (L + Lz )
Load at B ( N) = - - - - - 1 - -
Ll
Shaft Load x La
Load at A (N) = - -
L 1
Where Ll and L-, = spacing, metres
Ud Shaft Load = newt ons
Bearing Shaft Bearing
Load Load Load
c (W 0
Fig. 2.
Pulley Between Bearings
Shaft Load x L4
Load at C (,N) =
(1-3 + 1-41
Where Lg and L4 = spacing, metres
F = 80% of t he higher setting force figure in newtons, Ti.
(Refer t o Table 1) e.g. an SPZ drive utilising a 125 mm
p c d small pulley has a setting force range of 15 -20 N.
For t he purpose of these calculations. 20 x 0.8 = 16 N
would be used.
B =Number of belts on t he drive.
M = Masslunit length = kg/m (Refer t o Table 2).
D x r/niin
v = Belt Speed = m/'s =
19100
Table 1. Tensionini: Forces
I orce rcquircd t o detlcct bell
Belt 16 mm pcr met re of spiin
Section
Small Pullcy Ne\i t on ( N) Kilogram
Diameter (mm) force (kgf)
25N (DFLTA) 355 & above 150 t o 200 15. 3 to 20,4
Table 2. Mass per uni t length of \vedgu belts
Belt section
ION (SPZ) 0, 089
13N (SPA) 0,147
16N (SPB) 0, 256
22N (SPC) 0,43 1
25N (DI LTA) 0, 593
DRIVE DESIGN - DO'S AND DON'TS
1. When assessing the power requirements of the drive,
always apply the appropriate service factor for the com-
bination of prime mover and driven machine. Consideration
must be given not only t o the running characteristics of the
machines, i.e. smooth, heavy shock, pulsating, but also t o
any abnormal loads applied during starting by high torque
motors or the inertia of the driven machine. This last point
is particularly important with speed increasing drives.
2 . Pulley diameters (Figure 1) must be neither very small
nor very large in relation t o the other components in the
drive. Miminun1 diameter pulleys cause an unnecessary
flexing of the belts and may lead t o premature bearing
failure on the machines. Large pulleys have obvious space
and cost disadvantages.
3. For any combination of pulley diameters a length of
belt should be chosen t o maintain an adequate arc of con-
tact on the small pulley (Figure 2).
Conversely, excessively long belts require more take-up
adjustment and can cause problems with the catenary sag
of the slack side of the drive. Consideration of the drive
site must be made at this stage t o ensure adequate clearance
for belt tensioning procedures which form part of the
installation and maintenance routines.
4. On fixed centre drives (Figure 3 1, it is normal practice t o
tension the belts by jockey pulleys. These additional pulleys
should not be smaller than t he drive pulleys and should not
be positioned close t o the small active pulley, because this
could significantly reduce the arc of contact of the belt.
It is not recommended practice t o apply the jockey pulley
t o the outside of t he belt because the reverse flexing can be
injurious t o t he belts, particularly the deep sectioned
versions.
5. Belts should not be subjected t o extremes of heat and
cold. Standard belts can tolerate a considerable range of
temperatures between 18' C and 8 2 C without damage.
Drives can be designed outside this range but special belts
may be necessary. Certain belts have a flame resisting ability
and will self-extinguish in a short time i n the event of a
fire. These belts should always be used in potentially
explosive atmospheres.
6. The baseplate or mounting for the drive should be rigid
t o prevent variations in belt tension under load. Rubber
mountings must not be used with either driven or driver
machine. The baseplate should be designed t o have ample
adjustment for belt tensioning and enable the drive align-
ment t o be easily maintained.
7 . Drives should not be completely enclosed by guards.
Open mesh guards are common; the mesh size should be
sufficient t o allow normal air circulation but prevent any
accidental contact with the drive.
DON'T
Fig. 1
DON'T
Fig. 2
DON'T
Fig. 3
DON' T
Fig. 4
DON' T
Fig. 5
BELT REPLACEMENT
With proper care belt drives will give many thousands of
hours of efficient and trouble-free performance, but when
it is time to replace, the hints given here should prove useful.
On a multi-belt drive, failure of an individual belt does not
indicate imminent failure of the drive, although steps
should be taken to replace the complete set of belts
as soon as possible.
Belts should not be replaced individually due to the impor-
tance of correct matching and tensioning.
Having obtained a correctly matched set of belts, check the
pulleys for obvious signs of wear before fitting them. Left
unattended, worn pulleys will damage the belts very quickly
indeed. If a pulley is badly scored or worn on the groove
flanks it should be replaced as it will continue to cause
unnecessary trouble.
When drives are stationary for long periods, the operating
tension should be relaxed for the duration of the stoppage
and re-tensioned prior to use.
BELT STORAGE
When belts are stored for long periods they should not be
exposed t o dampness or direct sunlight. They should not be
left on the floor in close coils but hung up on a former
with a suitable radius to avoidany possibility of kinking or
other distortion.
Finally, when fitting a new drive, it is important that the
manufacturers procedures be followed.
Acknowledgement: Fenner
Components
Erosion/Corrosion problems 187 - 193
Factors controlling selectlon of
construction materials 193, 194
Effect of pH values on pump
selectlon
Common types of corrosion 195, 196
Valves material in common use 197
Materials selection tables 198 - 200
For further information refer to our reference
books titled:
Wear Control
Corrosion Control
Corrosion Erosion Problems
The article is concerned with t he nature of erosion corrosion
at high flow velocities on t he basis of certain theoretical
considerations. I t shows that t he behaviour of metallic
materials i n flowing media depends> as well as on t he corro-
sion resistance of t he base metal, mainly on the mechanical
and physical properties of t he protective layers formed
(porosity, adhesion, thickness).
High-speed pumps, such as boiler feed pumps, chemicals
pumps and seawater pumps are particularly vulnerable t o
erosion corrosion. Only a few systematic investigations have
been conducted on t he effect of flow velocity on the corro-
sion rate, and information is almost totally lacking on velo-
cities over 40 m/ s i.e. t he speeds most common in modem
high-output pumps. A new t ype of test setup is described
t hat allows investigation of material behaviour under service
conditions.
The specific delivery rates of hydraulic machines have been
raised substantially in the past few decades. Major contribut-
ing factors in this development have been improved knowl-
edge of hydraulic conditions, development of materials kith
better corrosion resistance and superior mechanical strength,
and higher drive power ratings.
At the same time-and as a result of this d1:velop-
ment-there has been an increase in the relative velocity be-
tween the medium being pumped and the metal surface. In
very high-speed pumps, such as feed pumps, it has now al-
most reached the 100-m/s mark.
This represents a fundamental change to the conditions on
the phase interface between the metal surface and the rledium
covering it, Although one can assume that the flow l~elocity
has no significant effect on the mechanism of dissolution of
the metal itself, various parameters affecting the corrosion
process are altered by the liquid velocity. This can have an ef-
fect on the progress of the overall corrosion reaction. Let us
take a look at two phenomena to illustrate this statement:
- The corrosion resistance of most commercial metals and
alloys is attributable to the formation of passive protective
films on the surface of the metal. Liquid turbulences,
liquids striking the surface at high velocity, solids or im-
ploding cavitation bubbles can destroy these protective
films and activate the metal surface, i.e. make it susceptible
to corrosion.
The corrosion rate can be controlled by means of th12 inflow
rate of the aggressive substances contained in the medium
being pumped. In the extreme case of a completely station-
ary medium, for instance, the corrosion may cease com-
pletely because of the impoverishment of these sutxtances
directly on the metal surface. As the flow velocity is stepped
up, the number of corrosive ions or particles carrie~d to the
metal surface per unit time increases, so that there is in-
creasing probability of interaction with the atoms of the
metallic lattice (Fi g. 1) .
As these remarks indicate, the interactions between rapidly
flowing media and the metal surface are complex. Further-
more, experience has shown that the double effect of ,a corro-
sive medium flowing at high velocities will cause a great deal
more damage to the material than either corrosive or erosive
action alone.
Distance from the surface Distance from t he surface
Fig. 1. Effect oc flow in the distribution of an aggressive substance
on a stationary metal surface,
Definition of terms
Corrosion is understood to mean an un~ntended destruction
of a metallic material starting from the surface. In the case of
the much more common electrochemical corrosion, the metal
dissolution is primarily a function of the type of metal or alloy
involved. The less noble the metal, the greater its tendency to
go into solution, and thus the greater the corrosion hazard,
Another factor influencing the dissolution rate is the nature
of the medium (pH value, oxygen content. salt content, tem-
perature).
The metals habe a "solution pressure", i.e., they tend to dis-
solve into the aqueous solutions through the mechanism of
positively charged ions going over into the solution. To main-
tain the electrical neutrality of the metal~electrolyte system, a
corresponding amount of an oxidizing agent (oxygen or pro-
tons) has to be reduced:
Anodic ~nelal dissolution
Cathodic reaction
E I W A ~ ~ ~ I (~orrosi ot~ is understood t o mean a material destruc-
tion h! flowing liquids, where the loss of niaterial i ~~cr eases
with ri\ing niediun~ flow ~el oci t ) at unchanged chemical
aggressi\enc~s. I f the medium also happens t o coritai~l solids.
ancl if these C ~ L I S C :I further increase in the metal loss rate% one
jpeak5 of ohmi ot ~ corrosion and not erosion corro:,ion. In
the case of abraslcm corrosion, the protective layers formed
on the metal are continually destroyed mechanically by the
solid particle\ impinging on the surface; in extreme cases a
grinding eKec1 can eben contribute t o the mechanical ~xosi on
of the metal surface.
Locally occurring erosion or abrasion corrosion sorcetimes
causes severe roughening or hollowing out of the surface.
This disturbs the hydraulic profile on the metal s ur f xe, so
that local cavitation damage may result. If this happens,
honever, ~t i5 no longer possible to distinguish sharply be-
tv,een the erosion-abrasion damage and that caused by cavi-
tation,
In the design of pumps, there is just no getting around the use
of different metals together. This means that various basic
principles can be ignored at the peril of galvanic corrosion
damage.
If two metals are joined t o be connected electrically togeth-
er in an electrolyte, and if the twJo metals are differ en^., you
h a ~ e a galvanic element. In this case the less noble metal will
di sol ve more rapidly than if it were exposed t o the same
medium alone (1.e. \+ ithout a directly conducting connection).
As this happens, the nobler of the pa n may be partiallj, pro-
tected cathodically.
The extent of this galvanic corrosion depends partly on the
potential d~fference between the two metals, the elec~rical
conductikity of the niedium, the surfiice-area ratio between
the nobler and the baser metal. and the current-densit!, po-
tential cuwes of both. The electrochemical series provides in-
forni a~i on on v,hich of the metals will become the dissol~ition
electrode.
The position of the metals in the electrochemical series I S
not absolute. Among other things. it depends on the pur i ~y of
the metals. on thc elcctrolyte~ and not least on the ability of
var l ou~ metals to de\elop a thin, protective passive layer
covering their surface\. A case in point is the category of pas-
si\ahle stainless steels. When the) are passivated, thin oxide
films barely \isible t o the naked eye form on the surface and
produce a markedly ennobling effect: oyygen must be prejent
in sufficient quantity for the passi\ation, By far the most im-
portant alloying element fostering passi\~ation is chromium:
in the case of FeCr alloys, about I3O4 chromium is necesmr)
for htat~le passivation. These are the reasons behind the in-
tread use of chr on~i um steels in pump manufacturing
todab.
I t is iniportant to know that the position of a metal in the
electrochemical s er i e~ c m change with changing flow vel xi -
ty, This change i n potential (nhi ch is kery abrupt, by the way)
is closely related t o the stab~lity of the protective films forrned
011 the metal, For instance, an austenitic chrome-nickel steel
shifting from the pas s i ~e t o the actibe state suffers a potential
drop of about 250 mi1. In a mixed-metal design. this (can
mean that the steel is transformed from a cathode into an
anode.
Erosion corrosion
As a basis for understanding the influence of flab-related cor-
rosion on metallic corrosion in general, let us recall the three
steps into which any corrosion reaction can be broken down:
A carriage of the aggressive substance (e.g. oxygen) t o the
surface of the metal
B reaction on the phase interface bemeen metal and medium
C removal of the reaction or corrosion products
Steps A and C are by their nature very dependent upon flow,
but the phase interface B is not. Because step C normally
takes place very rapidly, the overall reaction rate is deter-
mined essentially by steps A and B. Now if we plot the metal
loss per unit surface and time as the measure of corrosion
rate over the flow velocity, we obtaln a curve like that shown
in Figure 2. This curve is characterized by a nearly horizontal
middle section, in which the corrosion rate is largely indepen-
dent of flow; preceding and following this horizontal section
are ones with a rising curve characteristic.
- In the first section of the curve, step A determines the cor-
rosion rate, i.e. the more oxygen, say, reaching the surface
per unit time as a result of the stepped-up flow, the faster
the reaction.
In the second section the phase interface reaction becomes
determinant: no more oxygen can be consumed than the
reaction kinetics permit.
In the third section the destruction of the metal is acceler-
ated with rising flow velocity, In this section one speaks of
mechanical-chemical corrosion or erosion corrosion. Here
uncontrollable material destruction can occur that will
result in premature failure of the installation. Service con-
ditions within this range must be akoided at all costs. Thus
it is very important to know the transition point from the
second to the third section of the curve; its position
Fig, 2,Metal corrosion as a function of flow (broken lines refer to
passivable systems),
depends essentially on the stability of the protective films
under the given hydraulic and corrosion-chemical condi-
tions,
It would not be correct t o assume t hat erosion corrosion
represents a direct mechanical effect or a destruction of the
metal surface (such as tearing out of crystals); rather it is an
alteration of t he protective film structure (disintegration, per-
haps local shearing off of material). As this takes place. there
is increased transport of material intcl the pores at hydrody-
namically exposed locations. This in turn reinforces the iinode
reaction and enlarges the pores: it may also result in deterlo-
ration of the protective film because of acidification resulting
from hydrolysis of nietal ions, Finally. the anodic limitation
on transport into the pores is removed. and this is hat ini-
tiates the actual erosion corrosion.
The presentatic~n of erosion corrosion shown in Fi g~ue 3
attempts to port ral thebe relationships, It demonstrates that
erosion corrosion is :i complicated ~nt eract i on of electro-
chemical reactions and rheological effects. Everyday practice
confirlns that this model, kjhich include5 the nature and prop-
erties of the pr ot ect i ~e films in the explanation of the
phenomenon of erosicon corrosion, closely approximates real-
ity: different kinds of metals with thin but very stable pashive
protectibe films exhibit exceptional resistance at elevated fl on
velocities and are not at all suxept i bl e t o erosion corrosion
(e, g. Cr and CrNi stainless steels, zirconium and titanium).
But this only applies if suficient oxygen is supplied t o the
metal surface, thus asjuring the maintenance of a stable. fla14-
less passibe layer, By contrast, metals that form irregular or
poorly adhering protective films (such as copper or copper
alloys In water containing chlorides and oxygen) are prone t o
severe erosion corrosion eben at relatively low flow vel oci t i e~.
For the design of hydraulic machines, it is indispensable t o
know exactly at ~bliich RON' velocity a mechanical-chemical
erosion hill set in, It depends primarily on the nature of the
metal used and the type of medium ~nvol ved, For example,
erosion begins at much Iouer flow velocities in seawater than
in fresh water, But at present there is \irtually a complete lack
of investigation results for material behaviour above a flow
velocity of 15 m, s, nor is much known about the effect of con-
taminants in the medium being pumped.
Operating tests on sewice pumps are unquestionably an ef-
ficient way t o obtain representative information on the be-
haviour of metals in a particular medium. But tests of that kind
are generally very costly, and it is difficult t o monitor the test
installation continuously. Anot her drawback of operating
tests is t hat t he results are not transferable t o other service
conditions (temperature, velocity, composition of the
medium),
Laboratory investigations, on the other hand, are simpler
t o conduct and t o monitor. They make it possible t o establish
both general trends and differences between individual
metals. And if the test methods are carefully selected, the con-
ditions expected in actual practice can be simulated quite
closely; the effects of the various parameters can be clarified
individually or in combination,
In order t o simulate the conditions occurring in practice as
faithfully as possible in the laboratory, the SULZER Chemical
and Corrosion Laboratory worked together with the SULZER
Pump Division in developing a test setup that consists essen-
tially of a totally closed circuit with a rotating disc mounted
in a casing, There are practically no limitations on the choice
of medium to be investigated. Working temperatures up t o
1 50cC and pressures up t o I5 bar are possible. The peripheral
speed of the titanium disc can be raised as high as 108 m k
The metal specimens being investigated can either be at-
tached t o the outer rim of the rotating disc-thus rotating
with it-or fastened t o the stationary cover opposite the disc.
I Testing machine 6 Elkctrode
2 MIS( lubricator for cooling bearings 7 Gap adjuster
3 Air-pressure safety switch 8 Cooler
4 Atr cushion 9 Circulation pump
5 Ai r connection I 0 Gasifier tank
Fig, 4, Test circuit for corrosion tests at very high velocities.
Primary film f ormal ~on Accelerated material transport Secondary film f ormal ~on Localuation of anodes and cathodes
Fig. 3. Model representation of erosion corrosion
The annular gap betnee11 cover and disc can he adj us~ed he-
t\+een 0.3 and I5 n1m Electrical insulation is provided he-
tween bpecimen and specin~en holder. The arrangement of up
to eight specin~ens in the cover of the test setup has the a d~i i n-
tage of niaking electrochemical measurements possible at
high flow velocities without any difficulty. For example, mea-
surements of the equ~l i hri um potential and the pc)larization
resistance? plotting of current-density potential curves under
flow conditions. anii even tlir direct measurement of galvanic
corrosio~i currents hetween two unlike metals (by connecting
two specimens from outside conductively with each other via
suitable measuring instruments). Figure 4 shows t he test
setup, A detailed description of the equipment and measuring
technique\ is gikeri 111 [I],
The 5pec11iiens cx11 he evaluated in a number of hJays:
- If the specimens are fastened in the rotating disc, the rate of
corrosion 1s established by r emwi ng and weighing the
\pecimens at set interva15.
- If the specinlens Lire mounted stationary in the cover, it is
possihle to determine the corrosion rate either by weighing
or by measuring the polarimtion rehistance hhile the te.1 is
running. The latter measurement provides a momentary
reading of the corrosion rate, so that the effect of changing
\ariahles (i l on, teniperature, conipo5ition of the medium)
on the corrosion process can he determined instantaneous-
ly i+ithout interrupting the test.
It is possible t o determine the true flo* belocity at the
surface of the test \ample by the determination of current-
densit!, potential curbe> in a redox electrolyte (e.g,
Fe2- Fe:3. or 1 2 \ )st em),
The con~pletely clmsed electrol>te circuit is arranged in such a
h a y that both the temperature and the chemical composition
of the electrolyte can he accurately checked and controlled.
Because the el ect r ol ~t e does not come into contact with the
atmosphere. it is posi hl e t o study media with any desired
content of oxygen or other gases (e.g. CO?. H2S). All parts in
contact \\ith the medium are made of special corrosion-resis-
tan1 alloys, so that tests can he run with a broad range of
media (such as boiler feed water, seahat er or other salt solu-
tion$% and certain ac1d5).
E. YOI U~/ <J. Y 01 i ~ . ~ p ~ ~ r j ~ ~ ~ o n t ~ / r i w / / , ~
Only a fe* systeniatic investigat~ons on the behaviour of
metals at high flow velocities ( i , e. oker I5 m/s) have heen
reported on to d21tc.
In the case of boiler feed water pumping, for instance, no
data has been puhli\hed on the influence of pH value, oxygen
content or halt content. ehen though these variables are of
particular lnterebt in connection ~31t h "neutral oper at ~on"
In the m~nuf act ur e ofchemical pumps, there is ii myriad of
ditrerent media and combinations of media. But systenwtic
dat : ~ are lacking even for the pumping of basic chemicals, For
instance, no figures are avallahle on the tolerablevelocities for
puniping ~ul phur i c x i d as a function of acid teniperature an(j
concentration,
Sea\+ater 15 the only mcd~um for which somehhat more
det ~~i l ed information I S available, but ellen in [his case little is
knobvn about metal behabiour at the flow velocities being
sought these days. For example. Fimre 5 shows the effect
of t he flow velocity of pure seawater on the erosion suf-
fered by a few i mport ant classes of metals up t o about
45 m/ s. The annual met al loss measured at 45.7 m/ s, for
i n~t a nc e , was 3,05 mm f or a plain carbon steel, 1.012 mm
for nickel, 0,Ol mm f or Monel 400 and Monel K500, and
zero f or inconel 625, i.e. t hat high-nickel alloy performs
similarly t o t i t ani um,
E r mo n values ( pm' year l
Ni Cr Mo al l oy: Ti
I
Carbon steel
250-255-5 10- -5 10-7fd-760-X90* -<7600
CUAINI bronze - - < 2 5 5 ~
-255- -
CuNiFe 70/30/5 11- --<25
I 1 I l l I , I l l , I
0, 40, 6 I 2 4 6 8 1 0 20 40
Flow velociw (mfs)
I No erosion
I1 Possibly pitting
Fig. 5. Effect of flow velocity on corosion in clean seawater.
The pumping of seawater has gained sharply in importance
in recent years. making i t necessary to pay more attention to
the erosion corrosion in hydraulic machines transporting sea-
water. Because of the natural aggressiveness of the medium, it
goes without saying that special alloys are required9 e.g. alu-
minium bronze, austenitic nickel castings, austenitic Cr Ni Mo
steel castings, martensitic chromium stainless steel, nickel-
copper alloys like Monel, or titanium. These alloys have per-
formed well in clean seawater, and designers have a rough
idea of the tolerable flow velocities. Thi5 is suficient t o avoid
erosion daniage in new pumps conforming with existing
dejigns,
The trouble is that the seawater being pumped is not
always pure, In many cases i t contains impurities or varies in
other respects from the quality normally pumped. It is a
known f x t , for instance3 that brackish water is considerably
more corrosive than pure seahat er, Even though brackish
water, consisting of a mixture of salt water and fresh water.
contains less dissolved salts than seawater, i t is frequently
contaminated with traces of hydrogen sulphide, ammonia
and other decomposition matter t hat make it more aggres-
sive. In the marine pumping of crude oil (injection pumps),
too, seawater contaminated with hydrogen sulphide often
must be dealt with, in such cases the pH viilue can deviate
from neutral and dr op off t o as much as 5.0. In the pumping
of crude oil. i t is often necessary t o pump water out of salt de-
posits into the subterranean cavities containing the oil. Such
water frequently contains ten times as much salt as ordinary
seawater-roughly 30% by weight-and mere traces of oxy-
gen (because of its low-oxygen environment), as well as size-
able quantities of hydrogen sulphide.
Difficulties can also arise in deep-sea mining, where slurries
have to be pumped up from great depths, because the oxygen
content is subject t o ever-sharper variations the deeper you
go. Thus, the oxygen content at the surface (about 7 mg 0;'l)
drops off steadily to a depth of 800 m (roughly 3 rng/I), only
to rise again at greater depths until i t exceeds the content at
the surface. A changing oxygen supply, and above all an oxy-
gen deficit, can cause impairment or incomplete restoration
Sulphide cont ami nat i on in seawater affects behaviour at
high flow velocities, and can be influenced very effectively
by a careful selection of alloy composition. Though a
chrome stainless steel will corrode badly at a flow velocity
of 70 m/s, a CrNi steel wi t h a composition tailored precisely
t o t he specific requirements shows hardly any loss at all.
In t hi s particular medi um if woul d not be advisable t o use
an ordinary austenitic steel, because t here is a danger of
local activation and no assurance of proper repassivation, as
oxygen is lacking.
Because these tests involved quite specific media, the actual
material loss rate figures are of no particular significance. But
the comparative figures, which make it possible t o compare
individual materials with a standard metal, do appear t o be
relevant. This comparison is shown i n F i ~ r e 7, in which
t he material loss f or Monel K500 (often the most suitable
alloy f or seawater) i n t he stationary medi um has been
arbitrarily assigned a 'I' rating.
Despite the fact that the readings are only relative, it can be
seen t hat the loss rate for the martensitic chromium steel
jumped sharply when the flow rose from 40 t o 70 m"s, while
the behaviour of the high-alloy special CrNi steel showed
very little change.
Electrode potential (mVH)
.. J l ' ay^l 13% Cr steel i L Bz z
^?l(deoendent on heat treatment)
Monel
NI-Resist
^lf I 3 % Cr steel (possibly I pitting)
/
O(
0
^" u
0,1 1 10 100
Metal erosion (relative values)
P
- w
Fig. 6 . Influence of sulphide content on the current-densitylpotential
curve of cast chromium steel 185.1 in Na2S04/H2S04 soiu-
tion at pH 2, aerated; i critical current density.
of damaged passive layers in the case of passivable metals
(such as Cr and CrNi stainless steels). And not only will an
activated steel corrode much faster than a passivated one: the
juxtaposition of passivated and activated surface areas gives
rise t o galvanic short-circuit currents that override the active
corrosion.
The effect of hydrogen sulphide on the corrosion process is
demonstrated by the current -densi t yl pot ent i al curves of a
martensitic chromi um stainless steel (Fig 6). Adding even
small amounts of sulphide steps up the corrosion perceptibly,
as the curves show; besides accelerated dissolution in the ac-
tive area, passivation is made considerably more difficult as
well. The same sort of phenomenon can be observed with
pure iron, nickel, cobalt and the alloys of those metals [ 2] .
Fig. 7. Influence of flow velocity on metal erosion (relative values)
in seawater containing H2S. Erosion on Monel K500 in
stationary medium taken as one.
In the case of martensitic chromium steel, it is noteworthy
that the effect of heat treatment is still noticeable at 40 m' s, in
that, as one would expect, there is somewhat less loss for
states achieved by higher-temperature tempering than for
those resulting from low-temperature tempering (i.e. highly
hardened ones). At 70 mls, this effect has disappeared. What
has happened is t hat the influence of the base metal's electro-
chemical resistance has receded and been replaced as the
dominant factor by the mechanical-chemical resistance of the
protective film.
Copper casting alloys, especially certain aluminium
bronzes, can perform satisfactorily in seawater under some
circumstances. But the fact that this alloy compares quite well
with Monel at 40 m; s should not obscure the drawback that.
in seawater containing sulphide, the sulphidic protective films
on aluminium bronze only cover something like 90% of the
surface. The remaining 10% is removed mechanically by
medium flow. If one relates the experienced metal loss to the
latter (actively corroding) surface area, local loss rates run-
ning t o several millimeters a year result. At 70 mls. the high
erosion rates of aluminium bronze preclude use of the metal.
Even changes in the chemical composition of the medium
that appear quite minor at first glance can cause a fundamen-
tal change in metal behaviour. Though this is probably less
true for a few extra-high resistance, costly metals, such as tita-
nium or Hastelloy alloys, it certainly applies t o the bulk of
commercially important ferrous and cuprous alloys. The test
setup described herein for investigating erosion corrosion
presents an ideal opportunity t o obtain closely practice-related
information on the effect of medium composition on erosion
corrosion in pumps in a very short time.
Media containing solids
If the medium being pumped contains suspended solid parti-
cles, metal loss can be many times worse than it would be for
the very same medium without solids, at the same flow velocity.
The effect of solid matter on the metal damage is similar to
that of fast-flowing media, except t hat the solids substantially
increase the impact and shearing forces acting on the surface
of the metal, which results in accelerated erosion. A broad
range of solids and liquids are found in such solids-containing
media. Examples: papermill water with paper fibres, sandy
fresh water or seahater for potable and cooling water sys-
tems, supersaturated salt solutions in chemical engineering,
process water in coking plants or in ore dressing.
For a given solids content, the metal loss rate rises in pro-
portion to the flow velocity. At 2 m/ s, even 150 t o 200 ppm of
solids in water can worsen the erosion on an unalloyed steel:
at 4 m,'s, similar damage is caused by only 20 t o 50 ppm. Of
course, the extent of the damage also depends on many other
factors (such as flow geometry, shape of the suspended parti-
cles, their hardness, their specific gravity, and the aggressive-
ness of the medium),
There are two ways to alleviate erosion phenomena caused
by suspended solids:
- Selection of hard metals. For example, martensitic chro-
mium steels hardened t o high strengths are more suitable
than ferritic or austenitic steels.
- Application of heavy, relatively elastic organic protective
layers (e.g. rubber).
The extent of damage t o the metal depends largely on its
hardness and the hardness of the suspended solids. If the lat-
ter are harder than the metal, the erosion rates will rise, but
resistance t o erosion will increase if the reverse is true. This 1s
illustrated in Figure 8a with t he example of a martensitic
steel treated t o various hardness levels; extremely fine glass
powder is the suspended solid. Similar results are shown in
Figure 8b, in which flow velocity is included as an addi -
tional variable.
Hardness relationship: metal/solids (glass) Fl ow velocity (m s)
I 20 Fe gr i l
2 18% ore powder
3 Maxi mum possible corrosion i n
pure water
4 20% coke gri t
5 21 "'0 sand
6 Corrosi on i n pure water
a Influence of the hardness relation- b Influence of the flow velocity on
ship on the abrasion resistance of a the electrochemical corrosion of
martensitic steel. acarbon steel in water-solid par-
ticle suspensions.
Fig. 8. Metal abrasion by water containing solid matter.
It is interesting t o note t hat the presence of solid matter ac-
celerates the corrosion rate sharply over the corrosion suf-
fered in pure water (i.e. with protective film formation), and
t hat the loss rates found for hard solids were as much as twice
as high as the worst corrosion rate in pure water.
As for abrasion corrosion, laboratory investigations are ex-
tremely difficult t o carry out, and provide little more t han cer-
tain indeces t hat permit mutual comparison of the metals
tested, but no reliable figures on actual rates of metal loss.
1 Counter electrode
2 Mercury conidct
3 VIolnr
4 Teflon cylinder
5 Al d i i c
6 Reference el eci rode
7 Magnetic rod
8 Compensation voltmeter
9 Recorder
10 Potentlosliit
I ! Voluge generato,
12 Resistance
Fig. 9. Measuring setup for abrasion tests on a rotating disc or
cylinder.
Some of the main problems involved in laboratory tests,
which necessarily have to employ closed testing systems, are:
distribution of the solid particles in the test medium, the angle
of flow incidence in relation to the specimen surface, and the
mutual erosion among the solid particles themselves.
Abrasion corrosion tests can be run, for instance, with
rotating discs or in closed circuits. Figures 9 and 10 show
such test setups in our corrosion laboratory.
Figure 11 presents test results for t wo aluminium castins
alloys (G-Al'vIg3Ti and G-AlSi6MgTi), which were tested in
the form of rotating discs in seawater according to standard
DIN 50900. Suspended solids of varying hardness (Mohs
hardness from 1. 5 to 9. 5) and granulation ranging from 50 to
71 urn were added. I t was found that hardness and content of
suspended solids had a particularly marked effect on metal
loss in the case of the Si-containins alloy. Its weight loss \\as
found to vary by a factor of 10 depending on the hardness of
the suspended matter and by a factor of 100 depending on its
relative content In the case of t he G-AlMg3Ti alloy, how-
ever. the loss is less dependent on these factors, being acceler-
ated by a factor of 10 in the worst case.
The tests also show that each alloy has a certain level of
solids content above which the severe abrasion corrosion sets
in. This limit also depends on the hardness (i.e. type) of the
solid matter.
When suspended solids are present, the contact corrosion
between the aluminium casting alloy and a nobler metal
paired with it is stepped up markedly. Contrary to the fre-
quently expressed opinion that an anodization layer elimi-
nates the danger of contact corrosion, this measure only
solves the contact corrosion problem for a limited period of
time, at least in the case of aluminium casting alloys, if solids
are present. The bibliography [3] provides further informa-
tion on the erosion behaviour of aluminium casting alloys.
I Tank %i l h solids
2 Test set ups ~ t i i h specimen,
Fig. 10. Closed circuit for abrasion tests on tubular specimens.
Erosion rate index in seawat er contdining solid mat t er (50 porn1 ( - 1
Fig. 1 1 . Erosion rate of two Al-alloys in seawater with suspended
solids.
Acknowledgement: Sulzer Bros. (S.A.) Limited
Factors controlling selection of Construction Materials
The majority of chemicals and other line fluids encounter-
ed in industry can be successfully resisted by several
materials of construction; but the actual choice may depend
upon one particular factor. It is important, therefore, t o
consider the various factors which make a material of
construction acceptable. Ideally i t should be:-
1. Unaffected by the line fluid and without influence on
the chemical process.
2. Mechanically reliable and easily fabricated.
3. Economical in cost.
When one considers the numerous environmental conditions
of line fluid, temperature and pressure, it is not surprising
that one material is not available which has universal
acceptance.
The following paragraphs outline the more important
considerations.
Mechanical Properties
It is essential that materials should be mechanically reliable,
i.e. tensile strengths and mechanical resistance should be
such that there is no danger of fracture.
Some materials which are mechanically strong at normal
temperature become very brittle at sub-zero temperatures
and lose strength at high temperatures thus making them
unsuitable for these extremes. Plastic materials in general
have a very limited temperature range due t o these changes.
Others with excellent chemical resistance have very poor
mechanical strength and resistance t o thermal or mechanical
shock. Thus when employing this type of material it is
necessary t o take special precautions against failure.
Fabrication processes such as weldability, machineability
or, for that matter, formability are also restrictive t o the
use of certain materials for particular types of plant. For
example, certain highly corrosive resistant materials cannot
be machined but must be formed by grinding operations.
Chemical Resistance
I t is sometimes necessary, therefore, t o pay great attention
This information is normally of a general nature and should
t o the fabrication history of materials prior t o use in plant
be used purely as a guide.
construction.
There are cases where introduction of a material under a
particular environment has proved both expensive and in-
adequate. These unexpected failures are generally attributed
t o unforseen causes such as impurities in the line fluid,
bi-metallic corrosion, weld decay, etc.
Impurities may produce a much accelerated corrosion due
t o catalytic or electrolytic chemical attack. In contrast,
there are a number of impurities which have an inhibiting
action; although these are less frequently encountered. It
is not possible t o generalise on the effects of impurities
but each should be considered in its own particular environ-
ment.
Electrolytic Attack
This type attack usually occurs when -
(a) two dissimilar metals are in direct electrical contact in
an electrolyte, or
Erosion
Erosive attack of plant can generally be anticipated or
identified due t o the presence of abrasive solids. In these
cases the use of wear resistant materials is t o be recommend-
ed.
There are, however, many materials which owe their
chemical resistance t o the formation of an insoluble 'skin'
which is itself a corrosion product. In these cases high
fluid velocities can cause continuous removal of this 'skin'
by erosion, and rapid corrosion occurs. A further, although
less common form of erosion, is due t o the formation of
cavitation gas bubbles on the point of low pressure. These
collapse suddenly as they pass t o the point of higher
pressure and cause local water hammer effects. This
phenomenon is generally found in areas of high velocity
and sharp change of direction. For example, centrifugal
pumps inlet necks, etc.
(b) when a less noble metal is exposed t o a solution con-
taining a more noble metal.
Under these conditions the less noble metal suffers acceler-
Economics
ated corrosion, t he severity and magnitude of which is re-
lated t o the difference in electropotential of the two metals
under consideration. For example, rapid corrosion occurs
on iron pipework when water contains traces of copper
salts. Similarly, aluminium suffers rapid corrosion when in
contact with steel in sea water conditions.
In contrast, this phenomenon of bi-metallic corrosion is used
t o advantage t o protect steel vessels in marine environments.
For example, magnesium or zinc anodes are connected t o
the hulls of ships t o protect t he steel from sea water corro-
sion during the life of t he ship. This is known as cathodic
protection. The whole subject of electrolytic corrosion is
highly complex and many technical papers have been
written on specialised problems. It is not possible t o
generalise on t he various effects of dissimilar metal in con-
tact but each should be considered very carefully before
acceptance for plant construction.
Weld Decay
Certain materials when subjected t o various fabricating
processes, e.g., hardening, welding, etc., undergo structural
changes which have an adverse effect upon their corrosion
resistance.
A well known example is the welding of austenitic stainless
steels. Without correct precautions this process results in
carbide precipitation at the grain boundaries adjacent t o the
welded zone. These zones suffer accelerated corrosion
attack and result in drastic failure of the component, in
this particular case without warning.
The total cost, maintenance and possible replacement of
selected materials must always be considered. In many
cases completely resistant materials may be excluded on
account of the high initial price. In many plants, it is
common practice t o allow slight attack on less expensive
materials and replace as necessary.However, this philosophy
must not be applied t o all parts of plant equipment in-
discriminately. For example, what may be an acceptable
corrosion rate for a 6 mm thick mild steel pipe may not
be an acceptable rate for a valve containing precision
components. It is often more economical, therefore, t o
consider a higher priced material for components such
as valves and pumps.
Purity of Product
In the food and fine chemical industries purity of the
product has a bigger influence on the choice of materials
than actual corrosion behaviour. Under many condi-
tions the slightest trace of contamination or colouration
cannot be tolerated and t he use of expensive materials is
usual.
It is obvious from t he above remarks that in no case is it
possible t o give a final recommendation of materials of
construction without knowing all t he details of the service
under consideration. The selection of suitable materials
should always be guided by the practice of similar industries
and whenever possible substantiated by tests under actual
plant conditions.
Effect of pH values on Pump Selection
The pH value of a liquid is the measure of the corrosive
qualities of a liquid, either acidic or alkaline. It does not
measure the amount or quantity of t he acid or alkali, but
instead t he hydrogen or hydroxide ion concentration in
gram equivalents per litre of t he liquid.
pH value is expressed as t he logarithm t o the base 10 of
t he reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration in gram
equivalents per litre. The scale of pH values ranges from zero
through 14. The neutral point is 7. From 6 decreasing I o
zero denotes increasing acidity. From 8 through 14 denotes
increasing alkalinity. It may also be stated that from 6 l o
zero hydrogen ions predominate; and, from 8 through 14
hydroxide ions predominate. At 7, the neutral point, the
hydrogen and hydroxide ions are equal in quant i t y. The
difference in pH numbers is 10 fold. For example, a solution
of 3 pH (0 001 hydrogen ion concentration in gram equiva-
lents) has 10 times the hydrogen ion concentration of a 4
pH solution (0,0001 hydrogen ion concentration in gram
equivalents per litre). Likewise, a 10 pH solution has 10
times the hydroxide ion concentration of a 9 pH solution.
The. pH value of a solution can be obtained by colouri-
metric methods using 'universal indicator' or by electric
meters designed especially for the purpose.
The table outlines materials of construction usually re-
commended for pumps handling solutions where the pH
value is known.
Knowing the pH value of a solution does by no means
answer all questions as t o the corrosive qualities or charac-
teristics, of a solution. Temperatures of t he solution effects
the pH value. For example, a water solution may have a
pH of 7 or neutral, at room temperature but at 100 it
may have a pH value less than 7 or on the 'acid side' of
neutral 7. Corrosion effect by dissolved oxygenin a solution
and corrosion by electrolysis cannot be predicted by pH
values. but knowing t he pH value of a liquid t o be pumped
is an excellent point t o start in determining the materials
of construction.
INCREASINGLY A1
I HYD3OXI DE ICIYS
12.
!3--
pH Value Material of Consl ruct i on
Corrosion Rcsistan t
Alloy Steels
All Bronze
Bronze Fi t t ed or
St andard Fi t t ed
All Iron
Corrosion Resistant Alloys
~ e ~ r o d u c e d by ki nd permission of Coul ds Pumps Incorporat ed,
Seneca Falls, N. Y. , U. S. A.
Represent ed by Rapi d All\\ciller Pump iind l ngi neeri nfl o (Pl y) Lt d
Common types of Corrosion
Corrosion is the natural way in which chemical forces act
upon their metals and return their ores; this process is
known is corrosion. Physical forces allied with chemical
forces considerably accelerate t he corrosion process. The
following most common types of corrosion can readily
occur in valves if the correst design and material selection
are not carefully considered from t he outset.
UNIFORM CHEMICAL ATTACK
This is a common form of corrosion, particularly with
metals which are in contact with acids and ot her corrosive
solutions. The corrosion product frequently forms a protec-
tive layer on the surface of the metal, thereby slowing
corrosion
product +
anode
metal*
down corrosion, and resulting in a uniform wasting away
of the surface. Where direct chemical attack has taken place
t he products of corrosion are readily dissolved in t he corro-
sive medium and accelerated corrosion takes place. Wherever
severe chemical attack has taken place, there would invar-
iably have been a higher grade of material which could have
been selected for construction of t he valve.
GALVANIC CORROSION
This occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact and
subsequently exposed t o a corrosive liquid. A galvanic cell
is formed between the dissimilar metals (anode and cathode)
on exposure t o the corrosive liquid (electrolyte) resulting in
the flow of electrical current and subsequent corrosion to
the anodic member. One method used t o minimise galvanic
corrosion is by plating the dissimilar metals but this all too
often suffers the disadvantage of cracking and delaminating.
Care should be taken in selecting a superior alloy which will
have considerable corrosion resistant advantages even over
that of stainless steel.
Galvanic corrosion scale
Magnesium Brasses
Magnesium alloys Copper
Zinc Bronze
Aluminium Copper-Nickel Alloy
-- -.
Cadmium Nickel
Mild Steel Inconel
Alloy Steel Stainless Steel (passive)
Wrought Iron Hastelloy
Cast Iron - Titanium
Stainless Steel (active)
--
Silver
Ni-resist Graphite
Soft solders Gold
Lead
Tin
Platinum
Cathodic protected end
The metals near the t op of either of the above columns act
as anodes and suffer maximum corrosion when coupled
with one near the bottom of the opposite column. The ones
close together corrode more slowly whilst pairs between
each group corrode the least.
INTERGRANULAR CORROSION
This may be caused by a number of factors but the results
are virtually the same; selective attack along the grain
boundaries of the metal, loss of mechanical properties, and
intercrystalline cracking. Austenitic stainless steels are vul-
nerable t o intercrystalline corrosion if not properly heat
treated. All ball valves should be heat treated in accordance
with ASTM standards t o eliminate this form of corrosion.
PITTING CORROSION
Once the protective film or corrosion layers break down,
localised corrosion known as 'pitting', results. An anode
then forms where the film breaks, while the unbroken film
acts as a cathode. A closed electrical circuit is now created
and accelerated corrosion now takes place.
In the presence of a highly corrosive media (e.g. chlorine)
stainless steel valves have been known to suffer pitting
through the presence of so-called 'rough spots'. Ball valves
should always be finished and thoroughly checked t o elimi-
nate 'rough spots' and thereby prevent one cause of corro-
sion. It is again emphasised that noble alloys, considerably
superior to that of stainless steel, are available and that
valve life can be extended by up t o five times through the
correct selection of materials.
STRESS CORROSION
When high mechanical stresses are combined with corrosive
media, corrosion speeds up at a far greater rate than the
sum of the damage that these two factors could cause
individually. Superior valve design coupled with the stress
relieving of components during manufacture. together with
correct material selection can overcome failure due to stress
corrosion.
CREVICE CORROSION
This is a common cause of localised corrosion in valves
which have sharp corners, gasket joints (such as those in 2
or 3 piece valves), areas where accumulations of deposits
can build up, and stagnant areas. Once again, superior
valve design will help eliminate these problem areas. For
example, it is essential that ball valves have a precise fit
between ball and seat, providing a wiping action which
helps remove unwanted deposits and are designed for un-
interrupted flow.
Acknowledgement: Industrial and Petroleum Valves (Pty) Ltd
Valve materials in Common Use
Most valve manufacturers offer a materials selection service
t o their customers, but , in order t o utilise such a service t o
the best advantage, it is necessary for t he customer t o
supply all possible information on the service for which a
valve is required. Even in nominally mild services, the
presence of minute quantities of certain contaminants can
completely alter the corrosion charactetistics of the live
fluid. In more corrosive services, very small differences in
media concentration, flow velocity or flowing temperature
can make the difference between acceptable valve service,
and catastrophic failure.
Cast iron
For general use on lower pressure. non-corrosive line media
such as mild alkalies, some mineral and vegetable oils,
coal gas effluents, air, and some water services.
Carbon steel
Used where higher strength and ductility are required on
non-corrosive media - hydrocarbons, esters, ketones,
methanols, ethanols, minerals oils and some gases.
CF8M/316 (stainless)
For use on organic acids - citric, lactic and tartaric at
medium concentrations and temperatures, inorganic acids -
nitric and phosphoric at medium and low concentrations
and temperatures, suitable for pure waters, and many food
and chemical process applications where extra cleanliness
and 'cleanability' are required.
CN7M/Incoloy 825* (Alloy 20)
Generally superior to CF8M/3 16 in bot h oxidising and
reducing environments, suitable for most concentrations of
sulphuric acid at medium temperatures, dilute nitric acid,
dry chlorine and ethanol; suitable for mixed pickling acids.
M35/Monel*
A nickel-copper alloy with superior corrosion resistance in
the handling of sea waters, clean phosphoric acid, certain
concentrations of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids,
anhydrous ammonia, sodium hydroxide and many acid
salt solutions.
CW12-M/HasteUoy C+
A nickel-chrome-moly alloy - resistant t o strong oxydisers,
ferric chloride t o l o%, hot mineral acids, chlorine and
chloride contaminated media, formic and acetic acids, and
sulphate black liquors,
N12M/Hastelloy B+
A nickel-moly alloy - resistant t o concentrated citric acid,
hydrochloric acid t o 40% concentration at medium tem-
peratures, certain concentrations of hydrofluoric and nitric
acids. nickel chloride in lower concentrations and anhydrous
hydrogen chloride.
- - -- - ~
Many other metals can be used in the construction of valves
for specialised services - Sanicro 28, a Sandvik alloy special-
ly developed for use in the 'wet' process of manufacture of
phosphoric acid, titanium for the handling of wet chlorine
etc.
The above is a brief summary on the subject of materials
for valves; as stated, small variations in service details may
have major effects on valve performance. Any valve user
who is not sure what valve material is optimum for his
service should consult a reputable valve manufacturer for
advice.
* Registered T.M. Inco Alloys International
+ Registered T.M. Haynes Alloys
-
Acknowledgement: Industrial and Petroleum Valves (Pty) Ltd
Materials Selection Tables
This chart is intended as a guide in the selection of cconom-
ical materials. It must be kept in mind that corrosion rates
may vary widely with temperature, concentration, and the
presence of trace elements or abrasive solids. Blank spaces
indicate a lack of accurate corrosion information for those
specific conditions.
C. I. - Cast Iron, ASTM A48
D. I. - Ductile Iron, ASTM A 536
Steel - Carbon Steel. ASTM A2 16-WCA or WCB
-- -
Brz. - Anti-Acid Bronze, S n n ~ b r to ASTM B143A2
316SS - Stainless Steel, \STM A744 CJr CP--8M, AISI 316
GA-20 - Carpenter Stainless No 20 ASTM A744 GI. CN-7Vl
CD4MCu - Stainless Steel. ACI CD4 MCIL
Mon - Monel Grade E. ASTM A744 GI \I-35
Ni - Nickel. ASTM A744 Gr CZ-100
H-B - Hastelloy Alloy -B. ASTM A494
H-C - Hastelloy Alloy-C, ASTM A494
Ti Titanium Unalloyed, ASTM B367 Gr C-1
Zi - Zirconium
Code
A-Fully Satisfactory. C-Limited Use,
B-Useful Resistance. X-Unsuitable.
I steel I I I I I I I I I I
Corrosive
Acetaldehyde, 70" F.
Acetic Acid, 70" F.
Acetic Acid, < 50%, To Boiling
Acetic Acid, > 50%, To Boiling
Acetone, To Boiling
Aluminum Chloride, < l o%, 70" F.
Aluminum Chloride, > l o%, 70' F.
Aluminum Chloride, < l o%, To Boiling
Aluminum Chloride, > l o%, To Boiling
Aluminum Sulphate, 70" F.
Aluminum Sulphate, < l o%, To Boiling
Aluminum Sulphate, > l o%, To Boiling
Ammonium Chloride, 70' F.
Ammonium Chloride, < l o%, To Boiling
Ammonium Chloride, > 10%. To Boiling
Ammonium Fluosilicate, 70" F.
Ammonium Sulphate, < 40%, To Boiling
Arsenic Acid, to 225" F.
Barium Chloride, 70" F. < 30%
Barium Chloride, < 5%, To Boiling
Barium Chloride, > 5%, To Boiling
Barium Hydroxide, 70' F.
Barium Nitrate, To Boiling
Barium Sulphide, 70" F.
Benzoic Acid
Boric Acid, To Boiling
Boron Trichloride, 70" F. Dry
Boron Trifluoride 70" F. l o%, Dry
Brine (acid), 70' F.
Bromine [dry), 70" F.
Bromine (wet). 70".
Calcium Bisulphite, 70' F.
Calcium Bisulphite, To Hot
Calcium Chloride, 70" F.
Calcium Chloride, < 5%, To Boiling
Calcium Chloride, > 5%, To Boiling
Calcium Hydroxide, 70" F .
Calcium Hydroxide, < 30% To Boiling
Calcium Hydroxide, > 30%, To Boiling
Calcium tiypochlorite, < 2%, 70' F,
Calcium Hypochlorile, > 2%, 70" F.
Carbolic Acid, 70" F. (phenol)
Carbon Bisulphide, 70' F.
Carbonic Acid. 70" F.
Carbon Tetrachloride, Dry to Boiling
Chloric Acid, 70" F.
Chlorinated Water, 7 0 7 ,
Chloroacetic Acid, 70" F,
Chlorosulphonic Acid, 70" F.
Chromic Acid, < 30%
Citric Acid
Copper Nitrate, to 175" F.
Copper Sulphate, To Boiling
Cresylic Acid
Cupric Chloride
Cyanohydrin, 70" F.
Ethyl Cellulose, 70" F.
Ethyl Chloride, 70' F.
Ethyl Mercaptan, 70" F.
Ethyl Sulphate, 70" F.
Ethylene Chlorohydrin, 70" F.
Ethvlene Dichloride. 70" F.
Corrosive
Dichloroethane
Diethylene Glycol, 70" F.
Dinltrochlorobenzene, 7 0 7 , (dry)
Elhanolamine, 70".
Ethers, 70' F.
Ethyl Alcohol, To Boiling
~ t h ~ l e n e Glycol, 70; F,
Ethylene Oxide, 70' F.
Ferric Chloride, < 5%, 70' F,
Ferrlc Chloride, > 5%, 70" F.
Ferrlc Nitrate, 70' F.
Ferric Sulphate, 70" F,
I
X X X I B X
x
c I B I E I B
b.1.
D.I.
C
A
C
B
0
A
Naphthalene Suiphonic Acid, 70" F.
Napthalenic Acid, To Hot
Nickel Chloride, 70" F.
Nickel Sulphate
Nitric Acid
Nitrobenzene, 70 F.
Nitroethane, 70" F.
Nitropropane, 70TF,
Nitrous Acid, 70" F.
Nilrous Oxide. 70' F.
Brz.
B
B
B
X
B
A
Ferrous Suiphate, 70' F.
Formaldehyde, To Boiling
Formic Acid, to 21 2" F.
Freon, 70" F.
Hydrochloric Acid, < 1 %, 70" F.
Hydrochloric Acid, 1-20% 70- F.
Hydrochloric Acid, > 20%, 70" F.
Hydrochloric Acid, < %%, 175' F.
Hydrochloric Acid, I/;-2%, 175 F.
Hydrocyanic Acid, 70' F,
Hydrogen Peroxide, < 30% < 150' F.
Hydroftuoric Acid, < 20%, 70" F.
Hydrofluoric Acid, > 20%, 50" F.
Hydrofluoric Acid, To Boiling
Hydrofluorsilicic Acid, 70" F,
Lactic Acid, < 50%, 70" F.
Lactic Acid, > 50%, 70" F.
Lactic Acid, < 5% To Boilin?
Lime Slurries, 70" F.
Magnesium Chloride, 70 F.
Magnesium Chloride, < 5%, To Boiling
Magnesium Chloride, > 5%, To Boiling
Magnesium Hydroxide, 70" F.
Magnesium Sulphate
Maleic Acid
Mercaptans
Mercuric Chloride, < 270, 70" F,
Mercurous Nilrale, 70" F.
Methvl Alcohol. 70" F.
X C t C 0
B B A i A
X C X A
A
X X
X
A +-
x x
X X X X
X X C C
X X X
X X C B
C X B B
X B X B
X C X C
X X X X
X C B
X I B A A
X 8 B 8
X X C B
B B B B
C C B A
X C C B
X C X I C
B A B
C
C B B
A A
X X
C X B B
A A A A
Phenol.(see carbolic acid)
Phosgene, 70' F.
Phosphoric Acid. < 10% 70" F.
Phosphoric Acid, > 10-70%, 70' F.
Phosphoric Acid, < 20%, 175' F.
Phosphoric Acid, > 20%, 17Y F. < 85%
Phosphoric Acid, > 10% Boii, < 85%
Phthalic Acid, 70' F.
Phthalic Anhydride, 70" F.
Picric Acid. 70" F.
Potassium Carbonate
Potassium Chlorate
Potassium Chloride, 70' F.
Potassium Cyanide, 70' F.
Potassium Dichromate
Potassium Ferr~cyanide
316SS
B
A
A
B
B
A
- - -
GA-20
B
A
A
B
A
A
C
X
C
B
-
Oleic Acid
Oleum, 70" F.
Oxalic Acid
Palmitic Acid
CD4MCu
B
A
A
B
A
A
C
X
C
B
C
B
X
B
C
X
C
B
Mon
C
B
A
C
B
A
C
B
B
B
B
C
B
C
0
B
,
I
X i A
I
Nl
B
B
A
X
B
A
B
B
B
A
B
B
C
B
H-B
B
B
A
B
A
H-C
B
B
A
B
A
TI Zl
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
Corrosive
Potassium Ferrocyanide, 70" F.
Potassium Hydroxide, 70" F.
Potassium Hypochloritc
Potassium Iodide. 70" F.
Potassium Permanganate
Potassium Phosphate
Sea Water, 70" F.
Sodium Bisulphate, 70 F.
Sodium Bromide, 70 F.
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Chloride, 70" F.
Sodium Cyanide
Sodium Dichromate
Sodium Ethylate
Sodium Fluoride
Sodium Hydroxide, 70' F.
Sodium Hypochlorite
Sodium Lactate, 70' F.
Stannic Chloride, < 5%, 70' F,
Stannic Chloride. > 5%, 70" F.
Sulphite Liquors, To 175" F.
Sulphur (molten)
Sulphur Dioxide (spray), 70' F.
Sulphuric Acid, < 2%, 70" F.
Steel
C.I.
D.I.
X
C
X
C
B
C
C
X
B
B
C
B
B
B
C
B
x
B
x
x
X
B
C
X
H-B H-C TI Zi Bn. 316SS GA-20 CD4MCu Mon
B B B B B
C A B A
C C B C X
B B B B B
B B B B C
C B B B
B B A B A
C C B C C
C B B B B
B B A B B
B B B B A
X B B B X
X B B B
A A A
C B B
B B
x c c c x
A
C C C C C
c x c x c
x x x x x
C B B B C
X A A A C
C B B B C
C B A B C
~ui phur i c Acid, 2-40%, 70" F.
Sulphuric Acid, 40%, < 9070, 70" F.
Sulphuric Acid. 93-98% 70' F.
Sulphuric Acid, < l o%, 175" F.
Sulphuric Acid, 1040% & > 80% 175" F.
Sulphuric Acid, 60-80%, 175 F.
Sulphuric Acid, < % % Boiling
Sulphuric Acid, %-40% Boiling
Sulphuric Acid, 40-65% & > 85%, Boil
Sulphuric Acid, 65-85%, Boiling
Sulphurous Acid, 70" F.
Titanium Tetrachloride, 70" F.
Tirchiorethylene, To Boiling
X
X
B
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
C
B
Urea, 70" F. 1 C I C I B
Acknowledgement:
Materials Selection Charts reproduced by permission of
Goulds Pumps Incorporated, Seneca I'alls, N. Y. , U.S.A.
Represented by Rapid AUweiller Pump and Engineering Co (Pty) Ltd
B B t C I C l C t c t B I B
vinyl Chloride
--
Water, To Boiling
Zinc Chloride
Zinc Cyanide, 70" F.
Zinc Sulphate
Vinvl Acetate I B B I B 1 0 1 B 1 I B I I
B
B
C
X
X
C
A
C
B
C
B
A
B
B
A
B
A
A
B
A
B
A
B
B
A
C
[ A
B
B
C
C
A
B
B
C
C
A
B
B
C
B
A
B
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
B I B
Installation and Problem
Solving Centrifugal pump installation 202
Pump maintenance and servicing 203
Solutions to traditional pump
problems 204 - 207
Valve installation and maintenance 208 - 212
Control valve noise reduction
Solving cavitation problems 216 - 218
- -
Water hammer and surging in
pipelines 219 - 221
Mechanical seal failures 222 - 226
Centrifugal Pump Installation
Centrifugal pumps, when properly installed and when given
reasonable care and maintenance, should operate satisf'ac-
torily for a long period of time. The following paragraphs
discuss t he general principles t hat must be considered t o
ensure trouble free pump operation.
PIPEWORK INSTALLATION
It is essential t hat no load be imposed on the pump flanges
as this may disturb the pump-set alignment.
Air in the system is the greatest enemy of centrifugal pumps
and all potential air traps and air leaks must be eliminated.
Suction piping
Suction pipe diameter must be large enough t o reduce fric-
tion t o an economic minimum - i t is not determined by
the pump branch size.
Eccentric reducers must be used in horizontal lines.
Suction piping must rise continuously from source t o pump
without local high points.
Fittings should be selected t o ensure minimal restriction
t o flow.
A bend should not be joined directly t o t he pump section
flange. A short length of straight pipe before any bend is
desirable.
The suction pipe must be located in a well-designed, intake
allowing for adequate submergence.
Discharge piping
The diameter of the discharge pipe is not determined by t he
pump size but by economics.
A check valve and a gate valve should be installed t he dis-
charge line t o protect t he pump and t o prevent water
running back through the pump.
r7
big. 1 Checking f or angul ar alignment of drive coupling.
PUMPSET FOUNDATION
An adequate foundation is essential. It should be sufficiently
massive and rigid t o provide continuous support for the
bedplate throughout its whole length under all operating
conditions.
The foundation should be kept 25 mm low t o allow for
levelling of t he bedplate and final grouting.
Foundation bolt holes must be provided in the positions as
detailed and should be 100 mm diameter or square.
Levelling of bedplate
The bedplate must be uniformly supported on pre-levelled
steel packers placed adjacent t o and on each side of the
foundation bolt holes.
Grout t he foundation bolts.
After foundation bolts are set, check parallel and diagonal
levels of machined pads on bedplate and adjust as necessary
by means of additional packings and tightening of foun-
dation bolts.
After levelling and alignment is complete and all foundation
bolts pulled down tightly, grout the bedplate, so that t he
grout completely fills the cavity between t he bedplate and
the foundation.
Coupling Alignment
Flexible couplings must not be used t o compensate for
mis-alignment of pump and driver shafts.
Check bot h parallel and angular alignment of coupling halves
by means of straight edges, feeler gauges and/or dial gauges.
Adjust alignment as necessary by inserting shims under the
driver and/or gearbox feet.
Check t he gap between half couplings.
Re-check coupling alignment after all pipework has been
connected.
Fi g. 2 Checking for parallel al i gnment of drive coupling.
Pump Maintenance and Servicing
Routine maintenance and servicing are essential t o maintain
frequency of inspections can be altered t o maintain satis-
the plant i n a serviceable condition.
factory operation of the plant t o suit established operation
A high degree of cleanliness of the equipment and surround-
routines. The checks and inspections carried out during
ing area should be maintained as this will assist in the
the running-in period wi l l often establish the frequency
detection of mi nor defects, which, i f no action was taken,
of future inspections.
could lead t o more serious defects.
The main factors in determining i f overhaul is required
i s a falling of f in the pump discharge pressure t o an unsatis-
OVERHAUL
factory level or a significant increase in power consumption.
This i s determined by a decrease in the pump discharge
Depending on operation and environmental conditions, pressure t o an unacceptable level. Refer t o the manu-
together wi t h a comparison of previous inspections, the facturer's maintenance instructions.
RECOMMENDED MAINTENANCE AND SERVICING SCHEDULE
Check for leaks ---T"-@-
Check bearing temperature
Check cooling and lubricating
water flows
-- - -- - -- -
Check for vibration
--
Check that gland drains are clear 1 1 8
Adjust glands as necessary t o
maintain slight leakage -
Clean filter by turning handle
(single - filter)
- - - -
Change over filters, clean out
dirty filter (duplex filter) -
Check oil level, top up as required.
(ring oiled and thrust bearings)
Check surge tank water levels
(manual onl y)
-- - -. - -- --
Clean and recharge balllroller
bearings wi th grease
Lubricate balllroller bearings
-
Examine glandlrenew packing i f
gland follower fully up
- -- - -- - -
Check coupling alignment
(horizontal pumpsets)
---A-
Check coupling pins and bushes
for wear
- - - - - - - - --
Check holding down bolts for
tightness - -- - - A - -- - --
Lubricate gear couplings -
- - - - - - - - -
Renew oil in bearings
- -
t o weekly if proved
satisfactory durina runnina in.
Extend t o weekly i f proved
satisfactory during running in.
Checks can be made at flow
indicators, drain boxes and tun-
dishes. Extend t o weekly i f proved
satisfactory during running in.
Extend t o weekly i f proved
satisfactory during running in.
--
Extend t o weekly if proved
satisfactorv durina runnina in.
Depending on environmental
1 condition
I 1 Extend t o 2 weekly when
I
-t Extend depending upon quality of
satisfactory
I I water
--I
Refer t o sub-contractors
instructions
To be carried out when stationary,
except where running levels are
% % e d I from running in period.
(refer t o maintenance instructions)
To be carried o u t months after-
depending on findings.
See adjacent page
-
Check a t end of running in period,
then as shown
--
Refer t o maintenance instructions
Solutions to Traditional Pump Problems
Solutions t o traditional Slurry Pump problems.
The traditional problems experienced in operation of
conventional slurry pumps are listed below and each is dis-
cussed with the recommended solution.
1. Low hydraulic efficiency
2. Premature component failure
3. Deteriorating hydraulic performance and efficiency
4 Ineffective centrifugal dry gland sealing performance
5. Impeller end bearing failure
6 . Low generated head capability
7. Unpredictable and inconsistent hydraulic performance
8. Difficulty in maintenance
1 . LOW HYDRAULIC EFFICIENCY
Problem
Large pump vent vanes on the front and back shrouds of
the impeller absorb power in generating a forced vortex
pressure to perform a sealing function only and do not do
any effective pumping.
To accommodate the wide running clearance between the
vanes and the mating wearing survaces, necessitated by the
fixed width of the volute/casing, and still effect a seal, the
vanes have to be excessively high and thus absorb high energy
S + T
The head generated by the vanes is a function of : -
s
where S = distance from impeller shroud to the mating
static wear surface and where T = height of vane
Solution
By incorporating double adjustment of the impeller running
clearances a maximum running clearance of 2 mm is achieved
on assembly and during maintenance. Thus the design
width of the back and front vanes can be reduced to an
acceptable level for minimum power absorption and maxi-
mum sealing effect.
As wear occurs during the operational life of the pump, this
clearance can be maintained for sustained performance.
Problem
Normal pumping impellers are of the plain vane type for
simplicity of manufacture for passing maximum size of
solids. At the suction eye, the angle of approach of the vane
leading edge to the incoming slurry is incorrect only at
either the back shroud or the front shroud. As the
approach angle of the liquid varies along the face of the
leading edge, hydraulic shock losses occur reducing the
efficiency.
Solution
The design of the impeller vane at the suction eye should be
of the partial mixed flow type which adopts a varying
angle of approach across the leading edge, equal to that of
the slurry, giving a much reduced shock loss.
Problem
Pronounced volute profile shapes are required t o collect
and direct the slurry into the discharge throat orifice
because the volute is excessively wide to accommodate
the impeller. The shroud width has to be enlarged for
solids passing and the additional shroud expelling vane
heights combine with side running clearances to require
a volute width of oversized proportions. Many designs
require the slurry t o recirculate within the volute, absorbing
energy for no effective work. Also the redirecting of slurry
increases turbulence and surface friction reducing hydraulic
efficiency and increasing wear.
Solution
The reduced height of expelling vanes and the tapered
impeller profile combine t o produce a minimum peripheral
width. Add t o this the elimination of running clearance
allowance on the casing, and the pump has a minimum
casing width requirement. The tapered volute profile
further reduces the width as the volute spiral extends from
the centre until the casing throat orifice blends smoothly
into the volute profile with a minimum of hydraulic turbu-
lence.
Thus for maximum efficiency, the slurry must pass through
the volute as near to 'once only' as possible without recir-
culation and with a minimum of resistance. It must be
added however, that t o permit the maximum design solids
particle size past the cutwater, a degree of recirculation has
t o be accepted.
Problem
The selection of the volute throat (orifice) area is in-
fluenced by the economic consideration of simple volute
shapes, for pattern equipment and casting costs. Thus
because the volute width is excessive, the throat area is
accepted as being oversize for optimum design.
The oversize throat area results in the best efficiency line,
and is beyond the normal capacity limits required with
solids laden slurry for acceptable wear life. Therefore the
operational hydraulic coverage area on the individual per-
formance curve is of lower effective efficiency.
Solution
The narrower volute, and the tapered design permits the
selection of the optimum throat area so that the best
efficiency line is closer t o the normal hydraulic coverage, t o
achieve a further improvement in efficiency.
2. PREMATURE COMPONENT FAILURE
Problem
The reduced hydraulic efficiency of alternative pumps
can be attributed t o increased hydraulic turbulence losses
within the impeller and volute. When the liquid carries
abrasive solids, then areas of localised turbulence are subject
t o excessive wear and this results in premature failure.
Excessive wear is the result of sliding erosion/abrasion,
being replaced by high impact gouging/abrasion as the
impingement angle increases up t o 90' .
Solution
Recent design philosophy has been t o eliminate, as much as
possible, hydraulic turbulence, for maximum efficiency as
previously described and this reduces the possibility of
localised wear and component failure..
Solution
To ensure guaranteed interchangeability of spares and
free rotation of the impeller running in the fixed running
width of the volute profile (which necessitated more of
the matching surfaces being machined). a large manufactur-
ing casting tolerance has t o be incorporated, leaving a sub-
stantial clearance between the sides of the impeller and
liners upon assembly.
The final position of this clearance has t o be decided upon
assembly of the pump. If it is decided t o be at the shaft
end side. then excessive back liner wear occurs and pre-
mature failure of the back liner and the centrifugal dry
type gland seal (if fitted). If the clearance is fixed at the
suction side, excessive recirculation around the front shroud
of the impeller results with premature failure of the
suction liner in conjunction with impeller front shroud
deterioration.
-
Solution
Problem
The conventional plain vane impeller design has the leading
edge collecting the slurry at a constant peripheral velocity
along its surface. This velocity is a function of t he impeller
eye diameter and the pump rotational speed. The direct
impact abrasion at the impeller eye can be approximated t o
the cube of the impact velocity and this high rate of wear
on the vane leading edge results in premature impeller
replacement.
A double adjustment feature permits the closing of the
impeller running clearances, upon assembly and during
maintenance operations, t o 2 mm maximum thus ensuring
even and minimum wear on the impeller and mating
liners.
The adjustment of the shaft side clearance guarantees an
increasing sealing performance of the centrifugal seal,
eliminating premature failure of its component parts.
Solution
Partial mixed flow vane design collects the slurry at varying 3. DETERIORATING HYDRAULIC PERFORMANCE
rotational velocities around the horizontal axis of the
impeller eye. The velocity of impact is at a maximum at the
outside diameter of the impeller eye (which is the constant
velocity along the parallel leading edge of traditional pumps)
and reduces as the leading edge approaches the centre.
This vane profile is not subject t o excessive uneven wear
and does not change in shape and is thus maintained
throughout the effective wear life of the impeller. The
periphery of the impeller diameter is subject only t o sliding
abrasion and does not reduce as a result. Thus the
operating length and profile of the main pumping vane is
maintained thereby sustaining the hydraulic performance.
Problem
The rapid accelerating wear pattern on the impeller plain
vane leading edge reduces the effective working profile
length of the vane which reduces its hydraulic performance
capability.
Solution
The partial mixed flow vane shape reduces localised wear
on the leading edge and, as the outside diameter of the
impeller has not been reduced, the full working profile
is retained. Thus the hydraulic performance is constant
throughout the life of t he wear parts.
Problem
The main volute casing often has a independent suction
liner. It is impossible t o perfectly match these two wear
parts, even when new, and this generates localised flow
turbulence across the mismatch joint. localised wear t o
the liner and impeller ensue. Each time replacement parts
are fitted, especially when one new part is fitted t o a partly
worn existing component, this wear problem is exacerbated.
Problem
Take-up of the suction side impeller wear clearance is
necessary t o sustain hydraulic performance by reducing
recirculation around the iron shroud, as slurry passes from
the zone of high pressure at the volute t o the low
pressure zone at the impeller suction. It is, however, not
always possible t o achieve this because of -
a) deterioration of centrifugal shaft seal performance, as
increasing back vane clearance increases slurry pressure
at the seal, to the point of excessive leakage and failure.
b) fouling of the bearing housing end-cover on the gland
follower and eliminating access for repacking.
Hydraulic performance thus deteriorates rapidly and power
consumption increases.
Solution
The total adjustment of both back and front running
clearances can be accommodated using the double adjust-
ment feature. Allied t o the impeller partial mixed flow
concept, this can sustain the performance throughout the
effective life of major components.
Problem
When adjustment of the suction side clearance only is per-
formed, the impeller profile is grossly misplaced inside the
volute and the original hydraulic matching design
relationship of the volute shape and impeller is lost. Thus
the flow pattern resulting will give reduced performance,
efficiency and wear life.
Solution
The capability of closing the shaft end running clearance as
the first operation, prior to closing the suction clearance
reduces the effective total forward movement. This
minimises the misplacement relationship of the impeller
and volute.
4. EFFECTIVE AND SUSTAINED PERFORMANCE OF
CENTRIFUGAL DRY GLAND SEAL
Problem
As the impeller is adjusted forward to close the front wear
clearance preventing recirculation of slurry around the front
shroud and therefore improving hydraulic performance, the
working clearances effecting the centrifugal seal are increased
i.e. back impeller shroud expelling vane to back liner and
expeller t o expeller ring. As the performance of these vanes
is proportional t o the clearance, the combined sealing effect
is drastically reduced.
Solution
The purpose of the initial impeller adjustment is to close
the back clearance thus returning the sealing effect of the
back vanes towards the original, but more importantly, to
reduce the working clearance within the expeller chamber.
This results in a unique situation whereby the seal improves
its effectiveness as pump wear occurs.
Problem
Because of the inherent difficulties in tooling for casting
and machining abrasion resistant components, the seal
chamber and expeller are normally cast in softer metals
which are subject to rapid erosion and seal failure.
Solution
To combat the constant liquid ring of slurry rotating in the
expeller chamber, the periphery is integral with the back
liner in 27% high chrome iron. Because this is sliding abrasion
of smaller solids particle size, the wear rate is low. By cover-
ing the closing face of the chamber with an adequate depth
of polyurethane a hydraulic seal at the back liner rim is
obtained which eliminates the sliding abrasion of the liquid
ring.
The recommended material of the expeller is chrome iron
abrasion resistant alloy at approximately 400 BHN. It is
therefore possible, if the suction head is within the recom-
mended limit, for the seal life to be greater than that of the
impeller and casing.
5. IMPELLER END BEARING FAILURE
Problem
The excessive width and mass of normal impellers and the
necessary long shaft overhang from centre of impeller end
bearing to the end of the impeller promotes heavy radial
loads on the bearing.
Solution
The effective bending moment is reduced by means of a
narrower impeller due to reduced pump-out vanes and
through shaft protruding through the back impeller shroud.
Problem
Premature failure of centrifugal type seals promotes ingress
of leaking slurry into the bearing housing.
Solution
Effective seal performance reduces this risk element.
Problem
The potential risk of bridging the close clearance between
the gland follower and the bearing housing by water or
slurry is increased as the forward adjustment of the bearing
housing is carried out, and it is common for the end-cover
to be in contact with the follower promoting ingress and
impeding gland maintenance.
Solution
The adjustment of the impeller to the back liner automa-
tically increases the working clearance between follower
and housing, reducing the risk of ingress and assisting the
ease of maintenance.
6. LOW GENERATED HEAD CAPABILITY
Problem
Wide impellers with excessive impeller t o shaft boss over-
hang impose very high reverse bending loads at the root
of the shaft thread under normal operating conditions, and
high loading under snore or aerated conditions. These loads
promote fatigue failure and speeds have therefore to be
restricted.
Solution
Reduced impeller width and reduced shaft boss height
automatically reduce shaft stresses to permit higher operat-
ing speeds and increase reliability under snore or aerated
applications.
7. UNPREDICTABLE AND INCONSISTENT
HYDRAULIC PERFORMANCE
Problem
Hydraulic performance is influenced by the matching of the
volute profile to the impeller outlet width, which should be
consistent for predictable performance. Consistency can
only be guaranteed by constant volute width, which is
subject to casting contraction variation, and constant runn-
ing clearances between the impeller and liner faces.
This cannot be constant as no surface machining is carried
out, and accounting for volute and impeller width variation
has to be incorporated in the original pattern equipment
design. The position of this excess clearance is usually
decided by the whim of the assembly engineer.
Solution
Using the double adjustment feature the running clearance
are a total maximum of 2 mm and this cannot be exceeded
upon assembly in the works or on the plant.
Thus, using a standard configuration pump, a type test can
be guaranteed within normal acceptance limits for the equi-
valent clean water performance.
Problem
The hydraulic performance is influenced by the excess
suction side impeller to liner clearance and having an
excess of total running clearance wtihin the volute upon
assembly, it cannot be guaranteed that the clearance will
be taken up and variation in performance will occur.
Solution
The design of the double adjustment with shims for the
suction side clearance guarantees that the maximum
limit will be 2 mm upon assembly.
8. DIFFICULTY IN MAINTENANCE
This subject cannot be categorised with respect t o all
slurry pump designs. However recommendations are -
a) A back pull-out feature permits ready access to the pump
internals and inspection without disturbing the pipework.
b) Casing removal should be facilitated by large external
bolts which are readily accessible.
c) No loose internal liners should be used and the casing
should be supported, upon assembly, on the parallel
diameter of the back liner.
d) The back liner should incorporate extended spigot
centralising bosses to ensure central location of the out-
side diameter and ease of bolt insertion.
e) Casing shims give an instant visual indication of the
wear condition t o assist in maintenance planning.
Acknowledgement: Orion Pumps
Valve Installation and Maintenance
VALVE INSTALLATION
If a valve is selected correctly for its service conditions it
should give years of trouble-free performance provided it
is installed properly and receives regular preventive main-
tenance.
All valve manufacturers give advice on t he installation of
their valves and these instructions should be followed
implicitly - provision of drainage being important. There
are however, some general principles on t he installation of
valves which should be borne in mind by those responsible.
Installation of Valves in Pipelines
When laying a pipeline consisting of flanged pipes, each
length or valve should be bolted on and tightened in
position before the next component is attached. The
practice of laying a line and leaving spaces for valves t o be
inserted later, is strongly deprecated, because when the
valves are eventually inserted, t he stresses sometimes set up
in the bolts, flanges and bodies by hauling exceptionally
heavy lengths of pipe into alignment, can be detrimental
t o t he subsequent smooth functioning of the valves.
Locate valves for convenient operation and for valve safe-
t y. Valves can be operated efficiently only if the hand-
wheel can be reached without difficulty or danger. Valves
cannot be abused and still operate efficiently. Do not
expose them t o damaging blows. A bent stem not only
cripples a valve, but may cause a shut-down that results
in costly delay and repair.
Merely being able t o open a valve is not enough. If lack of
clearance prevents full opening, excessive pressure drop.
disc vibration, and quick wear on valve seats will result.
Ensure ample room for repacking stuffing boxes t o remove
stem and bonnet for inspection.
Care should be taken t o ensure that all rust preventative
and dirt which may have accumulated in t he valve during
storage at site, is ren~oved before connecting.
For large diameter pipelines, valves should either be sup-
plied with integrally cast supporting feet, or steps should
be taken t o support t he line as close t o t he valve as possible
t o obviate undue stresses.
When t he pipe is in place, be sure it is properly supported.
For example, a valve cannot hold up an unsupported
length of pipe without undergoing great strain. The flanges
should be accurately aligned - by checking with a spirit
level, both horizontally along the pipe and vertically
across t he flange faces. It is then ready t o be bolted tight.
Ease of access t o a valve is most important; the time taken
t o close a valve, in an emergency, often mainly comprises
t he time taken t o reach it.
Where associated controls are involved, care is t o be taken
t o ensure a satisfactory arrangement of connecting pipe-
work.
The impingement of high velocity fluids carrying abrasive
solid particles can seriously limit t he lifetime of seats and
discs of pipeline valves. To minirnise such damage, the
advantage of pipeline strainers upstream of important valves
cannot be over-emphasised.
Where a bypass is fitted, it is a sound principle t o fit the
by-pass valve t o open in t he same direction as t he main
valve.
Where necessary, t he float of a. level control valve should be
fitted in a separate chamber t o avoid wave motion, which
might cause hunting and vibration, t hus reducing t he sensi-
tivity o f t he valve.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Screwed Valves
Ensure that pipe is threaded t o t he correct length so that
joint is tight before the pipe end strikes t he valve seat.
Apply pipe compound t o t he pipe end, not t o t he valve
threads. This prevents t he compound getting on t o t he valve
seat where it may collect dirt and hunder tight shut-off.
Always use the wrench on the hexagon nearest the pipe.
This supports t he valve, otherwise t he applied torque can
distort t he valve body.
Flanged Valves
Never attempt t o obtain a tight joint with flange facings
which are dis-similar. Steel valves and fittings are normally
supplied with raised flange faces. Piping materials in iron
and bronze usually have flat flange faces. It is essential that
mating faces are identical. When joining 125 Ib. iron or
any bronze flange t o a steel flange. remove t he raised face
on t he steel flange and use a full faced gasket for the joint.
Tighten bolts in t he order shown below t o eliminate any
local stress concentration and repeat in the same order
until the joint is uniformly tight.
Gaskets
Tight flanged joints depend on correct gasket selection,
depending on service requirements. There are three general
types of gaskets.
1. Flat ring gaskets which cover the face of the flange t o
inside of bolt holes.
2. Full face gaskets in which bolt holes are punched.
3. A metal ring of oval or octagonal cross-section which
fits into machined grooves in matching flange faces used
mainly in high pressure and high temperature service.
Gaskets are made in various materials as follows -
1. Rubber - for low pressure and cold service.
2. Asbestos compositions - for cold service at higher pres-
sure and hot service.
3. Metallic - for intermediate and high pressure and tem-
perature.
To insert gasket, with t he flanges secured in position, slip
in half t he bolts at the bottom. This will hold the gasket in
place. Gaskets should be coated with graphite and oil or
other recommended lubricant before insertion. They are
then easier t o remove if the joint is opened later. Finally,
slip in the remaining bolts, apply a little thread lubricant
t o each, and t urn up all nuts hand-tight; tighten as shown in
the above diagram.
Gate Valves
Always ensure that a gate valve is closed before installing
it. If left in t he open position, it can become twisted. This
will cause leaking due t o the gate and seatings not mating
properly.
Gate valves are not recommended for throttling and should
usually be fully open or fully closed
Air Release Valves
These should be fitted in well made pits covered by heavily
perforated surface boxes.
Pressure Reducing Valves
For maximum efficiency these should be correctly set up,
with the proper throttle adjustment made, between the
pipeline and t he operating (or actuating) cylinder. They
should be fitted on bypasses with isolating valves, t o allow
maintenance t o be carried out without closing down t he
main.
Safety and Relief Valves
Safety valves must be mounted with the spindle vertically
above t he valve. Sufficient clearance should be available
above the valve t o permit withdrawal of internal compo-
nents.
It is recommended that t he connection between the safety
valve and the boiler or superheater outlet should be as short
as possible and should always be t he same size as the bore
of the valve.
It is important that the exhaust piping should be of ample
size t o accommodate t he full capacity of the valve and
never be less than one size larger than the outlet branch.
It is recommended that where exhaust piping i~ a consider-
able length, an expansion joint be fitted t o ensure that
expansion and contraction movements are not transmitted
t o the valve body causing strain and possible distortion
and irregular operation of t he valve.
The vertical piping should be as straight as possible and
securely anchored t o the building structure t o resist the
reaction of the steam flow, and t o support t he weight of
the exhaust piping, etc.
The drain connections from the expansion joint tee and
the valve body should be piped independently t o any suit-
able open-ended drain t o avoid steam from other sources
flowing back into the exhaust piping or body.
Pressure Gauges
Pressure gauges should be mounted in a vertical position
unless otherwise specified, free from vibration and
screwed tightly into position with the hexagon provided
on the shank. The joint washer should be soft metal or
compressed asbestos. Where heat is likely t o be conducted
to the tube as in the case of steam, gauges should be pro-
tected by an efficient syphon. Pressure gauges should not
be subjected t o sudden fluctuation of pressure. Under
conditions of this nature, a fine regulating valve should b'e
fitted just below the gauge.
Check Valves
Care must be taken t o install these valves in the correct
position. The arrow cast on the body indicates the direc-
tion of flow. Ensure that the valve discs or plugs have a
satisfactory gravity drop.
VALVE MAINTENANCE RECOMMENDATIONS
Valve maintenance begins with t he selection of a valve,
because correct choice of type and materials will minimise
the need for maintenance. Valves, however, need regular
inspection during operation and prompt attention when
troubles arise.
Preventive maintenance may be defined as 'the carrying out
by competent personnel of inspection and overhaul at
regular intervals t o ensure continued efficient working of
the mechanism involved'.
Valves are mechanisms. As a general rule they should be
subject t o scheduled maintenance in the manner normal t o
all running machinery, but in every instance it is recom-
mended that t he procedure followed is that given in manu-
facturers' maintenance instructions.
Most valves are designed t o permit inspection without ser-
iously interrupting service. Without removing the valve
body from the line, t he complete bonnet and disc assembly
can be removed for cleaning and inspection. Seating sur-
faces in the body can be checked at t he same time.
Whenever the operating conditions of a system are altered
check the valves t o ensure that they are suitable for the new
working conditions.
Where special grinding gear is supplied by the valve manu-
facturer this should be used at all times, t he manufacturer's
recommendations of grinding procedure being followed
implicitly. This is vital for safety and relief valves where
maintenance of valve lids and seats is a condition of valve
functioning.
Safety and relief valves of all types should be periodically
tested by easing gear t o maintain freedom from sticking.
Isolation and emergency valves only work ocasionally, but
when they are needed they are needed urgently so they
should be tested regularly.
Do not allow valve packing t o leak. This reduces the effici-
ency of the packing and may make a new valve stem
necessary. The leaking also wastes material. A leaking
valve often means a chattering valve. The chatter initiates
other troubles, e.g. accidental closing.
A leak in a valve can often be remedied simply and quickly
if caught in time. Stem leaks can normally be fixed by
slightly tightening the packing nut or gland. Bonnet and
flange leaks can be caused by bolts loosening under service
strain. If tightening the joint does not stop the leak, then
inserting a new gasket probably will.
Wear on stem packing is due mainly t o the rising and turn-
ing motion of the valve stem, combined with deteriorating
effects of service conditions. A few drops of oil on the stem
now and t hen. helps to reduce friction - and wear. Lubri-
cate exposed stem threads.
When screwed bonnets are hard t o remove, use d short
wrench and tap it a few times with a hammer. This is more
effective than a sustained pull and reduces the risk of dis-
tortion.
ASSEMBLIES
Exercising
Valves that are not operated frequently and which may re-
main open or closed for long periods should be worked,
even partially, about once a month.
Inspection
Should be carried out thoroughly every six months.
Lubrication
Greasing of spindles and gearing, and other working com-
ponents as appropriate, should be performed every six
months. (In the case of a unit that has not been operated
for a long time all moving parts should be lubricated before
operation).
Gland Packing
It should not be overlooked that gland packing tends t o
harden and make movement of the valve element more
difficult if a unit is left inactive for prolonged periods.
Gaskets
When faulty gaskets are the cause of leaks, care should be
taken t o ensure that replacements are of t he correct mat-
erial.
Face and Seat Ring Replacement
To loosen renewable face or seat rings, a good rust solvent
is recommended. Where it is necessary t o saw or split a
ring t o remove i t , damage to the body, especially in the case
of a screwed ring, must be carefully avoided.
When inserting a screwed replacement, graphite compound
on the threads will not only facilitate tightening, but re-
moval later. When inserting a shouldered ring, it must be
made tight against t he shoulder.
Vibration
After a lengthy period of operation connecting bolts should
be checked for tightness (this should be done more often if
vibration is experienced in the pipeline).
Freezing
Where it is necessary t o keep a valve closed in cold weather,
precautions should be taken t o prevent it from
'freezing-up'.
AIR RELIEF VALVES
Regular checks should be made t o make sure that the balls
are free.
Any sign of leakages from an air relief valve should be look-
ed for, and if it occurs, dealt with immediately (a leaking
valve will attract vegetable roots which could grow rapidly
to such an extent that the valve may fail to function).
All free-water should be kept out of air relief valve
chambers t o obviate any possibility of stagnation which
could cause contan~ination of the air.
AUTOMATIC CONTROL VALVES
Automatic control valves, for example pressure-reducing
or pressure-retaining valves, are easily 'worked' by hand
t o discover whether or not they are free. This practice
is t o be deprecated, however, as it can cause a great deal
of damage t o the valve setting. It is always wise t o follow
manufacturers' maintenance instructions for these valves.
CHECK VALVES
Springs should be replaced as soon as t hey become soft.
Check valves are particularly liable t o nodule growth; con-
sequently. they should be inspected frequently.
EMERGENCY SHUT-OFF VALVES
Emergency or automatic shut-off valves may not be requir-
ed t o perform their proper function for years on end.
However. their very nature makes it all the more important
that t hey are kept maintained and efficient, through
regular inpection and testing.
GATE VALVES
Severe damage can result t o stems, gate nuts and faces by
the use of larger handwheels, tee-keys, etc., than those
originally supplied.
When repacking stuffing box, the ring splits should be
staggered so that they are not all on the same side of the
stem. thus forming a potential source of leakage. The
gland nuts should be tightened uniformly.
Where water seals are fitted, they should be inspected
frequently and t he filling cup topped-up as necessary.
It is normal practice t o provide easing screws on power
operated gate valves t o ease the gates off their seats in the
event of them becoming jammed in t he closed position,
but it is important t o remember t o retract the screws
after use.
Routine scouring is of great value in keeping the water free
of grit and t hus saving unnecessary wear and tear on valve
faces and seats.
ANCILLIARY EQUIPMENT
Headstocks
Where electrically driven headstock assemblies are situated
in the open or in unheated buildings, consideration should
be given t o changing oils in winter, as thick oil can slow
down the rate of operation appreciably.
Bypasses
These should be inspected, lubricated and worked at the
same time as the main valves.
SAFETY AND RELIEF VALVES
Due t o the fact that safety and relief valves are installed for
the protection of pressure vessels, boilers, superheaters,
economisers and pipe systems, it is obviously important t o
maintain all safety and relief valves in first class working
condition. In the case of relay types, special attention
should be paid t o maintaining the condition of the 'pilot'
or 'control' valve. When lid and seat faces have been care-
fully ground, a finishing or lapping plate should be applied
t o bot h faces t o remove any ridges formed while grinding
and also t o ensure perfectly flat faces. The setting of 'pilot'
or 'control' valves on twin safety valves is effected by
removing t he cap and sleeve from one pilot valve, which is
then adjusted t o the required blow-off pressure. This en-
sures that there is always one valve free t o operate. It is also
recommended that the spindle be firmly held t o prevent
turning when the compression screw is adjusted.
STUFFING BOX LEAKS
These can usually be stopped by 'pulling up' on the packing
nut. On bolted glands, care must be taken t o tighten bolts
evenly, as severe cocking of the gland will bind the stem. If
the stuffing box must be repacked, it can usually be done
while the valve is in service.
The first step in repacking a stuffing box is t o loosen all
parts t o permit easy access. Then remove old packing and
clean up the inside of the box. Polish the stem with fine
emery cloth t o remove all particles or any abrasions. Wipe
all parts bot h inside and outside the box.
Insert new packing and after inserting a few rings tamp well
into place, using the packing gland as a tamping tool. Add
enough packing t o fill the box. Since most manufacturers
use split ring type packing, care should be taken t o stagger
the ring splits so that they are not all in line. Reassemble
the stuffing box; a few turns of the handwheel and a few
drops of oil will help work in the packing on t he stem.
PIPE HANGER ADJUSTMENT
I t is good practice t o check hangers as well as valves. If a
line appears t o be settling or sagging in places, a few turns
on the hanger adjustment will restore the pipe to its correct
alignment .
VALVE NAMEPLATES
It is important that the original valve manufacturer' s name-
plate is at no time removed from the valve so that original
manufacturing data and specification can be traced. Also
the manufacturer's warranty may be invalidated by removing
the nameplate.
Surface Boxes
These should always be kept clear. the lids free of dirt and
t he lifting keys and valve operating keys kept in a place
known to all concerned.
Control Valves - Installation and Maintenance
INSTALLATION
Correct sizing and selection procedures, proper installation
techniques, and periodic preventive maintenance are all
factors that can lengthen control valve service life. Most
valve manufacturers furnish detailed installation and opera-
tion instructions with each valve. The following suggestions
are general in nature and should not take precedence over
the valve manufacturer's detailed instructions for a particu-
lar valve.
Use a recommended piping arrangement.
The Instrument Society of America has published a
Recommended Practice, ISA RP-4.2, on Standard Control
Valve Manifold Designs t o promote uniform control valve
installations. Following t he recommended practices will be
of benefit in the event that piping components have t o be
replaced due t o changing service requirements.
the actuator. Be sure the body is installed so that fluid flow
will be in the direction indicated by the flow arrow on the
body.
Allow ample room' to permit easy removal of the actuator
or valve plug for inspection and maintenance. Clearance
distances are normally available fromthe valve manufacturer.
For flanged valve bodies, be sure the flanges are properly
aligned to provide uniform contact on gasket surfaces.
Snug up the bolts gently in establishing proper flange
alignment and then finish tightening them in a criss-cross
pattern. This will avoid uneven gasket loading and will
help in preventing leaks, as well as avoiding the possibility
of damaging or even breaking, the flange itself.
Pressure taps installed upstream and downstream of the
control valve are useful for checking flow capacity or
pressure drop. Such taps should be located in straight runs
of pipe, away from elbows, reducers, or expanders, to
minimise inaccuracies resulting from fluid turbulence.
Ensure t he pipeline is clean
Foreign material in the pipeline could damage the seating
surface of the valve, or even obstruct the movement of the
valve plug or disc so that t he valve could not shut off pro-
perly. Therefore all pipelines should be blown out prior
t o valve installation. Ensure that pipe scale, metal chips,
welding slag and other foreign materials are removed.
Also, if the valve has screwed end connections, a good grade
of pipe sealant compound should be applied t o the male
pipeline threads only. Do not use sealant on the female
threads in the valve body because excess compound on the
female threads would be forced into t he valve body. This
could 'cause sticking of t he valve plug or accumulation of
dirt which would prevent good valve shutoff.
Inspect t he control valve before installation.
While valve manufacturers take steps to prevent shipment
damage, such damage is possible and should be discovered
and reported before the valve is installed.
Do not install a control valve known t o have been damaged
in shipment.
Before installation check for and remove all shipping stops
and protective plastic plugs or gasket surface coven. Check
inside the valve body t o make sure no foreign objects are
present.
Use good piping practice
Most control valves can be installed in any position. However
the most common method is with the actuator vertical and
above the valve body. If horizontal actuator mounting is
necessary, consider providing additional vertical support for
Use 6 or 8 mm tubing or pipe from the pressure connection
on the actuator t o the controller. Try t o keep this distance
relatively short and try t o minimise the number of fittings
and elbows in order t o reduce system time lag. If long dis-
tances are involved a valve positioner or a booster should be
used on the control valve.
Control valve maintance
In order to perform even routine maintenance procedures
on a control valve, it is important that the service tech-
nician has a thorough understanding of the fundamental
construction and operation of the valve. Without this
knowledge, the equipment could be damaged inadvertently,
or could cause injury t o personnel in the area. Most valve
manufacturers provide suggested safety measures in their
detailed instruction and operation manuals. Usually a
sectional drawing of the equipment is also furnished t o
help in understanding the operation of the equipment
as well as t o provide indentification of component parts.
In all major types of control valves, the actuator provides
force t o position a movable valve plug, disc, or ball in rela-
tion t o a stationary seat ring or sealing surface. The move-
able member should respond freely t o changes in actuator
loading pressure. If proper operation is not being received,
service is indicated. Before any maintenance procedures are
started, be sure that the line pressure is shut off and released
from the valve body and also that the pressure t o t he
actuator is shut off and captive pressure gradually released.
Failure t o take adequate precautions could create a situation
that would damage the equipment or injure personnel.
Acknowledgement: Fisher Controls Inc.
Control Specialists (Pty) Ltd
Control Valve Noise Reduction
INTRODUCTION
Noise is gradually being recognised as a major source of
environmental pollution. In an industrial location, control
valves can be a major cont ri but or t o t he t ot al noise level of
an area. This section will briefly explain control valve
noise and its relationship t o t he worker.
DEFINITION OF NOISE
Noise is an unwanted sound. I t is measured on a logarithmic
scale which is weighted t o reflect t he hearing range of t he
human ear. A pure t one at 1000 Hz will seem much louder
than a pure t one of t he same intensity at 100 Hz (Figure 1).
Human sensitivity tu different sound levels and frequencies
can create some surprising results. Shown below in Table 1
are examples of common sound and their sound pressure
levels. Also, Table 2 shows the human perception of an
increase in sound level. It is interesting t o not e t hat a
barely perceptible change in t he sound results in a doubling
of t he acoustic energy.
Table 1. Comparison of Intensity, Sound Pressure Level,
Common Sounds
Relative
energy
intensity
--
i 1014
1 1013
1 x 1012
1 x 10"
1 x 10l 0
1 109
1 x l o s
1 x 10'
1 x l o6
I l os
i 104
i 103
1 x 10-
1 x 10'
1
Decibels
dBa
Example
Proximity t o jet aircraft
Threshold of pain
Large chipping hammer
Near elevated train
Outside aut o on highway
Voice - shouting
Inside aut o at high speed
Voice - conversational
Voice - face-to-face
Inside general office
Inside private office
Inside bedroom
Inside empt y theatre
Anechoic chamber
Threshold of hearing
Table 2 . Changes in Sound Level
Increase in Human subjective
sound level ( dBA) response
--
3 Just pel ceptible
3 C'learlb noticeable
10 Twice as loud
2 0 Much louder
-
20
2)
-
J 10
> UJ
^ O
3 t/1
- 10
2
0
2 -20
s
lU - 30
>
<
- 4 0
a
- 50
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N t o o : 0 0 0 0 0 0
t o 0 0 0 0 0
- N 1 0 0 0
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 1. I1 C St andard A-Wcigllting Curve f or Sound Level Met ers
Provisions of t he Occupational Safety and Health Act
(OSHA) have limited t he duration of exposure t o noise
levels in industrial locations. The shorter t he duration of
exposure for t he worker, t he higher mav be the sound level.
Figure 2 gives the OSHA limits. As pertaining t o valves, the
most important values are the 9 0 dBA level for a normal
eight-hour working day and 115 dB.4 level for a short
duration as might be encountered in an emergency vent.
The limits set byt he OSHA standards are based on worker
hearing loss caused by long term exposure t o high noise
levels. Statistical studies performed by universities and
government laboratories have established expected normal
hearing decay with age. The allowable noise levels have
been selected so as not t o accelerate this normal decay
beyond accepted risk criteria. What normal risk criteria is,
is a complicated social, legal, and economic problem.
Within our present day society, the damage risk criteria
have been selected t o protect workers against a decrease
in their ability t o hear normal everyday speech. As exposure
levels increase, t he percentage of the total hearing handicap
due t o noise increases dran~atically.
- --
Duration of exposure Sound level
(hours) (dBA)
-- - - - -
8 9 0
4 9 5
2 100
1 105
1
-
2 1 0
or less 115
Although t he OSHA standards t o prot ect workers against
a hearing handicap are i mport ant , there are ot her health
and safety factors which are not included in this criteria.
Recent studies have shown t hat workers exposed t o high
noise levels developed a statistically significant increase in
the rate of heart disease and ulcers. The ability t o communi-
cate wi t h workers by auditory warnings, bot h verbal and
mechanical, will have reduced effects at excessive noise
levels. These risks have not yet been correlated t o actual
noise exposure, but may produce significant changes in
standards of t he fut ure.
Apart from t he impact on workers, excessive noise is an
indication of high valve body o r pipe acceleration. A sound
level of 125 dB is equivalent t o a 14g acceleration at the
material surface. Mechanical damage t o valve mount ed
instruments and vibrational loosening of bolting may
result.
There are three t ypes of control valve noise. These are
listed in t he order of increasing importance.
MECHANICAL VIBRATION
The throttling process creates high forces within a control
valve. These forces can act on t he valve plug, in a rhythmic
and oscillatory manner. The plug will have a natural fre-
quency which can be modelled by a cantelevered beam
with a mass at t he end. As is common for a dynamically
excited system, excessive mot i on will occur if t he frequency
of t he forcing funct i on (the flow) is in the area of the
natural frequency of t he plug. Contact between the plug
and guide bushing or t he plug and seat ring is possible.
Noise generated by this mechanism will have a tonal charac-
teristic: it is. most of t he acoustic power will occur in a
very narrow frequency range.
Within t he current state-of-the ar t , it is impossible t o pre-
dict t he occurrence of this t ype of noise. If valve noise is
suspected of being caused by mechanical vibration, a det er-
mination may be performed b\ utilising a frequency
analysis. Acoustic energy located in a very narrow range of
frequencies would indicate the noise iscaused by mechanical
vibration.
To cure mechanical vibration, either t he frequency of the
forcing function or t he natural frequency of the plug must
be shifted. This can be most easily accomplished by turning
the valve around in t he line: t hat is. from the flow-to-close
t o t he flow-to-open direction. Another method would be t o
change the natural frequency of the plug. Such remedies
as reduction of guide clearances, larger stein sizes, and
changes in plug mass. have all been successful.
Modern control valve design has almost completely eliminat-
ed this t ype of problem. Although techniques f or predicting
vibrational noise d o not exist, many met hods of dealing
with mechanical vibration, once identified, are available.
HYDRODYNAMIC NOISE
The liquid passing t hrough a control valve may exhibit
three types of flow: subcritical, cavitation, and flashing.
Each t ype will produce its own particular noise. The valve
style, inlet pressure, outlet pressure, and t he fluid' s vapour
pressure, will determine t he fluid state. The different types
of liquid flow noise are explained as follows.
Liquid Flow Noise
The pressure profile for subcritical liquid flow is shown in
Figure 3. Since t he actual pressure is greater than the vapour
pressure at all points within the valve. t he fluid will remain
as a liquid. Noise is produced by flow impingement caused
by intense turbulence of the liquid on t he valve and piping
system. Noise generation depends upon the following
quant i t y (Cv) and t he system pressure dr op.
--
Fig. 3
Cavitation Noise
Cavitation is a two-phase phenomenon. The service condi-
tions within a valve can be such t hat the pressure at the vena
contracta will dr op t o the vapour pressure of the fluid.
When this happens, vapour bubbles are formed within the
liquid; t hat is, the liquid is boiling. Downstream of the vena
contracta, t he flow area increases and the pressure will
recover t o the ultimate downstream value. This increased
pressure causes t he vapour bubbles t o collapse t o their
liquid st at e.
Although cavitation may cause annoying noise and vibration,
t he real problem is rapid deterioration of valve parts. If
the vapour bubbles implode on or near a solid surface,
t he potential for physical damage will exist. The amount
of damage can be extensive and eventually prevent the
control valve from performing its intended function. The
damaged surfaces would have a dull. rough, and pitted
appearance.
A number of techniques are available for dealing with
cavitation damage. At modest inlet pressures, the use of
cavitation control trim is the most economical solution.
This trim directs the implosion of vapour bubbles t o an
area where no damage will occur. The small, multihole
design concept used in low noise cages is an example of
such trim. The valve would be installed flow-to-close.
With the flow directed t o the centre of the cage, the high
velocity fluid jets then impinge on each other. The flow
undergoes rapid deceleration in mid-stream, resulting in
pressure buildup. This pressure buildup forces the vapour
bubbles to collapse away from t he vital valve components.
Because of the intensity of vapourisation at high inlet
pressures, cavitation control trim has been found t o be
ineffective. In this region, highly specialised anti-cavitation
valves must be specified. The trim in these valves is designed
t o eliminate cavitation by distributing t he pressure drop
across many steps. Friction is increased t o the point where
substantial fluid velocity is not required for high energy
loss. This design reduces pressure recovery which results
in an overall Cf value approaching 1,00.
Flashing
If the system downstream pressure is at or below the
vapour pressure of the liquid, a portion of the flow will
vapourise without subsequent bubble collapse. This type of
flow is known as flashing. Noise levels substantially quieter
than that of a cavitating liquid have been found.
Although there have been incidences of valve damage with
this service, i t may be controlled by t he proper selection of
materials. Flashing damage is caused by liquid droplets
impinging upon material surfaces. The droplets have been
entrained within the vapour portion of the flow and travel
at a higher than normal velocity for a liquid. The
appearance of flashing damage resembles a mild erosion or
sandblasting effect. Stainless steel or chrome moly bodies
and hardened trim provide excellent life
Fig. 4. Typical liquid noise characteristic
Figure 4 represents a summation of hydrodynamic noise.
This shows a typical noise profile with increasing pressure
drop for a liquid. The first regime is characterised by a
moderately increasing noise which generally does not
exceed 90 dBA. As cavitation begins, the slope of the noise
curve turns upward and rises t o a peak in the full cavitation
area. It is possible for the noise t o be excessive; however,
the potential for valve damage should be of primary concern.
Before the onset of flashing, the vapour bubbles become
more stable and implode with far less energy. The noise
level decreases considerably as the downstream pressure
approaches the vapour pressure of the fluid.
AERODYNAMIC NOISE
Over 95% of all noise problems are encountered on com-
pressible flow. Noise levels in excess of 160 dBA have been
measured from a vent valve. The throttling process converts
potential energy t o kinetic energy which dramatically
increases the frictional loss. Most of this loss is converted
into heat and dissipated harmlessly: however, a small
portion of it is converted into noise by turbulence and/or
shock waves. A maximum value for this conversion of
0,5% has been reported.
A control valve can be regarded as an energy reducing
element. A portion of this energy is converted into noise.
The proportionality of conversion is called the acoustical
efficiency n, and is related t o the critical flow factor and
pressure ratio. At subcritical flow, the noise is generated
by intense turbulence created in the shear layer downstream
of t he vena contracta. As t he flow reaches sonic velocity at
the vena contracta, shock waves develop and become the
dominant noise source. At high pressure drops, the flow
through most standard valves is critical and thus their noise
conversion rate is t he same.
To a certain extent the downstream piping will attenuate
the noise produced by a valve. The attenuation is caused
by two mechanisms. The first is an acoustic mismatch
between the fluid and piping which reflects some of the
noise. The other is the absorption of a part of the acoustic
energy by the pipe walls.
Aerodynamic Noise Reduction
Reduction of control valve aerodynamic noise can be
achieved by either source treatment or path treatment.
Because sound propagates virtually unatxenuated in down-
stream pipe, source treatment is the preferable method.
In addition, very high sound levels inside piping systems can
damage the pipe and mechanical components located down-
stream by inducing excessive vibration.
Acknowledgement: Dresser Valves and Controls (Pty) Ltd
Solving Cavitation Problems
DESCRIPTION OF CAVITATION
Cavitation is a two-stage phenomenon. The first. stage is the
formation of vapour bubbles in a fluid stream as a result of
the absolute pressure at t he vena contracta falling t o or
below the vapour pressure of the flowing liquid. In effect,
the liquid is boiling.
The second stage is t he implosion or 'collapse' of these
vapour bubbles further downstream when the pressure
increases t o a point above the fluid vapour pressure. When
the vapour bubbles 'collapse' on or near a solid surface, a
substantial amount of energy is released over a small area
producing physical damage and noise. The amount of
damage, in a short period of time, can be extensive md
eventually prevents the control valve from performing its
intended function. The damaged surfaces would have a
rough and pitted appearance. The noise accompanying
cavitation is similar t o that of gravel passing through the
valve.
After cavitation has begun, further decreases in the valve
outlet pressure (i.e. increased AP) result in increased vapour-
isation and increased cavitation intensity t o a point (see
Figure 2), with no increase in flow.
FLUID DAMAGE POTENTIAL
As devastating as cavitation damage can be, it is fortunate
that its occurrence is associated with relatively few process
liquids. Experience indicates that most of t he applications
in which cavitation damage occurs are on water service.
Water is one of the most common process fluids in use
especially in power generation. Other proposed reasons for
water's notoriety in this regard are as follows:-
1. Well Defined Vapour Pressures
Many investigators, backed by field experience feel that
mixtures seldom cause cavitation damage. Hydrocarbon
mixtures for example, have a very vague vapour pressure and
will 'boil' over a relatively wide temperature range at any
given pressure. Gasoline, at atmospheric pressure, boils over
a temperature range of about 35' C t o 200' C. It is felt
that this results in an apparent buffering effect protecting
t he body wall and trim from cavitation damage. This theory
is supported by t he fact that air injection at or upstream of
the vena contracta of a valve throttling water (under
cavitating conditions) will also prevent cavitation damage.
2. High Surface Tension
Investigators also feel that the high surface tension associated
with water enhances the damage potential due t o the high
related implosion stresses.
Other fluids having a high damage potential are water-based
solutions, narrow-cut hydrocarbons, and most pure fluids.
Examples of fluids that normally do not cause cavitation
damage are liquid mixtures, liquids with entrained gases
and mixtures of liquid and its vapour.
Regardless of calculated results, liquid applications should
be reviewed to determine the need for cavitation protection.
Fig. 1. Pressure Gradi ent across cont rol valve.
NOTE: See page 218 for key to symbols.
0,02 0.04 0,05
Fig. 2.
PRESSURE GUIDELINES
The following pressure guidelines are based on field ex-
perience and analysis of valve geometry. Because of the
great diversity of bot h flow patterns and service conditions,
these pressure guidelines are conservative.
Upstream Pressure < 350 kPa
In general, conventional valves should withstand the effects
of cavitation and not incur serious damage. The use of hard-
ened trim materials may be required.
Some conventional valve styles may be used at higher pres-
sures (example : cage guided valves installed flow -to-close ).
However, other limitations such as vibration of light dut y
butterfly valves may be overriding.
350 kPa < Upstream Pressure < 7000 kPa
The potential for cavitation damage exists throughout this
pressure range. The use of cavitation control trim is recom-
mended.
Upstream Pressure > 7000 kPa
Above 7000 kPa, severe cavitation damage is likely. Cavita-
tion should be eliminated through the use of Variable
Resistance Trim.
MATERIAL SELECTION
There is no material of construction capable of indefinitely
withstanding the damaging effects of cavitation. Valve trim
and body life can be somewhat increased, however, through
the use of high strength alloys. In general, resistance t o
cavitation damage increases with material yeild strength
and hardness.
Limited testing indicates that Stellite is one of t he best
practical materials t o resist cavitation damage. Stellite will
typically last at least 20 times as long as 316 stainless and
50 times as long as carbon steel when subjected t o the
same cavitation conditions. Satisfactory trim life has been
obtained with this material on low or moderate pressure
drop applications. Also, the use of a 316 stainless steel body
is known to improve body resistance t o cavitation damage.
However, when faced with severe cavitation,(P, > 350 kPa)
exotic materials is definitely not t he answer. The table
below illustrates t he relative resistance of various materials
t o cavitation damage.
INDEX OF RESISTANCE TO CAVITATION DAMAGE
MATERIAL INDEX
CAVITATION NOISE
Cavitation noise is quite pronounced and easy t o diagnose.
Typically, it sounds like gravel passing through t he down-
stream piping. This noise is produced by t he implosion of
vapour bubbles downstream of t he valve vena contracta.
The following formula is used to predict hydrodynamic
noise. I t indicates that cavitation noise depends primarily
on critical pressure drop, actual pressure drop and the pres-
sure recovery coefficient. Although noise levels can exceed
90 dBA the damage associated with a cavitating fluid should
be of primary concern.
AP - Kc
+ 5 ["-'' cf2 - Kc La (P2 - Pv) - 30 LOG (t)
Stellite No. 6
440C
1 7 - 4 P H
Type 316 St.St.
Cast Iron
Chrome Moly Steel
Carbon Steel
Brass
Aluminium
+ 5 - 5 LOG (AP - APcriti,, )
See following page for key t o symbols.
Special Note:
If cavitation control trim is used, subtract
10 dBA from this equation.
Figure 2 is a representative graph of sound level vs.
AP/(Pi - Pv) for a specific set of service conditions.
Clearly indicated is the dominance of cavitation noise in
liquid applications.
CAVITATION PREVENTION
AP < c; (P, - pV)
The first alternative t o avoid cavitation damage should be
to prevent the cavitation phenomenon. Elimination of
cavitation dramatically reduces the potential for damage,
noise and related vibration, as cavitation is driectly linked
t o pressure recovery in the valve. Three basic approaches
t o eliminate cavitation are recommended:
1. For each valve style, t he degree of pressure recovery is
defined by its critical flow factor, Cr. In applications
Key: E - Excellent
G - Go o d
F - Fair
P - Poor
that involve cavitation, the first approach t o investigate
is the use of a valve with a higher Cr (low pressure
recovery).
Potential success of increasing Ce or F, can be deter-
mined by using the above equation. If the pressure drop
through t he valve is less than Cf2 (Pi - P2) , full cavitation
will be avoided.
Another feasible approach may be to increase the up-
stream and/or downstream pressure so that the pressure
at the vena contracta P C , does not drop below the
vapour pressure, P . This can sometimes be done, with-
out changing t he overall process,by changing the physical
location of the valve.
3. A third alternative is t he use of back pressure plates.
This approach is most commonly used in on/off applica-
tion, or where the expected variation in flow is small.
A restriction is inserted downstream of a valve reducing
t he valve AP to a point where cavitation is prevented.
When sizing a plate, flow across t he plate also may either
be critical or subcritical. If critical, cavitation may occur
downstream of t he plate. Designing plates with holes
as close t o the centre as possible will help prevent
cavitation damage downstream. Plate required C is
calculated using t he following equations with a plate Cl
of 095. The required flow area is based on a C of
25/in2 for a plate thickness t o hole diameter ratio of
2: l Hole diameter of 3 - 6 mm are recommended. The
major disadvantage of back pressure plates is that they
are fixed capacity elements. A plate is sized for a par-
ticular set of service conditions and a change in service
conditions may require a new plate. The use of back
pressure plates on throttling applications is tricky and
often impractical. Lower flow rates will produce higher
drop across t he valve,restoring the potential for cavitation
The following table indicates the limiting C for conven-
tional plate design.
NOMINAL
PLATE SIZE cv
each other. Flow undergoes rapid deceleration in midstream
resulting in pressure build-up. This pressure build-up forces
the vapour bubbles t o collapse away from vital valve com-
ponents.
BUBBLE IMPLOSION
'S
FLOW
THROI.
CAGE
JGt
Fig. 3. Cage Type Cavitation Control Trim
FLOW
THROl
CAGE
JGH
An alternative method of trim is based on similar design
concepts. Instead of a cage, as illustrated in Figure 3, it
utilises a stacked disc plug. The fluid jets are directed t o
the centre of the plug as in the cage trim design,
KEY TO SYMBOLS:
(U .S. units)
Cv = Valve Flow Coefficient
C = Critical Flow Factor = +FL
PI = Upstream Pressure, psia
PZ = Downstream Pressure psia
Pv = Vapour Pressure of Liquid at Flowing
Temperature psia
AP = Actual Pressure Drop (Pi - Pz) , psi
q = Liquid Flow Rate, U .S. gpm
W = Liquid Flow Rate, pounds per hour
CAVITATION CONTROL
350 kPa < P, < 7000 kPa
If it is not feasible t o eliminate cavitation by methods pre-
viously defined, cavitation control must be considered.
The basic concept behind cavitation control is t o:
1. minimise the amount of cavitation by maintaining a
high critical flow factor, C,., and,
2 . direct the implosion of vapour bubbles t o a point where
no damage will occur.
The multi-small hole design concept shown in Figure 3
minimises the intensity of cavitation. Small holes limit the
amount of throttling energy in eachj et , reducing the chance
of impact against valve internals. Additionally, the valve is
installed flow-to-close with the flow directed t o the centre
of the cage. The high velocity fluid jets then impinge on Acknowledgement: Dresser Valves and Controls (Pt y) Ltd
Water Hammer and Surging in Pipelines
WATER HAMMER
When starting or stopping a pump from which discharge
flows into a pipeline, certain pressure fluctuations are
created which travel up and down the line. It is impossible
in the scope of this article to deal with these fluctuations
in detail; however, the nature of this phenomenon and its
causes may be briefly described and counter-measures
indicated.
The starting of a pump calls forth a considerable change
in the pressrure prevailing in the pipes which are connected
to the suction and discharge branches. This is due to a mass
of water previously at rest now being set in motion by the
rotating impeller. The transition of the mass of water from
the state of rest to a mean velocity of flow v is accom-
panied by a temporary oscillation. The opening of the
sluice valve in the pipe system in its first phase causes a
substantial quantity of water to be withdrawn from the
suction pipe, with a consequent drop of pressure in the
latter. On the other hand, the pressure in the discharge
pipe increases owing to the supply of-additional water to it.
On account of the greater length of this latter pipe, the
amplitude of the phenomenon is greater. The effect of the
pressure wave is a matter which warrants closer examination
and may therefore be described in more detail.
Some interesting facts about this unique wave motion or
water hammer may first be mentioned. It will readily be
accepted that the pipe wall may be regarded-as an elastic
body, whereas the water within it appears to be entirely
incompressible. This latter assumption, however, is not
correct. When a pump is started the pipe walls as well as
the water itself undergo an elastic deformation due to the
sudden influx of pressure energy. The pipe line expands a
little, as far as the elasticity of the wall permits; and the
water column is compressed in accordance with the bulk
elasticity modulus of water. This modulus is of the order
of 2 x l o4 kg /sq.cm. i.e. about one hundredth of that of
the metal wall of the pipe. As the deformation of a medium
is an inverse function of the elasticity modulus, it will be
seen that the linear deformation of the water is roughly
100 times greater than that of the pipe.
As in all elasticproblems, the expansion of the pipe combined
with the simultaneous compression of the mass of water
after each flow disturbance reaches a maximum value,
after which the deformation of the pipe and the water
again decreases and, in a repeated cycle of fluctuations,
approaches nearer and nearer to the new state of stability.
The fluctuations themselves are a function of the nature
and the operating speed of the mechanism which caused
the initial disturbance (pump, non-return valve, or sluice
valve). The elastic deformations of the pipe and water
do not spread instantaneously along the whole pipe length,
but are propagated in the form of a wave travelling at a
high velocity \ aa' dependent on the elastic properties of the
liquid and the wall. Of special influence, however, is the
ratio -D, i.e. the pipe diameter divided by the wall thickness
e
'e'. The magnitude of the velocity 'a' as determined by Allievi
where if = 0,s for sheet-iron pipes and if = 1,O for cast-iron
pipes. For sheet-iron pipes, for instance, the velocity ' a '
attains values from 800 to 1400 m 1s
The pressure prevailing at any point of the pipe can only be
expressed in simple algebraic form if instantaneous action
of the flowdisturbing mechanism is assumed. Although
this is never the case in practice, the expression thus obtain-
ed permits the possible peak of the pressure rise to be
determined.
If Avo is the mean velocity change in the flow, the pressure
rise Ay can be calculated with the equation:
When a pump is stopped or a valve closed a similar pressure
change occurs in the pipe, but in the opposite sense. In this
case the mass of water which is already in motion tends to
come quickly to a standstill both in the suction and more
particularly in the discharge pipe.
In Figure 1 the pressure fluctuations caused by interrupting
the discharge are represented in a simplified form. It is
assumed that the pump, while running steadily, is deliver-
ing a certain quantity of water, which is constant in every
section of the pipeline, into a reservoir. The pipeline is
further assumed to be of the length* 1,'to be horizontal and
free of frictional losses. The water level in the reservoir is
at the height Ho, thus creating a static pressure Ho in the
pipeline.
If now the pump is suddently brought to a standstill, the
velocity of the water will in a short time drop to zero.
This change in velocity from v0 to zero is propagated along
the pipeline in the form of a wave which reduces the
initial static pressure Ho to Ho - AH (Figure l b) and which
travels at the speed 'a'from the pump end of the line towards
the reservoir.
1
After the time lapse reckoned from the time of the
beginning of the flow disturbance, the wave reaches the free
water surface in the reservoir, from where it is reflected
back towards the pump. The pressure on the free water
surface being obviously invariable, the superimposition of
the reflected wave un the primary can only add up to zero.
The reflected wave is therefore of equal magnitude t o the
primary wave, but of opposite sign; in other words the
reflected wave is a pressure wave + AH (Figure Id and e).
Behind the crest of this wave the pressure in the pipe is
restored to the original value Ho.
2 1
After the interval this latter pressure wave reaches the
closed sluice valve (or non-return valve). At the valve the
a The pump is discharging a constant quantity through the
valve and through a pipeline of length '1.'
Fig.1 A simplified diagrammatic representation of the course of
pressure fluctuations in a pipeline after sudden stopping of
a pump or closing of a valve.
b The pump stops (power failure) or the valve closes
quickly. A wave of reduced pressure - AH travels in
the direction of the arrow towards the reservoir.
c Arrival of the reduced pressure wave at the reservoir.
d The wave of reduced pressure is reflected from the
reservoir as a wave of increased pressure.
e The wave of increased pressure travels in the direction
of the arrow towards the pump.
f Arriving at the closed valve the pressure wave is again
reflected and superimposes itself as a pressure wave +
AH over the static pressure He.
g This pressure wave AH travels i n the direction of the
arrow towards the reservoir.
h Arriving at the open reservoir the pressure wave is once
more reflected back towards the pump as a wave of
reduced pressure.
There the cycle starts anew as from b .
velocity can only be zero, so that the pressure wave of reservoir, from where it is reflected once more towards the
magnitude + AH is returned and superimposes itself on the pump. Being reflected from a free water surface, it now
pipe pressure Ho (Figure I f and g). Behind the crest of the takes the opposite sign, thus reducing the pressure in the
wave the pressure reaches the value Ho + AH. pipeline again to Ho (Figure lh). When the valve is reached
the whole process begins once more inasmuch as an imper-
3 1
ceptibility weaker wave travels again towards the reservoir
At the moment -$ this latter pressure wave arrives at the
(Figure lb).
In practice it will be found that cutting-out of t he electric
motor is the commonest reason for the phenomenon
described. The succession of pressure fluctuations above
and below the static pressure is directly dependent on
the velocity of propagation ' a1 and the velocity change
Av of t he liquid in the pipe.
It is t o be remembered, however, that a pump will rarely
come t o a sudden standstill, but will, on account of the
inertia of the rotating parts, have a prolonged slowing-down
time. The longer the pipe and the longer t he time lapse
between the starting and the return of the pressure waves,
the more important the slowing-down period of the pump
becomes. The magnitude of the pressure rise AH thus
becomes a function of the moment of gyration W R ~ of the
pumping set as well as of t he characteristic of the pump and
the size of t he pipe. Only exact calculation of each case
allows t he necessary measures t o be selected either t o reduce
the pressure drop in the first phase (primary wave) or t o
keep the pressure rise in t he reflected wave within such
limits as will not endanger t he pipeline.
Accurate investigation of this problem isessential, especially
when the discharge pipe follows a course as shown b y b or
' c' in Figure 2. The profile 'c', for instance, with its pronoun-
ced peak, would sever the primary wave and under certain
circumstances a total vacuum might develop at the highest
point of the pipe. The vacuum would cause t he water
column t o be divided into two separate masses of fluid and
the pipe would t hen run the risk either of being compressed
by the surrounding atmosphere or else bursting as a result
of the sharp pressure rise when the two masses of water
clash together again. As the process of surging, once initiated,
cannot be held up, suitable measures must be taken to
prevent it or at least t o reduce the amplitude of the wave
motion.
Profile a
With change of inclination, but without danger of a
vacuum forming in t he pipe.
Profile b
With change of inclination and possible danger of a
vacuum forming in t he pipe.
Profile c
With change of inclination and danger of a vacuum
forming in t he pipe.
Fi g. 2 Various possible layouts of discharge pipes.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINST SURGING
Surging in pipelines and the consequent water-hammer
blows can be counteracted in t wo fundamentally different
ways, according to the layout of the plant, t he profile, and
t he length of the pipeline:
1. by checking t he formation of the initial reduced pressure
wave ;
2. by neutralising the reflected wave from the reservoir.
I n t he first case t he device must minimise the pressure wave
t o such a degree that it cannot reach a value which, when
reflected and superimposed on the normal static pressure
Ho, would endanger the pipe. For this purpose it may take
t wo different forms:
a) Flywheels (which lengthen the slowing-down time of the
pump).
b) Air vessels (which continue t o feed water into the pipe-
line until the reflected pressure wave again reaches the
pump).
Flywheels and air vessels are especially suited for counter-
acting vacua forming in pipelines.
To counteract dangerous pressure rises from the reflected
wave as mentioned under 2 , special devices can again be
installed in t he pipelines. These are:
c) Automatically controlled quick-closing valves.
d) Automatically controlled bypasses.
e) Pressure relief valves.
Summary and conclusions
In most cases encountered in practice (as for instance in
town water supply systems) no special protective devices
are required against surging or water hammer. However, in
unfavourable plant layouts there may be considerable pres-
sure fluctuations as shown in Figure 3 even with small
pumps. Such cases should be carefully examined, particularly
when pipelines are long or the pumping units have small
rotating masses.
A thorough and exact calculation of t he pressure shocks
t o be expected and the devices needed t o counteract them
takes a great deal of time and is indispensable only in
exceptional cases. Usually a simple approximate calculation,
will give a sufficiently accurate result, allowing the supplier
t o select the most suitable counter-measures. If, however,
detailed investigation is found necessary, the data for each
single case must be considered in detail.
TIME I N SECONDS
Fig. 3 Pressure variations in a pipeline (without safeguarding device)
Acknowledgement: Sulzer Bros ( S. A. ) Limited
Mechanical Seal Failure
ANALYSIS OF SEAL FAILURES
The majority of seal problems are caused by factors exter-
nal t o the seal, e.g. changes in fluid pressure, temperature
analysis or fluctuations in t he sealant supply due to process
variation. It is amost impossible for a seal Service Engineer
to detect these causes and he must rely heavily on the plant
personnel. An error made at t he selection stage usually only
results in the wrong material specification and would be evi-
dent on inspection after a seal failure. Seals fitted incorrect-
ly, such as wrong hard spring, broken carbon or trapped '0'
ring would even show on start-up and should also be clearly
evident on inspection.
The types of failure which are most frustrating and difficult
to analyse are those with no apparent cause e.g. leaks after
running for a period, or leaks at certain specific speeds;
leaks from only one of two seals fitted etc. These are the
types of failure which will require a series of checks on
equipment and operating conditions t o find the fault or
solution t o t he problem.
Radial cracking of hard faced rotary seal ring caused by
temperature difference between t he change from stable
interface film t o a vapour condition. This allows the faces
t o part, then cooler liquid entering causes them t o close.
Carbon dust deposit in and around the back of the seal
plate (caused by the pitting and eruption of the carbon
face) which is then blown out with t he vapour. Water and
aqueous solutions show these symptoms severely but on
hydrocarbon duties t he signs are not as clear, particularly
in marginal cases.
SYMPTOMS
HARD FACE - Radial CARBON FACE -Chipping
cracking across face. at edges of face. Comet
Discolouration, carbon trails, light pitting.
deposit in atmosphere side
of bore.
Fig. 2 Vaporisation
SHAFT SLEEVE ROTABY STATIONARY
WTOKG HAND PACKING SEAL RING PACKING FACE LEAKAGE SEAL RING PACKING
SPRING \
\ / /
/ \ \
FRETTINO Oft PITTING ' DAMAGED OR SEU. PLATE CHIPPED OR
ON SHAFT Oft SHAFT CORRODED STUFFING GASKET CRACKED
SLEEVE BOX FACE CARBON
Fig. 1 Possible leakage paths from a standard balanced seal
An indication of the type of failure can be gained by a vis-
ual inspection of the running characteristics and nature of
the leakage etc. Precise identification of a fault can only be
achieved by close examination of the seal components
during t he removal of t he seal, from which it may be pos-
sible to determine the leakage paths.
Vaporisation
Occurs when heat generated at t he faces in not removed
effectively and local boiling of t he interface film takes
place, indicated by a popping or puffing noise. Occa-
sionally (nearly always on water) a seal will blow open
and remain open.
Symptoms (Fig. 2)
Light pitting of stationary seal face leading into comet
trailing.
Chipping on outside diameter edge of carbon face caused
by faces tilting after liquid t o vapour transition.
Rectification
1 Check product conditions are as stipulated in the
original order: re-select if necessary.
2 Check circulation lines for flow and see that there
is no blockage.
3. Check circulation is adequate and increase if neces-
sary.
Dry Running
Dry running occurs when no, or insufficient, liquid exists
between the two seal faces.
Symptoms - Fig 3
Severe wear and grooving of the stationary seal ring. Metal
seal ring face shows polished scoring sometimes with radial
cracking and discolourisation. Other overheating symptoms
e g. hardening and cracking of '0' rings.
SYMPTOMS
HARD FACE - Polished CARBON FACE -
scoring, discolourisation, Warnaphone' scoring.
overheating symptoms. Rounded edges.
Fig. 3 Dry running
Rectification
1. Check suction flows and filters
2 . Check circulation line is not blocked. If no circulation
line is fitted check pumping conditions and fit circu-
lation line in accordance with requirements.
3. Increase circulation flow.
Abrasives in product
If the product being pumped contains any abrasive matter
then this will tend to penetrate the seal faces leading to
rapid wear and seal failure.
Symptoms - Fig 4
Carbon seal face worn, showing uneven pattern. Metal seal
ring worn and polished. Solid deposit on face and bore or
carbon. Deposit in rotary seal ring '0' ring groove.
SYMPTOMS
HARD FACE - Regular CARBON FACE - Heavy
grooving. grooving across face
generally at one or two
points scoring stopping
short of cross face
grooving.
Fig. 4 Abrasives
Recificat ion
Fit wear resisting seal faces e.g. tungsten carbide, silicon
carbide. Introduce a clean flow t o the seal through a cy-
clone separator, if the abrasive content and particle size
falls within the separator's capability. Inject a clean flow
from a separate source. Certain applications may require
double seals. (Check with supplier).
Sludging is associated with t he sealing of high viscosity
liquids. The shear stresses between the seal faces can exceed
the ruptive strength of t he carbon and particles are pulled
from the face of t he stationary seal ring. The problem can
be particularly acute on pumps sealing hydrocarbon liquids
at temperatures above ambient. When shut down the viscos-
ity of t he liquid and interface film increases as the tempera-
ture drops and problems may arise on re-starting the pump.
Another possible cause of sludging occurs when the inter-
face film partially carbonises due t o overheating.
Rectification
1. Check the viscosity of the product is with the capa-
bilities of the seal (consult supplier).
2. Check that the pump generates sufficient head to
promote circulation to t he seal under pumping con-
ditions.
3. To overcome start-up problems it is necessary to
pre-heat t he circulation lines, seal area and faces. This
can be achieved by means of low pressure steam tracing
applied to the circulation lines and stuffing box. Alter-
natively, low pressure steam can be passed through the
stuffing box jacket and seal faces via a quench connec-
tion. Such heating should be used for 15-30 minutes
prior t o start-up.
4. Supply continuous heat through heated seal plate
A similar type of phenomenon t o sludging is bonding. In
this case a bond is formed between the two seal faces usual-
ly by crystallisation after the pump has been standing for
a long period. On starting particles are pulled from the
carbon face and leakage occurs.
Symptoms - Fig. 5.
The appearance of the seal face is similar to that due to
sludging.
Cause and Rectification
One of the main causes of this type of failure occurs when
the pump or equipment is tested on a different product to
that on which it is going to run and when a reaction takes
place between the fluid film of the test liquid and the
actual product film. Where this type of seal failure is likely
t o take place, a precaution would be to use a suitable test
liquid after a test. A further cause could be circumstances
such as freon gas compressor where the fluid film at the seal
face is normally crank case oil contaminated with freon gas
which, whilst standing, deteriorates the oil film causing the
faces t o stick together.
Coking
Coking is a type of failure that frequently occurs when the
product is hydrocarbons at high temperatures. Minute
quantities of film leakage tend t o carbonise on the atmos-
phere side of the seal, causing the sliding member (the
rotary seal ring) t o jam up and preventing it from following
up any face wear. This type of seal failure would be indica-
ted, on stripping down for inspection, by the rotary seal
ring having no sliding action after removing the seal plate.
Symptoms - Fig. 5. Symptoms - Fig. 6
Particles pulled from carbon face. Polished wear track on
Solid build up on inside of sliding member on atmospheric
metal face. Distortion of drive spring.
side even t o the extent where it could be difficult t o re-
move.
SYMPTOMS
CARBON FACE - Pieces HARD FACE - Polished,
pulled away from face. sometimes light grooving.
SYMPTOMS
Coke deposits inside rotary
seal rina causina iamrnina - .
on sleeve.
Fig. 5 Sludging/Bonding Fig. 6 Coking/Crystallisation
Rectification
Use a permanent steam quench blanket on the atmosphere
side of the seal to reduce the chance of coking. If not al-
ready fitted, a secondary seal, usually a lip seal, at the back
of the seal plate will improve the quenching efficiency by
better retention of the steam.
Consult supplier for alternative seal selection.
Crystallisation under seal
Symptoms - Fig 6 .
Much the same symptoms as for coking. except it occurs on
various products and conditions.
Rectification
A permanent quench can be used, e.g. hot water, solvent
or steam. according t o the product Here again a lip sedl,
fitted in the back of the seal plate, improves the efficiency.
Consult supplier for alternative seal selection.
Carbon ring erosion
Occurs when the differential of the circulation to the seal
between the point of take off and entry t o the seal is too
great, or when circulation flow contains abrasive matter.
Symptoms - Fig. 7
Erosion groove part way across carbon face opposite
circulation inlet in seal plate.
SYMPTOMS
Erosive wear on seal rings,
below circulation inlet.
generally on carbon ring.
Fig. 7 Erosion carbon breakage
Rectification
Fit flow controller in circulation line. Fit cyclone separator
if abrasive contents meet the separator specification. Modi-
fy circulation t o use multi-point injection
Face distortion
In some cases leakage can be due t o face distortion.
Symptoms - Fig 8.
If seal leaks immediately on start up, and there are no
visible faults with seal parts on stripping down for inspec-
tion, the seal faces should be checked for distortion by
lightly rubbing or blueing them on a flat surface. If dis-
torted, it should reveal high sport or uneven running tracks.
Distortion can be caused by the drive spring, incorrect
assembly of stationary seal ring into seal plate or housing,
and in some cases by incorrect storage or parts. Similar
symptoms can be caused by shaft movements due to mis-
alignment, bearing failure, etc. or unforseen high pressure.
Fig. 8 Face distortion
Rectification
Re-lap rotary seal with spring in position. Re-lap carbon
face-in-situ using a rotary seal ring or anything similar,
which must be flat. Check carbon mounting tolerances.
Broken carbon seal rings
This problem mainly arises on seals fitted with PTFE '0'
rings when the pin sleeve has been omitted on re-assembly.
Due to the low coefficient of friction of the PTFE '0' rings
the carbon ring may on occasions tend to spin, allowing
the side of the slot in the carbon ring t o come into sudden
contact with the pin. This can also happen occasionally
on seals fitted with synthetic rubber '0' rings on high
viscosity duties.
Symptoms - Fig. 9
Carbon seal ring carcked across the pin slot. Piece of carbon
broken off, pin slot and pin lodged against carbon rendering
it non-resilient .
SYMPTOMS
Fracture emanating from
pin slot or point of high
loading at retaining pin.
CAUSE
Incorrect assembly.
Excessive hydraulic load at
seal area
Fig. 9 Broken carbon seal rings
Rectification
SYMPTOMS
Piece of carbon broken
away, retaining pin in
contact with carbon.
CAUSE
Carbon spinning due to the
high viscosity product
causing face drag. Failure
to fit PTFE buffer bush over
pin on assembly.
Fit a pin sleeve; this is a small sleeve in PTFE material
fitted over the pin in the seal housing on seal plate to act as
a buffer. When spinning is due to high viscosity products
it may be necessary to apply pre-heating t o the seal area
via the jacket around the stuffing box or by the use of a
heated seal plate.
NOTE: On unbalanced, small seals with rubber '0' rings it
is not normal t o fit pin slotted carbons unless requested
or because of the duty. All deals selected with PTFE '0'
rings have pin slotted carbons coupled with a PTFE sleeve
fitted to the retaining pin in the housing.
'0' Ring extrusion
'0' Ring overheating
Extrusion occurs when part of the '0' ring is forced
through close clearance gaps. Extrusion can be caused by
the use of excessive force when fitting and assembling
components. Operational extrusion is generally caused by
excessive pressure combined with overheating and incom-
patibility. It can also be caused when seal parts have been
reconditioned on site and sizes are beyond their limits,
creating larger clearances between t he components.
Symptoms - Fig. 10
'0' ring cut and in some cases peeled off like an outer
cover. Lip formed on '0' ring.
VITON OR P.T.F.E. SYNTHETIC RUBBERS
SYMPTOMS
Lip formed on VRon or
P.T.F.E rings. Flaying or
shredding of synthetic
rubber rings.
Fig. 10 '0'-rings extrusion
Rectification
Check fitting procedure. Check operational conditions.
Ensure seal parts have been reconditioned to original
design or by manufacturer.
'0' Ring incompatibility
Symptoms - Fig. 11
'0' ring takes a permanent set. '0' ring swells, preventing
the sliding member from moving. '0' ring has the appear-
ance of being eaten away. '0' ring appears to have lost its
original composition and t o be breaking up.
SYMPTOMS
One side of '0' ring has
appearance of being eaten
away.
CAUSE
Incorrect '0' ring material.
Check originai seal
selection.
Fig. 11 '0'-rings compatibility
SYMPTOMS
'O',ring appears to have lost
its original composition and
to be breaking up.
CAUSE
Incorrect '0' ring material.
Check originai seal
selection.
Rectification
Check the original product conditions against seal selection
and that the '0' ring fitted is made from the correct
material.
Overheating of the packings is generally caused by adverse
conditions at the seal faces causing excessive heat gener-
ation.
Symptoms -Fig. 12
Rubber '0' rings hardened and cracked. PTFE '0' ring
discoloured bluelblack. The portion of the ring nearest the
faces is always the worst.
I 1
SYNTHETIC RUBBER
SYMPTOMS
P.T.F.E. -Blue/black
discolouration.
Synthetic Rubber -
Hardening and cracking.
Fig. 12 '0'-rings overheating
Rectification
Check circulation t o seal area, including cooler if fitted,
for blockage etc. Check for malfunction such as low suction
t o pump, dry running, sludging etc. Check product condi-
tions are as originally stipulated.
Sleeve damage, preventing follow up of rotary seal -
ring
Preliminary investigation of t he sliding members should re-
veal whether or not coking has been the cause of the fail-
ure. The sleeve itself should then be examined for any
damage preventing t he sliding assembly from moving
properly. Damage to the sleeve can be caused by vibration
or corrosion.
Vibration
Sleeve vibration of the shaft or pump will cause the close
clearance of the landings, on either side of the '0' ring
grooves in the rotary seal ring, to come into contact with
the nose of the sleeve, resulting in fretting and marking
into which foreign matter lodges, thus preventing the
sliding member from moving.
Symptoms -Fig. 13a
Severe marking of the shaft or sleeve. Wear of the '0' ring
lands on the sliding assembly. Possible '0' ring extrusion.
Fig. 13(a) Sleeve damage
SYMPTOMS
Marking all round sleeve
from underside of '0' ring.
Marking on one third of
circumference either side
of '0' ring mark.
Rectification
Check pump or unit for drive alignment to eliminate vib-
ration and bearing failures.
Check for bent shaft. Hard face shaft or nose of sleeve.
Refurbish the sleeve to specification; hard face is necessary.
Fretting Corrosion
Symptoms - Fig. 13b
Rectification
Hard face sleeve at seal contact area. Fill atmospheric cavity
with a suitable fluid, using a secondary outer seal
SYMPTOMS
Groove corroded Into
sleeve under '0' ring land
Fig. 13b Fretting corrosion
Spring Distortion or breakage
In most spring seals, the drive is unidirectional (see install-
ation). In operation the spring should always grip the
sleeve and rotary seal ring. If, for any reason, the wrong
hand spring is fitted, or the pump shaft is rotated in the
wrong direction, e.g. turbined backwards, the spring will
tend to uncoil, slip and distort or crack. The spring may
even break. However, this type of failure occurs more fre-
quently when springs are fitted incorrectly on high viscosity
duties, where excessible torque at the seal faces may be
caused by sludging or bonding. On multi-spring seals, a build-
up of solids around the springs can make some of them
ineffective and overload the remaining springs, causing
failure.
Symptoms - Fig. 14
Radial cracking of spring section. Wear marks in ends of
spring coils and on sleeve and rotary necks, caused by the
spring slipping.
SYMPTOMS SYMPTOMS
Straight fracture, radial Spiral failure
cracks on inside diameter.
POSSIBLE CAUSES CAUSE
1. Stress corrosion Fatigue failure in bending.
2. Incorrect spring handing.
Fig. 14 Spring failures
Rectification
Check the correct handed spring is fitted.
Check the seal faces for sludging or bonding and recti-
fy accordingly.
Check that the pump rotation is correct. If the pump has
'Turbined' due to a reversal of the pressure, check that the
non-return valve in the discharge line if functioning correct-
ly.
If the seal is a multi-spring design, check that solids have
not built up clogging the springs: consider diverting some of
the product circulation through the spring pockets to main-
tain a continuous flush.
Acknowledgement: Flexibox (Pty) Ltd.
226
Alphabetical Index A Page No.
Abrasion tests 193
Accelerating time - motors 171
Accumulators - pressure 167
Actuators - control schemes 111 - 114
Actuators - basic principles 149,150
Actuators - block and bleed valves 145
Actuators -knife gate valves 141
Aerodynamic noise 215
Anti-vibration mountings 163 - 166
Ash handling systems 32,33
Axial flow type valves 94,95
Back pressure - definition 131
Back pressure relief valves 131 - 138
Bearing load calculations 183
Bingharn plastic 35
Blending system - ethanolloctane 110
Block and bleed valves 143 - 145
Borehole pumps 20 - 23,62 - 65
Boreholes 20 - 22, 23
Bottom ash 3 2
Butterfly valves - flow control 105, 106
Buovancv - definition 8
Canned motors 63
Cartridge seals 151,152
Cavitation - noise 214,215,217
Cavitation -problem solving 216 - 218
Cavitation - pulp pumping 28
Cavitation - valves 92,93,97, 106
Centrifugal pumps -fire 72,73
Centrifugal pumps -food products 39 - 41
Centrifugal pumps - leak-proof 70,71
Centrifugal pumps - sewage 47 - 49
Centrifugal pumps - slurry 51 -56
Centrifugal pumps - submersible 66 - 68
Check valves 59
Chemical attack 195
Choked flow 83,84
Condensate recovery 18, 19
Connections - valveslfittings 168
C (cont.) Page No. F (cont.) Page No.
Construction materials - selection 194, 195 Flame arrestors 155 - 158
Flame speed comparisons 156
Flammable atmospheres 172
Control valve applications 92 - 95
Control valve maintenance 212
Control valve noise 213 - 215
Control valve requirements
Flexible rubber joints 160 - 163
Flow - noise 214
Control valve selection 96 - 99,100 - 106
Control valve schemes 111 - 114
Flow coefficients 82.86.101 -
106
Flow control valves 107- 110
Control valves - discharge 100 - 106
Corrosion 187 - 196
Corrosive liquids 195, 196
Fluid drive couplings 180,181
Fluid foods 34 - 42
Couplings - alignment 202
Fluids -properties 4
Couplings - fluid drive 180, 181
Fluids -recovery pumps 18,19
Fly ash 32
Couplings - shaft 182
Crevice corrosion 196
Food r~roducts - flow 34 - 42
Food products - pumping 39 - 42
Force - definition 5
D
Definitions - hydraulics 3- 13
De-watering - mines 23.24
Diaphragm pumps 60,61
Diaphragm valves 111 - 114
Galvanic corrosion 196
Galvanic erosion 188
Disc valves 94
Gas - flammable 172
Gas - safety relief valves 131 - 138
Disintegrator pumps 49
Diverters - solids 48
Gas - valve sizing 86-91,102
Gaskets - installation 209,210
Drip lee sizing 119, 120
Drive couplings 180, 181, 182
Graphite packing 159
Ground water - pumping 20 - 22
Drive design 184
Drives - belt 183 - 185
Hazardous areas - classification 172
---
Electric motor - faults and rectification 178, 179
Head - pulp stock 25,29,30
Electric motors - installation 173
Heat emission - pipes 17
Electric motors - noise levels 176, 177
Electric motors - selection 170, 171
Hot water systems -mechanical seals 153, 154
Hydraulic gradient 12
Hydrraulic thrust - pipeline 160,161
End connections - valveslfittings 168
Energy conservation - steam
Hydraulics
Hydrodynamic noise 214
Erosion 187 - 193
Erosion control 188, 189
Expansion joints - pipework 160 - 163
Ignition - sources 157
Impelled design - food products 39,40
Impelled design - pulp pumps 31
Fire testing valves 146, 147
Impelled design - slurry pumps 52
Fire pumps 72,73
Intergranular corrosion 196
Fittings - valve connections 168
228
I (cont.) Page No.
Irrigation 22
--
Page No.
pH values 195
PTFE packing 159
Packing - valve 159
Joints - flexible 160 - 163,166 Pascals principle 4
Peristaltic pumps 41
Pinch valves 142 K
-
Kinetic energy 10 Pipe expansion 161
Knife gate valves 139 - 141 Pipe installation 202
Pipes -heat emission 17
Piping - flow 85
Piston pump systems 78
Piston pumps - characteristics 78
Piston pumps - food products 1 , 4 2
Pitting corrosion 196
Leak-proof pumps 70,71
Level control valves 107 - 108
Lignite 32
Liquid ring vacuum pumps 74 - 77
-
Liquid sizing equations 80,81
Plug valves
Plunger pump systems 78
Positioners - valve 111 - 114
Positive displacement pumps
Magnetic drive pumps
Mass density - definition 4
Positive suction head
Materials - selection 193. 194. 198 - 200
Power transmissions 180,181
Pressure - definition 5
Pressure - measurement 6
Pressure drop -valves 97
Pressure reducing stations 95, 130
Mechanical seals
-
151 - 154
--
Mechanical seals - failure 222 - 226
Membrane drive couplings 182
-- ---
Mine water pumping 23, 24, 64, 65
Motor faultslrectification 178, 179
Motor noise levels 176, 177
Pressure reduction - steam 129.130
Principles - fluids handling 3-13
Progressing cavity pumps 69,70
Motor performance 175
Motor protection 171
Motor selection 170, 171
Pseudoplastic fluids 35,36
Mountings - anti-vibration 163 - 166
Pulp stock - handling 25-31
Pulp stock - pressure losses 25,26
Pump anti-vibration mountings 163 - 166
-- --
N.P.S.H. 57
Noise - definition 213, 214
Pump control 109.167
Pump data 56,57
Pump foundations 166,202
Pump selection 56, 57. 76, 77
Pump shaft seals 151,152
- -
Noise - electric motors 176, 177
-
Noise - valves 97,213 - 215
Non-Newtonian fluids 34 - 39
-
Nozzles - spraying 43 - 46
Pump testing 57
Pumping - food products 39 - 42
Pumping - irrigation 22
Pumping - mine water 23,24
Pumping - pulp stock 25-31
Orifice plates 94, 128
P(cont.) Page No.
-
Pumps - borehole 20 - 22
S (cont.) Page No,
Spray nozzles 43 - 46
Spraying systems 22,43 - 46
Pumps - de-watering 23,24
Pumps - fire 72,73
Pumps - fluid recovery 18,19
-
Pumps - installation 202
Starting torque - motors 170.171
Steam consumption 15 - 17
Steam mains 15
Pumps - leak-proof Steam systems 115 - 130
Pumps - maintenance 203
Steam traps 115 - 118,
121 - 128
Steam - valve sizing 86 - 91
Steel pipe - mass 16
Stereophagus pumps 48,49
Pumps - magnetic drive 70,71
Pumps - pistodplunger 78
-
Pumps - problem solving 204 - 207
Pumps - progressing cavity 69,70
Stress corrosion 196
Pumps - servicing 203
Stuffing box leaks 21 1
Submerged pumps - fluid recovery 18,19
Submersible pumps 20 - 22,62 - 65
Submersible pumps - portable 66 - 68
Pumps - stereophagus 48, 49
-
Pumps - submersible 20 - 22
Pumps - vacuum 74- 77
Surging - pipelines 219 - 221
T
Radiation losses - steam 16
Rain guns 22
Reduction valves - steam 129. 130
Temperature - classes - gas 172
Temperature - definition 5
Temperature - valves 96
Relative density - definition 4
Relief valves - safety 131 - 138
Traps - steam
Reservoir control valves 94,108
Reynolds number 9, 39
Rheology 34, 35
V-belt drives 183 - 185
Vacuum pumps 74 - 77
Valve actuators 149 - 150
Safety relief valves 131 - 138
-
Screw impeller pumps 38 - 40
Sealant systems - vacuum pumps 76
Valve control schemes 111 - 114
Valve materials 197,217
Valve packing 159
Seals - failure 222 - 226
Seals - mechanical 151 - 154
Valve positioners 111 - 114
Valve selection 96 - 99
Sewage handling
Sewage uumps 47 - 49
Valve sizing - gaseslsteam 86-91
Valve sizing - liquids 80 - 85
Valves - axial flow 94,95
Shaft couplings 182
Shaft seals 151,154
Sludge pumps - portable 66 - 68
Valves - block and bleed 143 - 145
Slurry handlinglcontrol 139 - 141,142
Valves - diaphragm 111 - 114
---
Slurry handlinglcontrol - pumping problems 204 - 207
--
Slurry pumps 23,51- 56,58,59,
60,61,204 - 207
- -
Valves - ethanol/octane 90 blending 110
Valves - fire testing 146,147
Valves - fluids flow 11.12
Solids diverters 48
Valves - installation 208
Valves -knife gate 139 - 141
Speedkorque curves - motors 179
Spray coverage 45
V (cont.) Page No.
Valves - level control 107, 108
Valves - maintenance 210 - 212
Valves - pinch 142
Valves -plug 143 - 145
--
Valves - pump control 109
Valves - safety relief valves 132 - 138
Valves - stacked disc 94
Valves - steam 129, 130, 131 - 138
Variable speed couplings 180, 181
Vena contracts 80 - 84,86,87
-
Vibration - mountings 162, 163
Vibration - pipework 161,162
Vibration - principles 164
Vibration - valves 214
Viscosity - definition 5
Viscosity - fluid foods 34 - 37
--
Viscous flow 84, 85
Water discharge - valves 100 - 105
Water hammer 12,13,219 - 221
Water supply pumps 20 - 22
Water systems - hot 153, 154
Water treatment 153
Wedge belt drives 183 - 185
Well -construction 20 - 22
Well - vields 20 - 22
Contributor's Index
Alston~ Electrical Machines (Pty) Ltd
--
170 - 179
Andrew Murray
--
34 - 42
Armstrong Steam 115 - 122
E M h o t (Pty) Ltd 160 - 166
Brubin Engineering (Pty) Ltd 70,71
Burgmann Seals (SA) (Pty) Ltd 151 - 154
Control Specialists (Pty) Ltd 80 - 91,96 - 99,159,
208 - 212
Corflex Engineering cc
Dresser Valves and Controls (Pty) Ltd 213 - 218
Fenner 183 - 185
Flexibox (Pty) Ltd 182,222 - 226
Hayday Valves cc 107 - 110
Hi-Vac (Pty) Ltd 58,59,74 - 77
Howden Pumps 20 - 22,47 - 49,62 - 65,
--
69,70,72,73, 167
Industrial and Petroleum Valves 146, 147. 195 - 197
Iron Fireman SA (Pty) Ltd 18,19
Linatex (Africa) (Pty) Ltd 60,61
National Pump 7 8
National Trading Fluids Control (Pty) Ltd 155 - 158
Orion Pumps 204 - 207
Premier Valves (Pty) Ltd 100 - 106
Rapid Allweiler Pump and Engineering Co (Pty) Ltd 198 - 200
Saunders Valves Co. Ltd 111 - 114
Spirax Sarco (Pty) Ltd 15 - 17, 123 - 130
Spray Nozzle (Pty) Ltd 43 - 46
Stratford Engineering (Pty) Ltd 66 - 68,180,181
Sulzer 187 - 193,219 - 221
Warman (Africa) Pty Ltd 51 -56
Weir-Envirotec h 23,24
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