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Britain's history is linked, in many ways, to global history.

It has followed the

classic patterns for the rise and fall of an empire, as well as shaping new patterns.

Across the centuries of human existence, it has commonly been found that the most

technologically advanced nation holds the greatest world power. Due to advanced

weaponry more technologically advanced nations were able to conquer and maintain

rule over other less advanced nations. Through this process these advance nations

have gained wealth and influence over their neighbors. Their technology and

knowledge slowly spread outside the borders of their empire until they are surpassed by

another nation. Britain has enjoyed a slow decline and although no longer the world

power it once was, still has influence in the international markets.

The British people have significantly contributed to what we consider the modern

world, and without their influence life on this planet would probably be very different

from what it is today. Their ideas have moved across every continent and their actions

have changed the lives of millions. Their technological advancement is most

prominently linked to their industrialization, an event which began a new era of

production and consumption that has changed almost every aspect of human life. The

history of modern Britain can be viewed in three major phases: colonization and the rise

of entrepreneurship; industrialization and the pride of the empire; and reduced share of

the world market and political decline. At each phase the technological standing of

Britain played a crucial role in shaping the character of that period. The period during

which Britain had the greatest global influence was also the period during which they

were the most prosperous. An air of moral superiority that is common to great nations
Anne Nies / December 9, 2009

marked their prosperity and distracted them from the true reasons for their international

success.

Like many great nations before it, the British Empire grew due to a need to

secure its economic interests; specifically to ensure stability of its shipping lanes. It did

this through war and social domination. Just as the Romans had, they invaded foreign

lands and established their system of culture. Because the British military was more

technologically advanced than the peoples it was fighting against the British won most

of their goals, which helped to boost national moral. Although war was a costly

undertaking the results were well worth the investment. A good example of this is the

Seven Yearsʼ War.

The war interfered very little with trade, and it stimulated

many industries associated with shipbuilding, weapons

manufacturing, and military supply. A loss in the Seven

Yearsʼ War would have deprived the British of many of the

possessions that made Britain a great maritime and colonial

power and fueled the commercial sector of the economy. 1

Wining wars helped to make both the Empire and individuals within it wealthy,

driving a boom in business. There was more money to invest, and the marketplace

was expanding as wealth was brought to the ports that Britain was trading with. The

group of professional businessmen grew and attitudes towards manufacturing and

production began to change.

1
Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1688 to 1870(Chicago:
Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 136

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Anne Nies / History 362: Modern British History / Long Essay / December 9, 2009

While Britainʼs business world was changing their social world was changing

also. One of the steps that the empire employed in securing itʼs trading routes was the

establishment of colonies. Within these colonies British citizens began setting up new

towns, in the British style, for themselves. Most significant for these Britons was that

they were able to overcome social boundaries and start new lives by moving to a

colony. They interacted with the resident populace, changed the political structure, and

introduced the British way of life. Some of the areas most significantly impacted by

British colonization are India, North America, and Australia. India was unified then

divided into two nations (India & Pakistan) that are still in existence today. North

America and Australia were both over run by the British and made into new nations of

significantly Anglo-Saxon decent. In each colony the populace became more British

and the British became less British, which has created long-term changes in the

traditions and social structure of many nations.

The new mobilization of the economy and the British people nurtured a spirit of

industry and invention. The agricultural and industrial revolutions thrust Britain far into

the lead in technological advancements while enabling the population to grow to record

numbers.

Without the Agricultural Revolution, there would have been

no population explosion; without population growth at a

particular rate, there would have been no Industrial

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Anne Nies / December 9, 2009

Revolution and without an Industrial Revolution, there would

have been no permanent increase in the population.2

The Agricultural and Industrial revolutions (1760 - 1850) set significant trends for the

modern world: unprecedented world population, a significant move from rural to urban

population distribution, and an almost complete move from handmade to manufactured

goods. The job market was radically redefined. It was naturally a time of great social

upheaval, as the lifestyles of many changed. Large groups of the population were living

in condensed urban areas, while those living in the rural areas struggled to find new

ways to supplement their income. Where work was originally very diverse (one person

may have been a farmer and a weaver) it was becoming much more specific (farming

was done in the country and weaving in a mill). The farmers that would supplement

their income by weaving found they were no longer able to do so, as mills produced

much cheaper fabric. The mill workers were subjected to terrible living conditions,

where disease and filth were rampant. From both perspectives “the good old days”

were gone and they were struggling to come to terms with their new world.

Even as late as 1850, Britain remained the only industrialized nation in the world;

thus it dominated world trade.3 This period of dominance encouraged the sentiment of

British superiority and made the Britons relatively comfortable in the strength of their

economics. They had the best technology and the best global position. One of their

most treasured ideals was that of Free Trade. Why would there be any reason to

2
Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1688 to 1870(Chicago:
Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 173
3
Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1688 to 1870(Chicago:
Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 241

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Anne Nies / History 362: Modern British History / Long Essay / December 9, 2009

regulate the market when things were going so splendidly? Free trade allowed British

manufacturers to enjoy low prices for raw materials and allowed them to sell their

finished goods where- ever they pleased. Even late into the Empireʼs decline, the

British middle class held firmly to their ideal of free trade; even as it began to work

against them. It is quite ironic that although Free Trade did not initially hinder British

business, it is now an idea that few nations favor. As without tariffs domestic

manufacturing and markets are not secure. Free Trade creates a dynamic market place

in which the most innovative and cost efficient manufactures enjoy the most success.

On the other hand the concept of Free Trade continues to be popular with idealists,

where the major perspective has shifted to the idea of fair markets for developing

countries.

With the rise of industry, national politics within Britain began to shift from the

aristocracy to the business leaders, and even the general populace eventually gained

voting rights. Wealthy businessmen bought land in their attempt to achieve the lifestyle

of the gentry and aristocracy. As more and more of the populace became upwardly

mobile, the House of Commons grew in size and diversity. The distribution of political

power was shifting also, from the nobility to the industrious. This trend was happening

across Europe as more and more the growing middle classes were looking for

representation in the government. The change in political structure lead to a

government that was more socialist, that is more concerned with the well being of the

populace as whole. There was a genuine shift in the attitudes of the elite towards the

poor. Essential to this is that a new class (the middle class) had formed, the less

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Anne Nies / December 9, 2009

affluent portion (working class) of the population had grown very large. That coupled

with them living in close quarters and the success of business being largely dependent

on their cooperation gave the working class a voice they did not have before. The birth

of the middle class and increase in non-noble politicians was largely dependent on the

developing technological advances that Britain was making. More and more middle

management positions were being created as factories needed managers, which was a

job too lowly for the aristocracy (they did not work) and too specialized for the working

class (who was mainly unskilled labor). Also, as the government grew, the public

service positions were revamped from being based on status and influence to being

based on competence.

Beyond the changes in government the new era of mass produced goods meant

that the standard of living for most was raised. More people had money to spend and

goods were being made inexpensively in large quantities, which meant that they could

be bought for low prices. As government support of the poor increased they were more

and more able to maintain a standard of living that was acceptable (although it was a

very slow improvement).

The youth who leaves school at fourteen and gets a blind-

alley job is out of work at twenty, probably for life; but for two

pounds ten on the hire-purchase system he can buy himself

a suit which, for a little while and at a little distance, looks as

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Anne Nies / History 362: Modern British History / Long Essay / December 9, 2009

though it had been tailored in Savile Row. The girl can look

like a fashion plate at an even lower price.4

The Bourgeoisie in their struggle to become upper class began a fierce

obsession with material goods. Because factories were producing jobs and goods there

was a supply equal to their demand for merchandise. Status was shown through

manners and through possessions. As long as you had the look and the mannerisms

you could be socially respectable, even if you were bankrupt. This trend of materialism

continues today. It is generally found that you can behave almost any way you like, so

long as you are well dressed and well spoken. Keeping up appearances has led many

families into bankruptcy, and during the decline of the Empire it hurt Britain more than it

helped.

While enjoying the benefits of their status as a world leader in technology and

industrialization the British spread their knowledge. They built railways in Britain and

India, allowing for easier travel and increasing the speed at which news traveled.

Improved printing meant that more books and newspapers were being published, and

the spread of literacy meant that there were more people reading. Britons valued

education and were in general becoming more informed while at the same time being

given an outlet to voice their ideas. Philosophizing gained popularity, and many of the

brightest minds were focused on the questions of their moral and social situation. The

ideals of feminists, socialists, and conservatives all found their way into more and more

homes. Popular culture was born as people became interconnected with each other on

a massive scale. In a way the impersonal connection of media was replacing the
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George Orwell, The Road to Wigan Pier (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1958) 88

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personal connections that had existed in small communities. Mass media has grown to

such a point, now, that hardly a person on this planet is not regularly confronted with it.

The philosophies, thoughts, and messages of everyone who cares to voice them flow

out in every manner.

Proud of their technological advancements Britain held the first worldʼs fair in

1851.

Prince Albertʼs dream was to invite all the nations to put on

the material evidence of the advance of civilization. In fact,

the Great Exhibition boosted British pride, for the exhibits in

manufactures, machinery, and fine arts demonstrated

Britainʼs industrial and commercial preeminence.5

The worldʼs fair was viewed by the British of that age as the pinnacle of their

achievements, but it was perhaps the precipice from which they were about to fall. The

general pride and confidence in their success blinded the British to the need to focus on

continuing in that success. It was as though they viewed their success and continued

prosperity as inevitable. Britons generally believed that they were a superior race and

the natural world leaders, a ghostly foreshadowing of the Nazi regime in Germany. But

unlike Hitlerʼs Germany, Victorian Britain existed during a time of good economics and a

bright outlook. Their technological advances began to slow for two major reasons.

They were comfortable in their lead, and they had good reason to be so comfortable. It

cannot be contested that they were far ahead of the rest of the world in industrializing

5
Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1688 to 1870 (Chicago:
Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 301-302

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Anne Nies / History 362: Modern British History / Long Essay / December 9, 2009

They were also heavily invested in the technology of their age. The machines they had

built were not cheap or easy to develop. And they were being faced with social issues

as the morality of child labor and dangerous working conditions began to surface. So

with a substantial lead, and little encouragement to continue struggling for progress they

enjoyed their success.

Comfortable in their industrial standing, Britons began spending more time

developing, debating, and expounding their moral ideas at home and abroad. They

justified their actions in the colonized regions in terms of moral obligation, leading to

deteriorating relationships with the natives. The middle class adjusted and readjusted

their relationship with the lower class, leading to class conflicts. Most damaging of all

the business leaders who had been focused on making money through innovation,

became more concerned with obtaining the lifestyle of the nobility by sending their heirs

to public school where they learned more of Latin and philosophy than of science and

technology. The late-Victorian economy grew more slowly, and newly industrializing

nations began to overtake the British head start.6 While Britain lost focus on improving

their technology and staying ahead of their rivals, America and Germany began to

surpass them in production of goods and trade.

As other nations began to industrialize Britain was put even further behind by

their dependence on the technology and industry that they had been successful with.

The problems in all three areas (cotton textiles, iron,

and coal) resulted from competition from newly

6
Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1870 to Present (Chicago:
Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 4

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Anne Nies / December 9, 2009

industrializing countries, all of which adopted the most up-to-

date technologies, while the British lagged behind in

technical innovation. Of the older industries, only in

shipbuilding did the British increase their lead. At the same

time, the British failed to keep pace in several new heavy

industries based on advanced technologies.7

The decline of the British Empire was most clear during the world wars, where

Britain sustained huge losses. Of the reasons for this the two most significant are that

Britain was fighting an enemy that had superior weapons technology and they were in a

weakened economic position. They had already been loosing ground in the world

markets, to Germany and America, and were in a significantly less economically

favorable position. The government had to fund the wars through high taxes, which the

populace could not entirely afford and loans that they had no means to pay back. As

Britainʼs weakening state became obvious, they reduced the size of their empire. But it

was too little too late. They were already in a significant recession, and had over

extended themselves. They could not afford to produce the weapons and supplies their

soldiers needed, let alone to invest in the research and development necessary for

them to remain ahead in war manufacturing. Germany who had been enjoying the

benefits of trade that Britain had lost had soldiers whose needs were met, and who had

the time to develop new weapons technology. In his book “Good-bye to All That”

7
Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1870 to Present (Chicago:
Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 6-7

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Anne Nies / History 362: Modern British History / Long Essay / December 9, 2009

Graves discusses the gas bombs the Germans would devastate battalions with. The

British on the other hand were unable to even develop a workable gas mask.

The technological status of Britain helped to promote their interests abroad, and

then to drive new industry at home. In the past three decades Britain has been in a

constant state of flux. That has revolved around their industrial revolution and the

aftermath of that revolution. The industrial revolution changed not only how Britonʼs did

business but also how they lived. They were forced to redefine their society, their

lifestyle, and their worldview. They moved with an alarming speed from a personal

agrarian society to an anonymous world power. In this transition they have constantly

been in search for the personal community they have lost. Sadly this is not an issue

confined to Britain. As other developed nations have adopted new technology that has

allowed mass production of goods and food populations have soared and cities have

grown to massive sizes.

As long as Britain was wining at war and in trade the Empire maintained its world

status, despite internal conflict. Some of the most striking problems though are ones

that are familiar to the United States and other developing countries. A disharmonious

domestic population has depleted much needed government resources and weakened

the national structure from within. The citizens should manage to reach some internal

equilibrium before going to war with foreign nations. United the front is much stronger,

and a divided country is easy to defeat. Britain leaned this lesson particularly when

Ireland forced its independence. Unless a nation is able to loose a war and still be on

strong footing, it should not go to war. Britain did not loose the world wars, but it is not

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fair to say they won either. Although their side won, Britain sustained huge economic

loss that they were not able to recoup. Finally, technological advance can never be

allowed to slow. Investment in new technology drives internal and external business; it

gives the populace a point of pride, and makes the nation competitive in the global

market.

The United States, India, and Australia hold some of the greatest evidence of

British industrialization. Porter was correct when he referred to the United States as

Britainʼs daughter, following in her footsteps. What is sad is that they seem to have the

British pride also, and cannot recognize how they have followed a little too closely.

Although the USA has been able to surpass Britain, some of the same mistakes have

been made particularly in the Middle East. India is unified, has a rail network, and the

majority of the population speaks English. The British ideal that the colonizers

promoted has lead to increased numbers of the Indian population becoming educated

and they are also treading in Britainʼs shadow as they become industrialized, capitalist,

and their middle class grows.

Britain has left the world with the damages of industrialization, but also a global

conscience for our actions. Although industrialization has led to: barely sustainable

population growth, terrible pollution, and obsessive consumerism; it has also created a

world in which the poor of developed countries can live in relative comfort. The British

have left with it a legacy of global conscience. The laborers of the world have been

gaining a voice that they never could have had if it were not for the move to large urban

areas and the rapid expansion of mass communication that the British started. The

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Anne Nies / History 362: Modern British History / Long Essay / December 9, 2009

middle class Britonʼs, with their moral ideologies have planted ideas of hard work and

charity; that there is an obligation to use prosperity for the benefit of those who are less

prosperous. Also, by their expansive global networking they have raised every corner

of the planet into the minds of the developed world.

Like every great world power before and since, the British Empire spread its

technology and ideals across the globe. Because of their pride and willingness to share

their industrial success, other nations were able to build upon their technology to create

more and more sophisticated machinery. Just as the Romans gave us highway

construction that our roads today are reminiscent of, so did the Britonʼs help to establish

rail networks, textile manufacturing, Banking, and coal dependency. They also created

a new social ideal, of the middle class, that has spread globally. Capitalism and

consumerism are being and have been adopted by many countries, while the world

power system seems to be attempting to reach some equilibrium as more and more

countries industrialize. There is not a single continent on this planet that has not been

in some manner marked by the British Empire.

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