LECTURE 9

THE CONTENTS OF THIS LECTURE ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1.0 NEED OF CONTROLLING MINE ENVIRONMENT
2.0 REFRIGERATION
3.0 METHODS OF REFRIGERATION
3.1 Use of Freezing Mixture
3.2 Use of Dry Ice
3.3 Use of Refrigerants
4.0 DIFFERENT TYPES OF REFRIGERATION PLANTS BASED
ON LOCATION
4.1 Surface Plant
4.1.1 Advantages
4.1.2 Disadvantages
4.1.3 Example of surface plant in India
4.2 Underground Plant
4.2.1 Advantages
4.2.2 Disadvantages

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4.2.3 Example of underground air-cooling plant

4.3 Spot Coolers
4.3.1 Advantages of spot coolers
4.3.2 Disadvantages of spot coolers
4.3.3 Example of spot cooler installation in India
REFERENCES

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1.0 NEED OF CONTROLLING MINE ENVIRONMENT

The climate in underground mines become more and more adverse with increase in
the depth of mine, increase in the extent of mechanization etc. There is an increase
in the temperature as mines become deeper. This results into adverse mining
environment which is not suitable for comfortable working of miners. Let me tell
you that in underground mines, it is not the high relative humidity which is more
dangerous. Actually it is the high wet bulb temperature, which is more dangerous in
mines. A relative humidity of 100 % at lower temperature gives a sensation of
cooling, while at higher temperature like 25 degree Celsius or above, it gives a
sensation of hotness. We have already learnt the effect of high wet-bulb
temperature on efficiency and health of workers in mines. Let us have a look at Fig.
1 (a: Probable performance levels of acclimatized workers, b: Estimated heat stroke
risks) which shows fall in working efficiency with wet bulb temperature and
increase in risk of heat stroke with increase in wet bulb temperature.
Hence we require controlling the mine climate, so that the working conditions can
be made comfortable. As most of the heat produced in a working district is removed
by air current, either we increase quantity of air or cooling of mine air when its not
possible to increase the quantity of air beyond a certain limit. Thus air can carry
away more heat and helps in maintaining good working climatic conditions. The
cooling of mine air is usually done by using refrigeration plants. This air
conditioning helps in improving the working conditions. The Statuary limit in India
for climatic conditions is 33.5C Wet Bulb Temperature with minimum air velocity of
1m/s.
2.0 REFRIGERATION
When simple methods of controlling the mine climate dont make an effect on mine
environment then we have to go for artificial cooling of the air. This is done by
refrigeration of mine air. We install refrigeration plants for this purpose. They are
usually designed to produce tolerable environment condition throughout the year.

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3.0

METHODS OF REFRIGERATION

3.1 Use of Freezing Mixture

Freezing mixture is ice and a salt (NaCl, or CaCl2, etc.). If they are made insulated,
the latent heat required for freezing can be made available from the mixture itself.
Thus, the sensible heat of the freezing mixture gets converted to latent heat of ice.
Thus, the liquid formed from the mixture is much lower than the freezing point of
ice. This liquid can be used for cooling other substances to very low temperature.

Fig. 1 (a) Probable performance levels of acclimatized labourers (after Le

Roux, 1972)

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Fig. 1 (b) Estimated heat stroke risk (after Le Roux, 1972)

3.2 Use of Dry Ice

Dry ice is also called solid carbon dioxide. We know that dry ice sublimes at -78 C.
Due to this unique feature, it rules out the problem of disposing of liquid residue.
However, it is expensive compared to ordinary ice.
3.3 Use of Refrigerants
All the refrigerating machines make use of volatile liquids. These volatile liquids
when used for the purpose of cooling in a refrigerating machine, they are called
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refrigerants. The boiling point of a liquid is dependent on pressure. The higher is

the pressure, the higher is the boiling point. Thus, with variation in pressure, the
boiling point can be varied. For an ideal refrigerant, it should have:
o
o
o
o

Lower boiling point close to 0

Non- corrosive nature
High efficiency of heat transfer
Non-toxic nature

Table 1 lists three refrigerants, most commonly used in mines for refrigeration
plants
Table 1 Commonly used refrigerants in refrigeration plants
Name

Refrigerant 717
(Anhydrous
Ammonia)
Refrigerant 11
(Trichloromonofluoro
methane)
Refrigerant12
(Dichlorodifluoro
methane)

Chemical
formula

Absolut
saturation
pressure
(bar)
at
5

Absolut
saturation
pressure
(bar)
at
50

-33.4

5.16

20.3

CCl3F

+23.9

0.49

2.35

CCl2F2

-30

3.62

12.2

NH3

B.
P.
at
atmospheric
pressure

Limitations

Toxic
nature

in

By-products
depletes
ozone layer
By-products
depletes
ozone layer

These refrigerants can be used for refrigeration purpose in two different ways:
a. Absorption system of refrigeration
b. Compression system of refrigeration
The commonly used refrigeration plant in mine is of vapour compression type i.e.
compression system of refrigeration. In this type a liquid refrigerant is used to
extract the latent heat of vaporization from mine air. The refrigerant is used in a
cyclic system and the whole process can be illustrated as shown in Fig. 2.

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Condenser
-Refrigerant is cooled
and extracted heat is
rejected.
-Becomes liquid from
super heated vapour
- Pressure of
refrigerant is high
here
Compressor
- Pressure is
incereased here

Expansion Valve
- Refrigerant expands

- refrigerant gets
converted into super
heated steam

-Pressure reduces

Evaporator
-Low temp, Low
Pressure refrigerant
extracts heat from
mine air
- Refrigent evaporates
and temp. gets
incereased

Fig. 2 Different components of a refrigeration plant

Based on the location of mine refrigeration plants, their classification can be as
shown in Fig. 3.

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Surface
Plants

Refrigeration
Plants

Spot
coolers

Underground
Plants

Fig. 3 Classification of refrigeration plants based on location

4.0 DIFFERENT TYPES OF REFRIGERATION PLANTS BASED ON LOCATION

4.1 Surface Plant
In this type of plants, air is cooled on the surface and then taken to underground
via intake shaft. This cool air extracts the heat from the environment.
4.1.1 Advantages
o

Simplicity

Lower cost as cheaper refrigerants are used

Convenience of operation and inspection

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o
o

The disposal of waste heat can be easily done here

Aid in producing large natural ventilation pressure because of the difference
in the temperature of air in downcast shaft and upcast shaft.

4.1.2 Disadvantages
o

Poor positional efficiency (positional efficiency can be defined as the ratio of

effective cooling units produced at the working face to the total cooling units
produced by the refrigerator).

In deep shafts, because of auto compression cool air from the surface plant
picks up much heat and thus become less efficient.

4.1.3 Example of surface plant in India

SURFACE AIR CONDITIONING PLANT AT CHAMPION REEF MINE, KGF: This surface
air conditioning plant was installed in Champion Reef Gold mine in Kolar Gold Field
in early 1940s (Fig. 4).
Specifications
o

3.7 MW capacity with ammonia as refrigerant

Consisted of 3 reciprocating compressors each of 300kW rating

3 cooling water pumps each of 22kW rating and 6.1m3/min capacity

o
o

Shell and tube type condenser

Plant was manufactured by Messers J&E Hall Ltd., Dartford, Kent, UK

Working
o

Ammonia is compressed and passed through oil separator provided on the

delivery side.

This oil free ammonia gas is cooled to ammonia liquid in the condenser.
Water is circulated in this condenser by 3 water pumps.

Then liquid ammonia is passed through shell and tube type evaporator. Heat
exchange takes place here between liquid ammonia and the calcium chloride
solution [Calcium chloride solution is used here to extract heat from mine
air].

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Liquid ammonia is thus converted again to ammonia gas and sent to

compressor.

NOTE: With this plant we can cool 70.8 m3/s of air at 21.1C Dry Bulb
Temperature and 18.3C Wet Bulb Temperature to 4.4C saturated.

Fig. 4 Surface refrigeration plant at Kolar Gold Fields (after Misra, 1986)

4.2 Underground Plant

o

It is the next step in air cooling in which the cooling plant is entirely located
underground.

The air can either be cooled at the centrally located underground plant itself
or at chilled water spray chamber near the face.

Another method of cooling air is to use roadway cooler. Here the cooling
coils should be positioned such that they are at minimum distance from the
working place. The cooling coils get chilled water from refrigeration plant and
cool the air.

4.2.1 Advantages
o

It has high positional efficiency.

The heating of cooled air due to auto compression is avoided here.

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It eliminates the need of surface-connecting pipe ranges and the pumping

costs associated with this.

It also avoids any environmental problems that may arise from surface
plant.

4.2.2 Disadvantages
o

The cost of refrigerant is more as non-toxic refrigerant has to be used here

which costs four times as that of ammonia (commonly used in surface
plants).

The dissipation of the heat extracted from mine air is also difficult.

Because of the dust deposition on the tubes of cooling pipes, it requires

frequent cleaning. The dust deposition results into poor efficiency of heat
transfer. This happens in dry and dusty mines.

The capacity of these plants is usually small (up to 1.75MW). So a single

plant may not be capable of serving the whole mine.

4.2.3 Example of underground air-cooling plant

Location: Champion Reef Mine, Kolar Gold Fields, India.
It was installed at the 80th level to cool the part of intake air which was 2318m
below the surface (Fig. 5).
o

It had 3 cylinder 125 h.p. reciprocating compressors and Freon 12 (CCl2F2) as

refrigerant.

A 30kW pump with 51m head was used to maintain the circulation of water.

The condensing water was cooled by spraying it in an upcast shaft.

It had a capacity of cooling 9.44m3/s at 305.9K dry bulb temperature and

293.2K wet bulb temperature to 276.5K saturated.

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Fig. 5 Underground plant at Kolar Gold Fields (after Misra, 1986)

4.3 Spot Coolers
o

These are small capacity refrigerating units, applied mainly to ventilate

isolated

hot

workings.

They

are

semi-portable

in

nature

and

have

refrigeration capacities in the range 50 to 500 kW.

o

Based on size or mechanism of refrigeration, they can be divided into two

broad categories

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a. Small spot coolers

These have arrangement for direct cooling of air stream on the evaporator
coils using evaporation of refrigerants.
b. Big spot coolers
These use some intermediate coolant such as water to cool the air.
4.3.1 Advantages of spot coolers
o

Maximum positional efficiency of all the three

Helps in dust suppression at the face

Compactness

Very effective in deep metal as well as coal mines

4.3.2 Disadvantages of spot coolers

o

Though it cools face, leaves the rest of mine air hot

Very expensive

4.3.3 Example of spot cooler installation in India

Spot cooler in 102nd level of Champion reef, KGF. Features of the installed spot
cooler were:
o

Capacity 140 kW

Refrigerant used R 12

Volume of air cooled- 6.37 m3/s

Cooling range

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Dry bulb temperature from 41.6 to 33.3

Wet bulb temperature from 25.8 to 22.2

REFERENCES
Banerjee S.P. (2003); Mine Ventilation; Lovely Prakashan, Dhanbad, India.
Hartman, H. L., Mutmansky, J. M. & Wang, Y. J. (1982); Mine Ventilation and Air
Conditioning; John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Le Roux, W. L. (1972); Mine Ventilation Notes for Beginners; The Mine Ventilation
Society of South Africa.
McPherson, M. J. (1993); Subsurface Ventilation and Environmental Engineering;
Chapman & Hall, London.
Misra G.B.

(1986); Mine Environment and Ventilation; Oxford University Press,

Calcutta, India.
Vutukuri, V. S. & Lama, R. D. (1986); Environmental Engineering in Mines;
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

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