B

ii

2000 .
.
.
, .

.

() .
.
.

. . .
.

, 2008

iii

-
/




/

iv

, .
, .
, .
, .

,
, .

:
.
:

, , , , , :

,
. . (),
. , . , . , . , . , . .

, .
. (), . , . , . ,
. , . , . .
. . . .
. , .. .
, . . ,
.. . .
.
... , COSMOTE, ... General. Electric

:
John Bardeen, William Shockley
Walter Brattain, 1947.

.

1.1
.............................................................................................................................

..............................................................................

.......................................................................................

..........................................................................................

Brown .......................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................

10

...........................................................................

10

.......................................

12

.....................

15

...................................................................................................................

17

....................................................................................................................

17

............................................................................................................................

20

- .......................................................................................................

22

1.2
.............................................................................................................................

25

.............................................................................

25

.............................................................................................................

26

~ .........................................................................................

27

1 ..................................................................................................

28

- ......................................................

28

..............................................................................................................

30

................................................................................................................

30

..............................................................................................................

31

...........................................................................................................

32

................................................................................................................

32

............................................................................

34

vi

...

36

Poisson .....................

39

................................................................................................................

41

................................................................................................................

42

2 ..................................................................................................

42

Carnot ............................................................................................................

44

..............................................................................................................................

47

............................................................................................................

50

.....................................................................................

53

- .........................................................................................................

58

...................................................................................................................

60

....................................................................................................................

61

.............................................................................................................................

62

- .......................................................................................................

65

2.1
.............................................................................................................................

73

..................................................................................................

75

Gauss () ..................................................................................................

77

.................................................................

81

- ..........................................................................

87

..........................................................

91

.............................................................................................................

97

......................................................

99

..................................................................................................

101

...............................

102

........................................................................................

106

- ..............................................................................................................

108

...........................................................

109

..........................................................................................

110

vii

...................................................................................................

111

.....................................................................................................

113

...................................................................................................................

115

.......................................................................................................................

122

/ ...................................................................................

123

...................................................................................................................

124

....................................................................................................................

126

............................................................................................................................

129

- .......................................................................................................

131

2.2
.............................................................................................................................

137

.................................................................................

137

Biot Savart ...................................................................................................

138

Biot Savart ..........................................................................

140

.........................

143

.........................................

144

..................................

145

...........................................................................................................

146

........................................................................................................

147

.........................................................................................................................

148

Laplace - ..........................................................................................

150

.......................................................

154

.................................................................................................

155

Ampere ..........................................................................

157

............................................................................................

159

Hall .................................................................................

160

...................................................................................................................

162

....................................................................................................................

163

............................................................................................................................

165

- .......................................................................................................

167

viii

2.3
.............................................................................................................................

171

- ( Faraday) .........................................

171

E ..............................................................................

178

E .....................................................................

183

E .......................................................

183

.........................................................................................................................

186

................................................................................................

187

...............................................................................................................

189

.........................................................................................................................

191

..........................................................

195

- ....................................................................

197

....................................................................................................

201

....................

202

.......................................................

203

..............................................................

204

R, L, C ...............................

206

...............................................................................

207

.........................................................................

208

.................................................................................................................

211

.........................................................................................

213

.................................................................................

213

Maxwell ..............................................................................

215

...................................................................................................................

219

....................................................................................................................

220

............................................................................................................................

221

- .......................................................................................................

226

ix

, ,
.
~ : ;
: . ,

.
. , ,
,
.

.

.
, , .

. , ,
, , , .

.
. ~ ,
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.
,
,
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.
~ ,
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, .
.
.
,
.
, ,
Timeo Hominem unius libri,
( )* . ,
* OHANIAN, . .

.
, ,
. ,

. o
. .
.

(SI) SI.

. ,
.
, . ,
. resistance reactance
,
, , .
mol (o) , ,
. , ,
.
( ), (molar) (;) ,
. resistor,
, , . ,
. ,
.
,
.

.
. , , u =

5 2 /8 m/s, u = 3,24 m/s. , ,

, .
,
.


.
3 .
~ , , ,
. .
.
.
~ . 1984 IUPAC (
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, ~
), Comimission on
Thermodynamics ( ),

xi

1 atm (101,325 k Pa) 100 k Pa (1 bar).

22,4 L 22,7 L.
273,15 (0 C),
273 . 101,325 k Pa .
. .
,
, .. .
.
. ,
,
. . = 0

cos , 0 .
.

, , 0 q q

q/ 0 .

B .
,
, , ,
.
, , , ,

. , , ,
, ,
.

.


.

1.1

,
.
, .
2,7 10 19 .

: (p), (V),
().
,
.

.

. ,
, ,
.

( ), ,
, ,
.
,
.

(
).
,
, ( ).
, p,
V, T ( )
.

BOYLE - MARIOTTE

.
,
.
1.1.
,
() . ,
,
.
V0 , V0 / 2, V0 / 4, V0 / 8
p 0 , 2 p 0 , 4 p 0 , 8 p 0 . :

1.1


,
.

KINHTIKH -

, ,
.
p V = . ( = .)

1.2
Boyle Mariotte

.
1
2 Gay Lussac,

(i)
Charles,
Gay - Lussac,
(i)
Gay - Lussac
(ii) Charles.

Boyle - Mariotte,
Robert Boyle Edme Mariotte, - 17 .
1.2. (),
,
.
CHARLES GAY-LUSSAC
Boyle Charles
Gay-Lussac ,
:
(i) ,
.
(ii) ,
.
1.3 1.4.

1.3
Charles Gay - Lussac V - , p - .

1.4
Charles Gay - Lussac V - , p - .

273 C,
( 273,15 ), (i) (ii),
, .
.
,
( elvin), :
(i) , ,

V = . , (p = .).
(ii) , ,
.
p = . , (V = .)

1.5.
, ,
1.6.
,
.
.
1.5
,

V1, p 1
1. 1 ,
V, p 2.
Boyle
p1 V1 = p2 V ~

(1.1)

, p 2,
2, V2.
Gay - Lussac
V V2
=
T1
T2

(1.2)

(1.1.) (1.2)
p1V1
p V
= 2 2
T1
T2

(1.3)

, ,
.
p V = .
n ( mol) .
( ) (p 0 = 1 atm, T0 = 273 K)
V0 = n V mol (V mol = 22,4 L). ,

1.6
,

KINHTIKH -

, , p,
V, T. (1.3.) :
pV
p V
= 0 0
T
T0

pV
p V
= n 0 mol
T
T0

p0 V mol
R, :
T0
pV
= nR
T

pV = nRT

(1.4)

(1.4) .
R
R = 8 ,314

J
mol K

L atm,
, ,

R = 0 ,082

L atm
mol K

, p, V, T.
2, 2 He,
Boyle - Mariotte, ,
.

.
:
0 = 273 , p0 = 105 Pa V0 = 22,4 l
.
2, 2 He
pV / p0V0 , 1, BoyleMarriote
p0V0 = pV
pV
= 1
p0 V 0

Pa ,
Boyle
.
.

.
1-1
150 o C ,
, 40%.
.

, , oC,
, . 1 ,
2 = 1 + 150 .
, p1 ,
p2 = p1 +

40
p1 = 1,4 p1
100

,
p1
p
= 2
T1
T2

p1
1,4 p1
=
T1
T1 + 150 K

T1 + 150 K = 1,4 T1 T1 = 375 K

, 1, ( )
1 = (375-273) oC = 102 C
2 = (102 + 150) oC = 252 C
1-2

. ()
() .
2,0 mol. 0 o C,
lB / lA = 2/ 3.
( mol) . T
.

1.7

KINHTIKH -

,
. ,

UV
RT W

pV A = n H 2 RT
pV B = nHe

n
A lA
= H
A lB
n He
2

n
VA
= H
VB
n He

lA = n H
lB
n He

lB 2
=
lA 3

nH 2
3
=
nHe
2
nH

nH

nH + n He

3
5

3
( n H + n He )
5
2

nH 2 = 1,2 mol

nHe = 0 ,80 mol

, ,
.
, .
,
,
.
,
, ( )
( )
. ,

.
,
.
:
)
.
)
( ).

)

.
)
().

()
.
(,
) ,
. , ,
.

.
,

.

BROWN
1827 Brown

, .
.
.
1905 Einstein.
(),
.
,
, .
,

. ,


.
.
Einstein
, .
, ,
.
.

, .

.

10

KINHTIKH -

1, 2, ... N ,

1 + 2 + . .. + N
N

, 1
1, 2 2 .. :
=

N11 + N 2 2 + . .. + N K K
N

1 + 2 + ... + =

12 ,
22 , ... , N2 1, 2 , ... , N ,
2

2 =

1 + 2 + .. .+ N
N

2 ,
2

2 =

N 1 1 + N 2 2 + .. .+ N K K
N

( )

, 2,
(root mean square, rms)
rms =

rms r
v ( ).

1.8

, x

.

, , V.
, yz (
1.8 xy). m,

, .
() (
) x .

11

y z. x
m x m x.
x m x ( m x ) = 2 m x .
t ( )
x t.
, ,
( x)
,
, x , x.
t, ,
,
(/ V), (A x t)
1.9, 1/2, .
, t,
1 N
A x t 2 m x
2 V

Px =

( p).

Px
NAm x
=
t
V

2
. - (
), .
F
F =

Px
NAm x
=
t
V

p =

F
Nm x 2
=
A
V

x ( ),
.

2 = x + y + z

, 2,
2

2 = x + y + z

,
x 2 = y 2 = z 2

1.9


t,

( x t).

.

12

KINHTIKH -

2 = 3 x

2
3

x 2 =

1 Nm 2
3 V

p=

,
Nm
V

p =

1
2
3

(1.5)

p =

2 N 1
m 2
3 V 2

p =

2 N
EK
3 V

(1.6)

1
m 2 ()
2
.

E K =

(1.6)
nRT
2N
=
EK
V
3V

EK =

3 nR
T
2 N

n (
mol), Avogadro NA , = nNA

EK =
Ludwig Boltzmann
(1844 - 1906)

k =

k =

3 R
T
2 NA

R
Boltzmann
NA

R
8 ,314 J / mol K
=
= 1 ,381 10 23 J / K
NA
6 ,022 / mol

k = 1,381 10- 23 J/ K

EK =

3
kT
2

(1.7)

.
(1.7)
r =

2 (= rms )

3 kT
m

r =

(1.8)

(1.8)
3 RT
NA m

r =

m mol ( ),
3 RT
M

r =

(1.9)

1-3
, ,
27 oC; [ k = 1,38 1023 J/K ]

EK =

3
kT
2

Ek =

3
J
1,38 10 23
300 K
2
K

EK = 6,21 10-21 J

1-4
( ) (T 0 = 273 K,
p0 = 1,0 105 N/m2 ) 0 = 0,30 kg/m3. r
= 1100 .

(1.5)
p0 =

or

1
0 20
3

2
0 ,

r =

3 p0
0

1.8 or , r

(I)

13

14

KINHTIKH -

r =

3 kT0
m

r =

3 kT
m

r
=
r

T0
T

r = r

T
T0

()
3 p0 T
0 0

r =

r = 2000 m/s

1-5
m = 8,4 kg
= 4,2 kg/m 3 r = 500 m/s. :
) , ,
.
) .
) ( ).
)
: N A = 6,0 10 23 /mol, k = 1,4 10 - 23 J/K
28.

)
p=

1
1
2
2 = r
3
3

p=

FG 1 4 ,2 500 IJ N
H3
Km
2

= 3 ,5 10 5

N
m2

) = m / V,
V=

8 ,4 3
m = 2 ,0 m 3
4 ,2

( mol)
n=

m
8 ,4
=
mol = 300 mol

28 10 3

N = n NA = (300 6 10 23) = 18 1025

)
EK =

1
m r 2
2

m ( )

FG
H

m
M

N
NA

IJ
K

EK =

1 m 2
1
8 ,4
r =
500 2 J = 5,8 10 -21 J
25
2 N
2
18 10

)
EK =

3
kT
2

T =

2EK
2 5 ,8 10 21
=
K = 280 K
23
3k
3 1,4 10

( ).
()
[. 1.10 ()].
, ,
[. 1.10 () ()].
,

().
,
,
.
.
,
, ,

.

, .
:
, ,
.
,
. ,

, .

15

16

KINHTIKH -

1.10
( )

1.11

.

,

,
.
,
.
,
, , .
,

.

.
,

.

. .

. 1.11
() .

Adrasthriothtes
NA
R ,
,

p V = .
R
,
, ( Kelvin, K)
V = . .
R ,
,

p = . .
R
,

p V = .
R

p V = nRT
R

,


.

R

,
p =

, m
V .
R
, ,
,

Ek =

3
kT
2

k Boltzmann.
R r = 2
,
r =

3 kT
=
m

3 RT
M

R ,
,
,
.

drasthriothtes

1.
,

, .


,

.

1 Nm 2
3
V

17

18

KINHTIKH -

2.
)

.
.

.
,

; ,

1 2 .

J.C. Maxwell,

,
+ ,
.
,

. , ,
100 m / s.
,
,
,
.
(i) 1 2

, .
(ii)
,

, 1 2
.
(iii) ,

,

f ( ) =

Maxwell - Boltzmann

.


+ . N0
.
) ,
107.

.
( )
1,78 10 - 25 kg.

.

.

. f ()
,
+ .

.
1 3 .
(iv) ,

.

,
.
.
1,0 10 - 6 m/s.
(
)
:
,

kT / 2,
.
,
Brown
, ,
.
f (), .


.
1,0 10 - 9 kg.
;

1.

Ag. ,
, ,
Ag 1,0 10 - 9 kg.


( f () ),
Ag 1000 ;

.
( ..).

19

20

KINHTIKH -

.
()
()
()
() .
6

.

,

()
()
()
() .

, ,
, ,
.
:
()
()
()
() .

S.I.
()
()
()
()
4

.
S.I.

L
m3

/m 2
5

.
,

()
.
,
()
() 3
() 6
() 9
9

, .
, ,
,

()
()
()
() .
10

.
()
,
, ,
.
()
.

21

,
.

, ,
;
.
15

()
r
;

11

( )
;
()

,
.
()
, .
()
, ,
.
()
, ,
.
12

e Ne,
,
He 6,0 10-21 J.
Ne
He.
Ne
() 1,5 10 -21 J
() 3,0 10 -21 J
() 6,0 10 -21 J
() 24 10 -21 J.

16

, .

.
.
()
.

13

r
27 C;
() 54 C

() 108 C

() 381 C

() 927 C

14

,
,

()
r .
()

22

KINHTIKH -

,
.

2 .
19

17

, ,
(

2). , < < r .

, , r .
18

( 2)
mole 2 2 .

. 2

.
,


.

,
.

-
1

2,533 10 5 Pa 7 C.

,
27 C 1,013 10 5 Pa.

.
2

2,5 L, 8,0 mol

, ,
100 atm.
, ;
R = 8,314 J/mol K, 1 atm = 1,013 10 5 Pa.
3

10 L.
, ,
1 atm ( 1,0 10 5 Pa)
17 C. ,
2,0 10 7 Pa 47 C.
,

29. R = 8,3 J/mol K.
4

p
7 o C.
1/3
.

2 p. ;
5

, V 3V, ,

27 C.
127 o C.
,

;
6

20 10 kg O 2 4,0 10 5 Pa
60 o C.
,
2 , 3,0 10 5 Pa,
40 o C.

()
() 2 .
-3

[ O 2 = 32 10 -3 kg /mol
R = 8,314 J/mol K].
7

, Hg,
. 2
1 = 17 o C 2 = 27 o C
Hg .

23

. M H 2 = 2, M O 2 = 32.
11

() 2
;
()
10 C, Hg;
8

A = 2,0 10- 4 m 2

.
,

V0 = 35 10 -6 m3 .
17 o C.
,
27 o C 127 o C.

1,0 10 3 m/s. ,
,
;
12

. r
.

13

0,121 mol
, A = 3,00 10-3 m3,

= 60,0 . h

1
2
3

p =

Ek =

3
kT
2

.
14

.

.
, t .
27 o C
1,01 10 5 Pa.
R = 8,31 J/mol K, h.
10

2 3 2 .
: )
,
)
.

1
2 .

,

24

KINHTIKH -

.
.
10,0 mm
. ,
= 64,0 rad/s
0,500 m.
15

300 .

300 , 2,0 atm

400 . , ,
,
1,6 atm.
() k

() r .
k = 1,4 10 - 23 J/ K, NA = 6,0 10 23 mol -1 , M rHe = 4,0
18

() r
300 ,
() .
16

20 L 1,0 10
.
1,0 10 5 Pa,
, .
23

17

, V 2 V
,
.
He 1,0 atm

V 1 , p 1 ()
1 .

r = 500m/s.
() 1 .
() ,
, 2 .
r 2 .
()
1 ,
2 .
N = 0,020 g/mol
R = 8,31 J/mol K.

1.2

19 ,
caloric.

.
,
,
, ,
( )
. .
( )
.

,

.



.

. , , , ,
, .

( Boltzmann)
.

.
.
,
.

,
,
.
, ,
,
.
.

, .
, ,
. ,

25

26

1.12

p V.

1.13
U

, ,

p V = n R T, p, V, T
n
.
, ,
,
.
,
p 1 , V1 , T1 .
A (p1 , V1 , T1) p V.

. ,
,
.
, .
,
( ).
,
.
.
. ,
.
,
. ,
.
.
( ) U

.

,
.
,
()
.

( ) . ,
,

( ) , , .

.
U = UB UA ,
,

27

. ,
A (p1 , V1 , T1 ) B (p 2 , V2 , T2 )
(. 1.13), U = UB UA
.

.

. x,

W = F x

,
p, x ,

F = pA
:
F

W = p A x

W = p V
(1.10)
(V2 V1) ,
p V 1.15 :

V1, V2 , ...
. V i ,
p i V i p i
(. W i = p i V i ) ,
, 1.15.


W = W1 + W2 + ...

W = p1 V1 + p2 V2 + ...

W = p V

1.14


.

(1.11)

, W
(, , V2 V1) p V 1.15.

. , , (
) ,
( ).
, ,

,

1.15


.

28

.
(1.16),
. W
W W > W.

1o
1.16



.
W > W .

,
,

.
, ,
,
, Q.
SI joule (), J, . ,

1 cal 4,19 J.
Q,
,

.
Q ,
,
U
W,
. , :
Q = U + W

(1.12)

(1.12) 1 1 .
Q W
. ,
U ,

, .

1.17


,
.

.
, A (p 1 , V 1 , T 1 ) ( .
1.17). ,
, ()
. .
B (p2, V2, T2).
.
(W AB < 0)
UAB . WAB = UAB 2 > 1. 1.18

(p V ) .

.
,
, , ,
.
.
1.18,
.
, WBA = WAB > 0
,
UBA = UAB (T1 < T2). WBA = U .
, ,
, .

. .
,
.

.
, ,
p V.
.
. 1.17


. V2 (
, ),
, 2~.
2~ 2,
.
, V1,


.
V2 V1
V1 V2 .
,
V1 , .
.
,
.
()
,
. ()
.
, ,
, :

29

1.18

p - V.

30

) ,
,
.
) ,
.

, ,
.
.
1

1
.
.

1.
,
.
1.1.
1.19 p V
A (p 1 , V1 , T1)
B (p2, V2, T2 ) 1 = 2 = 0 .
Boyle - Marriotte
p1 V1 = p2 V2
1.19
.

,
, U = 0.

Q=W

, W W.
1.19

W = nRT 0 ln

V2
V1

(1.13)

2.
,
.

1.5. 1.20 p V
A (p1, V1, T1)
B (p2, V2, T2), V1 = V2 = V0 .

1.20
.

p1
p
= 2
T1
T2

, , W = 0. 1

Q = U

, ()
.

3.
,
.

1.6.
1.21. p V
A (p1, V1, T1)
B (p2, V2, T2), p 1 = p 2 = p 0 .
Charles Gay - Lussac

1.21
.

31

32

V1
V
= 2
T1
T2

Q

W, .

Q = U + W
W
1.21 :
W = p0 (V2 V1)

(1.14)

4.


, Q = 0. 1o :
0 = W + U

1.22

W = U

.

.

(1.15) ,
(W > 0) (U < 0),

(1.15)

1.23
().

. , ,
W < 0, U > 0, .

. 1.23 p V
()
A (p 1 , V 1 , T 1 ) B (p 2 , V 2 , T 2 ).
W.
1.24
.

5.
,
A (p0, V0, T0) , .
1.24
p V. ,
, U = 0.

1
Q=W
, ,
W .
W o
p V 1.24.
,
.
.
.
, ,
p V,
, .
1.6
,
.
() A (p 0 , V 0 , T 0 )
, 2p0.

() , .
() .
) p -V, V -T, p -T.
) W .
p0, V0, T0 ln2 0,69

)
pA
p
= B
TA
TB

p0
2 p0
=
T0
TB

TB=2T0

, :
p = pA
p = p0

:
pB VB = p V 2 p0 V0 = p0 V
V = 2 V0

. 1.25.
)
: WA = 0
: W B = nR 2T0 ln

2 V0
= 2 ln2 nRT 0 = 1 ,4 p 0 V0
V0

: W = p 0 (V0 2 V0 ) = p0V0

33

34

1.25

:
W=WAB+W+W

W = 0 + 1,4 p0 V0 p0 V0
W = 0,4 p0 V0

OM

,
=

1
3
m 2 = kT
2
2

1.26
.

x y z
2 = x2 + y2 + z2

EK =

1
1
1
3
m x2 + m y2 + m z2 = kT
2
2
2
2

(1.16)

, f,
.
(1.16)

f = 3. , x2 = y2 = z2 ,
k/ 2.

.

, (
) : / 2.

( )
.

( 1.27), f = 5.

1.27
.

, ,
z x .
, ,
,
. .

, ,
,
f = 7.
f .
,
, :
E = f

1
kT
2

(1.17)

U = N E, (1.17) :
U =

f
N kT
2

(1.18)

Nk = N

R
= nR
NA

U =

f
nR T
2

(1.19)

35

36

(1.19)
U =

f
pV
2

(1.20)

,
Q m,
,
Q = m c T
(1.25)
c
,
. SI
1 J/ kg K. m m = n M, n (
, mol) ,
(1.25)
Q = n M c T
(c) C, C = M c,

.
Q = n C T
(1.26)
( C ,
Q
= mc ).
T

,
, ,


.

( ) ,
.
: )
(CV) ) ,
(CP).
H CV
CP .
,
Q = n CV T

Q = n CP T

(1.27)
(1.28)

C P > C V ,

,
.
, ,
1 2 (2 > 1).

,
(. 1.28).
1 (U 1 )
2 (U 2 ),
,
, U = U2 U1 , .
, 1

1.28
U

1 , 2 .

Q = U

(1.29)

U = n CV T

, 1 , 2
U (1.29).
,

W = p V
:
p V = n R (T2 T1) = n R T

W = n R T
(1.30)
1
Q = U + W
(1.28), (1.29) (1.30)

n CP T = n CV T + n R T

CP = CV + R

(1.31)
(1.31) CP ,
CV , CP > CV ,
.
(
) ,
=

CP
c
= P
CV
cV

> 1, CP > CV .
(1.19)

37

(1.32)

38

U =

f
nR T
2

(1.29),
CV =

f
R
2

(1.33)

(1.33) (1.31)
CP =

f +2
R
2

(1.34)

(1.32), (1.33) (1.34)

=

f +2
f

(1.35)

CP ( CV )

, He Ar ( CP).

,
, CP ,
, .
.

,
.

C P C V ,
.
2 .. CV 100 3 R / 2,
5 R / 2 , 2
3200 . ,
C V 10 000 7 R / 2.

.

.

..

POISSON


A (p 1, V1 , T1 ) B (p 2 , V2 , T2 )
p V = .

( Poisson)

p1 V1 = p2 V2

(1.36)

(1.36)
nR T1
nR T2
V1 =
V2
V1
V2

T1 V1 -1 = T2 V2 -1
(1.37)
(1.36)

F nRT IJ
pG
H p K
1

T1 p 1

F nRT IJ
= p G
H p K

= 2 p2

(1.38)

1 ,

W = U = n CV T
(1.39)
CP = CV + R = CP / CV
CV =

R
1

(1.40)

CP =

R
1

(1.41)

(1.39) (1.40)
W = n
W =

W =

R
( T2 T1 )
1

nRT 2 nRT 1
1
p 2 V2 p1 V1
1

(1.42)

39

40

1-7
(p 0 ,
V0 , T0 ) ,
VB = 4 V0 .
, 0 .

) p V.
) W, Q U
, .

)
VA
V
= B
TA
TB

V0
4V0
=
T0
TB

TB=4 T0

f = 3,
f +2
5
=
f
3

TB VB -1 = T V -1
2
3

4T0 (4V0 ) = T0V

2
3

3
2

V = 4 4V 0 = 32 V0

pB VB
p V
=
TB

p0 4 V0
p 32 V0
=
4 T0
T0

1.29

p =

p0
32

41

)
WAB = P0 (4 V0 V0 ) = 3 P0 V0
QAB = nC P (4T0 T0 ) = n
QAB =

FG f + 2 IJ R 3T
H 2 K

15
nRT 0 = 7 ,5 P0 V0
2

1
UAB = Q AB WAB = 4,5 P0 V0
:
Q = 0
W = U = n CV (T0 4 T0 )
W = n

f
9
R ( 3T0 ) = nRT 0
2
2

W = 4,5 P0 V0

U = 4,5 P0 V0
:
Q = Q AB + Q B = 7,5 P0 V0
W = WAB + W = 7,5 P0 V0

U = U AB + U U = Q W
U = 0.
0 .

,
,
.
, ,
.
, .
1.30.
:
) , .
) , .
) (.. ), .
Q
,
Q ,
( > ).
1 .

, , U = 0.

1.30

42

W = Q Q
(e)
Q ,
W
Q

e=

(1.43)

e=

Q Q
Q

e = 1

Q
Q

(1.44)

. (, .),
,
, .
. 1.31
. , ,
Q , W.

Q = W +Q

e=

1.31

Q
W

Q
Q Q

.
.
Q
W

Q
>1
Q Q

2


, , e .
, 2
2 :

,
.
2 ,
Kelvin - Planck.
2
.
,

,
.
,
.
,
, .
. 2 ,

.

,
, , .
2
Clausius,
:

, .
2
, ,
. ,
, .
1.32
, 2 .

1.32
() . () .

43

Lord Kelvin (1824 - 1907)

B .

( Kelvin),


.

44

CARNOT

Sadi Carnot (1796 - 1832)

.

2
.
,
;
Sadi Carnot,
,

2 .
Carnot ( Carnot),
( > ).

, 1.33.
.
Q ,

1.33
Carnot.

, .
.

.

.

, Q .
,
, .
CARNOT
(1.44).
e = 1

Q
Q

e Q Q .

Q = W AB = nRT ln

VB
VA

(1.45)

Q = W = nRT ln

V
V
= nRT ln
V
V

(1.46)

(1.45) (1.46)
Q
Q

V
V
V
ln
V
ln

(1.47)

, (1.37),
1

VB

= V

= V

FG V IJ
HV K
B

F V IJ
=G
HV K

(1.47)

VB
V
=
VA
V

ln

VB
V
= ln
VA
V

(1.48)

45

46

Q
=
Q

(1.49)

e = 1

(1.50)

Carnot
e
.
,
,
Carnot , Carnot
.
(1.50) = 0 e = 1.
= 0
e < 1.
1-8
1.34 p V Otto,

.
.
Otto, V1 , V2 = CP / CV
.

,
, .
Q AB = Q = 0,
Q = Q = n C V ( B )

1.34
Otto.

Q = Q = nC V (TA T ) = n C V (T )

e= 1

Q

= 1
Q
B

()

Poisson

V2 1 = V1 1

V2 1 = V1 1

V2 1 ( ) = V1 1 ( )

T
=

FG V IJ
HV K

()

A (), ()
e = 1

FG V IJ
HV K

2
1

1
, .

.
,
S.
Clausius 1865 . ,
, .
Clausius.
, ,
Q, .
S
S =

Q
T

(1.51)

-
Q = W,
W
S =
=
T

nRT ln
T

S = nR ln

V2
V1

V2
V1

(1.52)

,
() .
Q,
() .
Q/ T.
, ,
S =

Q
T

S = . S = 0.
Carnot 1.33.

47

48

:
S = SAB + S + S + S
S =

S =

Q
Q
+0 + +0
T
T

Q Q

(1.49),
Carnot
S = 0
,
1.35.
,

1.35
Carnot.

1.36

Carnot.
Carnot.
Carnot S = 0, S = 0
. ,
, .

( 1.36).

S + S = 0

S S = 0
S = S
,
,
,

.

,
.
.
,
, VA , VB .
, .
,
.
, .
W = 0 Q = 0 1
U = 0. ,
.

,
.
(1.52)
S = nR ln

VA + VB
VA

2
.. ,
( )
Q/T, Q/T,
Q .
.
,
.
(
) S 1 > 0, ,
, S 2 = 0.
.

Q, 1 , 2 ,
1 , 2 1 > 2 ( 1 2 )
. Q
1 2 .
1 , 2 1
S1 =

Q
T1

2
S2 =

Q
T2

49

1.37

.

50

S =

Q Q

>0
T2
T1

, S > 0
Q 1 2 .
2
2 1 , S < 0.
. 2
:

, .

.
. (1.51) (1.52)
,
.
,
, ,
. , ,
. , ,

.

, .
.
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
.
, ,
. ,

.
,
.
,
,
.
1-9
Carnot, .
;

p V
S,
S.
.
,
,
. ,
1.38.

Si =

Qi
Ti

Q i = Ti S i
Q AB = Ti S i
,
, , S 1 , S 2 ,
.
Carnot p V
1.39, T S
1.39.

1.39
() Carnot p V. () Carnot - S.

,
.
, ( S 2 S 1)
Q , ,
. ( S 1 S 2 )
Q ,
. , Q
Q = W,
().
Carnot
e=

Q Q
Q

1.38

51

52

()
(AB S 2 S 1 ).
1-10
n ( mol)
A (p 1 , V1 , T1 ) B (p 2 , V2 , T2 ).

)
:
S = nR

FG ln V
H V

ln 2
1 1

IJ
K

()

) ,
(i) (ii) .

)
,
.
A (p 1 , V1 , T1 ) (p , V , T1 ), ,
, B (p 2 , V2 , T2 ).

S = S + S
S = 0,
S = SA = nR ln

V
V1

()

Poisson :
1

1 V
V

= 2 V 2

FT I
= V G J
HT K
2

1
1

()

() () :

LV F T I O
M
PP
S = nR ln M G J
MN V H T K PQ
1

(V)

(IV)
().
) (i) , V1 = V2 ,
()
S = n

R
T
ln 2
1 T1

(1.40)

T2
T1

S = nCV ln

(1.54)

(ii) ,
V2
T
= 2
V1
T1

()
S = n

R
T
ln 2
1 T1

(1.41)
S = nC P ln

T2
T1

(1.55)

"" .
,

.

, ,
() ().
, ,
( )

, :
(N1A ; N2)
1 1 2 2

1 + 2 =

. '
, .
,
:
,
,
({/ 2} ; {/ 2} ),
.

53

54

= , 6 10 23 ( Avogadro),

FG RS N UV ; RS N UV IJ
HT 2 W T 2 W K

,
( ; {N } )
({N } ; ).

,
,
.
= 4 5
.

R|(4 ;
S
|T( ; 4
A

()

R|(3 ; 1 )U|
S| V|
T(1 ; 3 )W
A

()

U|
V
)|
W

4
()

() (2 ; 2) 6
() ().
,
,

1. :

2. :
.
,
.

,
.

,

. S

.
,
,

,
.
'
,
:
,
"" "" , ""
"" (1; 1 ),

4
, :
= 1 2
1 = 2 2 = 2.

55

56

S,
,
S = S1 S2


.
S
S = k ln


S = k ln = k ln (12) = k (ln 1+ ln 2) = k ln 1+k ln 2

S = S1 + S2
ln .


.
(2 ; 2) = 4,
"" ""
, .
,
. ,
,
6 (2 ; 2).
,

. 6
(2 ; 2 ) 4 .

,

S = k ln ()
(1.44)
k Boltzmann.

= 4 ,
(4 ; ) (2 ; 2). (4 ; )
""
, . ,
,

S = k ln 1 = 0
(2A ; 2)
,
.
:
S = k ln 6 > 0
:
S = S S > 0
, '
- '
2 .
- ,
:
4
, , ,
, ,
.

.. ,
. "
" - .
S 0 2
.
" ,
".

(1872 - 1950)

~ .
,


.

. 1920

57

58

. 1922,
, ,
. . ,
1924. 1924 ,
.

. ,
, ,
.

. ,
,
.

(1909, 1922). ~
(1924).


.

-

.
,
.

.
) .
, ,
,
.
600 . ,
.

21 .
200 .
,
100 .
) - .
.
, , ,
. ~
.

59

,
.
,
.

.
.

.

.
,


,
,
.

,
. ,

.
,

,
, .

, .


. ,
.
.

,
.

...

,
.

60

Adrasthriothtes
N A
R
,
,

.

.
R ,

,
.

,

Q = n CV T Q = n CP
R C P C V :
CP = CV + R
R CP , CV = C P / CV

CV =

f
R,
2

CP =

f + 2
R,
2

f +2
f

R Poisson,
,
P V = .

R U


.

.
.

.

R 2
:

W = p V

Kelvin - Planck:

,
.

p V
.
R

Q = U + W
R
,
,
U =

f
f
f
NKT = nRT =
pV
2
2
2

R ,
,

e=

W
Q
=1
Q
Q

Clausius:
, ,

.
R Carnot

.

e = 1

R

:
S =

Q
T

R :
S =

Q
V
= nR ln 2
T
V1

R
, S = 0.

R

.

.
R

,
:

.

drasthriothtes

1.

( )
20 ml. ,

V 0 = 20 mL ,
p 0 ,
.
1 mL
.

,
.
, P 0 = 760 mmHg.
,
.
p V
. ,
()
;

p V
.

.
.
2.
, (..
),
60 mL,
.
, ,

61

62

.

,
,
, .



.


(). ,
40 mL.
:
(i)
,
(
0 o C)
.

(ii)

.
(iii)
,
( 90 o C).

.
(iv)
.
,

.

.
,
- ,
()
()
()
;

W = 600 J.

() 1600 J.
() 400 J.
() 1600 J.
() 400 J.
4

1
() .
() .
() .
() .
3

Q = 1000 J

,
p V .
/
/ .

() ,
.
()
,
.
()

.

63

- (p U )

()
() () .
p V
.

.
6

1 , 2 .
1
W1 , W2
2 = 2 1 . W1 , W2

()
()
()
()

.
.
.
.
9

,
p V

() W1 = 2 W2
() W1 = W2 / 2
() W1 = W2 / 4
() W1 = W2
7

,
p - .

;
.
10

W 1 . ,
, Q 2 = W1 .
.
11

()
()
( ).

1.
.
2.
.
.

() ,
;
() , ;
12

,
. .

64

13

,

.
()
()
()
;
14

1
Q = W.
2 ,
,

100% ;
15

;
16

Carnot

() 40 o C

20 C.
e = 0,5.

() 80 o C

() 313 o C

() 586 o C

17

300 600 , 60%.
;
18

Carnot
( f = 3).
,
;
() 40
.
() 40
.
()
20

20 .

()
( f = 5).

19

Carnot A, B
,

.
, ,

.
;
20

,
p V,
.
21

,
p V,
.
22

, = 300 ,

2 J/ .
() 1200 J () 600 J () 300 J () 150 J
23

/ ,
,
/ ;
() .
() .
() .
() , r ,
.
24

/ ,

/ .
() .
() .
() .
() r .

65

25

,
- S.

()
()
()
()

27

.
.
.
.

,
T - S , :

26

U - S
,
.
( )
(
).

() 30%

() 40%

() 50%

() 60%

A -

, ,
p V .

() Q AB = 30 J W = 20 J,


, U A .

()
22 J ,
W .
2

(p 0 , V 0 , T 0 )
0 / 2.

0 . ,
3 0 / 2
,
0 .
() p V
.
()
W = 0.

66

V 1 = 0,20 m 3
V 2 = 0,80 m 3 .
p 2 = 1,0 10 5 a.

ln2 = 0,69.

h = 1 m = 10 -3 m 2
.
= 50
. k = 100 N/m

n = 10,0 mol ,
27 o C,
.
:
() .
()
.
() .
()
.
: R = 8,31 J / mol., CP = 20,8 J / mol.
5

,
2,0 mol
, 300 .
,
1,0 . 30 s
400 ,
. R =
8,3 J/mol.k
6

.

. ,

1,00 L.
-

0,250 L; 1,00 10 5 Pa
CP = 3 R.

. ,
p 0 = 105 N/m2.
.
() p V
( ).
()
.
()

.
.
8

,

.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
() ()
p V, p T, V - T.
() Q ,
W = 250 J, Q AB = 300 J, = 1,40.
9

(p 0 , V0 ,
T0 ) , 2 V0 .

p 0 / 2. ,
V0 , ,
(p 0 , V0 , T0 ).

()
p V.
()
.
: p 0 = 0,50 10 5 Pa, V 0 = 1,0 10 -3 m 3 ,
ln2 = 0,69.
10

,
.
(i)
(p 0 , V0 , T0 ) ,
2 0 .
(ii)
(iii)
ln2 = 0,69, .
11

( = 1,5)
,
.

67

()
.
() .
13

.
(i)
(p 0 , V0 , T0 ) (V = 3 V0 ).
(ii)
( = 0 ).
(iii) .
(iv) .
2 / 13.
f
.
14

(f = 5) .

Carnot,
1 2 50% ln2 = 0,69.
15

.
12

.
(i)
(p A = 160 Pa) (V B = 8 m 3 ).
(ii)
(iii)
pV = 160 .m 3
()
.

H
Carnot 500
300 .
6000 J.

()
.
() .
() KW, 10
/ s.
16

,

.

68

e 1 = 0,40 e 2 = 0,20.

.
17

carnot

= 300 .

Q = 2000 J
S = 4 J/K. :
() .
()
.
()
.
18

0,500 mol
= 1,40.

:
(i) 300 1200 .
(ii)
300 .
(iii) .

() .
() .
() 10 / s.
()
.
R = 8,31 J/mol.K, ln2 = 0,693
19

,

:
(i) (p 0 ,
V0 , T0 ), (VB = 4 V0 ).
(ii) .
(iii) .
:
()
.
()

.
: p 0 = 8,0 10 4 Pa, V 0 = 2,0 m 3 , T 0 = 300 K,
= 1,5 ln2 = 0,69.
20

(p 0 , V0 , T0 )
2 V 0 .
2 p 0 .
,
.
: n = 2,0 mol, R = 8,3 J/mol.K, f = 3,
ln2 = 0,69.
21

(p , V A , T A )
V A = 0,200 m 3 = 320 .

(p , V B , ), V B = 0,500 m 3 .


p = (- 5 V + 3,5) 10 5
(To V m 3 p a)
:
()
.
() .
() .
ln2 = 0,693, ln5 = 1,61.
22

.
, .

(p 0 , V0 , T0 ).
3 V 0 .

, -

.
:

69

() .
()
.

() .
() R = 8,31 J/mol.,
ln2 = 0,693.

: p 0 = 1,0 10 5 Pa, V 0 = 1,0 10 - 3 m 3 ,

T 0 = 300 K, = 1,5 ln2 = 0,69.

26

23

,
, 1mol f = 5,
27 o C
;
R = 8,314 J/mol.
4 .
24

.
r ,
:
() f.
() S .
25

.
1,00 mol He 1,00 mol
H 2 .
.
,
:

, ,
V B = 2 VA . 1,00 mol He
p 1 = 1,00 atm T 1 = 300 K.
1,00 mol H 2 p 2 = 1,00 atm.
() 2 H 2 ;
()
p ,
; He
f 1 = 3 2 f 2 = 5.
27

,
( mol) He ( f 1 = 3) 2 ( f 2 = 5).
= CP / C V .
28

p
= .
V

:
C =

CP + CV
2

70

, .

2.1

, .
" () ".

. Newton (1642 - 1727),
. "
".

Michael Faraday (1791 - 1867),

.
Faraday,
.
' , ,
.
" "
" ".
"
" , "
".

, ,
.
, . ,

, -
(, W, Z 0 ).
-
.
( ).
, ,

,
.
. ,
. ""
"",
, ,
- , ,
, .
,
, .

73

74

, ,
() .

E , ,

F
E = ., F
q

q (),
. q,

. , E

F , .
q
. q
.
, .
q , . q

, E '
.
, ,
, ,

. E = E i , E i
, q i , ,
.

E ()

E.

S.I.
1 /C, , ,
1 V/m.
, ,
,
.
. , ,

. , ,
.
,
.
,
(
). ,
()

75

, .
.
,
, .
, ,
.

Gauss .

, .

.
.

, ,

. '
, , ,
' ,
.
,

(. . 2.1).
,
, ,
.

2.1
O
.

A ' ,
, .

E ( 2.2).
, ,

E , ,
. ,
, ( A
), A . A A
A = A cos , ( A ) (EA cos ).

E ,
,

2.2
() ()

.

76

= cos

(2.1)

E .

= E ,

E E .
N m2/C.

E A ~ = 180 ,
' :
= cos ~ = cos

A .
(2.1)
. ,

E A ( E
. A ).

2.3

A i ,
i .

.
()
i (. 2.3), , , (i 0).
Ai
i ,
.
, Ei i cos i,
.
,
.
= 1 1 cos 1 + E2 2 cos 2 + ...

i i cos

(2.2)

,
( )
( ). ,

, A i ,
. ""
, "" .

77

2-1
, ,
= 0,20 m = 0,40 m,
E = 30 N/C, 2.4.
. = 600.

, ,
,

= cos

2.4

(1)

= ,
= cos = (30 0,20 0,40 0,5) Nm2 / C = 1,2 Nm2 / C

GAUSS ()
' ,
,
.
, '
() .

.
.
.
, ,
.
Gauss. Coulomb,
.
. Maxwell,
, Gauss ,
Coulomb , Gauss
,
.

Karl Friedrich Gauss

(1777 - 1855)
~

COULOMB GAUSS
(. 2.5) R,
q. H
, ' ,

E =

1
q
2
4 0 R

(2.3)

(2.3) '
Coulomb .

2.5

78

0 (

)

:
: c2=1/0 0
:
c= 2,99792458108 m/s

()

' A i

. E i,
, (2.3)

A i.
:

0=410-7 Wb/A.m
~ 0=8,854185310-12C2/Nm 2)

i cos 0o =

i =

4R ,
= 4R2

(2.4)

(2.3) (2.4)
=

2.6

q .

q
0

(2.5)

q , .
, '
.

( )
, q, q/0. ,

, (. 2.6).
(. 2.7),
q ' .

' . ""
"", =0.
,
q, q 1 , q 2 ... , Q

Q = q1 + q2 + ...

=

2.7

,
.

Q
0

(2.6)

Gauss,
:
,

0.

79

GAUSS COULOMB
q 1 , q 2
R ( 2.8).
q1 q2.

=

q1
0

(2.4)
q
E 4 R 2 = 1
0

2.8
q 1
q 2 .

F q1 q2,

E =

F
q2

Coulomb
F =

1 q1q2
4 0 R 2

,
Gauss,
( ) .
.
.
2-2
, R,
q. ,
r .

, ,

E .
S 1 .
= 0 ,
Gauss S 1 .
,
.
, .

.
( )
.
(r R).
S 2 ,

2.9
= f (r),
.

80

r > R. ,
,

(2.4),
= 4 r2
' Gauss
Q
q
=
0
0

E =

1 q
2
4 0 r

,
.
2-3
q
R, .
,
r .

S 1
r < R. q~, V ~
. V
, :
q
V
=
=
q
V

4
3
4
3

r 3
R 3

r3
R3

q = q
2.10
= f (r),
.

r3
R3

,
E '
= 4r 2
(
2.4).
Gauss
=

Q
q
=
0
0

E =

81

1 qr
4 0 R 3

.
2-2
'
E =

1
q
4 0 r 2

2-4

. .
= q / A (
).

.
, , (. 2.11)
, .

, ' '
.
,
= 2
' Gauss
=

=
0
0

2.11

E =
2 0

Gauss.

E , 2.12.
m, q,
' , ,

yA
y

F = E q.

' ,
.
S1, S2 , ...
.

2.12

.

82

, Wi , Si

Wi = F Si cos = Fy i

W = F y1+ F y2+ ...

W = F ( y1+ y2+ ...)

.

F = q ( y1 + y2 + ...) = (y y ) W = Eq (y y )
W = (-E q y) (E q y)

(-E q y),
() U.
U
( U),
.
W = U

(2.7)

, .

.
(2.7) F y = U
F =

2.13

.

U
y

U = f (y)
F.
,
,
,
U, .
,
. ,


. ( ) ,
. ,
,
.
.
()
,
, 2.13.

.

83

KP KH = W
KP KH= UH UP
KH+UH= KP+UP

. ,
,
()
. ,
.

, ,

.


,
. ,
, :
(i)
, .
(ii) '
' ,
,
.
(iii) ,
' (
).

Q ( 2.14).
, '
q,
W = k

Qq
Qq
k
r1
r2

2.14


r 1, r 2
.

k =

1
4 0

k Qq/r.
q r Q (. 2.15),
.

U =

1 Qq
4 0 r

(2.8)

, ( ),

2.15


r.

84

2.16
q~
.

Q, q r,
.
(2.8)
Q, q. Q
U q. , q
,
U.

U.
' (2.8).
q1, q2,...
q~ r1, r2, ...
(. 2.16). q~

U =

1 q1 q
1 q2 q
1
+
+ .. . =
q
4 0 r1
4 0 r2
4 0

qr

(2.9)

'
2.8.
.
q1, q2, q3.
q1, q2 r1, 2 q1, q3 r1,3
q2, q3 r2, 3.
. q 1
. , , .
q2 r1, 2
q1
1 q1 q2
4 0 r1 ,2

q3
r1,3 q1 r2, 3 q2
1 q1 q3
1 q2 q3
+
4 0 r1 ,3
4 0 r2 ,3

1 q1 q 2
1 q1 q3
1 q2 q3
+
+
4 0 r1, 2
4 0 r1 , 3
4 0 r2 , 3

""
. ,
,

U =

1
4 0

i< j

qi qj
ri j

(2.10)

(..

i = 2 j = 3 i = 3 j = 2). E
i j.

U =

1 1
2 4 0

qi qj
ri j

2 .
joule (J,
).
2-5
Q 1 = + 2,0 C, Q 2 = 4,0 C
Q3 = + 9,0 C = 2,5 cm,
= 3,0 cm = 2,0 cm 2.17.
Q1
.
2.17

Q1, (2.9)

U1 =

U 1 = 9 10

Nm
C

FG Q + Q IJ
H K
F 4 10 C +
C G
H 2 10 m

1
Q1
4 0

2 10

-6

9 10

3 10

I
J
mK
C

U1 = 1,8 J
(2.10)
.
U =

1
4 0

FG Q Q
H
1

Q2 Q 3
Q Q
+ 1 3

IJ
K

U = 11 J
U
"" ,
,
. U 1 q 1
'
.
2-6
, q m,
.
Q = 2q 7000
, ,
. ,

85

86

, 0
x, 0 / 2 .
x, ,
.

2.18

, ,
.
, ,
.
,
.
KA+UA=KB+UB

1
1
m 20 + 0 = m
2
2

FG IJ
H2K
0

1 2 qq
4 0 x

3
1 2 q2
m 20 =
8
4 0 x

()

:
KA + U = K + U

1
1 2 qq
m 20+ 0 = 0 +
2
4 0 x

1
1 2q2
m 20=
2
4 0 x

()

() ()
x =

3
x
4

2-7
Bohr ,
q = e (e > 0), ,
e.
r "
" Coulomb. N
.

.
2.19

Coulomb.

E =

1
1 e
m 2
2
4 0 r

()

87

Coulomb ,
2

1 e
m
=
2
4 0 r
r

1
1 e
m 2 =
2
4 0 2r

()

() ()
E =

1
e
4 0 2 r

(2.11)

-
,

' -- '
.
, ' , ""
.
,
.
- q
U A , ( 2.20).
, V
( ) ,
( ) q,
, q. ~
q '
, (
), q.
(
)
V =

UA
W
= A
q
q

(2.12)

,
.
S.I 1 volt (1 V)
1 V=1

J
C

2.20
VA =

UA
1 Q
=
q
4 0 r

(2.13)

Q, .

2.20
q
U A.

88

(eV).
eV




1 V.
1 eV = 1,6 10-19 J

,
q1 , q2 , ... ' ,
r1, r2, ... '
VA =

UA
1 q1
1 q2
1
=
+
+ .. . =
q
4 0 r1
4 0 r2
4 0

qi
ri

(2.14)

VA ,

, q '
, q. , VA
,
q , q.

V = V V =

UA U
W
=
q
q

(2.15)

E ( 2.21). q
, .
l q,
WA = F l = E q l
(2.16)
, '
(2.15), (2.16) :
VA V = l

V V VA

V = E l
E =

V
l

(2.17)

,
" "
. .

2.21
.

2.22

l
.

, ( 2.22) ,
,
(2.16),
l = S cos

89

S.I. :
1/C =1V/m

(2.17),

l S , q,
.
(2.17),
l (),
.

,
.
- q,
. E

, q
.
,
. , F
,
.
.

:
(i) Q,
,
Q (. 2.23).
(ii)
(. 2.23).
2-8

q1 = + q q2 = q,
d. ,
( ).

2.23
()

.
()

.

V = 0

1 q
1 ( q )
+
= 0
4 0 r1
4 0 r2

r1 = r2

, .
,
.
.

2.24



.

90

2-9

A , () = 4,0 cm
() = 3,0 cm. , qB = 2,0 C
q = +1,0 C.
q q = 3,0 C
().

qB ,

() = 5,0 cm,
2.25

() = () = 2,5 cm
:
VA =

VA = 9 10 9

1
4 0

N m2
C

LM q + q OP
MN bAB g b g PQ
B

LM 2 10
MN 4 10

6
2

10

3 10

C
-2

OP
m PQ

VA= 1,5 10 V
5

VM =

1
4 0

LM q + q OP
MN bBM g b gPQ
B

VM = 3,6 10 5 V.
'
VA VM =

WA M
q

WA M= q (VA VM)

W A M = 3 10 6 C 1 ,5 10 5 V 3 ,6 10 5 V

WA M= 0,63 J
2-10

R, q.
r .

2-2

.
r > R
2.26

.

V =

1 q
4 0 r

91

V =

1 q
4 0 R

.

.
,
. 2.26.

.
,
.

F ,
. ,
, .
,
.

F . ,

, F ,
,
a =

F
Eq
=
m
m

, ,

, .

:



, m, q, ,

t0=0, 0 . 0
( 2.28).

= 0 + t = 0 +

q
t
m

(2.18)

2.27


,
,
.

92

2.28

.

x = 0 t +

1 2
1 Eq 2
at = 0 t +
t
2
2 m

(2.19)

0
= at =
x =

Eq
t
m

(2.20)

1 2
1 Eq 2
at =
t
2
2 m

(2.21)

(2.20) (2.21)

=

2 q
x
m

(2.22)

V ,
E =

V
d

(2.22),
x = d
=

2 qV
m

(2.23)

,
,

A O=WF,

1
m 2 0 = q V
2

2 qV
m

, m q,
0
( 2.29). ,

2.29
.

(i) x, '

(ii) y, '
.
:
x
(2.24)
x = 0
x = 0 t

(2.25)

y
y = at =
y =

Eq
t
m

1 2
1 Eq 2
at =
t
2
2 m

(2.26)

(2.27)

(2.25) (2.26)
y = y (x)

93

94

Eq
x2
2
2 m 0

y =

(2.28)

.

(2.25), x = L
L
0

t =

(2.29)

yA (2.27),
t (2.28) x = L
yA =

Eq
L2
2
2 m 0

(2.30)

2x + 2y

(2.24), (2.26) (2.29)

=

20 +

FG q L IJ
H m K

'
tan =

y
x

(2.24), (2.26) (2.29)

tan =

E qL
m 20

(2.31)

.
:

,
2.30. '
, ,
.
, , :
x
x = 0 cos

2.30
, .

x = 0 cos t
y
y = 0 sin
y = 0 sin t

q
t
m

1 Eq 2
t
2 m

2-11
, t0 = 0,
E = 1,0 10 3 N/C 0 = 4,0 10 6 m/s
. t1

, = 45 0 .

2.31

95

96

t1 S
.
e = 1,6 1019 C m = 9 ,0 10 31 kg

x
x = 0
x = 0t
y
y =
y =

Ee
t
m

1 Ee 2
t
2 m

, 450 x,

x = y
e
t1
m

m 0
Ee

9 ,0 10 31 kg 4,0 10 6 m / s
10 3 N / C 1,6 10 -19 C

0 =
t1 =

t1 =

t1 = 2,25 10 8 s 2,3 10 8 s
t1
xA = 0 t 1 = 4 ,0 10 6

m
2 ,25 10 8 s
s

xA= 9 ,0 10 2 m = 9,0 cm

yA =

yA =

1 Ee 2
t1
2 m

1 10 3 N /C 1,6 10 -19 C
2 ,25 10 8 s
2
9 10 31 kg

yA= 4,5 10 2 m = 4,5 cm

S =

x 2A + yA2 = 10 cm

2.32()

, ,
, , .
,
" ", ,

.

( 10 7 atm).

' .
- V1.

2.32()

.
.
, ,

,
.

97

98

, V2
.
-
V1, 0, (2.23)

2 eV1
m

0 =

y1 (2.30), (2.32) E =
y1 =

(2.32)
V2

V2 L
4 dV1

tan =

y2
D

(2.31), (2.32) E = V 2 /d

y2 =

D V2 L
2 dV1

h,

h = y1+ y2
h=

V2 L
2 dV1

FG L + D IJ
H2 K

L << D,
L
+D D
2

h=

LD
V2
2 dV1

h V2,
,
.

99

,
, '
.
1. ,
(), . (
) .
2. , ,

F ,
q, , q

F
E =
q

E F ,
q (. 2.33).
3. r - Q

1 Q
2
4 0 r

E =

2.33

4. .
5. - q r
- Q
U =

1 Qq
4 0 r

.
6.
U =

1
4 0

i< j

qi qj
ri j

1 1
2 4 0

qi qj
ri j

7. , ' ,
,
UA q, , q
,
q (
), q
VA =

UA
W
= A
q
q

8. r Q (
)
V =

1 Q
4 0 r

,
,
.

100

9.
'
VA = VA V =

UA U
W
= A
q
q

UA U q
, WA
q ' .
, :
1. ,

- m, F .
(
).
2. , ' ,

g,

F , m ,
m

F
g =
m

T g F .
3. g r ( ),
g = G

M
r2

2.34

g
,

.

A g
.
4. ,
(i) , ,
,
W = U

1
/kg

G= 6,6710-11 Nm2/kg2

(ii)

.
(iii) ,
.
5. m r
,
U = G

Mm
r

6.

U = G

mi mj
ri

i<j

1
G
2

101

mi m j
ri j

,
2.35,
U = G

m1 m2
m m
m m
G 2 3 G 1 3

7. , '
,
m , m
,
m
VA =

2.35



.

U
W
= A
m
m

8. r -
V = G

M
r

1 J/kg

,
, m.
9. H
UA U,
m , m
, m '
, m
VA V =

UA U
W
= A
m
m

,
.
' .

.

,
M R .
h r
' . r=R+h.
() ' m

B = G

M m

bR

+ h

() '

2.36
To .

.

102

B
g =
m

g " " (
).
() g
g = G

bR

+h

(. 2.37) h.

g0 =

G M
2
R

(2.33)

() m
, ,
2.37

g
.

U = G

M m
R + h

() (
) '
V = G

M
R + h

, r ( r R)
, 2.38.
:
.

( g = .).
,
.
(+ mgh) ( mgh), h
.

2.38
,
r
.

, .
1.
()
() , r ,
r 2 ,
r.
() ,
( )

103

( ).
( )

( ).
2.
() ,
.
() , ,
.
() g .

.
() (
) ,
.
10 39
.
()
,
,
, .
2-12
,
h .
, '
. g0,
R.

,
, .
K+U=KA+UA

0G

2 =

M m
1
M m
= m 2 G
R + h
2
R

2G M h
R R + h

2.39

(2.33)
=

2 g 0 h R
R + h

h << R, R+ h R,
=

2 g0 h

:
h<<R ( g g 0 = .),

U = mg0 h,

,

.

104

0 + m g0 h =

K+U=KA+UA

1
m 2 + 0
2

2 g0 h

2-13

,
, ' .
. g0 = 10 m/s2 R = 6400 km.

2.40

,
.

.
' , .
, ,

KA + UA = K + U
1
M m
m 2 G
= 0 +0
2
R
=

2G

M
R

(2.33)
=

2 g 0 R

m
64 10 5 m = 8 2 10 3 m / s
s2

11 ,3 km /s

2-14
,
, h
.

,
= Fk
G

M m

bR

+h

= m

2
R + h

M
R + h

(2.34)

105

T =

2
R + h

(2.34)
T = 2

bR

+h

G M

1
1
M
m 2 = mG

2
2
R + h
K =

GM
2 ( R + h)

U =

GM m
R + h

E=+U
E =

GM m
M m
G
2 (R + h )
R + h

E =

G M m
2 R + h

2.41
()
. () ,

h .

:

,
.
2-15
m 2m .
r
( ),
. " "
. , T,
.

F1 = F2 = G

2m
2
r

()

106

F 1 ,

F 2 B,
F1 = m

F2 = 2 m

1
4
= m 2 r1
r1
T

()

22
4 2
= 2 m 2 r2
r2
T

()

(), () F1 = F2,
r1 = 2 r2

r1 =

2.42
.

2r
3

r1 = r

(V)

I, II IV
T = 2 r

r
3 Gm

I, II IV
KA =

1
2
m
m 12 = G
2
3
r

KB =

1
1
m
2 m 22 = G
2
3
r

:
E = A + B + U
E =

2
m2
1
m2
2m2
G
+ G
G
3
r
3
r
r
E = G

m2
r

,

( ).
:
) , .
) , .

2-16
m1, m2 r1.
,
.
r2.
.

,

p = p

0 = m11 m22

()

,
U + 1, + 2, = U + 1, + 2,
G

m1m 2
m m
1
1
+ 0 + 0 = G 1 2 + m 112 + m2 22
r1
r2
2
2

2.43

()

(I) (II),
1 = m 2

2 = m 1

2G
m1 + m 2
2G
m1 + m 2

FG 1 1 IJ
Hr rK
FG 1 1 IJ
Hr rK
2

2-17
m1 q1 0
, m2 q2.
, .
.


.

~ ,
. ,
< ,
= = V.
.
,

2.44

m10 = m1V + m2 V
V =

m1 0
m1 + m 2

()

107

108

,
1
q q
1
1
m 1 20 = k 1 2 + m1 V 2 + m2 V 2
2
x
2
2

()

k =

1
4 0

() ()
x =

m1 + m 2 2 k q1 q 2
2
m1 m 2
0

,
.
,
, ,
,
,
' .
(
),
.

2.45
, (

). Q

.
,
.
,
. ,
2.46

.
.
,
.
,
.
"" .
,
, .
(. 2.48).

2.47
. ,
.
.
. ,
, . , , '
, .

109

,
; , ,
,
.

,
.
C=

Q
V

(2.35)

1 farad (1 F) ()
1F = 1

C
V

1 F , '
1 F = 10-6 F, 1 nF = 10-9 F, 1 pF = 10-12 F.
,
700 F.
,
'
,
.
: ,
. ~ 2.10,
.
,
. U,
q, ( W
q
), q.
V =

2.48

.

U
W
=
q
q

,
( ).
, (. 2.49). ,
d ,

.
V ,
V=E d
,
,
, .
2.50.
(

2.49

.

110

),
,
=
Gauss
E =

Q
0

(2.35)
E =

2.50

(

)

.

2.51

.

CV
0

EA =

C = 0

CE d
0

(2.35)

,
.


.

, ,
,
(. 2.51).
,
,
. ..
2.48.
( )
.
.
,
.
Qi ,
Vi .
, Wi ,
Qi ,
Wi = Qi Vi

2.52
.

V
, Q (. 2.53).
Wi (). ,
Qi , ()
(). Qi ,
.
W
Q0, ,

. ,

W
(),
W =

1
Q 0 V0
2

,
,
, Q
2.53

1
U = QV
2

V .
C = Q/V,
U =

1
1
1 Q
QV = CV2 =
2
2
2 C

(2.37)

:


.
.

.
() ()
.
.
2.54 ,
C1, C2.
, ,


. ,
, ,

,
.

2.54
,
V
.

V1 = V2 = V
C
Q ,
,
Q = Q1 + Q2

C V = C1 V + C2 V

111

112

C = C1+ C2

. V

V1 = V2 = ... = V= V
Q

Q = Q1+ Q2 + ... + Q


C= C1+ C2 + ... + C

.
C ,
C = . C
B.
2.55 (
) .

C1

C2.


2.55

.

.
Q, + Q ( Q > 0).
, Q
+ Q. ,

Q1 = Q2 = Q
Q
. V ,
V1 C1 V2
C2
VK VM = VK V + V VM
V = V1 + V2

113

C

Q
Q
Q
=
+
C
C1 C2

1
1
1
=
+
C
C1 C2

C =

C1 C2
C1 + C2

, ,
Q.
Q1 = Q2 = ... = Q = Q
H V

V = V1 + V2 + ... + V
,

1
1
1
1
=
+
+ .. .+
C
C1 C2
CN

.
C, :
1
1
= N
C
C

C =

C
N

, . ( )
Q
(. 2.56).
V .
(.. )
,
. ,
C = Q/ V,

.
C
, C 0

2.56

, .

114

, K ( r).
,

.
,
,
.

K =

C
C0

(2.38)

,
C = K 0

(2.39)

20 oC

(Plexiglas)

3,40

(1atm)

1,00059

5-10

(mica)

3-6

42,5

3,18

80,4

.
1,
,
, .

, .
"". ,
,
"
". ..
, ,
, . ,
30 kV/cm.

.
1.
2. .
3. .
4. .

.
.
(.. O2 ) ,
( ).
(.. 2 )
,
.

, ,
. ()
,
. ;

.
, "
". ,
, " ",
( 1 ),
( 0).

= 0 1
, ( V = E d)
. , C = Q/V,
.

115

2.57

,

.

1.
, (
) mylar, .
2.
.
3.
.
4.
.

, .

.
.
5. ,
, .
,
. ,
,
.

2.58

.
.

2.59

= 0 - 1.

2.60
.

116

2-17
C0 ,
, .
V0, Q0, 0
U0. C0, V0, Q0, E0
U0 , d ,

()
() .

C0 = 0

C = 0

C
= 0
2d
2

.
() , '

V = V0

Q =CV =

C0
Q
V0 = 0
2
2

E =

V
V
E
= 0 = 0
2 d 2d
2

()
U =

1
1 Q0
1
QV =
V0 = U 0
2
2 2
2

() ,
Q = Q0

V =

Q
Q0
Q
=
= 2 0 = 2 V0
C
C0 / 2
C0

E =

V
2V 0
V
=
= 0 = E0
2d
2d
d

U =

1
1
Q V = Q0 2 V0 = 2U 0
2
2

.
2-18
2.61.
C1= 1,0 F, C2= 2,0 F, C3= 3,0 F, C4= 3,0 F, C5 = 20,0 F,
C6= 20,0 F, C7 = 40,0 F V = 12 V.

) ,
)
) C4.

) C1, C2, C3 ,

C123= C1+ C2+ C3= 6,0 F
C5, C6, C7 ,

1
C567

1
1
1
+
+
,
C5
C6
C7

, C5 6 7 = 8,0 F
C1 2 3 C4
,
C1234 =

C123 C4
= 2 F
C123 + C4

C1 2 3 4 C567
,
C = C1 2 3 4 + C5 6 7
C = 10 F
)
Q = C V = 120 C
C1 2 3 4 C5 6 7 V,

Q1 2 3 4 = C1 2 3 4 . V = 24 C
Q5 6 7 = C5 6 7 . V = 96 C
C5 , C6 , C7 ,
Q5 = Q6 = Q7 = Q5 6 7 = 96 C

2.61

117

118

Q4 = Q1 2 3 = Q1 2 3 4 = 24 C
C1, C2, C3

V1 = V2 = V3 = V AB =

Q123
= 4 ,0 V
C123

o
Q1 = C1VAB = 4,0 C
Q 2 = C2 VAB = 8,0 C
Q 3 = C3 VAB = 12 C
) C4
U4 =

1 Q42
= 96 10 6 J
2 C4

2-19
C1 = 2,0 F . 2.62,
Q0=120 C, C2 = 3,0 F .
.

()
() .

)
C1 .
.
, .
, .
,
V .
Q1 , Q2 ,
,

Q0 = Q1 + Q2
Q0 = C1V + C2V
V =

Q0
= 24 V
C1 + C2

Q1 = C1V = 48 C

Q2 = C2 V = 72 C

2.62

U x =

1 Q0
= 36 10 4 J
2 C1

U =

1
1
C1 V 2 + C2 V 2
2
2

U =

1
C1 + C2 V 2
2

U = 14 10 4 J

U = U x U = 22 10 4 J

,

. ,
, .
2-20
,
' U0 = 4,0 10 -3 J.
( )
( = 4).
.

,
Q.
C = K C0
C 0 .


U =

U =
U =

1 Q
2 C

1 Q
2 K C0

1
U0
K

U = 10 3 J
.
,
.
2-21
C0 = 50 F d.
l = d/5,
2.63(). .

119

120

2.63

,
2.63(). 1,
,
. 2.63()
2.63(),
1
1
1
=
+
C
C1
C2
1
1
1
x + y
=
+
=

C
0
0
0
x
y
C = 0

0 A
=
4
d l
d
5

C =

5
C0 = 63 F
4

2-22
C0 = 10 nF,
d, l = d / 4.
, = 5.

. [. 2.64()]
2.64(),

2.64

1
C

1
C1

1
C2

1
C3

1
1
1
1
=
+
+

C
0
K 0
0
x
l
y

121

122

1
x + y
l = 3d / 4 + d / 4
=
+
C
0 A
5 0
0
5 0
C =

0
4
d

C =

5
C0 = 13 nF
4

.


.


.

2.65
.

, ,
, .

.
.
1) .
2)

.
3) ( )
2.65
( ) .
:
- .
- .
- ,

.
- Lissajous ..

2.66
.

/
,
.
,
,
, .
, ,
, ,

, , ( ).
54 , ,
() .

123

124

Adrasthriothtes
N A
,
,

E ,
=

E
.
,
,
,

.
=

i i i

Gauss :

,
,
( 0).
=

Q
0

V =

UA U
W
= A
q
q

(UA - U)
q
WA

q .


UA
q

V =

UA q
.
,

q1 , q 2 , ...
VA =

1
4 0

qi
ri

ri
qi .

q, ,

q1 , q2 , ...

H V
,

1
q
U =
q i
4 0
ri

E l,

ri q qi

q1 , q2 , ...
U =

1
4 0

i< j

qi qj
rij

1 1
2 4 0

qi q j
rij

E =

V
l

()
,

B =G

M m

bR

+h

,
m,
, m

g=

B
m

bR

C = 0

d
.

g = G

+h

U =

, m,

M m
U = G
R + h

1
1
1 Q
QV = CV2 =
2
2
2 C

C , Q V

.
,

,
C = C1+ C2+ ...

V = G

M
R + h

(

)



C=

Q
V

C ,

,
1
1
1
=
+
+ . ..
C
C1 C2

( r ) ( > 1),
(
) .

125

126

drasthriothtes

To MILLIKAN

1. MILLIKAN

,
,
.

e
(
). Millikan
e
, .


.

, m q
(
),

,
mg = Eq

l,
E =

V
.

mg =

q =

m gl
V

q
m .

() = () ()

4
m = r3
3

r .

r .
Millikan

( ),
,
F
.

Millikan.

;
2.
K

250 V

,
) ( 4V)
.
;

;
) ( )
( 5 V)
.
. ,
;
3.

.
( ) (..

F = 6 r ( = )

mg = F

4 3
r g = 6 r
3

Millikan
r, q
.

,

q / 1019 C
6,41 4,82 11,2 12,9 9,61 15,9 8,02 3,19

). ,
, .


Wimshurst.
.
4.

()
= 13,5 V, C = 68 F,
R = 150 k R 1 = 100 .

127

128

(
10 ).
t = 0
V 10 s.

( )
V = f (t)

.

, . - .
;

; .
6.

.
()
R = 10 k. ;
()

.
5.


,
.
, ,
.


.

i)

.
ii) .
.
.
.

.
iii)
12 V .


. ,
.

129

Gauss


.
2

. Gauss

.
3

.
.
()
()
()
.
()

,
q.
()
()
()
()

() q 5 V
() 5 J
() q,
, 5 J
7

q
,
. q;
8

.
U.

() 6 U
() 3 U () 1,5 U () U
9

,
.
VA = 70 V B VB = -30V.
:
() 50 V

() 40 V

() 20 V

() 10 V

10

() = 0,200 m
60
= 50,0 N/C.

:

.
:

.
()
()
()
()
.
6

( )
().
() 5 V

VAB = VA - VB
() 10,0 V

() 5,00 V

() - 17,3 V

() 17,3 V

11

( )
( )
()

()

() ,
q,

q

130

12

16

,
1836
.

e

p .
1
()
1836

e
p

() 1836

.
.

() 1836

() 1

13

17

. g

. E

0
.

, 0
:
()
()
()
() .
14

. /kg
. J
. J/kg

. p
18

R g 0

.
, g = 1 g 0 ,
4
:

.
() 4g0R

()

1
g 0R
2

() - 2g0R

()

1
g 0 R
4

19

2 cm.

0.

() 0,5 cm
() 1 cm
() 2 cm
() 4 cm

,
25 MJ/ kg, ,
55 MJ/kg.
:
() .
()
() ,
()

15

.

. g

. q

B. G

. E

. m

20

,
,
,

() =
() =

() =2
() = 2

131

.
() .
() .
() .
25

21

1 ,
,
2
,
, ,
: 1 = 2 1 > 2 1 < 2 ;

( )

, ,
V.
() .
() .
() .

22

26

,
. ( )

( ).

.
() ,

.
() ,

.

()
24 h
()

()

.
23

.

.
.

.
.

24

( )
V
,

27

C = 6,0 F. ,
.
() 2,0 F,
() 9 ,0 F,
() 15 F
() 18 F
28

.
50 F 8,0 F.
.
()
50 F
()
8,0 F.
()
50 F.
()
8F 50F.

-
1

q
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

,

(i) .

132

r = 0,100 m
, E = 100

N
,
C

. .

4,0 10 3 V. ,
,
1,0 10 - 14 kg.
. g = 10 m/s2
e = 1,6 10 -19 C
8

m e
,
, q = 3 e.
, 0.
,
.
()
()
() .
3

, .
.
r .
4

, () = 3 m
() ()
qA = + 1 C q = 4 C ().
( )
, ,
.

q
, .
10

, 0,
,
. 0
. ,
,
,
,
. :
0 = 1,0 10 6 m/s ,

E = 100 N/C,

e = 1,6 10 -19 C ,

m e = 9,1 10 - 31 kg

qA = + 4,0 C
q = 1,0 C , ,
1,0 m.
q = 2,0 mC,
, ( qA
qB) .
6

() = 30 cm = 60 cm. ,
qB = + 1,0 C
q = 1,0 C.
q = 1,0 C
.
7

,
() , 4,5 cm

11

q
= 1,0 10 8 C / kg ,
m

0 = 1 ,0 10 5 m / s

3
E = 1,0 10 N/C, .
1,0 s .
.
.
. ,
.
.

1,0 s .

12

, q = 1,0 10 8 C / kg
m
.
0 = 1 ,0 10 5 m / s
,
E = 1,0 103 N/ C
d = 8,0 cm
( ).
,
. 37

133

,
8,0103m/s.
.
R = 6,4 10 3 km,

g0 = 10 m/s2
.
15

,
m , ,
, ,
.
,
,

.
.
G, m, .
16

()
()
()

sin 37o = 0,60 cos 37o = 0,80. .

.
h .

.
13

0 ,

.


() = ().

100 eV.
() .
()
.
() VAB .

, m,
.
,
,
( ) ,
,
.

,
. G, m, .
17

h = 3R. , ,
, . ,

,
.
() ,
.
()
.
() ,
.
R = 6,4 103 km

g0 = 10 m/s2.

14

18

134

23

.

, ,
. ,
.

q
.
.

19

24

, m,
.
() ;
() ,
;
() ,
.
.

/4;
G, m, .

, l = 2,0 cm, V = 3,0103 V
()
;
()
m = 12 10-12kg.
(g = 10 m/s2)
()
V1= 2,0 103 V
.
.

20

, m,
, 2 m.
0 .
,
() ,
2 0
() ,

2 0.
0, G, m.

25

C = 8,0 F, Cx ,

21

%
,
,
,

= 6,0.
22

r = 6,00 cm.
( = 5,00),
2,00 10 7 V/m.
C = 1010 F
Vm

( = 3,14, 0 = 8,85 1012 C 2 /N.m2).

Co = 4,0 F.
26

:
C1 = 1,0 F, C2 = 2,0 F, C3 = 6,0 F
V = 12 V. :
()
()

()
.
27

C1 = 2,50 F

C2 = 10,0 F
V = 12,0 V,
.
( )
:
()
() .

,
.
28

C1 = 2,0 F, C2 = 2,0 F, C3 = 4,0 F, C4 = 12 F,

135

C5 = 5,0 F, C6 = 5,0 F, C7 = 15 F
C5
q5 = 20C,
.
29

,
C = 2,5 F, R = 4,0 k = 24V.
1
.
() 50% ,
,
.
() ,
2,
. ,
,
V C = 20 V. ,
,

.
Joule ()
,
V C = 20 V.

136

... ( )
... . ()
. ()

2.2

( )
,
, 800 ..


.
16 William Gilbert ,

,
. 18 John Michell

, Coulomb.
1819 Hans Christian Oersted

. Andr e~
Amp ere

.

,
.

Oersted
.
,
'
.

q, ,
, , ,
:
()
B =

0 q sin
2
4
r

(2.40)

r ( )
( )

r (0 ). r
( 2.67)

() r
()
. ,

B , '

r B

137

138

2.67

B .

, ' r
.

, B
, .

m
0 = 4 10 7
.

2.68

() B . () ,
.

SAVART

, .
,

B , .
' Biot Savart.
, ' ,
, .
' ,

B ,
.
,
l ( 2.69).

2.69

B ,

l r l

r .

B , l ,

r l. , l
l

, r

r l . Biot - Savart

B :
()
B =

0 l
sin
4 r 2

(2.41)

l r.

() l

r.
() ,

' l r .
,
( 2.69).
Biot Savart
Oersted .

.

Biot - Savart.

139

140

B ,

l, , , (2.40)
B =

0 N q sin
2
4
r

( ). t
l , :
=

l
t

t,
q,
I =

Nq
t

(2.41).

-SAVART

.

B ,
, 2.70.
, .
,
.

, . ,
Biot - Savart,
, r,
.
( )

l1, l2, ... Biot-Savart B i ,

li ,

i =

0 l i
I l
sin 90 0 = 0 2 i
2
4 r
4 r

B 1, B 2 , ... ,

2.70
To
.

B

:

0 l1
I l 2
+ 0
+ .. .
2
4 r
4 r2

0
( l1 + l 2 +. . . )
4 r 2

0
2 r
4 r 2

0 I
2r

141

(2.42)

( )
,
=

0 I
N
2r

(2.43)

( ) 2.71.

.

2.71. Biot-Savart
, r
, '
B =

0 I
2 r

(2.44)

r
. '
, .
2-23
r, , .
,
, .
() d.
A

l i . ,

l i , B i. B i
2.72
i =

0 l i
l
sin 90 0 = 0 2 i
2
4
4

2.71

142

2.72

B i , B i ,

d, B i , d.

l 1, l 2 , ...,
.

B i

B j ,
l j , "" l i).

, B

. B

B i
B = 1 + 2 + ...

B = 1 cos + 2 cos + ...

B =

LM l
N 4 a
0

B=

0
4 a
B =

OP
Q

0 l 2
4 a

+ .. . cos

l1 + l2 +. ..

r
a

0 I
r
2 r
2
4 a
a

0 r 2
2 3

B =

B =
2

FH

0 r

d +r
2

IK

143

,
, ' .
.

.
;
.

. ,
.
.

.

(
), ' . ,

F
.
:
() F
F = B q sin

(2.6)
, , q

B (0 ).

() B

(. 2.73)
() H :

2.73

F
q

.

B ,

B , q '

B , q

F .

. F
,

B .

- B , sin = 1,

F = Bq

' , B , F

, 2.74.

2.74

, B , F
.

144

- B , = 0 0 = 1800,
F = 0.

.
1.
, .

.
2.

, ,
, F = B q = ,

(. 2.75).
" "
,
2.75

B q =

...,
,
.

R =

m 2
R

m
q

(2.46)

(2.46)
.
,
,

=

q B

=
R
m

(2.47)

,
T =

2
2 m
=

B q

(2.48)

,
. ,
' ,
.
3.
,
, ,
.

. ,
, / /,
. ,
,
2.76. , (2.46)

2.76
...

R =

m
q

(2.49)

(
)
= // (2.9), :
= / /

2 m
B q

(2.50)

.

,
.
.
. ,

. ' ,
' .
,
, .

2.77
.

145

146

'

,
.

,

,

.

. Van
Allen ( ) 1958
Explorer I.

2.78
Van Allen.

:
' ,
, ,
Fe = q .
Lorentz.
Lorentz .

:
m q (
) '
,
,
.

,
.

'

,
2.79
.
'

,
Fm = F

q = E q

=/

(2.51)

,

.
:

2.80
.

q / m (
). ,

' (2.51).

B 0 , .
, R,
. R
.
R =

m
B0 q

(2.51)
q
m

E
B B0 R

(2.52)

R ,
2R '
0 . (2.52)
.

q, q.

147

148

2.81
.

.
' ,
.
D
' () (dees).
,
.
,
.
.

( ),
,
D .
...

(2.46), (2.47).
, RD . T

max ,

' . max ,
(2.46)
max =

q BR D
m

,
,
K max =

2
1
q B 2 RD
m 2max =
2
2m

,
.

.
.

2-24

,
.
,
.
me = 9,11 10 -31 kg mp = 1,67 10 - 27 kg.

qe = qp = e

1
m ee2 = e V
2

V .

e =

2 eV
me

,
,
p =

2 eV
mp

e
=
p

mp
me

m e e
Re
= Be
m p p
Rp
Be

me
mp

mp
me

me
= 2 ,33 10 2
mp

2 me
Te
eB
m
=
= e = 5 ,45 10 4
2 mp
Tp
mp
eB

149

150

2-25
, ,
q/m=10 8 C/ kg, 0 = 10 5 m/s
B = 10 -2 T, .
0 d = 5,0 cm ( 2.82).
.

2.82

R =

m0
= 0,1 m = 10 cm
q

d = 5,0 cm,
.

( 2.82).

sin =

(P)
d
1
=
=
(KP)
R
2

t
t
/6
1
=
=
T
2
12
t =

1 2 m

=
10 6 s = s = 0,52 s
12 B q
6
6

A
R

t =
=
= s = 0,52 s
0
0
6

LAPLACE -

.
.

, .
.
(. 2.83), .

. ,
.

2.83
Laplace .

, ,
.
. ,
,
. ( )

.
, ,
, ( )
Laplace. :
, l

, B ,
F = BIl sin

(2.53)

( )
.


(. 2.84). ,

2.84
Laplace .

( ) B ,

151

152

, (

) B .
F = 0
,
F = BIl

2.85
.

F , B
,
, 2.85.
,
' (2.53) .

, .

. 2.86

.

.
2.86

LAPLACE
.
,
(. 2.87).

2.87
.

F0 = B e sin
( )
.

F , l ,

.
F = N F 0 = N B e sin

'
( ) t, t
l. = l /t,
F = B

Ne
l sin
t

Ne q,
t,

Ne
q
=
t
t

,
F = l sin

" B "
. .

B ( ), B , '
,

B , :

1. , ,
.
2. ,
,
.
3. '
B =

F
I l

F , l
( ),

B .

B tesla () .
2-26
l = 1,0 m

x~x, y~y.
= 2,0 T.
= 8,0 , .
, ; (g = 10 m/s2)

,
, ,
. Laplace ' .
:
() 2.88.

2.88

153

154

() Laplace ,
,
F=m g

BIl = mg
m=

2T 8A 1 m
BIl
=
g
10 m / s 2

m = 1,6 kg

2.89

,
.

,
(. 2.89).
, .
,
.

. ,
,
Laplace.

2.90,
. , ,
,
B1 =

0 1
2 r

L () Laplace
2.90


.

F2 = B1 I2 L
F2 =

0 1 2 L
2 r

(2.54)

' L ()

F1 =

0 1 2 L
2 r

- .

AMPERE COULOMB
S.I.
ampere S.I.

.
ampere ,
,

, 1 m ,
2 10-7 newton/m .
2 10 -7 newton ' (2.54)
L = 1 m, r = 1 m, I1 = I2 = 1 A.

.
ampere (A) S.I.
coulomb (C).
coulomb ,
, ampere.
2-27
,
2 .
xx
( 2.91), 1 .
.
1 = 10 , 2 = 20 , r = 2,0 cm, = 18 cm = 20 cm.

, x~x
.

F 3, F 4, ,
x~x
.
, .

x~x F 1 ,
F1 =

0 1 2
4 10 10 20 0 ,2
=
N = 40 10 -5 N
2 r
2 0 ,02
7

x~x F 2 ,
F2 =

0 1 2
4 10 10 20 0 ,2
=
N = 4,0 10 -5 N
2 ( r + )
2 0 ,2
7

F 1, F 2 F 1

F = F1 F2 = 36 10 5 N

(
GAUSS )
,
.

, B

2.91

155

156

A ' ,
(. 2.92).
,
,
= cos

2.92

.

(2.55)

(
),
.
(. 2.93). i
i
i = i Ai cos i

(2.56)

,
.
= i i cos i

2.93
i
, .

(2.57)

. Gauss
= 0. ( )
, Gauss

= 0 ( )

2.94
.

2.95

.

.
(. 2.95)
' (
) '
( ).
( = 0)

,
.
(. 2.94 - 2.95).

.

Maxwell.
: (2.56), i
,
i = Bi i

Bi =

i
i

B '
,

. ' B
.

157

RE
,
, ()
(.
2.96).

.
( )
l 1, l 2, ... ..
.

B
l.

B l = B1 l1+B2l2 +...

~ 1 = 2 = ... ,

B l = B (l1 + l2 + ...)

(l 1 + l 2+ ...)
, 2r '

B =

0 I
,
2 r

Bl

Bl

0
2 r
2r

= 0

, ,

2.97

B B / / , l B , l.

B B // ,
l,
I , (
2.97).

B / / l

= 0

(2.58)

2.96

.

158

(2.58) :

() B / / B cos ,

B l
.
() I ,
,
.
.. 2.98 :

2.98
I 4 , .

ANDRE-MARIE
AMPERE (1775-1836)
.
.

= I1 I2 + I3
(2.58)
, Ampere, :

,
,
.
Ampere
, ,
, '
Biot - Savart. ' ,

Gauss ' Coulomb.

( 2.96).

r,

B .
l1, l2,...
2.96.
Ampere,
, .

, .

/ / l = 0

B l1 + B l2 + ... = 0

B (l1 + l2 + ...) = 0
B =

0
2 r

2 r = 0

:

.

,
.

, ,

( 2.94).
(

) :
()

.
2.99
()

(

' ,
.
) .
Ampere
.
2.100
.
Ampere

.
n
, l
= n l .

,

= .

l
//

,

= 0.

2.100
Ampere

.

, B ' .

// l

B l

, B l.

//

l = 0 I

B l = 0 N I
B l = 0 n l I
B = 0 n I

(2.59)

159

160

HALL

, , , (2.101),
ix x.
,
,

. B
y VH
.
VH
, Hall.
VH.

2.101

.

d,

Fz z.

. (
) z
Hall VH.

F E E ,

F z. F E F z
,

Fz = FE
B d e = eE
B d = E

E =

VH

VH = Bd
n
( ),
N = n V, V ,

N = n


t =

ix
ix =

q
Ne
N e d
n e d
=
=
=
= n e d

d =

ix
n e

ix

ne

VH = B
VH =

B ix
ne

()

() q.
VH, ix

- B
, n
.
- n ,

B ( Hall).

2.102

161

162

- n B ,
.
(2.102), (2.103)) ,
,
.
,
.

2.103

Adrasthriothtes
N A
~ q

r

()

0 q sin
2
4
r

B =

l , ,
,
Biot - Savart
0 l
sin
4 r 2

r ( r

B
r,
,

B )

()

r
()

.

l r.

B ,
r

0
2r

r
,
,
=

0
2 r

F
q,

B ,

,
F = B q sin

~ ,
m q,

m
q

F =

0 1 2 L
2 r

=0


Ampere

T =

,
r
1, 2 , ,
,
. L

B
,

R =

2 m
q

B / / l

(Laplace)
l ,

B
F = Bl sin

( ) B
.

= 0

l
B // l

B ,

, ,

B = 0 n

n
.

drasthriothtes

1.

10 cm.
,
.
,
.

. ,

,
.
2 .

163

164

,
, .
.

;


( ).
Biot - Savart;

2.

D LA RIVE
De la Rive
Ruhmkorff,

5 V. ;

.
.
3.


Ruhmkorff,
.

,
. ;

;
4.

1 m .

.

, 5 cm
,

.
.
,
.
6
.
.

;

5 cm
( ).
Ampere;
5. HALL
-
() 1,0 mm
1,0 mA.

= 1,2
Hall 75 mV.
; (e = 1,6 10 19
C)
-
(8,5 1028
m3) 10 ,
Hall;
-
(
),
Hall.

;

165

B

()
()
()
()
.
2

.
, , ,

. K

. E
6

, 1, 2 1 > 2.

,

;
B

.
,
()
()
()
()
.
4

, , .

B ;
1
.
7

x, y, z
,
.

R
, ,
. ( )
,

B
(
)

() B
R

() B


()
.

x
8

166

30 . ()
();
() .
() .
()
.
() .
9

p 0

, p 0
.
. ()
();
() /4

() R,

() R

12

,
,
1 , 2 .

.

p = p0 2
()
p 0 ,
.
()
p0 ,
.

a +
13

.
;

10

14

30. Laplace
5,0 .
:
() 2,5

()

10 3
3

() 5,0

() 10

15

0
() ,
.
1 > 2.
11

B
,
R. ,
;
() R

() R,

.

, , , .



,

, , , , , , , ,

i) B ,

ii) () ,
.
16

( )

()


()
,


()
17

, ,
,

.

.

1 = 2 =

() B r ,

() 0

() 0 22

() 0

2 r

()

167

0
2
2 r

() B r ,
r > ,
. 0
2 r

. 0

. 0 2

. 0

18

B ;

()
.
()
.
()
.
()
.
19

l,
r, .

:
()

0
N
2 r

() 0

() 0

I r2

() 0 N I r 2

I 2 r
20

B

.

< r < , :

A -
0 = 4 10 7

m
A

r = 3,0 cm
= 1,0 10- 4 . .
2

10
10 5,0 cm.

168

33 V 1,0 .

B .

B .

6,3 cm
= 10 .

,
, .
. r = 9 cm

Biot - Savart B
.

FG q = 1,0 10 C / kgIJ
Hm
K

V = 5 ,0 10 3 V

,

= 0,10 ,
.

.
x , .
.
8

()

B
.
5

1 = 8 ()
2 = 4,56 .

, B
.

= 1,0 10 3 m / s
.
45 .

t = 1,0 ms.
9

= 9,0 10 -5
= 8,0 cm.

.


.

,

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
e = 1,6 10 19 C
m = 9 ,0 10 31 kg .

R.

.

10

FG q = 10 C / kgIJ
Hm
K
8

V = 200 V.

. () = d = 2,0 cm,

13

= 30 . B

,
,
(i)
(ii) .

11

E = 90 N / C

d = 12 cm, .

0 = 1 ,2 10 6 m / s
.

= 1,0 10- 4 ,

0.
,
.
e = 1,6 10 19 C ,
31
m = 9 ,0 10 kg

12

(e = 1,6 10-19 C,
m = 9,0 10- 31 kg)

V = 500 V,

.
,
d1 = 6,0 cm
= 10 - 3 ,
.

,
d2 = 12 cm .
().

169

= 18 10 - 4
= 6,0 cm.
(e = 1,6 10 - 19 C,
m = 9,0 10 - 31 kg)

= 6,4
10 6 m/s .

.
()
.
()
.
() ,
.
()
.
14

, = 1,0 10 - 2

= 6,0 cm.
(q = 1,6 10- 19 C, m = 1,6 10 27
kg)

,

.

()
()

()
15

= 10

0,10 kg

1,0 m

1, 2.

. B ,
,
,
g = 10 m/s 2.

170

16

19

.
1,0 m 1,0 kg
.
= 10 .

= 1,0 .
. ( g = 10 m/s 2 ).

0,6 m
6,0 g



.


,
d = 2,0 cm
. .
(g = 10 m/s2 )
20

17

1,0 m
1,0 kg
. ,
,

xx yy.

= 1,0 ,
.


.
2,0 m
2,0 s .
.
(g = 10 m/s 2 )

,

.
.
) Ampere

.
)

B =

0
2 r
21

,
R, ,

18

1 = 60 ,
2 = 20 3 = 10 , .

. B
r .
, R, r.
22

10 cm 3.

,
20,0 /cm,

0,020.

ii

2000 .
.
.
, .

.
()
.
.
.

. . .
.

, 2008

iii

-
/




/

iv

, .
, .
, .
, .

,
, .

:
.
:

, , , , , :

,
. . (),
. , . , . , . , . , . .

, .
. (), . , . , . ,
. , . , . .
. . . .
. , .. .
, . . ,
.. . .
.
... , COSMOTE, ... General. Electric

:
John Bardeen, William Shockley
Walter Brattain, 1947.

.

3.1
....................................................................................................................................

LC ..................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................

...............................................................................

.........................................................................................

- .......................................................

13

..........................................................................................................................

14

.........................................................................................

16

.................................................................................................................

16

..............................................................................

19

.................................................................................................................

19

..........................................................................................................................

20

.......................................................................................................

21

......................................................................................................

22

......

23

..............................................................................

24

.
Fourier ...................................................................................................................................

28

..........................................................................................................................

33

...........................................................................................................................

34

...................................................................................................................................

36

- .............................................................................................................

43

3.2
....................................................................................................................................

47

.......................................................................................................................

47

- .............................................................................

49

vi

Huygens ......................................................................................................................

50

............................................................................................

51

......................

51

.............................................................

52

................................................................................................................

55

.................................................................................................................

56

................................................................................

57

.............................................................................................................................

58

.............................................................................................

58

...........................................

59

.........................................................................................................................

61

..................................................................................................

61

.....................................................................................

65

.................................................................................................................................

66

Young ........................................................................................................

67

...........................................................

68

................................................................................

70

..........................................................................................................................

72

.............................................................

73

...................................................................................

74

.........................................................................................................

75

..............................................................................................................

76

......................................................................................

78

..........................................................................................................................

79

...........................................................................................................................

81

...................................................................................................................................

83

- .............................................................................................................

88

4.1
....................................................................................................................................

95

......................................................................................................................

95

vii

..........................................................................

97

............................................................................................................

97

Bernoulli ...................................................................................................................

99

Torricelli ........................................................................................................

102

Bernoulli .....................................................................

104

..........................................................................................................................................

107

.......................................................

109

.........................................................................................................................

111

..........................................................................................................................

112

...........................................................................................................................

112

...................................................................................................................................

114

- .............................................................................................................

118

4.2
....................................................................................................................................

121

- ...................................................................................................

122

.........................................................................................................................

122

.......................................................................................................................

122

..........................................................................................................................................

124

...................................................................

126

- ......................................................

127

- ( Steiner) .....

129

Steiner ...............................................................................

131

( ) ...

133

.............................................................................................................................

136

............................................................................................

136

.............................................................................................

136

..................................................................................................................

139

...........................................................................

140

- ........................................................................

142

viii

.....................................................................................................................

143

.............................................................................................

146

...........................................................................................

147

.................................................................................................

147

..........................................................................

148

...........................................................................

149

: .......................................

159

..........................................................................................................................

157

...........................................................................................................................

158

...................................................................................................................................

159

- .............................................................................................................

163

4.3
....................................................................................................................................

171

...................................................................

173

...........................................................................

175

......................................................................................................

176

...................................................................................

179

.................................................................................

182

...........................................................................................

184

....................................................................................

185

............................................

186

........................................................................................................

187

............................................................................................................................

188

....................................................................................

189

............................................................................

189

...............................................................................................

192

, , .....................................

193

...................................................................................

194

..........................................................................

195

....................................................................................................................

196

ix

Doppler ....................................................................................................................

201

Doppler ..................................................................................

205

..........................................................................................................................

207

...........................................................................................................................

208

...................................................................................................................................

210

- .............................................................................................................

216

4.4 EI
....................................................................................................................................

225

..............................................

226

......................................................................................

226

Michelson - Morley ....................................................................................

229

Michelson - Morley ..............................................

231

..........................................................................

233

.........................................................................................

234

Lorentz ........................................................................................

236

.......................................................................

237

: ..................................................................................................

238

- ......................................................................

242

........................................................................................................

245

.........................................................................

247

............................

249

...................................................

255

.................................

258

.................................................................................................

260

..........................................................................

262

............................................................................

263

..................................................................................................................

263

...................................................................................................................

263

...............................................................

264

........................................................................................

266

................................................................................................................................

270

..........................................................................................................................

273

...........................................................................................................................

274

...................................................................................................................................

275

- .............................................................................................................

279

4.5
....................................................................................................................................

285

................................................................................................

285

........................................................................................................

288

- .......................................................

288

Einstein .....................................................................................

291

- ....................

292

Compton .............................................................................................................

295

- Bohr () ...................................................................

298

De Broglie ..........................................................................................................

299

...........................................................

301

Schrdinger ..................................................................................................................

302

.............................................................................................

302

................................................................

303

.......................................................

306

................................................................................................

308

...........................................................................................

308

...............................................................................

309

....................................................................................................................

310

() .........................................................................................................

314

() ............................................................................................................

315

................................................................

319

..........................................................................................................................

324

...........................................................................................................................

325

...................................................................................................................................

326

- .............................................................................................................

332

xi

, ,
.
~ : ;
: . ,

.
. , ,
, .

.
.
,
, .

. , ,
, , , .

.
. ~ ,
, , , , . ~
, , ,
.. .
,
,
. ,
.
~ ,
. , ,
(.. , )
, .
.
.
,
.
, ,
Timeo Hominem unius libri, (
)* . ,
* OHANIAN, . .

xii

. ,
,
. ,
. o
.
.
.

(SI) SI.
.
, .
,
. , . resistance reactance
, , ,
. mol (o)
, , .
, , .
( ), (molar)
(;) , . resistore, , , .
, . ,
.
, .


. .

, , u = 5 2 /8 m/s,
u = 3,24 m/s. , ,
, .
, .

.

3 .
~ , , , .
.
.
. ~
. 1984 IUPAC ( International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry, ~ ),
Comimission on Thermodynamics (
),
1 atm (101,325 k Pa) 100 k Pa (1 bar).
22,4 L 22,7 L.
273,15 (0 oC), 273 .

xiii

101,325 k Pa .
. .
,
, .. .
.
. ,
, .
. = 0 cos ,

0 . .

, , 0 q q q/ 0

B.
,
, , ,
.
, , , ,
.
, , , ,
, .


.


.

xiv

3.1

~E m (.
3.1), ,
. ,

. -
. T
k x, x k
, .


.

.
,
r 0 (. 3.2).
r = r r0 , r
r0 ,
.

C L, .
L, C

LC

C, ( )
L .

. ~E , ,
Q m .
t = 0 (. 3.3),
, .

, .
,
m . A
, ,

.
Q m .

t = 0.
.
.

3.1

.

3.2

.

3..3
L, C .

q i .
C,
q, C =

1
q . i C

R
R
i =

R
R

3.4.

MA

3.4

R
.

f (t), t
t = t2 t1 , f (t)
f = f (t2) f (t1) . f (t)
(t1, t2) ,

bg bg

f t2 f t1
f
=
t
t2 t1

f
t

()
t, .

df
dt

f ( t ) =

f (t)

f
, t .
t

bg

df
f
= lim
t 0 t
dt

f t =

bg

f t =

df
dt

, t, -

f (t).

t t
f .

bg

f f t t

t << 1

. :

d sin t +
dt

g = cos bt + g

d cos t +
dt

g = sin b t + g

m
k 3.1, x
F = kx.

F = m = m

d
dt

d
= kx
dt

(3.1)

LC 3.5. C
( )
, C = L .

C =

= L

di
,
dt
3.5
LC

q
di
= L
C
dt
L

di
1
= q
dt
C

(3.2)

(3.1) (3.2)
.

Rq x U
||L m||
S 1 kV
|| C ||
Ti W

(3.3)

H (3.1)

k
m

x = x 0 cos t + 0 , =

, , (3.3)
q = Qm cos (t + 0 ),

q:
Qm :
:
0:

(3.4)

LC

,
.

(3.4)
i =

dq
= Qm sin t + 0
dt

i = I m sin t + 0

I m = Qm

I m = Qm

(3.5)

1
LC

(3.6)

t = 0
, Q m 0 = 0
(3.4) (3.5)
q = Q m cos t

i = I m sin t

3..6
q
i

(3.7)

q i,
, 3.6.
2
T =
,

(3.8)

T = 2 L C

U =

1
k x2
2

K =

1
m 2
2

(3.3) U
LC
UE =

1 1 2
q ,
2 C

UB =

1
L i 2 , .
2

q, i (3.7)
1 1
Qm 2 cos 2 t
2 C
1
2
= L Im
sin 2 t
2

UE =
UB

U|
V|
W

U = UE + UB
U =

(3.9)

1 1 2 1 2
q + Li
2 C
2

(3.9) (3.6)
U =

1 1 2
1
2
Qm = L I m
2 C
2

(3.10)

,
(. 3.7).

U
UE
U

3.7
.

3-1
, ,
C = 10 F
L = 0,10 H. A
= 100 V
, : )
, )

;

) = 100 V
Qm = C Qm = 10 10 6 10 2 C Qm = 1 ,0 10 3 C

LC

1
0 ,10 10 10

rad / s

= 1,0 10 3 rad / s

I m = Qm I m = 1 ,0 10 3 10 3 A I m = 1,0 A .

, (3.7)

e j b q C, t sg
i = 1 sin e10 t j , b i A, t s g

q = 10 3 cos 10 3 t ,
3

) UB = UE , UB + UE = U 2UB = U
2

1
1
L i 2 = L I m2
2
2

i=

Im 2
2

i = I m sin t = 1 sin t +
(),
(. 3.8).
3.8

Im
sin =

2
2

Im

2
2

,
t1 = t 1 =

/4
t1 =
s

10 -3

t=

10 3 s = 7 ,9 10 4 s
4

3-2
LC,
.
i - q.

UE + UB = E
i2 =

1 1 2 1
1 1 2
q + L i2 =
Qm
2 C
2
2 C

1
Q 2m q 2 ,
LC

i 2 = 2 Q m2 q 2

1
= 2
LC

i 2 = 2 Q m 2 q2

2
i 2 + 2 q 2 = 2 Qm

Qm

2 q2

Qm

i2
2

Im

i = Q 2m q2

i 2 = 2 Q m 2 q 2

i2

q2
2

Qm

2
2 Q m
2

Qm

= 1

Q m
I m . 3.9.
;
,
i q .
q i,
Qm m .

3.9

,
. ,

.
, ,
.
,
3.10.
- ,
,
.
,
( ),

3.10
.

10

.

() ,
.

.
,
(3.11)
F = b

, ,
. b
(
) .
.

F = F + F

3.11


.

F = kx
F = b

F = kx b

m = F
m = k x b

(3.12)

,
. (3.12)

x = A e tcos t +
=
=

3.12


.

b
2m

b2
4 m2

gU|
||
V
||
|W

(3.13)

,
=

k
m

,
, .
. ,
U ,
1
k A 2 = U
2

(3.14)

t = nT, n = 1, 2, 3, ...

At = A e t

11

(3.15)

x,
t, b (b 1 < b 2 < b 3 < b 4 )
(3.13) 3.13.
A (3.13) .
)

t
at = A e
. -

b. b
.
)
T =

2
=

2
2

b2
4 m2

b ,
b, .
x(t)
[x (t + T ) x (t) ],

cos (~t + )
.
. ,
.
)
2 <

b2
4m

~ ,
, . ' ,
,

( )
(
).
3-3
, R cm,
b,
20 C,
b = 6 ,0 10 4

3.13
x (t)
b (b 1 < b 2 < b 3 < b 4 ).

Ns
m

cm,

k = 36

N
.
m

12

0,20 m .
, .
) .
) ,
, ;
d = 2 ,7

g
cm 3

g = 10 m/ s2.

) V = 4 R 3
3

m
V

d =

m = dV

m = d

4
R3
3

FG
H

4
3 g
3

m = 2 ,7

IJ
K

m = 3 ,6 10 2 g

1
s -1
1200
36
rad / s
0 ,36

k
=
m

m = 0 ,36 kg

b
6 10 4 -1
=
s
2m
2 0 ,36

= 10 rad/s
=

2 2

10 2

1,44 10 6

rad / s

10 rad/s

(3.13)
x = 0 ,2 e

t
1200

cos 10 t

(x m, t s)

H = 0, t = 0
x = 0,2 m, cos = 1

) A t = 0 ,2 e

t
1200

. At = 0,10

0 ,10 = 0 ,2

t
1200

t
= ln2
1200

t = 1200 ln 2 s
t 830 s

t 14 min

U =

FG IJ
H K

1
1
A
k A2 k
2
2
2

U =

FG 1 36 0 ,2
H2

IJ
K

1
36 0 ,12 J
2

U = 0 ,54 J

, .
.


, ,

().

,
, ,
..
.

.
,
F = Fm cos d t

(3.14)*

* ,

( Fourier).

13

14

F = kx b + Fm cos d t.
2 F = m.
ma = k x b + Fm cos d t

(3.15)

,

,
( ).
(3.15)

U
||
1
F
A =
|

F
k I |
b + Gm
J |
K V
H
||
k
m
|

tan a =
||
b
W
b

x = A sin d t a

(3.16)

.
,
.

3.13()

- .

,
3.13() -
. ,
,


- , ,
. ~
- ,
.
(, ,
..) .
(3.16)
. 3.14
,
d , b.
.
, b,
. b
, ,
, . 3.14
b 3 > b 2 > b 1 3 max < A 2max < A 1 max 3 < 2 < 1 < ,
1 , 2 , 3 .

15

3.14
.

(). =

b2
2m2

dx
dt

x (t), t, (3.16),

= d cos d t a

(3.17)

= 0 cos ( d t a )

0 = d =

Fm

FG
H

b 2 + m d

k
d

IJ
K

(3.18)

= 0 cos ( d t ) F = F m cos d t ,
.
0
d , (3.18)
3.15.
(3.18),

FG m
H

m d =

k
d

IJ
K

= 0

d =

k
m

3.15

d
.

16

d = ( )

(3.19)

(3.16) tan , , tan = 0

= 0, .

3.16


T

, P = F P = Fm 0 cos 2 d t
( 3.16)

.
,
( ),
( ),
: ) )

.
3-4
m.

- 45 .
().
10 m/s2.
A

,

= d

3.17

d = 2 f = 2

l = g2
d

45
rad / s
60

d = 4 ,71 rad / s

l = 10 2 m
4 ,71

l = 0 ,45 m

LC
.
, R ,
Joule.

.
3.18
M LC.

3.18

= L

= iR +

q
C

(3.20)

di
di
q
= iR +
, L
dt
dt
C
L

17

di
1
+ iR +
q = 0
dt
C

(3.21)

(3.21) (3.12),

FL mI
GG R b JJ
GG C1 k JJ
GG q x JJ
Hi K

(3.13)

U
||
R
|V
=
4L
||
1
x
|W
LC

q = Qm e

Rt

cos t +

2L

(3.22)

, (. 3.19).

.
) () Qm ( t ) = Qm e

Rt
2L

) () R
T =

) 2 <

R2
4 L2

2
=

2
2

R2
4 L2

() .

3-5

L = 5,0 mH C = 2,0 F.
R = 1,0 .

.

3.19

.
R R.

18

R2

4 L2

1
LC

5 10

H 2,0 10 -6 F

rad
s

= 10 4

12

10 8

4 5 10

= 10 4 0 ,999

1
10

rad
s

rad
s

10 8 10 4

= 104 1

rad
s

rad
s

b z g

rad
s

1 ,0 10 4

f =

10 4
=
Hz = 1600 Hz
2
2

.
Qm ( t ) = Qm e

Rt
2L

Qm ( t ) =

Qm
2

Qm e

Rt
2L

Qm
2

t =

Rt
2L

1
2

Rt
= ln 2
2L

2 5 10 3
ln2 s
1

19

t = 0 ,0069 s

,
,
,

, (. 3.20)
.
.

RLC
.

3.20

U
|
= V cos t |
|
= iR
V
di
= L
||
dt
q
||
=
C
W
= R + L + C
m

(3.23)

Vm cos d t = i R + L
L

di
q
+
dt C

di
q
=
i R + Vm cos d t
dt
C

(3.24)

(3.24) (3.15), ,

bg

q t = Q m sin d t

Qm =

1
d

FG
H

R 2 + L d

L d

tan =

1
C d

1
C d

3.20

U
|
||
||
IJ |V
K |
||
||
|W
2

(3.25)

20

q (t) t, (3.25)

i = d Qm cos d t a

(3.26)

d Qm m ,
Vm

Im =
R2

F
+ GL
H

IJ
K

C d

(3.27)

(3.23) (3.27)

R = I m R cos d t a R = V R cos d t a

VR = I m R

g UV
W

(3.28)

L = L

c b

di
= L d I m sin d t a
dt

gh

IJ U|
K V
|W
F I
cos G + J = sin
H 2K

FG
H

L = V L cos d t a +
V L = Im L d

(3.29)

=
C

q
I
= m sin d t a
C
d C

FG
H

C = V C cos d t a

VC =

g
U
|
V
||
W

IJ
K

Im
d C

FG
H

cos

(3.30)

IJ = cos FG IJ = sin
K
H2 K

~
.
(3.27)
Im =

FG
H

Vm

R 2 + L d

1
C d

IJ
K

3.21
, R.

Vm ,
m , d
R, (3.21).

L d

1
= 0
C d

d =

1
LC

d = ( )
,

Im =

(3.31)

Vm
R

tan = 0
i .

P = i = Vm I m cos 2 d t

.
.

RLC
,
P = I 2r R

Ir =

Im
2

'

P =

20
b
2

(3.32)

21

22

.


) ,

.
,
,
.


.
) .
,
,
.


.
) , , .,
,
,
. '
. Tacona
Narrows Puget Sound, Washington ( 3.22), 1940,
, .
,
.
, .
) ~ , ,
,
.

3.22
H Tacona - Narrows .

"
"
,

a = A cos t +

A
,
(.
).
x ,

cos t + =

a = A cos t +

()

:
,

(. ).

= + x = x + x
x , x x

.
.

,
= cos t

(I)

= cos t +

= +

= cos t + cos t +

,
(. ).

= cos t +

= +
2 + 2 + 2 cos

tan =

sin
+ cos

()

23

24

)
)

,
x1 = A 1 cos t

x2 = A2 cos t +

x = x 1 + x2

x = A1 cos t + A 2 cos t +

3.23 (
)

x = A cos t +
A =

A12 + A 22 + 2 A1 A 2 cos
2 sin
tan =
1 + 2 cos

U|
|V
||
W

i) = 0, (3.33)

3.23

= 1 + 2 tan = 0 = 0 ( 3.24)

3.24

3.24
.

x 1 = A 1 cos t

x 2 = A 2 cos t

x = x 1 + x 2 = (A 1 + A 2) cos t
ii) = , A = A1 A2

tan = 0
= 0,

1 > 2

= ,

1 < 2

(3.33)

x = (A 1 A 2 ) cos t

1 > 2

x = (A 2 A 1 ) cos (t + )

1<2

3.25 3.25

3.25

3.25
.

3-6
x 1 = 3 cos 3 t

FG
H

x2 = 3 cos 3 t +

IJ
K

(x 1 , x 2 m, t s). .

x = x 1 + x 2 = A cos (t + )

A=

A12 + A22 + 2 A1 A2 cos

A = 3 2

=
2

12 + 22

( 3.26)

tan =

2
3
=
= 1
1
3

x = 3 2 cos

FG 3t + IJ
H 4K

3.26

[x m, t s]

3-7
x 1 = 5 cos 100 t

FG
H

x2 = 5 sin 100 t

IJ
K

[S.I.]. .

25

26

FG 100 t IJ = 5 cos FG 100 t IJ

H
H
6K
6
2K
2I
F
= 5 cos G 100 t
J [x m, t s]
H
3K

x2 = 5 sin

x2

2
rad
3

. 1 = 5 m, 2 = 5 m =
A=

A12 + A22 + 2 A1 A2 cos =

52 + 52 + 2 5 5 +

2
.
3

FG 1 IJ
H 2K

m = 5m

( . 3.27)
=

FG
H

x = 5 cos 100 t

3.27

.
3

IJ
K

)

. 1 = 2 = f1
f2 . f 1 f 2 f 1 f 2.
x = x 1 + x 2 = A cos 1 t + A cos 2 t = A (cos 1 t + cos 2 t)
x = 2 A cos

2 t
2

cos

+ 2 t
2

x = 2 A cos mod t cos av t

(3.34)

mod =

1 2
2

( 1 > 2 )

av =

1 + 2
1 2
2

.
t = 2 A cos mod t .
x (t), t,
A t cos av t
.

3.28
.

3.28()
av ,
t .

0 2.
3.28
T mod =

1 2
=
2

1
f1 f2

(3.35)

f =

f = f1 f2
f1 < f2
=

1
f2 f1

f = f2 f1

(3.36)

27

28

,
, .

(. 3.29).

3.29
, .

(. 3.30). ()
2, () ,
: () ,
() ,
, ()
, () .
(), () ... , ,
' ,

1 =

2 =

2k
M

g , l , k
.
.
'
, . k, 1 2.

. FOURIER

x 1 = A sin 1 t x 2 = B sin 2 t,
2 = 2 1.
x = x 1 + x2
3.30
.

x = A sin 1 t + B sin 2 t

, x1, x2
, ( )

T = T1 =

2
1

x1 ,
.

1 = 0 ,
2 = 2 0 ,
3 = 3 0 , ....
0
(),

T0 =

2
0

. 1822 J.
Fourier

,
,
Fourier,
:

f(t) 0 ,
,
f0 ,
f0 =

1
T0

( 0 =

2
)
0

, f (t + T0 ) = f (t) t

bg

f t = A 0 + A1 sin 1 t + 1 + A 2 sin 2 t + 2 + A 3 sin 3 t + 3 + . . .

1 =

2
= 0 ,
0

2 = 2 0 ,

3 = 3 0

0 , 1 , 2 , ..., 1 , 2 , 3 , ...
f(t).

sin a + = sin a cos + sin cos a

,
f (t) = a 0 + a 1 cos 1t + a 2 cos 2 t + ... + b 1 cos 1 t + b 2 cos 2 t + ...
0, 1, 2, ...., b1, b2, .....
.
Fourier.

29

30

Fourier
, .
,
, ,

, .
Fourier 0 , 1 , 2 , ...,
b 1 , b 2 , ... . ,
,
,
.

)
.
,
y' y xx'

y = A y cos 2 t +

x = A x cos 1 t

xy,
x , A y , 1 2 ,
.
.
) , 1 = 2 =
i) = 0
x = A x cos t ,

y = A y cos t

x
A
1
= x =
y
Ay

3.31

,
.

y = x

.
r (. 3.31)

r =

x2 + y 2

r =

A 2x + A 2y cos t

r = r 0 cos t

r0 =

A x2 + A 2y

'
.
ii) =

,
2
x = A x cos t

y = A y cos

FG t + IJ y = A
H 2K

sin t

U|
V
|W

31

x2

si n 2 t =

Ax
y2

cos t =

A y2

,
x2
A 2x

y2
A 2y

= 1

(3.37)

(3.37) . '

2x 2y . ( 3.32)
iii) =

3
,
2

.
3.33

Ay
Ax

=1

Ay
Ax

=2

3.33
.

) .
'
,
Lissajous. Joules Antoine Lissajous,
1857.
1/2 x=Ay,
,
3.34.

:
, 1 / 2 ,
,

.

3.32

,
/2.

32

3.34
Lissajous .

,
,
... 3.34
( )
.
1
1 ..
=
2

3 ,

, ""
2Ax 2Ay ,
.
Lissajous
,
, .
,
3.34.
Lissajous
.
,
.
Lissajous.
,
.
.

A N Adrasthriothtes

R ~ LC



q = Qm cos (t + 0)
1

i = Im sin (t + 0), =


UE =
UB

LC

1 1 2
1 1 2
q =
Qm cos 2 ( t + 0 )
2C
2C

1
1
= L i 2 = L I m2 sin 2 ( t + 0 )
2
2

R
F = k x
F a = b

x = A e t cos (~t + )
=

b
2m

b2
4m2

k
m

R ~

F = F m cos d t,


x = A sin (d t ) = 0 cos (d t )
,
Fm

A =
d b

kI
F
+ G m
H JK
d

m d k
d
tan a =
b
0 = d

,
,

,

(, ) d = ,
.
R LC
R

q = Qm e

Rt

cos +

2L

R2
4 L2

R
RLC
= V cos d t.
q i

bg

q t = Q m sin d t
Qm =

1
d

FG
H

R 2 + L d

L d
tan =

1
C d

1
C d

U
|
||
||
IJ |V
K |
||
||
|W
2

i = Im cos (dt )
Im = d Qm . K
d = , =

1
LC

33

34

x q

i
k

m L
b R
Fm

Vm

P = I r2 R

p = 2r b ,

RLC

r =

0
2

drasthriothtes

1. BARTON

8
, 0,25 m 0,75 m.
, ,
.
,

.

. ,
0,50 m
,
,

.

2.

1 2.

.

3.


.

.

.
,
.
-
.

( ,
).

4.
-
.


-.
45 /

.
,
(

1
2

k0
< 45 / .
m

.)

5. LISSAJUS
.
,

400 Hz 200 Hz.


,
.
,
Lissajous.
,
1:3, 2:3, 3:4 .
.

6.

..
,

(.. ).
,

1 =
k ),
.
(: k

l
k = 0 k0 l 0 , k 0 l
l .

2 =

l
2k
M

, g

l , k

.

35

36

2k
M

<<

g
,
l

.


...

...
k
,
Hooke
.

N
,
.
2

LC
- .
L, C, q, i, U E , U B , t
x, t, , U, K, m, k
3

LC

.
:

()
()
()
. ;
4

:
LC,
t = 0,

, .

() . . . . . .
() . . . . . . .
() . . . . . . .
() . . . . . . () . . . . . ..
5

LC
,
:
()

,
.
()
,
.
()
.
()
I m .

.

37

()

()

LC.
;
()

()
.
() ,

.
()
.

()

LC () .
, i)
, ii) , iii)
()

, iv)
v) .
8

LC ,

,
;
9

()

()

LC,
:
()

.
()

.
() .
()
.
10

t = 0,
i = ,

.

38

11

LC .
, :
i)
ii)

;
() 2,

() / 2,

() T 2 ,

() /

12

LC,
, m

;
.
14

LC,
;
15

.

;
16

LC L.
t = 0
i ,
LC
.
(:

)
17

3.10,


;
k.

.
13

18

:
,
()
. . . . . . , () . . . . . .
() . . . . . .
() . . . . . .
19

()
()
()

()
20

m,
m<< m.

m
k.

,

.
,
;

7/1000 .
21

<< 0, =
b 0 =

b
,
2m

k
m

.
E =

1
k A t2 , t 2

.

E t.
22

k1 k2 .

39

; ( ).
24

()
()
()
()
;
25

;
()

()
,

()
,

()

26

:

() . . . . . . ()
. . . . . . . () . . . . . .
() . . . . . . ()
. . . . . . ()
. . . . . .
27

.

.
() k1 k2;
() t
;
.
23

, -

.

.
;

40

28

F = F0 cos t ,

= max cos (t ).

,
.
() 2 = 1,
() 2 = 2 1,
() 2 = 1 / 2,
() 2 =

A1
2

;
32

P = F ().

;
29

01 02
, 01 > 02.
F1 = F2 = F0 cos t


;
30

,

.
;
.

- ,
m k,
, (b 0), .

b.
F,
,


.
33

RLC
R R.

,


() ,
()
()
;
.
34

RLC, t,

,

31

. ,
b1

.
1.

b2 = 2 b1

(
) .

41

35

RLC,
, ,
;
() (
7/1000 )

()

() Joule,

,
36

R .
, .
41

()

()

()

;
37

:

() . . . . . .
.

() . . . . . . R
() . . . . . ..
38

, VR ,

RLC
.
39

34

( )
.
40

RLC
.
()
= 100.


. q - t.

;

.

.
7/1000
.
42

1 2.
1 2 .
2 1.
LC;

42

46

RLC
= V cost.
( ) ,
;

.
43

:

()
1)

.
()
2) ,
,

) - 3) ,

)
4)

44

RLC
:
() C
() L
()
R
()
;
45

RLC,
,

.
;

RLC,
.

()
.
()

.
()
.
() i
q
, q = C .
:
q = C + q0 cos (t )
)
.
47

= A cos t
= B cos t.
;
() 0,
() /2,
() /3,
() ;
> 0 > 0
48

= A cos t = B sin t.
; (, ).

()
()
()
()

43

50

0,
/ 2,
3 / 2

) ;
;
)
;

49

1 2
, ()
:
mod =

1 2
2

51

3.32
. (:
( x , 0) y < 0).
52

,
,
;

-
1

LC

L = 10 mH C = 1,0 pF. )

, )




.
2

L = 2 ,0 mH
C1 = 30 F C2 = 60 F .


.
3

q0 = 2,0 Cb,
U = 2,0 J.


1,0 mA.
L .
4

LC

t = 10-4 s.


L = 10 mH.
5

LC .
t = 0
Q = 2 C.
t =

10 4 s
3

q =

Q 3
,
2

.
C = 2 nF.
6

LC
V = 300 V.
L = 20 mH
C = 2,0 F.
.

:
()
()
() di/dt.
7

44

, q .
U q
U q.

.
13

k = 100

N
m

LC L = 2,0 mH
C = 20 nF t = 0,
Q = 2,0 Cb.


t .

m = 0,10 kg. ,

14

L
C.
.
C1 = 3 nF C2 = 8 nF
,

t = 7,0 s.

;

f1 = 25 kHz f2 = 50 kHz 3

.

. 2 = 10
10

.
LC

,
1 = 5 10 - 6 s 2 = 2 10 6
s .

,
C 1 C 2
C 1 C 2 = 10 - 8 F 2 .
11

, m
k,
.
b.
12

,
=

1
2

)
. )

b = 0 ,6

kg
.
s

15

b,
3.10
.
k
k
.
d 1 d 2

=

d1
. d2

b =

4k m 2 2

1
16

k
100 N/m m 4,0 kg.

,

.

0,80 m.
b = 0,40 kg/s : )
.
)

1/5
. ;

17

F = 2 2 cos 8t
(S.I.).
k = 56 N/m,
m = 1,0 kg
b = 1

kg
, :
s

()
()

()

.

45

0 = 5,0 10 4 rad/s.
.
23

200 V
i = 2,0 A.
R = 5,0
L = 2,0 mH, :
)
, )

18

,
/4.

, 20 watt.
19

f1 = 9,0 Hz f2 = 4,0 Hz

,
.
.

)
.
24

33 10 5 Hz . R

R = R,

20

LC
C = 19 F
L = 2,5 m.

L C
9/10
;

;
f0 = 6 105 Hz.

21

C = 8,0 F
V = 320 V
L = 5,0 mH
R = 0,30 .
t = 0
.
.
22

RLC,
,

25ln2 s,

25

x1 = 3 sin 10 t

x 2 = 4 cos 10 t

;
26

x = 3 sin 10 t

y = 3 cos 10 t

,
.

46

() .

KYMATA

47

3.2

~ ,
.
. , ,
. ~
,
,
.

.

, .

, .
,
, ( )
.. , ,
(
).

, : ) ,
( )
.. . ) ( )
..
) , ,
.

. ,
. ,
.

(
).
( ) (
) . ()
, x,
y(x, t)
y (x, t) = A 0 sin (t kx)
,

y (x,t) = A 0 sin (t kx + )

(3.38)

(t kx + )
, x = 0 t = 0 (
[0, 2), 0 < 2).

3.35


.

48

(3.38)
x.

(3.39)
y (x, t) = A 0 sin (t + kx)
k ( )
() .

k =

(3.40)

.
= 2 f
f ( v) ,
.

3.36
t1 t2 (t1 > t2). .

3.36, .
,
t1 kx 1 + = t2 k x2 +

(t2 t1) = k (x2 x1)

=
t
k

= f

(3.41)

A / B ,

. ..

=

(3.42)

F , ( )
( ).

KYMATA

,

(.. ). y (x, t)
Fourier () .
,
, ,
. , ,
(
).
. .
3-8
m = 2,0 kg L = 10 m.
800 ,
.

FL
m

, ,
t =

t =

mL
F

3.37

F .

t =

2 ,0 10
s
800

t 0 ,16 s

-
, ,

b g

y r,t =

A
sin t r
r

r
.
, ,
.
t kr = . , t
r = . , ,
,
.
(. 3.38).
, ,
.
,
, .

3.38
.

49

50

3.39
.

,

(. 3.39).
, ,
(. 3.40),
.
, ..
.

HUYGENS

3.40
.

S 1,S 2, ... .

Huygens, ,

,
. Huygens,


.
t1 S1 (.
3.41). S1

Huygens

,

.
Huygens


,

,

.

Huygens

Fresnel.
3.41
Huygens.

. t2 S2
(),
(t2 t1 ). ~, ~, ~, ... (
) S2
, t3 S3 ,
(t3
t2) ... , , , ... ~, ~, ~,...,
.

KYMATA

51

,
,
. ,
,
. (
).
,

.


3.42 ,
1 2 1 2 .
1
2 :
) 1 > 2 ,
.
(. 3.43).
) 1 < 2 ,

(. 3.44).
) ,
2 , .
, ,
' , 3
( ) ,
.

(. 3.45). .
, x x = 0,
, ,

y1 = A0 sin (t kx)

( x)

3.42
.

3.43
( 1 > 2 ).

3.44
(1 < 2).

3.45
.

y2 = A0~ sin (t + kx) ( x)

x = 0, y1 + y 2 = 0,
0 sin t = A0~ sin t,

0 sin t = 0~ sin (t + )
.
) ,
,
. 3.46
, -
. ~

3.46
.

52

,
, .

( 1),
(1) ( 2),
, .
~ 1 , 1 ~ 2 ,
(. 3.47) ,

3.47
.

.
:
:

1 = 1~

(3.43)

:

n21 (2) (1),
sin 1
= n2 1
sin 2

(3.44)

n2 1 = 1 , 1, 2 (1)
2

(2) . Snell.
, , ,
,
,
.

.
.

KYMATA

Huygens. ,
, ~ - Fermat
,
, ()
.
,
c

c , , n = .

(2), (1),
n2 1 =

n2
n1

3-9
.
( )
2.

3.48

= 2 + 2 ( )

2 + 2 = 180 2y + 180 2x = 360 2(x + y)

x + y = 180o

= 360 2 (180 )

= 2 .

53

.

( 0 = 589 nm)

1,309

1,544

2,417
( ) 1,52 - 1,80
. 20 C
M

1,329
1,333
1,36
1,473
1,501

54

3-10
(
) d.

s. n1
n2 .

3.49

sin
n
= 2
sin
n1

sin
n
= 1
sin
n2

sin
n
= 2
sin
n1

sin
sin
=
sin
sin

= , , , sin = sin , = .
,
,
.
s
s = AB sin = sin ( ) s = AB sin ( )

AB =

d
d
=
cos
cos

s=

d
sin cos cos sin
cos

KYMATA

LM
N

s = d sin

cos sin
cos

OP
Q

sin =

cos =

n1
sin
n2

1 sin 2 =

n12
n22

sin 2

LM
OP
n
cos
M
P
n
s = d sin M1
M 1 n sin PP
MN
PQ
n
OP
L
n cos
s = d sin M1
MN n n sin PQ
1

2
1
2
2

2
2

2
1

1, 2 3
3.50,

3.50
.

. ~ , S1
. ,
t =

, 1 .
1

t,
= t =

FG
H

HE = 1 t = 1 t

BH
1

IJ
K

BH =

55

56

HE =

3.51

=
2
2

S1~.
,
. 1 = 1~ . , 1 = 1~
1 ~1 (. 3.51).

(. 3.52) t =

,
1

,
AZ = 2 t =

3.52
.

HE = 2

FG t BH IJ = FG 1 IJ =
H K H
2 K

HE =

AZ
2

S2 (
).
sin 1 =

sin 2 =

~
sin 1

=
=

sin 2

sin 1

= 1
2
sin 2

1 = 1 2 = 2 , .

sin 1

= 1
sin 2
2

KYMATA

57

(1)
(2) (. 3.53),

3.53
- .

(1) (2 > 1 ), ( )
c , 2 = 90.
c ,
.
.
c 2 = 90.

sin c
sin 90

= n2 1

sin c =

1
2

(3.45)

3.53 ,
( 1) (
2). ,
(2) (1)
90 ,
c .
.
, , ,
(. 3.54). ' ,
' . ,
( )
.
3-11
c ( ),
- , ()
n1 1,33 n2 1,00.
h = 5,20 m 60
, ;

3.54
(
).

3.55

58

sin c =

sin c = 0,752

n2
1
=
n1
1,33

c 48,8

1882 1962.

.

.
Sommerfeld.

,

(1909).
1910 P. Debye

,
.

.
,




.



1912.




.

60 ,
L = 2h tan60o,
.

,
. ,
,
,
(. 3.56).

3.56

3.57

uygens.
. , ,
,
.
.
3.57 ,

.
,
, .
,

.
.. .

,
(. 3.58,
3.59).

KYMATA

3.58

3.59

.
.
( )
:
.
, '
y1 (x, t)

y2 (x, t),

y (x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t)
.

.
,
, .. ,
, ().

~
, .
y1 = A0 sin (t kx),
y2 = A0 sin (t kx + )

y = y1 + y2 = A0 sin (t kx) + A0 sin (t kx + )

59

60

sin + sin = 2cos

+
sin
2
2

y = 2 A 0 cos

FG
H

sin t kx +
2
2

IJ
K

(3.46)

cos

A = 2 A 0 cos

= 1
2

= 2n,

(3.47)

n = 0, 1, 2, ... = 20.
.

cos

= 0
2

= (2n + 1)

n = 0, 1, 2, ... = 0.
(. 3.60).

3.60
() , (.. = 0) ()
(.. = n).

3-12
.
y 1 = 5 sin (4x 2t)
y2 = 5 cos

FG 2t 4 x + IJ
H
6K

( y 1 , y 2 , x cm, t s)
.

KYMATA

y = y1 + y2

y2 = 5 cos

FG 2 t 4 x + IJ = 5 sin LM 2 t + 4 x OP
H
6K
6Q
N2
I
F
y = 5 sin G 4 x 2 t + J
H
3K

FG 4 x 2 t + IJ
H
3K

F
I

y = 10 cos
sin G 4 x 2 t + J
H
6
6K
F
I
3 sin G 4 x 2 t + J [ y, x cm, t s]
H
6K
b

y = 5 sin 4 x 2 t + 5 sin

y = 5

, 5 3 cm 8,66 cm
x.

.

. ,
.


(x = 0) ,
3.61. ,

y1 = A0 sin (t + kx)

3.61

61

62

, x = 0,
,
y 2 = 0 sin (t kx)
()
y = y1 + y2 = A0 [sin (t + kx) sin (t kx)]

sin sin = 2 sin

+
cos
2
2

(3.48)

y = 2 A0 sin k x cos t

,
. , , .
,

(x) = 2 A 0 sin kx

(3.49)

x
sin kx = 1

k x = n +

x = n

+
2 4

(3.50)

n = 0, 1, 2, ...
2 0
.
x ,
sin kx = 0

x = n

k x = n

(3.51)

n = 0, 1, 2, ...

3.62
2, 2, 2,...
. 1, 1, 1,...
.

,
(. 3.62).

.
,
x = 0, x = L
, '
(. 3.63 - 64).
, y = 0 x = 0,
y = 0 x = L.
(3.48) ,
2 A0 sin kL cos t = 0

sin kL = 0

kL=n

KYMATA

63

2
L = n
n

,
n =

2L
n

(3.52)

n = 1, 2, ...

,
(3.52).

fn =

3.63 - 64

.

()
=

fn = n

1
2L

n = 1, 2, 3, ...

(3.53)

L:
F: ( )
:

,
f1 =

1
2L

(3.54)

.
fn n - . ,
,
(. 3.65).
,
,
(. 3.66), :
) , ,
,
.
) f, ,
.
) x = 0,
x = n

, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
2

) ,
,

3.65


.

3.66

.

64

.
' .
,
, .

.
3-13
L = 1,00 m ,

b g b

y = 4 ,00 sin 5 x cos 1250 t

(x m, y cm t s)

m = 0,01 kg () :
) .
)
)
.

)
y = 2A 0 sin kx cos t

k =

2
2
=
2
L

k =

n
L

= 2f
= 2

n
2L

n
L

y = 2 A0 sin

FG n x IJ cos FG n
HL K HL

F
t

I
JK

20 = 4,00 cm

0 = 2,00 cm

n
x = 5 x
L

n=5

5 .
)
5
L

F
t = 1250 t

F
= 250
0 ,1

F
= 1250

F = 625 N

KYMATA

65

)
y1 = A0 sin (t + kx) y1 = 2,00 sin (1250 t + 5 x)
y2 = A0 sin (t kx) y2 = 2,00 sin (1250 t 5 x)

, ,
.
.
) .
,
.
3.67.
n
L
=
2
n
n =

1
2L
n

n = 1, 2, ...

(3.55)

3.67

fn = n
, n = 1, 2, ...
2L

(3.56)

L .
f1 =

2L

.
) :
.
3.68.
2 n + 1
L
=
4
2n + 1

2 n + 1 =

4L
, n = 1, 2, ...
2n + 1

(3.57)
3.68

.

f2 n + 1 =

f2 n + 1 = 2n + 1

g 4L

2n + 1

, n = 0, 1, 2, ...

(3.58)

L .

f1 =

4L

66

,
f3 = 3 f1 , f5 = 5 f1 , f7 = 7 f1 , ...

.
.
3-14
L = 0,75 m.
, :
) .
) .

340

m
s

) ,

fn = n

2L

n = 1, n = 2 n = 3
f1 = 227 Hz,

f2 = 453 Hz

f3 = 680 Hz

) ,

f2 n + 1 = 2n + 1

g 4L

n = 1, n = 2 n = 3
f1 = 113 Hz,

3.69

f3 = 340 Hz

f5 = 567 Hz

,
.
, S1 S2
3.69. ,
,
. ,
S1 S2, (1 t
k r1 + 1) (2 t k r 2 + 2 ) .
, 1 = 2 f1 = f2 ,
.
( )
, r1 r2
. , ,

P, , .
S1 S2 ,

KYMATA

67

y1 = A 0 sin (t k r1)
y2 = A 0 sin (t kr2)

y = y1 + y2
y = 2 A0 cos

cos

k r2 r1
2

g FG t k br + r gIJ
2
H
K

k r2 r1
sin
2

g = 1

k r2 r1

(3.59)

g = n

r2 r1 = n,

n = 0, 1, 2, ...

(3.60)

2A 0 .

cos

k r2 r1
2

g=0

k r2 r1
2

g = n +
2

FG
H

r2 r1 = n +

1
2

IJ , n = 0, 1, 2, ...
K

(3.61)

()
.
, ,
. r1 r 2 = .
,
. 3.70 ()
.
YOUNG
,
. ,
108 s,
.
, ,
, ().

, ,
. ~, ,
, .
, ,
.
Thomas Young, 1801,
.

3.70
.

68

3.71.
1 S0
. S0 S1

3.71
Young .

S2 2,
. S1 S2
3,
,
(. 3.72).

3.72
Young.

E
3.73 3 D S1
S2 D >> , .
x << D
r1 r2

KYMATA

r2 r1 = S2 B
S2 BS1 S2 B = a sin , ,
r2 r1 = sin

()

x << D r D ,
x
x

r
D

sin =

(b)

~, , r
r2 . () (b)
r2 r1 =

x
D

x=

D
r2 r 1

, , r2 r1 = n,
, ( )

xmax =

D
n , n = 0 , 1, 2 , . . .

FG
H

r2 r1 = n +

1
2

(3.62)

IJ
K

,

xmin =

FG n + 1 IJ ,
H 2K

n = 0 , 1, 2 , . ..

(3.63)

x =

a
x
D

(3.64)

' oung x
D, .
Young .
:
Young
. 2 ,

.
3-15
Young
. S1 S2 = 2,00 10 - 2 mm,

3.73

69

70

D = 1,50 m.

d = 13,1 cm.
(c = 3,00 108 m/s).

x
D

c
f

d
3

x =

c
d
=
f
3D

f =

3D c
ad

f =

3 1,5 3 10 8
2 ,00 10 13 ,1 10
5

f = 5,15 1014 Hz
( 5,0934 1014 Hz)

3.74

3.75

, X, .. .

, c.

. ,
LC ( Tomson) . (3.74)
LC,
.
. ,
Tomson, , .
,
(. 3.75).
,
"" ,
.
/2 , . '
,
.
/2 ...
" ".

.

KYMATA

) .
,
, 3.76. ,

3.76
.

(). ,
. ,
. ,
()
. ~
, (),
. .

, 3.77,
,
.
) : ,
. 3.78
.

3.78
.

,
, .
( )
( ).
.

3.79 E B .
, .

x, .

b
g
sin b t kx g

E = E 0 sin t kx
B = B0

(3.65)

3.77

71

72

3.79
.

. Maxwell
.
3-16
1000 W, 6 km ()
5,66 10 -2 V/m.
4 MHz ()
= c B,
.

= 2 f = 8 106 rad/s (Hz)

B0 =

1
10 2
E 0 = 1,89
T = 1,89 10 10 T
c
10 8

c=

k =

8 10 6 -1
=
m
8
c
3 10

k = 8 ,37 10 2 m 1

= 0 sin (t kx)
B = B0 sin (t kx)

E = 5 ,66 sin 8 10 6 t 8 ,37 10 2 x

B = 1,89 sin 8 10 6 t 8 ,37 10 2 x

10 2 (S. I. )
10 10 (S. I. )

,
. .

KYMATA

, ,
,
, .
.
,
.. . ,
, , ,
.
, .
(50 Hz)
,
, ,
.

.
,
. ..
.

( ), .

Fourier .
Rngten
.

, ,
,
c,
.


.

(. )

bg

I =

p 20 4
2

32 c 0 r

sin 2

:
c:
0:
(, , ).
r:
: r
p0: .

()

73

74

,
,
,
P = () S
:
P =

p02 4
12 0 c

()

,
.
, ""
. () p0 p0 = q0 l,

l 10-10 m

q0 = e

. , P 10-74 4 .
1014 Hz
P 10-18 W

m = Qm . :
p0 = Qml
p0 =

Im l

()
P =

I m2 l 2 2
12 0 c

, 0 = 20 ,

= 2 5 10 6

l = 30 m

rad
s

400 W.

() ,
,
' .

.
,
() , ,
() (FM - Frequency Modulation
), .


.

KYMATA

()
, .

3.80 ()

3.80
.
. ,
3 1011 Hz ,
, ,
.
:

(nm)

f (1014 Hz)

390 455
455 492
492 577
577 597
597 622
622 780

7,69 6,59
6,59 6,10
6,10 5,20
5,20 5,03
5,03 4,82
4,82 3,84

3.80()

(LF)
(VF)
(VLF)
X (LF)
M (F)
Y (F)
(VHF)
- (VHF)
Super (SHF)
E
(HF)
Y
()

30 Hz 300 Hz

107-106 m

300 Hz 3000 kHz

106-105 m

3 kHz 30 kHz

105-104 m

30 kHz 300 kHz

104-103 m
103-102 m

300 kHz 3 MHz

3 MHz 30 MHz
30 MHz 300 MHz
300 MHz 3 GHz
3 GHz 30 GHz
30 GHz 3000 GHz

102-101 m
101-1
1-10-1
10-1-10-2
10-2-10-3

m
m
m
m

0,7-10 m
0,410-6 m
0,810-6 m

75

76

3.80()
.

, :
) :
,
(. 3.81).

3.81

, ' .
' .

30 kHz 3 MHz .
( ) 1500
km, ,
VHF, Very High Frequency ( ).
) : ,
,
( 30 MHz),
(. 3.82).

3.82

80 km 500 km '
,
.

.
, .

,
(Fade),
.

KYMATA

) :
.
, ,
. VHF, UHF (Ultra High
Frequency, ) .
150 km.
, ,
, .

.
(. 3.83).

3.84

3.83

(. 3.84).
(. 3.85)
( )
,
().
3.86
:

3.85

3.86

77

78

TH
3.80() ,
.
.
:
1) (ELF - Extremely Low Frequencies): 30 Hz 300 Hz.
, (
) 50 Hz, .
2) (VF - Voice Frequencies):
300 Hz 3000 Hz.
.
20 Hz 20000 Hz,
, VF.
3) X (VLF - Very Low Frequencies):
3 kHz 30 kHz.
(15 kHz 20 kHz)
.
VLF
.
4. (LF - Low Frequencies):
30 kHz 300 kHz.
.

(). ,
,
.
5. (MF - Medium Frequencies):
300 kHz 3000 kHz.
( ) (535 kHz
1605 kHz.), .
6. (HF - High Frequencies):
3 Hz 30 MHz .
(),
.
, ,
. ,
,
CB.
7. (VHF - Very High Frequencies): 30 Hz 300 MHz. E
. ,
,
, FM
( ) (88 Hz 108 MHz)
( 2 13).
.

KYMATA

8. (UHF - Ultra High Frequencies): 300 Hz

3000 MHz. UHF ( 14
83) (
). ,
, ,
o .
9. (SHF - Super High Frequencies): 3 GHz 30 GHz
.

.
10. (EHF - Extremely High Frequencies): F 30 GHz 300 GHz.
,
,
.
, .
EHF
.
: 1 GHz
,

Adrasthriothtes
N A
R
x

y 0 = A sin (t kx + )
2
= 2 f k =

R Huygens
,
,

.
R ~
,
.
1 = 1~, (
= )

sin 1

= n 21 = 1
sin 2
2

1 , 2
1, 2

79

80

.

n=

c
,

c
.
,
,
.
c

sin c =

1
2

R ,

.

y = 2 sin kx cos t

+
2 4

x = n

x = n

n = 0, 1, 2, ... ( 2 0)
( ) .
:
fn = n

1
2L

F
, n = 1, 2, 3, ...

fn = n
, n = 1, 2, ...
2L

f2 n + 1 = 2n + 1

g 4L , n = 0, 1, 2, ...

.
R

() :
r2 r1 = n

n = 0, 1, 2, ..., ( )
r2 r1 =

FG n + 1 IJ
H 2K

n = 0, 1, 2, ...

( )
R Young,
x
,

D ,


=

x
D

R

, . ,
.

Maxwell.

()

:
= 0 sin(t kx)
B = B0 sin (t kx)

.


, ,
,
.

KYMATA

drasthriothtes


,

,
.

,
,

,



.
,
.
,
.



. ,
.




.
,

.

.

,


.. 80 Hz.
500
mV. ,

.


.


1000
.

,

.
.

.
,
.
d .

1
f

81

82

( ).
F .

.
,
, .



, .

1 cm
1 cm,
.

.
,
.
.


,

.

.


.


,
,
, .. .

,

,

.

.
/8,
,

.
d
. d
: ,
.. 100,

,
.

.
.
,
.
,

.
523,3 Hz

(;).


,
.
, L0, 0,6
.
L = L0 + 0,6 D
( )
. I
L =

=
2
2f

= 2 f (L0 + 0,6 D)
.


,
.

KYMATA

83

;
2

;
() y (x, t) = 5 cos (3x 5t)
() y (x, t) = 2 sin 2 (2t x)
() y (x, t) = 3 sin (10t 0,1x) + 2 cos (10 t = 0,10 x)
() y (x, t) = 6e - sin (2 t x)
() y (x, t) = 8 -3 x sin (5x 3t)
3

.
() y (x, t) = 6 cos (5t 3x)
() y (x, t) = 7 sin (6x 10t)
() y (x, t) = 12 sin (2x 5t)
() y (x, t) = 6 cos (3x + 2t) + 7 sin (3x 2t)
4

i) 6sin (3t 2x)
() 2,00 m/s
ii) 7 cos (4 x + 5t)
() 1,25 m/s
iii) 6 cos ( 5x + 6t) () 1,50 m/s
iv) 2sin ( 3x 6t)
() 1,20 m/s

.
7

,

,
1 2
r1 r2 ,
:
r2
I1
= 2
I2
r 12
8

,
;
()
()
()
()
()
9

;
;
6

.

.
()


.
()

.
()


.
()
,

. :
() 1
2.
()
.
()
.
()
.
10

d2 d1

84

13

Huygens.
14

, d 2 = 2 d 1 .

;
() 1 = 2 2 ,
() 1 =

2 2

() 1 = 42
() 1 =

1
2

:

() . . . . . . , () . . . . . .
.
() . . . . . .
() . . . . . . .
15

:

() . . . . . . ,
() . . . . . .
, () . . . . . .
.
16

11

17

Huygens
.
18

.
19

.
.
12

:
()
()
()
() .

()
(), ;
20

KYMATA

21

;
.
22

;
23

85

( ), .
.
()
.
()
.
()
, ,
.
26

( ),
.

(

( ).
24

,

.

2 ).
27

t = 0 .

25

y x ;
28

. ( )

86

.
31

:


, ()
. . . . . .
. () . . . . . .

() . . . . . .
32

29

.
.
()
.
()
.
()

.
()

.
33

,
sin,

()

1
,
2

()

2
,
3

()

3
,
4

()

8
,
9

()

16
27

3
2

.
30

.
1 cm/s.

() 2 s () 2,5 s () 3 s () 3,5 s () 4,5 s
2 cm
4 cm.
34

, L,

F.
.
.
()


1
2L

()
.
() ,
.

KYMATA

()


.
35

, ,
,
.

87

1)

1
2L

2)

2L

()

3)

4L

()

()

36

42

.

. ;

:
,
() . . . . . . .
() . . . . .
.

37

; ( ,

).

43

Young

38

,

;
39

,

;
40

%
% ,


:
f1
=
f2

b100 + g
b100 + g

.
;
44

Young

;
;
45

Young
() ()

Hooke.
41

.
() 61014Hz
() :

88

i) 7,5 1014 Hz
ii) 5,5 1014 Hz
iii) 5 1014 Hz
46

:
() 1)
()
2)

()
3)
47

()

,
.
()


.
()
Huygens

(
).

48

:

,
() . . . . . . () . . . . . .
() . . . . . .
.
() . . . . . . .

52

(
)
:
() 10 %, () 50 %, () 0 %;
53

49

54

50

;
51

,
;

:
()
, .
()
.
() .

.

-
1

y = 10 sin 3t 0 ,1 x

g b x , y cm

t s

:
()
() y
()

( ).
2

16 z
20 000 z, ,

.
1450 m/s
340 m/s .
3

y = 10 sin x 100 t

()
()
()
()

g bx , y cm

t s

( ).

KYMATA

, ,

10 m 4,0 s. 10
20 s
.
5

y = 10 sin

FG b x 2 tgIJ b x , y cm
H4
K

t s

()

() x = 5,0 cm,
t = 1,0 s.
6

,
,
16,0 cm .

0,210 kg.m-1
F = 30,0 N :
()

() y (x, t)


.
7

0,15
mm F = 200 .

.
7,8 103 kg.m-3.
8

.

1,44 m
.
g = 9,80 m/s2
9

30 m
15 m.
1,0 mm.

89

.
8,9 103 kg.m-3 ,
7,8 103 kg.m-3 600 N.
10

589nm. )
()
1,50; )
60 ,
, .

1,00.
11

.

60,
.

1,52 1,00,
.
12

40 1,58.


.
n = 1,00
13

560 nm
.
50,0
30,0.

(n = 1,00)
14

1,660 1,620.
50 (
)
60, ,

.
15

30
.

90

4/3 ()

( )
16

450 nm 400 nm.

- .
4/3
() 1 ().

. =
10 m/s.
.
() t = 4,5 s
() t = 5,0 s
() t = 5,5 s
() t = 7,0 s
19

g FG y , x cm IJ
= 4 cos b x + t g
H t s K

y1 = 3 sin 3 x 2 t

17

y2

() x = 1,75 cm, t = 1,50 s
() x = 8,75 cm, t = 2,25 s.
20

y1
y2

FG x t IJ
H 10 0,001 3 K FG y , x cm IJ
I
F
H t s K
tJ
= 2 ,5 sin G x
H 10 0,001 K

y1 = 2 ,5 sin
y2

y1 + y2.

.
21

.
.

. 1,00.
18

b
g FG y , x cm IJ
= 1,5 sin b2 t 5 x g H t s K

y1 = 1 ,5 sin 5 x 2 t
y2

y1 + y2

x = 1,65 cm.
( )
22

y1 + y2

b
g
I b x , y cm,
F
= 3 sin G2 t + 3 x + J
H
3K

y1 = 3 sin 2 t 3 x
y2

t s

;

x = 2,5 cm .

KYMATA

23

.
y = 12 sin ( 0 , 6 x ) cos ( 150 t )

b x, y

c m, t s

.
( ).
24

91

4,00 %.

.
30

444 Hz
.

0,5 m 8100
f1 .
,
10000
f2 = 100 Hz. f1 .
25

40,0 cm 1,00 mm
f 360 Hz
,
.
, = 7,86 103 kg .m- 3.
26

F
f.


.
27

0,600 m
60,0 .
0,0100 kg.m-1

.
16 Hz 20000 Hz.
28

1,00 m
0,800 mm.
F = 800 N, :
()
()
()
,
1 = 4,00 cm 2 = 3,00 cm .
8,89 103 kg m-3.
29

100 Hz
.

.

.
340 m/s-1 .
31

350 Hz.

340 m.s-1.
3
.
32

0,600 m
698
Hz.

.
33

L = 0,50 m
, 675 Hz
1010 Hz .
.

92

34

.
= 340 m/s-1.

.


.
80 cm 80 cm 2,10 m,

,
100 Hz 2000 Hz.
340 m/s.

Young

590 nm. 0,30 mm

x = 0,30 cm.
.

35

39

500 m.
;
340 m/s.

3,00 m. A

10,0 m .


0,100 m.
,
342 m/s-1.

( )
0,50 mm, ,
650 nm.

D = 1,5 m.

:


.
2 cm

;

37

40

36

256 Hz.

38

Young
-
.
0,3000 mm
3,000 m. 3,584 cm
6
,

95

4.1

()
, .
,

.
Pascal, , "
, ,
(), (
).
,
, .

dp
= g
dy

4.1

.

(4.1)

p = p0 + g y 0 y

(4.2)

p y, p0,
y0 (. 4.2) g, .

, ,
.

,
.

4.2
.

.
. ,
() ,
. ,
, .
,
.
. ,
, .
,
( ) (. 4.3).
1 atm
V0 10- 9 mm3. ,

4.3


.

96

MHXANIKH

4.4

(1)

lim

V V 0

m
V

V m
' .

.

. ~,
, .
: ,
, .

(. 4.4).
,
.
, ,
' .
: ,
,
, . ,
, ,
. , ,
, ,
, ,
.
,
. .
,
,
.
.
.. , ..
: ,
,
().
, ,
, (. 4.5).

4.5
.
4.6
,
,
.

. ~

(. 4.6) . ~

, , ,
.
. '
. ( )
, ,
(. 4.7).
,
, .
, ,
.
. .
, .
.
,
. ,
, , ,
, .
: ,
.
)
)
) ,
( )
, ,
.
,
Bernoulli.

4.7
.

: V ,
, ,
t, t.
=

V
t

(4.3)

S.I. m3/s L 3 T -1.

, ,
. (. 4.8)
t ,
t. ,
=

V
A t
=
t
t

(4.4)

( ) 4.9.
1, 1
1. Q A 2 , 2 2 .
t 1 ,

97

4.8
t
t

98

MHXANIKH

4.9
.

V 1 = 1 t = A 1 t

m1 = 1V1 = 1 1 1 t

t
2
V2 = 2 t = A2 2 t

m 2 = 2 V2 = 2 A 2 1 t

:
) ,
,
. ,
1 , 2 .
)
. ,
. ,
1,
2,

m 1 = m 2
1 1 2 t = 2 2 2 t
1 1 1 = 2 2 2

(4.5)

P Q

= .

(4.6)

.
, , 1 = 2 ,

A1 1 = A2 2

(4.7)

(4.7) ()
, ,
. .

, ,
, .
4-1
2,0 m2 .
3,0 m3 s-1, .
12 m.s -1.
.

3 ,0
m s 1 = 1 ,5 m s 1
2 ,0

A (4.7)
A =
A =

2 ,0 1 ,5 2
m
12

A =

= 0,25 m2

, 0,25 m2.

BERNOULLI
, (. 4.10),
, 1, Q,
2.
t (. 4.10)
t + t (. 4.10), t .
l1 m1 = A1 1 t
l2 m2 = A2 2 t.

m 1 = m 2 = 1 1 t = m

(4.8)

H m
F 1 F 2 (. 4.10).
, , m

Ep = U p + K p = m g y 1 +

1
m 12
2

m Q
EQ = U Q + K Q = m g y 2 +

1
m 22
2

99

100

MHXANIKH

4.10
4.10 4.10 t t + t.

1
m 22 12
(4.9)
2

F1 = p1 A1 ( ) F2 = p2 A2 (
Q) ,
E = Q P = m g y2 y1 +

E = W F + W F

(4.10)

W F = F1 l1 = p1 A1 1 t

(4.11)

W F = F2 l2 = p 2 A 2 2 t = p2 A1 1 t

(4.12)

(4.10) (4.8), (4.9), (4.11) (4.12)

m g y 2 y1 +

1
m 22 12 = p1 A1 1 t p 2 A 1 1 t
2

A 1 1 tg y2 y 1 +

j b

1
A1 1 t 22 12 = p1 p2 A 1 1 t
2

1
1
12 + g y 1 + p1 = 22 + g y 2 + p2
2
2

(4.13)

Q ,
,
1
2 + g y 1 + p = .
2

(4.14)

: ,
. ,
.
4.14 Bernoulli,
:
,
1
2 + g y + p
2

".
.
1
1 m 2

2 =
=
2
2 V
V

.

gy =

m
U
gy =
V
V

.
p =

p V
V

' , '
Bernoulli, F1 F2
() , .

.
y1 = y2 (4.13)
1
1
12 + p1 = 22 + p 2
2
2

(4.15)

, ( - ),
1 = 2 = 0
g y1 + p1 = g y 2 + p 2

(4.16)

.
4-2
0,60 cm,
10 m.
0,15 cm, ,
8,0m.s-1 : )
. )
. .

101

102

MHXANIKH

4.11

) (1) (2)
A1 1 = A2 2
2 = 8

(0,15) 2
(0,60)

2 =

ms 1

A1 1
2

2 = 0,50 m.s-1

) Bernoulli (1) (2)

p2 +

1
1
22 = p1 + g h + 12
2
2

p2 = p1 + g h +

1
12 22
2

(1) , .
p1 = 1 atm = 105 .m-2

LM
N

p2 = 10 5 + 10 3 10 10 +

jOPQ

1
10 3 82 0 ,52 Pa
2

p2 = 2 ,32 105 Pa

( p2, ;)
TORRICELLI
4.12
h .
,
. Bernoulli
Q . y1 = h, y2 = 0, 1 = 0
2 = 4.13
g h + p1 =

1
2 + p2
2

p 1 p 2 ,
4.12
To
,
.

gh =

1
2
2

2g h

,

h.
Torricell.
: ,
4.13.
,
1 2 1 > 2,

A1 1 = A2 2
1 > 2
1 < 2
Bernoulli

4.13

.

1
1
12 + p1 = 22 + p 2
2
2

1 < 2
p1 > p2
, () ,
(). ,
,
, .
4-3

. h1 h2, ,

. h1 h2.

Torricelli, 1,
(1),

4.14

103

104

MHXANIKH

1 =

2 g H h1

. ,
,
( ).
h1 =

1
g t 12
2

t1 =

x1 =

2 h1
g

,
x1 = 1t1

4 H h1 h1

x2 =

4 H h2 h2

,
x1 = x2 ( h1) h1 = (H h2) h2 h1 + h2 = H

BERNOULLI
Bernoulli .
, ,
.
.
) : 4.15 .

. ,
. , (1) ,
.
(1) ,
, .

4.15

4.16

. .

) : Venturi
,
. , .
,
. ,
. h (.
4.16).
A =

.
Bernoulli ,
,
1
1
2 + p = 2 + p
2
2
, p p
.
(1) (2)
p1 = p2

p1 = p + g

p2 = p + g h + g H h

p + g H = p + g h + g H h

p p = g h
h .
1
1
2 + p p = 2
2
2

1
1
2 + g h =
2
2

FG IJ
H K

b g
LF I O
MG J 1P
MNH K PQ
2 g h
2

(4.17)

) Pilot: ,
. , ()
(. 4.17). (),
, ()
(). ' ()
, (). ~,
. ()
() .
Bernoulli

105

106

MHXANIKH

4.17
Pitot. .

1
2 + p = 0 + p
2

p1 = p2.
p1 = p p 2 = p + g h, ~
.
,
1
2 + p = p + g h
2
=

2 g h

(4.18)

h
, ' ,
.
) - :
4.18.

.
.
, 4.19.

4.18

4.19

. .

, ,
. ,
.
) : Bernoulli
. 4.20,
,
.
, ,
. (
).

, d
. ,
0 (. 4.21). ,
,

0
. 4.21.
F ,

4.21
( ) 0 (
).

0.
d .
F = A

0
d

(4.19)

. 4.19

=

F d
A 0

d
0

(4.20)

107

4.20

.

108

MHXANIKH

4.22

F
A

.
, , S.I. Pa.s
ML -1 T - 1 . poise (P) CGS , 1 poise =
10 -1 Pa.s.

(. 4.22). .
,
.
F1 ,
F2 .
, ,
.
' .

.
, ,
. ' ,
.

, :
. ,
.
,
, , ,
, .
,
, ,
,

4.23
m 1 (). m 2 ().

(. 4.23).
,
.
,
. ,
4.24

poise, 0 C.

' ,
.

4.24
. 20 C 1 ,8 10 5 Pa s .

109

,
' , .
,
, .
.
, ,
...

,

,
(. 4.25).
,

,
,
F = C1

(4.21)

F = C2 2

(4.22)

C1 C2 .

C1 C2 . C1
C2 ,
R .

C1 k R . ,

C1 = F

= F

(ML 3 ) k (ML 1 T 1 ) (L) (LT 1 ) = MLT 2

Mk + L- 3 k - + + 1 - - 1 = 1 L1 T - 2

U|
3k + + 1 = 1V
|W
1 = 2
k + =1

k =0

=1
=1

,
C1 R

C1 = 6 R

(4.23)

(4.21)
F = 6 R ( Stokes)

(4.24)

4.25


.

110

MHXANIKH

C2 R

[ C 2 2 ] = [ F ]

= F

= 1, = 0, = 2

C2 R 2

H
C2 =

R2
4

(4.25)

C2

C2 = C 2

4.26

.

(4.26)

C ,
,
() . 4.26
C .
: ,
, .
: .
: ,
.
,
. , ,
Stokes, .
4-4
R = 10 cm m = 2,0 kg
. .
C22.

,
. .

.
,

F = mg

R 2 2 = m g
4

2
R

mg

4.27

0 ,1

2 ,0 9 ,8
m s 1
3 ,14 1,3

= 43 m s-1

111

4-5

R = 0,50 mm.
1 = 6,0 m.s-1. ,
,
) , ) 2 = 4,0 m s-1,
) .
. ( = 1,8 10 -5 Pa.s)

)
F = C1 1

F = 6R1

F = ( 6 3 ,14 1,8 10 5 0 ,5 10 3 6 ,0) N

4.28 - 30

F = 1,0 10-6 N
) 2 ,
, (1 - 2). ,
F = C1 (1 - 2) F = 6 R (1 - 2)

F = 6 3 ,14 1,8 10 5 0 ,5 10 3 2 ,0 N

F = 0,3 10 N
) , ()
.
F = 0

= 1 = 6,0 m.s-1
-6

'
, .
, ()
.
, , F
. ,
4.31. F
4.31 . F
( ) F
.
: ,
4.32.
.
,
(1 > 2 ). ,
Bernoulli,
. ,
' .
.

4.31

4.32

.

112

MHXANIKH

Adrasthriothtes
N A
R
:
) ,


, (
) .
1 1 = 2 2
) Bernoulli,
,
,
1
1
12 + g y 1 + p1 = 22 + g y 2 + p2
2
2

, y1, y2

p1, p2 o
.
.

d
0

= F / A d
.
R
,

F = C1

F = C2 2

R,

C1 = 6 R

C2 =

R2
4

R
Bernoulli

, Pitot ...

R ,
d .
0 ,
.

R
,


.

drasthriothtes

BERNOULLI
1. ,

5 cm.
.
.
2.
5 cm 5 cm .

,
1 mm
2 mm .


.
.

3. :
250mL
.
.

, ,
,


. ,
, ,
,
.

,
,
. .

5 mm.

4.
. ,
,

.
,
.
,
, .

,
,
( ). ,

. , ,

,
.


,
.

.
,

.
,
.
(
;).

113

114

MHXANIKH

5.

, .. (
),
30 cm

.

30 cm

.
,
Stokes .

6.


.

,
,


.

.
,
,
,

,
7 m
-
80 kgf (kp).

().
() ().

.
,
() . . . . .
() .....,
.
() .....
() ..... .
4

. ()
().
i)
.
ii)
.
2

() 1
2

1 2
( ).
() 1
2

.
() 1

2.
5

;
6

1
2 3:1. 1, 1 2, 2
1 2
.

() 1 = 2
() 1 = 32
() 1 = 2
() 2 = 31

115

() Bernouli
.
()
,

.
() m

( )
m ,
Bernoulli
.
()
.
()


.
9

()
,

1 = 32

2 = 31

2 = 31

1 = 2
7

Bernoulli
() . . . . . ,
() . . . . .
() . . . . ., () . . . . .
() . . . . ..
8

.
.
, .
;
()
,
,


;

116

MHXANIKH

10

13

()
().

11

; H
.
12

14

h1, h2, h3
.

.
15

,
, ,

() 2 ,

()

2,

() 4

() / 2;

16

( ,
, ).
17

140
2,0 mm2 .
3,010-3m3s-1,

;

117

18

22

() A = .
() 1/ 2 2 + g y + p = .,
() 1/ 2 2 + p = .
(1) N Bernouli .
(2) Bernoulli .
(3) .
(4) Bernoulli, .

F = C 2 2.

19

()
.

.
,

;
() ,
, ,
;

F =

9
F
16

()

()

16

()

()

4
3

23

0.

20

()

()
() ;
21

, ,

() . . . . .
() . . . . .
() . . . . . ()
. . . . . .

;
24

,
, W
.

118

MHXANIKH

= 2
W
() 2 W,
() W,
() 4 W,
() 8 W
2
C2 .

(i) , (ii) 2 , (iii) / 4, (iv) 4 ;

() , C22,

(i) , (ii) 2 , (iii) /2, (iv) 4 ;

25

D1 D2
0 - 0 ,

( ).
26

R
2R
.
.
() C 1 ,

27

,
,

, .
(1) n
(1)
(2) kg.m - 1 .s - 1
(2) C 1

(3) C 2
(3) kg.s - 1

(4) C
(4) kg.m - 1

28

, () . . . . .
()
. . . . . .
() . . . . .
() . . . . ..

-
1

8000 m3 s-1
44 106 m3.

.
2

6,0 m s-1. A


; g = 10 m.s-2.

.
0,20 m2 0,050 m2
. 5,0 m
s-1 2,0 105 N m-2 :
()
() .
1,0 103 kg m-3.

.
1 /2 = 5,0
h = 15 cm,
1. H
g = 10 m.s- 2 .

1,0 mm2
75 mm2.
,

,
3,5 m,
1,0 m.
10 ,
;
1,0 103 kg m3
g = 9,8 m.s- 2 .
6

.
,
,

.
;

119

,
).
103 kg m-3.
10

Pitot
.
26,5 cm.
km h-1.
0,800 103 kg m- 3
1,30 kgm-3. g = 9,80 m s- 2.
11

0,010 m2.
2,0 10-4 m3s-1,
1,0 cm2.

.
. g = 10 m
s-2.
8

.
h = 100 m
200 m3 s-1, .

g = 10 ms -2 103 kg m- 3.

30 cm
15 cm.

4,0 104 Pa 3,0 104 Pa,
.
1,0 103 kg m - 3 .

12

5,0 103 N m- 2
.
m3 ,
1,0 m.

H
1,75 105 Pa.

13

= 6,
,
. (

20 m2 ( ).
,
40 m.s-1,
50 m.s-1.
. 1,3 kg m-3.

120

MHXANIKH

14

1,5 10- 3 m.
1,0 103 kgm- 3
g = 9,8 ms- 2. 1,3 kgm -3.
= 1,8 10 - 5 Pa s
15

A
.
() ,
;
() 20 %
;
16

5,0 cm 0,5 kg
.
.
1,3 kg m- 3 g = 9,8 m.s2
. c1
.

() F = C2 2
.
18

2,5 m.
r = 2,0 m
C .
80,0 kg.
1,3 kg m-3
10 m.s-2.
19

.

c1 ,


=

2 +

17

R

= 40 m.s-1.

R = 2R ,
.
:
() F = C1

FG m g IJ
HC K

20

.
m
R.

. .
g.

4.2

.
(),
.
, ,
. ,
, .

.
(. . 4.33)
, (

4.33
H .

) . , ,
,
. .


, ,
.
, ,
. ,

121

122

4.34

4.35



.

,

.

,
, ' , ,
, .
,
( )
. ,
() (. . 4.34), ..
,
..

,
( )
.
,

(. . 4.35).
, ..
,
, ,
. .
, , ,
. , ,
,
. .
E A
.
, ,
' .
( CM).
,
, '
,
.
m1, m2, ...
x, y, z. m1
(x1, y1, z1), m2 (x2, y2, z2) ...

xcm =

m1 x1 + m2 x 2 + . ..
=
m1 + m2 + . . .

mi x i
mi

(4.27)

ycm =

m1 y1 + m2 y 2 + . ..
=
m1 + m2 + . . .

mi y i
mi

(4.27)

z cm =

m1 z1 + m 2 z 2 + . . .
=
m1 + m2 + . ..

m i zi
mi

123

(4.27)

, " "
. .. ,

. , .

.

. ..
.
'
.

, .
.
, 4.36, , y .
xz.
m1, m2....
m1 g y1 , m2 g y2 , ...
,
'

4.36

.

U = m1 g y1 + m2 g y 2 + . . .

U = m1 y1 + m2 y 2 + .. . g

m1 y 1 + m 2 y2 + .. . = m1 + m 2 + . . . ycm

U = m1 + m 2 + .. . g y cm

m 1 + m 2 + ... = M

U = Mg y cm

(4.28)

.
4-6

m 1 , m 2 (m 1 > m 2 ), r
, ,
. K .
: m1 = 2 m2 r = 1,2 m

4.37

124

,
,
m1, m2, 1 , 2 .
K 1 , 2 ,
xx.
.

xcm =
0 =

b g

m1 r1 + m2 r2
m1 + m 2

m1 r1 = m2 r2

r1
m
= 2
r2
m1

r1
m2
=
r1 + r2
m1 + m 2

r1 =

m 1 x 1 + m 2 x2
m1 + m2

m2
r
m1 + m 2

r2 = r r1 =

m1
r
m1 + m2

: r1 = 0,4 m r2 = 0,8 m

, .
,
. t
, ' ,
,
(. . 4.38).
a
, .
4.38
~
.

a =

(4.29)

, t ,
.
= lim

t0

d
=
t
dt

(4.30)

1 rad/s

125

dim = T 1

,
.
,
.
, t,
t, t.
a =

(4.31)

To a, t ,

= lim

t 0

d
=
t
dt

(4.32)

1 rad/s 2
dim = T 2

.

,
().
(. 4.39),

.
,
,
,
.
.
, .
, ,
, . r
, t s (. 4.40).
s

lim

t 0

s = r

= r
t
t

= r lim
t 0 t
t

= r
(4.33)

.

), . ,

a, (. . 4.41)

4.39



.

4.40
s
s = r.

126

i) (arad)

arad =

2
= 2 r
r

(4.34)

ii) (atan )
.
atan =

d
dt

(4.33)
atan = r
4.41

.

d
dt

, (4.32),
atan = r

(4.35)

. t = 0
o.
, , .

= a =

0
=
t
t 0

= 0 + t

= f (t).

dt
,

d = d t. d


.
t = t 0
I

dt.
dt
.
t = t 0 ().
=

0 + 0 + t
t
2

= 0 t +

1
t2
2

= (t)
t =

,
2 = 02 + 2

a =
= 0 + at

= .

s = 0 t +

= 0 + t
1
a t2
2

= 0 t +

2 = 20 + 2as

1
t2
2

2 = 20 + 2

, , ,
4.42, m1 , m2 , ...
r1 , r2 , .. . .
,
, ' ,
K =

1
1
m1 12 + m2 22 + . ..
2
2

~ ,

1 = r 1 , 2 = r 2

K =

1
1
m 1 2 r12 + m 2 2 r22 + .. .
2
2

K =

1
m 1 r12 + m 2 r22 + . . . 2
2

K=

1
2

e m r j
i i

, ,

,

4.42

127

128

I =

mi

ri 2

(4.36)

,
, 1kg.m2
L 2 M 1 T 0 I 0 = L 2 M 1.

, ,
K =

1
I 2
2

(4.37)

,
,
,
. , , ,
, ,
, 4.43.
(B) , ,
' (A)
.

< <
, ( )

4.43

.

< <

( ) ,
.
""

""
.

4.44

4-7
( ),
m = 2,0 kg , ( )
r = 0,80 m. ,
,
= 3,0 rad/s, , :
)
)

)
I1 =

mi

ri 2 = m

FG r IJ
H2K

+ m

FG r IJ
H2K

I1 =

2 kg 0 ,8 m
m r2
=
2
2

129

= 0 ,64 kg m 2

K1 =

1
I 2 =
2

FG 1 0 ,64 9IJ J
H2
K

K 1 = 2 ,9 J

)
I2 =

m i ri2

I 2 = 2 kg 0 ,8 m

K2 =

= m r2

= 1,3 kg m 2

FG
H

IJ
K

1
1
I 2 2 =
1,3 9 J
2
2
K 2 = 5 ,8 J

, .

-
( STEINER)

.
mi ( mi 0),
().
H () r i2 m i , ri
.

.
I =

ri 2 mi

.
.

R, (. 4.45).
.
R ,
I =

R2 m

= R 2 m

(4.38)
= R2 M

, Steiner ,

4.45
R,

.

130

P
L

1
I = M R2
2

I =

12

M L2

R L

FR
GH 4

I =M

I
J
12 K
L

1
I = M R2
2

I = MR 2

, ,

I =M

a2 + 2
12

I =

1
4

MR 2

I =

MR 2

R
2
I = M R2
5

a2 + 2

I =M

12

I =

1
12

M 2

I =

2
3

MR 2

131

z, cm, zc ,

z,
= cm + M d2

(4.39)

d z z c (. . 4.46)

Steiner

4.46

4.47,


,

xcm = ycm = zcm = 0.

z
,
(xP , yP , 0)
z.
4.47
m i

.
' xy
(x i , y i , 0).
, (z)
I cm =

m i R i2

mi

ex

2
i

+ yi2

(I)

,
Ip =

mi

ri 2 =

mi

LMcx
N

xp

h + cy
2

yp

h OQP
2

(II)

j e

I p = mi x 2i + y i2 + x p2 + y p2

j m

2 xp

mi

xi 2 y p

mi

yi

xcm = 0, ycm = 0

mi

xi = 0

(III)

mi

yi = 0

(IV)

A d ,
xp2 + yp2 = d 2

(V)

mi

= M

H (II) (), (), (V), (V) (VI)

Ip = Ic m + M d2

(VI)

z z c

.

132

4-8
L.
, ' , ,
I =

1
M L2
12

, ' ,
.

,
Steiner

F LI
I = I + M G J
H 2K

1
1
M L2 + M L2
12
4

I =

1
M L2
3

I =

4-9
R, , ,
(4.48).
.

I0 =

4.48

mi ri2

R
2

mi ri2
=

1
MR 2
2

m i ri2 +

mi ri2

mi ri2 , , .

bR / 2 g
M = M
R

M
4

bR / 2 g

I c = M

M R2
MR 2
=
4 8
32

Steiner
= c + Md 2

R2
M
+
32
4

I = M

I = MR 2

FG R IJ
H2K

133

3
32

R2
3 2
= I +
R M
2
32

I =

13
MR 2
32

4.49,
(Steiner).
P ,
.
, ,
.
K =

1
IP 2
2

4.49

I P
P.
Steiner
IP = Icm + Md 2
d
P.
K =

K =

1
I cm + Md 2 2
2

1
1
I cm 2 + M ( d )2
2
2

d = cm
K =

1
1
I cm 2 + M 2cm
2
2

(4.40)

(4.40) ,
, ,

1
M 2cm ,
2

1
I cm 2 ,
2

,

P,

.

134

4.50 .
s,
. t
, .
, ,

cm =

4.50

s
t

,
t, s,

=

s
t

= cm = R

(4.41)

E
a =

d cm
d
d
=
= R
dt
dt
dt

a = R

(4.42)

.
4-10
R
.
,
m.
h . ,
, .

U = m gh

,
K1 =

1
m 2
2

K2 =

1
1
I 2 = R2 2
2
2

= R

4.51

K2 =

1
M 2
2

U = K1 + K 2
1
1
m 2 + M 2
2
2

mgh=

2mgh
m+ M

2mgh

m +M

4-11
-
h. ,
.
,
, ;
, ,
I =

1
M R2
2

U = M gh

,
, .
K =
K =

1
1
I 2 + M 2
2
2

1 1
1
M R 2 2 + M 2
2 2
2

,
, , ,

= R

K =

1
1
3
M 2 + M 2 = M 2
4
2
4

U = K
M gh=

3
M 2
4

135

136

4
gh
3

M gh=
=

1
M 2
2
2 gh

> . ,

,
""
.

(. 4.52),
,
. ,
,
. ,
,
.
4.52

.

, ,

r F ,

= r F

4.53


.

F (. 4.53) ( . 146).

= Fr sin

() r

F .


.
,

4.54

.

r F ,
.

(. 4.54).
SI 1 m ML 2 T 2.

4.55 F . ,
,

137

F l
. ,
(4.43)
= F l = Fr sin

l F.
, F ,
(. 4.56).

4.55

4.57

4.56

F ,
.
l.

F
.

(. 4.57), ,
.

F (. 4.58),
, (F // )
(F )

, .

F, ,
F ,
= = F l
:
, ,
,
.
4.58
, F
F .
4.58,
Z ( ) ,
(. 4.59).

F1, F2 ..,
.
= 1 + 2 + 3 + ...
,

. ,

4.60, F1 1 = F1l1 F2
2 = + F2 l 2 .

4.59
,
,
.

138

. ,

, F1, F2, F3, ...

.

F (. 4.61),

4.60


.

4.61

. F
Ftan
Frad. , Frad , ,
Ftan.
4-12

,
(F1 = F2 = F) . l
. (
) .
. ,
, .

F
F tan .

4.62

0 = F 2 x 2 F1 x 1 = Fx 2 Fx 1, 0 = F (x 2 x 1 ) 0 = F l.
, ,
.

.
""
. '
'
.
4-13

, , , .

4.63

139

F1 = 30 , F2 = 20 N l = 2,0 m

F2 , F2x F2y.
E
2 = F2x + F2y

2 = + l F 2y + 0F2x

2 = + l F 2 sin 30 o

2 = +20 m

1 = F1 l / 2

1 = (30 2/2) Nm

4.64

1 = 30 m

= 1 + 2

= (+20 15) Nm

= 10 m

N

r,
,
(. 4.65).

, m. F
,
a tan.

F = m a tan

4.65

rF = m r a tan

, rF = a tan = r, .

(4.46)
= mr 2

F ,
, 4.66.

, F

. , F ,
Ftan ,

. (4.46), F ,
.

4.66

.

140

,
(. 4.67).
. (4.46)

1 = m 1 r12, 2 = m2 r22 ...

1 , 2 , ... ,
,
1 + 2 + ... = m1 r12 + m2 r22 + ... = (m1 r12 + m2 r22 + ...)
=
4.67

.

4.68
0,

.

(4.47)

.
,
. ,
, ,
(. 4.68),
.
(4.47)
:

, ,
, ,
, .

,
.

) :
,
( 4.47),
.
)
:
, .
F = ma cm ,
.
.
(4.47), = cm ,
Icm .

.
4-14

, .
,
g.

B , F k

F . , , F ,

()

4.69

R ,
()

= F R
,
I =

1
M R2
2

()

cm

=

acm
R

(IV)

() (), (), (V)

1
F = Macm
2

(V)

2 Newton

F x

= M acm

M g sin F = M acm

(V), (VI)
acm =

2
g sin
3

:
,
,
, a cm () = 2 / 2,

b g

2 = 2 acm = 2 acm

h
sin

141

142

, 4 - 11,
4
gh
3

2 =

2 acm

h
4
=
gh
sin
3

acm =

2
g sin
3

4-15
m1, m2 ,
.
R,
. .

m2 , 2 .
2 N
m2 g T2 = m2 a

()

m1
T1 m 1 g = m 1 a

()

= I

T2 R T1 R = I

()

, a tan = R ,
a ,
.
, ()

bT

T1 R = I

a
R

(IV)

(), () (IV)
a =

4.70

bm

m1 g
I
m1 + m2 +
R2
2

(V)

Atwood
o g m1 , m2
a g,
(V) g.

-

,
,

acm = 0
, = 0.

, ,
. , ,
,
, .

F =M a cm .

a cm = 0, F = 0.
= I. = 0,

= 0.
:

F =0
1.
. , ,
2.
= 0
. ,
, .
,
x, y,

Fx = 0

Fy = 0

=0
()
()

=0
(z) (
)

z = 0

()

, '
(z), , .
.. "" .

(), (), ().

' , '
, ,
.
, ' .
,
, ,
.
, . ,
,
. ,
(. 4.71).
Mg, ,
, ' .

143

144

4.71

4.72

Mgx K = m 1 g x 1 + m 2 g x 2 + ...
xK =

m1 x 1 + m2 x 2 + . ..
= x cm
M

(4.48)

.

.
,
' .
, .
,
,

(. 4.72).
4-16
4,0 m 100
, .
,

,
5,0 m. , 1,0 m
, 400 .

.

4.73

(
). ' ;

(i) 100 ,
, .
(ii) 400 .
(iii) (
).
(iv) F .
'
F .
(. 4.73)
cos =

sin =

b g = 4
bg 5

1 cos 2 =

4.74

3
5

Fy

= 0

Fy + T sin 400 N 100 N = 0

Fx

= 0

Fx T cos = 0

= 0

(I)

(II)

sin (4m) (100 N) (2m) (400 N) (1 m) = 0

(III)

, ,

F ( ) .
()
T sin = 150

3
= 150 N
5

T = 250

()
Fx = T

4
4
= 250 N = 200 N
5
5

(1)
Fy = 500 N T

3
3
= 500 N 250 N = 350 N
5
5

F
F =

Fx 2 + Fy 2 =

200 2 + 350 2 N

F = 400 N

F
tan =

Fy
350
=
= 1,75
Fx
200

= 60

145

146

(.

4.75). F F .

F Frad () Ftan ().

Frad . () ds

F
Ftan

dW = F tan ds = F tan Rd

R F ,

dW = d
(4.49)
,
.
W =
(4.50)

F ( ),

4.75

F,
.

P =

dW
d
=
dt
dt

P=
(4.50)
(4.50) P = F ,
.
,
, ' ,
.

1
1
2
I 2 x
2
2

(4.51)

(4.51)
,
.
(4.50) (4.47)
W = I

, ,
2 = 20 + 2

W = I
W =

2 20
2

1
1
I 2 02
2
2

147

4-17
d
, . ,
F.
.

.
, ,
= F

d
2

W = = F

,
E = 2W = 2 F

= Fd
4.76

H

.
, .
,
.

,

, r,

p (. 4.77).

L=r p

(4.52)

)
L = rp sin = mr sin = m l

4.77

, ,

.

(4.53)

r p.
)

p.
) .

r p
.
(. 4.78).
SI kgm 2 / s L 2 MT 1.

4.78

.

148

m,
,
z (. 4.79).

L = rp
4.79
m
.

L = rm

L = rmr
L = m r 2

(4.54)

4.79.
, ,
(. 4.80). ,
,
, ,
,
L = L 1 + L 2 + L 3 + ...
(4.54) L
L = m 1 r 12 2 + m 2 r 22 2 + m 3 r 3 2 + ... = (m 1 r 12 + m 2 r 2 + m 3 r 3 + ...)
4.80



.

(4.55)

L=I

.
,
, (4.55)
dL
d( I )
d
=
=
= I
dt
dt
dt

(4.47)
dL
=
dt

(4.56)

(4.56)

dp
,
= F
dt
. (
) :
,
, .

149

, (4.56)
dL
= 0
dt

L = .

= .

(4.57)

.

.
(4.57) ,
,
, .
1 1 ,
2 2 ,
1 1 = 2 2
,

, (.
4.81).

4.81

4-18
( )
,
4,0 kg
.
;
. ( )
,
3,0 kg.m2,
2,5 kg.m2. 1,0 m ,
0,20 m.

, ,
, .

()
1 1 = 2 2

- ,
1 = 3 kg m 2 + 2 (4 kg) (1 m) 2 = 11 kg m 2
2 = 2,5 kg m 2 + 2 (4 kg) (0,2 m) 2 = 2,8 kg m 2

f1 = 0 ,5

= 0 ,5 Hz

f2 , ()

4.82

150

f2 =

I 1 2 f1 = I 2 2 f2

I1 f1 = I 2 f2

1 f1
11 kg m 2 0,5 Hz
=
2
2
2,8 kg m

f2 = 2 ,0 Hz

2
.

K1 =

1
1
I 1 12 = 1 2 v 1
2
2

= 2 I 1 2 v12

1 = 2 (11 kg m 2 ) 3,14 2 (0,5 Hz) 2

K 1 = 54 J

K 2 = 2 I 2 2 v22

K 2 = 2 (2,8 kg m 2 ) 3,14 2 (2,0 Hz) 2

K 2 = 220 J

( ) .
4-19

4.83

m 1 = 0,0200 kg
0 = 200 m/s l = 0,300 m
.
1 = 6,00 rad/s
. R = 0,500 m
,
, m 2 = 2,00 kg. :
)

)
.

)
L1 = m1 0 l

L 1 = 0,0200 200 0,300 k

L 1 = 1,2 kg m 2/s
,

I = m 2 R 2 = 2,00 0,500 2 kg m 2
I = 0,500 kg m 2

L 2 = I 1

L 2 = (0,500 6,00) kgm 2/s

L 2 = 3,00 kgm 2/s

)
= m i r 12 = m 2 R 2 + m 1 R 2

4.84

4.85

= (0,500 + 0,0200 0,500 2 ) kgm 2/s = 0,505 kgm 2

A
L = L L 1 + L 2 = 2
(1,20 + 3,00) kgm 2/s = 0,505 kg m 2/s 2
2 = 8,32 rad/s

MA

( ) .

A , B

A B

A , B

i)
= sin

, A

B .
.

151

152

ii)

A, B

iii)


.

,

,
.

A B=B A

( ).

.

F = q sin

B .

.

F = q B

, ,
.
,
.

() F . r

p
,

L = r p

dL
d
=
(r p)
dt
dt

dL
dr
dp
=
p+ r
dt
dt
dt

dL
= p +r F
dt

r F =
p = 0,

F 0.

dL
=
dt

d L
=
dt

()

L ,
. ()
.
( 4.56)
.
(4.56) ().

z, L i
m i .

L = L1 + L 2 + .. .
z.
A z,
L , z .

Li = ri pi

Li = ri mi i

153

154

L i z = L i cos = L i sin = r i m i i sin =

= R i m i i = R i m i R i = m i R2i

+ = /2

r i sin = R i

L z = m 1 R 12 + m 2 R 22 + ... = (m 1 R 12 + m 2 R 22 + ...)
L , z = I

()

z.
,
, .

dL z

= I

dt

d
dt

()

d L
=

dt

dL z
dt

= o z

()

() ()
z = I

d
dt

(4.56) z
, z.

,

d
= 0
dt

z = 0.

dL
0
dt

(. V),

0. ,
,



.

V
(

),

z, o o
.

V
,
.
.

L = I

H
.

L = .

d L
= 0
dt

= 0
.
.
,
. ,
.
,

.
,
,
, ,
.

155

156

dx

a =

dt

I =

= r F

p = m

L = r p

F =

dP
dt

= ma

dt

m i Ri2

dt

dt

dL

dt

W = F x

W =

P = F

P =

1
2

M 2

= 0 p = p

1
2

M 2x

= I

1
2

2
I

1
2

2
I x

= 0 L = L 1 1 = 2 2

MHXA

Adrasthriothtes
N A
R

xcm =

mi xi
mi

y cm =

mi yi
mi

zcm =

mi z i
mi

,
,
U = Mg y cm

ycm
y.
xOz U = 0
R


=

R cm ,
,
p ,

I p = I cm + M d 2

d .

( Steiner)
R ,
,
.




K =

1
1
2
I cm 2 + M cm
2
2

R F, ,
,

= r F

R ,
,

, ,

.

F.

.
=F l

mi

R
, ,

I =

ri 2

R ,


K =

1
I 2
2

= I

,
,
,

157

158

MHXANIKH

.
R

F = 0

,
, .
L =I

= 0

dW = d

,
,

1
2 1 2
I
x
2
2

R p

r
,

L = r p

Maxwell
.
.
.
,

.

.
;

dL
dt

.
R
: (
)

,
,
o.

drasthriothtes

1. MAXWELL

MHXA

159

.

() ......
,
() ......
.

() ...... . () .......
2

,
.
,
.
()
,

()

,
.
()
,
.
() ,
,
.
3

R1 = 10 cm 1
R 2 = 20 cm
2. 1 /2 :
() 1/4
() 1/ 2
() 1
() 2
5

;
6

.


()
()
()
.
.
7

. ,
RA = 2,0 cm RB = 6,0 cm.

A / B
() 3
() 1
() 1/3
() 1/9
4

d 1 d 2 d 1 > d 2 . 1 2

,

() 1 > 2
() 1 < 2
()
.
.
8

160

MHXANIKH

,
.

()
()
()
.
9

,
,

.

()

K1
1
=
K2
2

()

K1
1
=
K2
4

()

K1
=1
K2

()

K1
=2
K2

.
,
:
1
1
I cm 2 + m 2cm
2
2

() . . . . . .
() . . . . . .

() .......
11

,

()
:
K =

1
1
I cm 2 + 2cm
2
2

()
1
1
K = I cm 2 + 2cm
2
2

K =

1
1
I cm 2 + 2cm
2
2

K =

1 2
I
2

( )
.
12

,
.
m
R,
2
m R 2 . ;
5

()
.
()
.
()
.

10

K =

K =

1 2
I ,
2

() :

13

,
.
.
.
() ,
, .
()
, .
()
.
()
.
()
.
14

;
15

;
.

MHXA

161

16

19

z.

m
I
a

.
; .
17

F1, F2, F3,

.
(), () ()

20

,
,
= 5,0 rad/s. ,
, I = 50 kg . m2.
,
10 s
:
() 100 N.m
() 25 N.m
() 1 N.m
() 250 N.m
21

. ()
().

() F1, F2 , .
() F1, F3 , ,
.

() F2, F3 , ,
.

() F1

F3 .

. F
;
() ()
() ()
()
.
22

18

.

,
() ......
() .......

.
,

. .

162

MHXANIKH

23

29

kg m/s

kg m 2

kg m 2/s

m
30

()
()

()
;
()

.
() , ,
, ;

,
.
;
31

, .

;

24

;
25

;
26

.
2,
;
()
()
()
()
27

()


()

.
()

32

,
;
28

:

, () ...... .
()
...... .

.
.

MHXA

()
()

()
,
()

33

O ,
,

163

.

()
()
()
.
35

,
.
;
()

()

()

()
,
34

.
(
) ,

m
.
,
.

r.

.

()
()
()
()

-
1.

xOy.
, ,
m2 = 2,0 kg,

m1 = 1,0 kg,
m3 = 1,0 kg.
(xA = 2 cm, yA = 3 cm) (xB = 1 cm, yB = 2 cm)
(x = 4 cm, y = 2 cm) .
.
2

100 cm

.

.
.
: 2,70 g/cm 3 ,
: 7,80 g/cm3
3

9 cm
.
.
.
4

164

MHXANIKH

,
.
6,4 103 km
5

1,5cm.
6

R = 0,50 m
( )
= 6,0 rad/s.

.
7

, ,
= 3,0 m
mA = 1,0 kg, mB = 2,0 kg, m = 3,0 kg.
,

()

()

()
.

m1 = 6,0 kg m2 = 3,0 kg
.
.
m1 6,0 m.

1
m R 2 , g = 10 m/s2. 2

.
11

6,0 km/h 42 km/h 5,0 s.
40 cm,
;
.

12

m = 1,0 kg
R = 0,10 m
= 4,0 rad/s,
,
.
.

r = 1,0 cm

m l = 2,0 m
.

. (
).

:
1
I = m l2 ,
3

g = 10 m/s

R = 8,0 cm.

.
, ,
I =

2
m r 2
5

g = 10 m/s2. .

10

13

m = 2,0 kg R
.

R = 0,2 m ().

MHXA

.
F = 10 N
(), .
,
= 2 10 2 kg . m 2 ().

2 s.
14

m R.

165

( )

,
1
M R2 .
2
m = 2 M
.
(
). g = 10 m/s2

16

m1 = 1,0 kg m2 = 2,0 kg
,
M = 2,0 kg.

.
.
:
()
.
()
h = 0,30 m.
,
,
I =

1
m R 2 . g = 10 m/s2
2
15

, R.

1
M R 2 .
2

m1
.
(
). g = 10 m/s2
17

R m,
.
(.

166

MHXANIKH

).

F.
,
.
(W = F S, S

)
.

= 1/ 2 mR 2.
18

.
, .
,
.
l = 1,0 m, m = 4,0 kg,
g = 10 m/s 2 .

,
I =

()

12 02 / 49 g,
,
, g .

= (2/5) mR 2, R .
21

, 100
( )

F,
60
, . N
F.
22

1
m l2
3
19

.
,
.

, = mR 2 / 2.
20

A ,
,
0 .
,
. :
() ,
= 5 0 / 7.

d,

1, 2. F1
1 F2
2, F 1 / F 2 .
23

100 cm
= 20

MHXA

F, .

F.

167

26

, = 40,0

, .
100,0 .

.
27

1m ()

24

4,0 m 900

, () = 2,5 m.
7560
.
1200
0,20 m.
F 450 ,
.

.
28

x
.
25

5m 200

, .
3,0m 495.
.

70 , ,
;

105 cm.
,
,
40 . ,
,
30 .
.
29

.
30 cm,
10 cm.
.

30

168

MHXANIKH

30

12 cm,

,
.
.
31

Alfa Romeo 156. 1.6l
118 (hp) 6200
145 N.m 4190
. 1 hp = 746 W,
() 6200 .
() 4190 .
32

35

800 kg
1,0 m. t0 = 0,
180 ,
,
,
.
5 .
,
()
()
.
()
t0 = 0 t1 = 3 s.
2 = 10

.
,
.
.

6,0rad/s.
.

.
,
0,50 kg.m2,
(
) 3,0 kg.m2.

33

= 12 .m ,
, ,
= 2,5 kg.m2.
t0 = 0. :
() ,
t1 = 4,50 s.
() t1 = 4,50 s.
34

,
, 2,0 Hz.
, ,
I = 2,0 10-4 kg.m 2.
m = 20 g

0,10 m .
;

36

,
.
(r)

(r) .
,
:

r
=

r
37

0
60 .
h = R R

. 0 ,
.
R
g0 .

MHXA

169

.
22 kg m 2

0,60 m.
40
38

l = 1,2 m
M = 2,0 kg.
.
m = 0,020 kg
0

m 1 = m 2 = m
().
m 1 R 0 O

0 R 0
d = 0,90 m .

0 /2.
90 .
:
()

()

= 1/ 3 M l 2
g = 10 m/ s 2 .

0 = 2 gR 0 .
m 2 , R 0 .
41

(OA)
h = 1,8 . ,
O

39

m 1 = m 2 = 60 kg
6,0 m/s
.


,
.

.

. g = 10 m/s 2
1/3 ml 2,
m .

170

MHXANIKH

4.3 EI

.

.
, (),
() ,
() ,
. O
,

4.86
.

, ,
. O
, , ,
.

171

172

MHXANIKH

4.87
() ( ).

(),
,
.. (
,
, ),
,
.
,
, ( . 4.87),
.
, .
4.88 .

4.88
( ) .

( F 12 , F 21)

F 12 = F 21

I 12 =

F 12 ti = F 21 ti = I 21

( 4.89).

I 12 + I 21 = 0

4.89

F 12 F 21
.

I 12 = p 1 p 1

I 21 = p 2 p 2

p 1 + p 2 = p 1 + p 2

, , : ,
, , t,
,
, (,
..) .

, ,
, .

173

174

MHXANIKH

4.90
.

,
.

, ,
.
. :
) K1 + K2 = 1 + 2
, ,
,
.
.
, .

() ,
(
). , ,
,
, .
,
.

,
.
) K1 + K2 > K1 + 2 ( K1 + K2 < K1 + 2
)
. ,
.
,

.
.
, .
,
.

.
.
.
, ,
, .
()
, 4.90. ,
, .

, ,
, .

, ,
. , ,
,

175

.
, .
()
.
.
.

.
m1 m2
, ,

1 2. ( )
( )

1 2 (. 4.91).
,
m1 1 + m2 2 = m1 1 + m2 2

(4.58)

4.91

1
1
1
1
m1 21 + m 2 22 = m1 12 + m2 22
2
2
2
2

(4.59)

(4.58) (4.59)

m1 (1 1) = m2 (2 2 )

(4.60)

m1 (21 1 2 ) = m2 ( 22 22)

(4.61)

1 1 2 2
(4.60) (4.61)
1 + 1 = 2 + 2

1 2 = (1 2)

(4.62)
(4.63)

(4.62) (4.58)

1 =

m1 m2
2 m2
1 +
2
m1 + m2
m1 + m2

(4.64)

2 =

2 m1
m m1
1 + 2
2
m1 + m2
m1 + m2

(4.65)

:
(4.63) (
, )
, ,
, ,
.
(e)
,
, ,

( ).

176

MHXANIKH

e=

x

= 1 2
x

1 2

(4.66)

1 , 2, 1 2 .
,
e=

1 2
= 1
1 2

100 %.
:
, e, ,
0 e 1. :
e = 1 .
0 < e < 1 .
e = 0 .

.
) m1 = m2 = m.
(4.64) (4.65) 1 = 2 2 = 1
.
) m2 : 2 = 0
2 = 0 (4.64) (4.65)
1 =

m1 m2
1
m1 + m2

2 =

2 m1
1
m1 + m2

1 ) () m1 = m2 = m

(4.67)

(4.68)
1 = 0

2 = 1 m1
.

( 1) ,
.
( 107 m/s)
103 m/s.

235
238 U, 235 U
.

(),
.

,
,
(.
).
2 ) , m2 >> m1
(4.67) (4.68) : 1 1 2 0

, .
2 ) , m2 << m1
(4.67) (4.68) : 1 1 2 21
,

, , . ,
.., .
.
4-20
m1
m2.
m1 m2. : 1)
m1 = m2, 2) m1 >> m2 3) m1 << m2. T ;

1 1

= 1 1 = 1
1
1

1 m 2
2 1 1
1 m 2
2 1 1

= 1

1 2
12
4.92

m m2
1 = 1
1
m1 + m2

Fm
= 1G
Hm

1
1

m2
+ m2

1) m1 = m2
2) m1 >> m2

IJ
K

4 m1 m2

bm

+ m2

(1)

=1

m2
0 .
m1

(1) m 12
4
=

m2
m1

FG 1 + m IJ
H mK
2

b1 + 0g

177

178

MHXANIKH

3) m1 << m2

m1
0 .
m2

(1) m 22 =

m1
m2

FG 1 + m IJ
H mK

b1 + 0g

0 .

:

( = 1) m1 = m2.

m1 m2 ( ).
( 0)
.
(m1>>m2) 1 1
(m1<<m2) 1 1 m1
.
4-21
m
M m.
h,
. m
H = 9 h.
.
,
.

4.93

1
m g h = m2 = 2 gh .
2
:
M , .

M,
m .
:
y
m + = m 1 + 2
1
1
1
1
2
2
m 2 + 2 = m 1 + 2
2
2
2
2

g b g
m e j = e j
mb + g = b g
m 1 + = 2
2

U|
V
|W

1 = 2 +
m
3
3 m
M
=
1 =
m
M +m
1+
M

m
13
3m
M
2 =
=
m
M +m
1+
M

m
0
M

1 = 3 2 =
m

b g

1
m 3
2

= mgH

= 9h .

,

( ) .
() ,
,
.
, , ,
, , .. (
). ,
,
, ,

179

180

MHXANIKH

.

,
.
.
. ( )
m1 m2
1 2

1 2 ( 4.94).
, m11 + m22 = m11 + m22

1
1
1
1
m112 + m2 22 = m11 2 + m2 2 2 + E
2
2
2
2
4.94

.

()

.
. ( )

m1 + m2

( . 4.95).

m11 + m22 = (m1 + m2)
=

4.95
.

m 1 1 + m 2 2
m1 + m2

1
1
1
m1 12 + m2 22 =
m 1 + m 2 2 + E
2
2
2

.
4-22
m1 m2
().
.

m11 + m22 = (m1 + m2)
=

m1 1 + m 2 2
m1 + m 2

1
1
1
m1 12 + m2 22 =
m 1 + m 2 2 + E
2
2
2

b
g bm m
b
m m
E =
b g
2b m + m g

1
1
1
m1 + m2
E = m121 + m 222
2
2
2

1 1

+ m2 2
+ m2

1 2 =
E =

m1 m2
2
x
2 m1 + m2

m1 m2
=
m1 + m2

FG 1 = 1
H m

+
1

1
m2

IJ
K

, .
4-23
m1 = 1200 kg
m2 = 1500 kg .

, .
,
16 m
30 .
100 km/h;
g = 10 m/s2
= 0,80.

4.96

181

182

MHXANIKH

1
m 1 + m 2 2 = m 1 + m 2 g s
2

2gs

2 0 ,8 10 16 m s

= 16 m/s

(1)

x, y
p(x) = p(x) m11 = (m1 + m2) cos 30o

(2)

p(y) = p(y) m22 = (m1 + m2) sin 30o

(3)

(2)
1 =

bm

+ m2 cos30

m1

(1)

1 =

2700 16
1200

3
2 m
s

1 112 km/h

1 52 km/h
.

, ,
.
( )
,
x y.
(.
4.97) ( m1 m2) m2
.
b ( . 4.97)
( b = 0 ).
, m1
x ( ) m2
x (
).

183

x y
,
x
p (x) = p (x)

0 = m22 sin m1 1 sin

(4.69)

y
p (y) = p (y)

0 = m2 2 sin m11 sin

(4.70)

1
1
1
m1 12 = m11 2 + m2 2 2
2
2
2

4.97

(4.71)

:
) ,
, (4.71).

) (m1, m2 1),
(1, 2, ) ,
.
(..
).
4-24

, ,
.

4.98
.

() ()
.

184

MHXANIKH

p = p

p 1 = p1 + p2

(1)

1 + 0 = 1 + 2

p12
p 2
p 2
= 1 + 2
2m 2m 2m

p12 = p12 + p22

,
p1 p2 .

, , :
,
, .

.
.
,
. ,

( , ).
, (
)

F = m

F =

dp
dt

( ) ,
.
: ,
, .
.

, :

. ,
,
,
.
,
, (

= .) , .
;

= . ( = 0)
. .. ,
() 4,4 10 - 3 m/s2
()
, 3,37 10 -2 m/s2.

. , ,
.

dp

, F = m F =
, p
dt

. , F ,
, ..
, ..
,
,
,
.. , ,
, . ,
.
,
, ,
.
, .
, ,
, ,
, ( )

. F = m
,
.

, 1 2
, .

(
).

, ,

.
( )
,
( )

F ,

185

186

MHXANIKH

, F = m ,
.
.
:
,

. , ,

, ,

0 ,
.

= + 0

, = 0.

F =m

F = m + m 0

F m a0 = m a

(4.72)

, ,

F m 0 ()

,

. D
Alembert .

.
,
.

,
,
, .
.
1 :
~

,
m ( . 4.99, 4.100).
~ , ,
. ~
~ ,
. ,
.

187

4.99

4.100

()

, ,
.

2 ,
,

(~)
.

,
. , ,
.
,
,
:

m g T .

F ,
.

m g T . ~
,
,
. ~
(),

F = m

m g T , :

F = m g + T = ma

m g , T m :

m g +T ma = 0

() .

( )

tan =

( ~ )

m g, T

m ,
.
~ (~),

-

a
g

.
, ,
, , .

2
~ m
. , ,
, 4.101, 4.102.

( ~), .

188

MHXANIKH

()

(~)

4.101

4.102

~,
.
, ,
, .
, ,

m ,
. ~
~,

2
,
r

r
.
( ).

T
:

T = m a

2
T = m
r

T m , :
T m = 0 T m

( )

2
= 0 ( ~ )
r

).

M .

,
, ,
,
, .
1)
.

(.. ).
, 6 104
, , 4 105
.
2)

(.. Houston ..)
.
, 15 m
, 24
, , , 10
.

~ (.. ,
, ,
..).

(x y z) .
(x, y, z) t.
,
(. 4.103).

( ). ,
,
.
~. ,
, x ~x~
( . 4.104) y ~y~
Oz ~z~.
t~ = t = 0, , ~
, u () ~ ,

(~) = ut. ,
, , (4.104),
, (x~, y~, z~, t~)
(x, y, z, t).
x = x ut, y = y, z = z, t = t

(4.73)

.
,
, t = t~.
,
.

(x , y , z )

. ~ u (u, 0,

0). ~
. t
(x, y, z) t + t (x + x, y + y,
z + z). ~ ( )
t~ = t (x~ = x ut, y~ = y, z~ = z)

t~ + t~ = t + t

[x ~ + x ~ = x + x u (t + t),
y~ + y~ = y + y, z~ + z~ = z + z].

x~ = x ut
y~ = y
z~ = z
t~ = t
x
x

=
u
t
t

~x = x u

189

4.103

.

4.104

P.

, .

u.

190

MHXANIKH

y
y
= y =
= y
t
t

z
z
= z =
= z
t
t

t 0
x = x u
y = y
z = z

U|
V
|W

~ = u

= ~ + u

(4.74)

()

u x .

p = p m u

p = p + m u

(4.75)

, ~

u m u.
A .
E ,
x = x u
y = y u y
z = z u z

( ) t,
t + t (= t~ + t~)
x + x = x + x ux
y + y = y + y uy
z + z = z + z uz
t + t = t + t
x
x
= x =
= x
t
t

y
t

= y =

y
t

= y

z
z
= z =
= z
t
t

(4.76)

~ .
.
, ,
,

( ),

F ~ = F . , m~ = F ~ m = F (o m
, ).
.

p
lim
= F
t 0 t

p
= F
lim
t 0 t

, F = m

m = m ~ F = F ~.

p
p
F = lim
= lim
= F
t 0 t
t 0 t

(4.77)

4-25
25 C 346 m/s.
, 25 m/s

) ~ .
) ~ .
) ~ .
) ~ ,
.

.

~ x y z ,

4.105

4.106

. ~x~y~z~
u = 25 m/s, = 346 m/s ~
~x~y~z~,
~.

~ = u

191

192

MHXANIKH

4.108

4.107

1) () ~ = u = 321 m/s
2) () ~ = ( u) = 371 m/s,
x.

3) () u

~ = u
=

2 + u 2 = 347

m
s

~
x~ tan =

= 13 ,8 94.
u

4) , ()
~

z~, ~ u

~ = u

= ~ + u

2 = 2 u 2

2 u 2 345

m
s

, ,
x
tan =

= 13 ,8 86
u

, ,
,
.
, ,
( ),
.
,
Coulomb.
.

.

, (CM),
E
, N
() m1, m2, ... ~ ,
,
Xc =

mi x i ,
m i

Yc =

mi y i
mi

Zc =

m i zi
mi

(4.78)

, (4.78)

, V c ,

Vc

Xc

x i
t
mi

mi

Vc x =

mi x i
m i

Vc y =

mi y i
m i

Vc z =

m i z i
mi

m i i
m i

Vc =

(4.79)

= mi (4.79)

Vc =

mi i

(4.80)

mi i = M V c

.

p = Vc

(4.81)

, ,
.
,
.
,
.

F =

p
t

(4.81)

( V c )
=
t

193

194

MHXANIKH

V c
= M
t

F = M a c

(4.82)

Vc
c =
.
t
,
F . ( ,
- ,
).
(4.82) :
( ),
. , , ,
, .
, ()
, ,
.. ,

, V c . ,
.

, 1, 2, ... ,
(..
), ,
( ).
, ,

p = .
(4.81)
,

Vc =

p
M

(4.83)

.
(
),
.

( V c = 0)
CM.
,
, .
,
,
.
.

( ) m1,

m2, ..., 1, 2, ..., (

)
,
K =

1
1
m1 12 + m 2 22 + . ..
2
2

(4.84)

1
mi i2
2

(4.85)

K =

(4.81)
( ),

, V c ,
,


1
M V c2 (!)
2

K =

, , !

1
M Vc2
2

.
(4.84)
,

V c .

.

1 = 1 V c , 2 = 2 V c , ... , = V c

(4.86)

1 = 1 + V c , 2 = 2 + V c , ... , = + V c

(4.87)

(4.87) (4.85)
K =

1
2

mi ( i

+ V c )2 =

1
2

m i i 2

1
2

m i

Vc2 + V c ( m i i )

K =

1
1
1
mi i2 + M Vc2 = K . + M Vc2
2
2
2

mi i = p i = p = 0,

(4.88)

195

196

MHXANIKH

, ,
(.. )
:
1
M Vc2 . 2

( ,

, V c).
, . H

.
1
M Vc2
2
,
().
.
K = K +

1

.

p c = mi i = 0

(4.89)

2

(.. ),
,
,
K =

1
1
mi i 2 + M Vc2
2
2

K = K c +

1
M V c2
2

(4.90)

-

3
. ..
.
( . 4.109).

F 12 = m1
4.109
m 1 , m 2
.

1
t

F = m 2
2
21

F 21
2
F 12
1
,
=
=
m2
t
m1
t

F 12
F 21
1
2

m1
m2
t
t

F12 = F21

F 12

FG 1
Hm

1
m2

IJ = ( )
K
t

~ 1 2 = 12 m1 m2

12
= 12
t

12 m1 m2.
,
,
1
1
1
=
+

m1 m2
=

(4.91)

m1 m2
m1 + m 2

(4.92)

F12 = 12

:
, ,
,
,
. ,
,
, ,
,

F12 = 12
.
~

.
:
1)
.. m2 >> m1 ,
.
=

m1 m2
m1
=
m1
m1
m1 + m2
+1
m2

m1
0 )
m2

.
.
2) m1 = m2

mm
m
=
m+ m
2

197

198

MHXANIKH

,
mp mn.
4-26

~ m1 , 1

m2 = 3m1 .
,

(. . 4.110).

4.110

4.111

() m 1
3 m, .

() m
3 m, .

)
( ).

1) m1 1 m2.
2) m2
3) m2
(4.79)
Vc =

m 1 1
m1 + m 2

Vc =

1
1
4

:
1) m1
1 =

m1 m2
1
m1 + m2

m2 .

1 =

1
1
2

2) m2
2 =

2m2
1
m1 + m2

2 =

1
1
2

m1.
3) m 2 ,

Vc =

Vc =

m1 1 + m2 2
m1 + m2

m1

1
2

1 + 3 m 1

1
2

4 m1
Vc =

1
= Vc
4

.
) .

:
:
1) m1 m2
1 c = 1 Vc =

3
1
4

2) m2
2 c = 0 V c =

1
1
4

3) .
:
pc

pc = m1

3
1
3
1
1 m 2 1 = m 1 1 3 m 1 1
4
4
4
4

pc = 0

. pc~ = 0
m1 m2
. , 4.111
.
, ,
. , ,
,
.
.
:
)
KL =

1
m1 12 + 0
2

(1)

199

200

MHXANIKH

Kc =

1
m1 1 Vc
2

Kc =

1
1
m 1 1 1
2
4

Kc =

FG
H

FG IJ
H K

1
3
m1
1
2
4

Kc =

1
m 2 0 Vc
2

IJ
K

1
m 2 Vc2
2

FG IJ
H K

m2 1
2
4

(2)

3
m1 21
8

(3)

(1) (3)
, ,

. (1) (2)

KL Kc =

KL = Kc +

~ K c =

3
m1 21
8

1
1
m1 12 =
m1 + m2 Vc2
8
2

1
4m 1 Vc2
2

1
4 m1 Vc2 .
2

: (2) Vc

Vc =

m 1 1
m1 + m 2

Kc =

1 m1 m2
12
2 m1 + m2

Kc =

1
12
2

, , ,
,
,
() .

4-27
(),
,
. ,
.

4.112

4.113

m 3 m ,
.

m 3 m ,
.

:

Kc =

1
1 m1 m2
21 =
12
2
2 m1 + m2

. ;

DOPPLER
( ) ,
(), , ,
. ~
( ) ( )
,
,
.
, -
Doppler ( Doppler).
Doppler

, x~x, u u .
t = 0 0 t
t , (0 t ) u t.

, t
0 t

201

202

MHXANIKH

4.114
, u u ( t )
( t ) (). ( t )
> t < , .

( t ) = t + u t = ( + u) t

(4.93)

f , t
= ft
(4.94)
, ( t ).
, =

( t )
(4.93) (4.94)

b + u gt

f t

+ u
f

(4.95)

( t )
u
f

(4.96)

() xx~

u ,
() = u
( 4.114).

( (+) u ()
, ()
x t t x).
()
) x~ t
f =

(4.95) (4.97)
f =

u
f
+ u

(4.98)

) t x
f =

(4.96) (4.97)
f =

u
f
u

(4.99)

(4.98) (4.99)
f =

u
f
u

(4.100)

, f ~,

(), u, ,

u ,
, (4.100).

(. ),

: = [(+)

() ].
, ,
.

. ~

u, ,

f = f

f = f

+ u

(4.101)

.
: 1) u > , (4.101) f ~~ < 0,
.
2) ,
,
(), ,
().
. ~ ,

u, ,
:

203

204

MHXANIKH

f = f

f = f

+ u

(4.102)

: 1) u > , (4.102) f ~ < 0,

, .
2) ,
,
(), ,
().
. ~ .
,
.
. ,
(4.100),
u u ,

4.115
,

u u .

, (. 4.115).
,
f = f

+ u cos
+ u cos

(4.103)

. ~
.

.
, (4.100)
.
.
, ,
,
, ,
. ,
, .

DOPPLER
Doppler ,
.
.
,
. , ..
1) radar
. radar

( f = 9 GHz).
2)
.
.
3) , ,
,
.
4) Doppler . ~

,
. ,

.
: Doppler
,
, (.
).
,
.
4-28

. ,
t.
600 Hz 25 s. :

4.116

) .
) t .
, 340 m/s.

)

f = f

205

206

MHXANIKH

u =

f f

u =

340 680 600 m

m
= 40
680
s
s

~ u = 40 m/s u = 144 km/h.

) ~ ,
, ,
.
, ,
.

N
t
N
f =
t
f =

U
|V
|W

t =

f t
f

t =

680 25
s 28 s
600

4-29
K 2,00 z ,
,
, .

160 z.
1500 m/s.
.

~
.
f . ~
, ,
f = f

,
,
f = f

f = f

f = f ~~ f .
A
=

f
2 f + f

, ,
= 6 10 2 m/s.

Adrasthriothtes
N A
R ( )
,

,
.
R

() ,

. (
-.)

p1 + p2 = p 1 + p 2

R
,
, ,
() ,
.
R :
:

.
:
.
( )



.
R


,

e=

2
= 1
x
1 2

e = 1:
0 < e < 1:
e = 0:

()

: 1 2
:

1 =

1 + e m2
m1 e m2
1 +
1
m1 + m 2
m1 + m2

2 =

1 + e m1
m 2 e m1
2 +
2
m1 + m 2
m1 + m2

R

.
R


.
R


x = x ut, y = y, z = z, t = t
( )
R

1 2 .
R

G
VC =

i i

p = Vc

207

208

MHXANIKH

R 1
H
( ),
, .

p c =

mi i

1
2

mi i

KL = Kc +

= 0

R 2

, ..
(L),

,

,
KL =

R ()
,
,

R Doppler
( ) ,
,
,
.
Doppler (
Doppler). f ,

1
MV c2
2

1
MVc2
2

f = f

u
u

u
u

drasthriothtes


()
,
( ).
,
.

. ()
t = 0,02 s
.
,

.

m1 m2
m1 + m 2

()

m 1 = 201,1 g
m 2 = 85,4 g.
t = 0,033 s.

.

.




.

, .
.

m 1

h =

1 2
gt
2

s = t

m 2

.

.

209

210

MHXANIKH

K
()
,
()
,
()

,
()
.

, , m 1

m 2
.
,
,
m 2 / m 1
) 1
) >> 1
) 3
) << 1

4.86,

,

()

()

()

:
() , ,
.
()
.
() m 1
, m 2 .
()
.
6

,

:
()
()
() >> 1
()

7

2 3 , , m
.
- (
) .
3

,
,

() .
() .
() .
() .

1
, m, 0
,
.
, :
() m > M
() m M

211

()

()

() m = M

()

()

()

12

m 1 m 2 m 2
m 1
1 = 10 m/s
()
m 1 m 1 = m 2

.

,
:
() 60
() 120
() 90
() 180
() 0

() : P1 = P2
() m 1
[20, +10] m/s
()
m 2
10 m/s
9

.
3,0 s 0,45 m,
3,0 s 0,36 m
()

()
()
().
10

() o
.
()
.
()
.
()
.
11

.

()

13

,
:
()
() 0 < e < 1
()
() e = 0
()
() e > 1
() e = 1
14

N ,

,
m 1 m 2 1 2
, ,
.
() 1 = 0
2 = 1
() m 1 = m 2 2 = 0
() m 1 >> m 2 1 = 0 () 1 1
2 2 1
() m 1 >> m 2 2 = 0 () 1 2
2 0
2 2
() m 1 << m 2 1 = 0 () 1 0
() 1 1 2 0
15

:
() ( 168)
() ( 126C)
() ( 11 )
() ( 21 )
16

, m 1

212

MHXANIKH

, m 2 , ,
,
,

() m 2
() 3 m 1 = m 2

() m 2
() m 1 = m 2

() m 2
() m 1 >> m 2

() m 1 << m 2
17

m
.

, :

() 45
() 60
() 30
[ ].
18

m

2 m.
m .

2 , 2 m, :

() 1 , ,
2

2
45 .
() 2 , , ,
1

.
() , ,
,
.
20

. ,
. ,

.
(1) ,
,

() 30 o () 60 () 27 () 45
(2)
:

() 2 /2
()

() 3 /3

() 3
21

.
,
.

:
() 30

() 45

() 60

() 90

19

m
,
.

() .
()
.
() .
22

.
.

()
()

()

23

, ,
.

.
() .
() .
() .
24

.
.
, :
()
.
()
.
()
.
()
.
25

. ,
,
,
,
. ;
() ;
() ;
()
.

213

26

,
.
:
()
.
() ().
() ().
27

,

.
,
,
, ,
.
()
.
() .
() .
28

,
,
.
,
.

, ,
:
()
.
()
.
()
.

.


. =1,29 kg/m3, =0,178 kg/m3,
g=9,81 m/s.
29

,

= 30 , :
() 5,7 m/s 2
() 8,7 m/s 2
() 5,0 m/s 2

214

MHXANIKH

30

33

, .

;

m 1 , m 2 ,

1 2
(.. ), :

31

()

()

( ) ,
.

K =

1
1
1
MVc2 + m1 1 2 + m2 2 2 = c +

2
2
2

, Vc
(cm) 1 ,
2 m 1 m 2
cm.
, ,
:
K =

(black
out),
( )

( ).
() .
() .
32

8,00 m ,
.
. ,
,
:
() 8,00 m
.
() 7,70 m
.
()
,
.
3500 kg

140 kg.
.
- .

1
1
2
MVc2 + x
2
2

x
,
.
34

,
m 1 , m 2
.
()

( , ,
);
()
;
35

,
, ,
.

().
;
36

e,
, e 2,

:
= e 2
.
37

(), ,
, ,

.


() .
() .
() .

215

f 0 , t 0
.


;

38

m 1 , 1 ,

m 2 .
()
;
()
;
()
;
(), (), ()

Vc;
() ,
,
;
39

, ,
m 1 m 2
1 2
.
()
, ,

1
1
K = ( m1 + m2 ) Vc2 + m1 ( 1 Vc ) 2 +
2
2
+

41

( )
,
1500 Hz. , ,
.
.
() () 1500 Hz
: () >1500 Hz
(B) H
() <1500 Hz
:
42

()
(), ( ).

1
m 2 ( 2 V c ) 2
2

() ,

,
;
40

.

,

,
:
() .
() .
() .

216

MHXANIKH

43

, ,
.

()
.
()
.
()
.
()
.
44

f .
.
,
,
()
() f .
() f .
()
.

() .
()
.
() .
46

, .
,
1000 Hz, :
() .
() f > 1000 Hz.
() f > 1000 z.
() f < 1000 z.
() f < 1000 Hz.
47

()
() ( ).
,
:
()
()
()

45

,

,

-
1

m1 = 0,30 kg
m2 = 0,50 kg 1 = 20 m/s 2 = 10 m/s,
.
,

. )
;
) ;

.

3m
1 = 10 m/s
2 m
m, .
()
,

.
() 2m 0,20 kg,

0,010 s.
3

m


R = 0,050 m.

217

= 2,0 kg,
,
= 60 .
k = 200 N/m
,
(g = 10 m/s2).
6

9m
.
.
(g = 10 m/s2).
4

,
(
). : m = 1,0 kg , k = 50 N/m,
= 2,0 m/s.

h
.
e :
()
.
()
.
() ,
.
7

.
36 % ,
;
8

4,00 m.
2,25 m.
;
9

To
.
, m = 0,5 kg
=

150

m
, s

m

.
60
.

30 .
;
10

, m1 , m2 , ... m

218

MHXANIKH

.
( ) 1,

. ,
;

m,
( >> m).
14

, ,

.

11

m 1 , m2 ,
0,10 kg 0,30 kg
m1 h = 0,20 m,

, :
() e = 1,0 ,

() e = 0,50 ,

() e = 0,0

12

, 0,80 kg,
.

,
( ).

0 = 7,0 m/s (), . N
,
.
15

.
5,0 m/s,
.

( )
;
.
0 = 0,50 m/s
. 0,30 m/s
, :
() .
()

( , ).
13

.
,
,

16

m
s

.
.

.
17

~ m1 = 900 kg

m2 = 1200 kg.

40 .


.
, ,
14,0 m/s.
17,4 m
0,850.

,
60 km/h. : sin 40o 0,642.
18

m R,
,

219

h ,
.
,

- ,
:
=

m2

2g h

m22 g h

m2 .
22

, .
(, )
,
,
b (
). .
19

: ) -
) -
.
, .
: me = 9,1 10-31 kg, mp = 1,672 10-27 kg,
mn = 1,674 10 -27 kg.

m
.
K = Q.
()
.
() , ,

21

,
,

2Q
m

23

,
c ,
,
:

20

~
m1 m2 ,
1 2, .

,
.

mQ
2

1 c =

2 c
m1

2 c =

2 c
m2

~ :
.
24

45 kg, ,
640 m/s.
32 kg 13 kg.

450 m/s 1500 m/s
.

220

MHXANIKH

,
.
;
25

1500 kg
3500 kg .

80 km/h
50 km/h.
.

:
() ,
,
.
()
;
26

m1 m2
1 2 ,
, :
()
:

1 =

2 =

2 1 + e
m1

m2

1 1 + e
m2

F mI
g + GH 1 e m JK

g+

FG
H

2 1 e

m1
m2

m1

IJ
K

~
12 3

m
,
s

.
43,2 km/h. :
()
,


.
()

,
240 3 m , .
28

,

.
29

,
,
4,0 m/s 30 , .
,
, ,
2,0 m/s ,

(sin19o 0,327).
30

() , K,

27

1
1 e2 2x
2

,
e:
:
.
()
i) ii)
().

,

3,0 m/s .
,
80,0 m,
. ,
5,0 m/s ,
,

.

.
31

( )

.

221

,

. ~

.

,
.

.

0,40 4,0 m,

,
.

32

~ 15 kg

, .

,
, 18
.
() .
()
;
()
, ,

, .
33

34

.
()
;
() 44,0 kg
6,00 kg,
;
() ,
,
.
g = 10,0 m/s2 ,

3 = 1 ,73
35

m = 2m
l = 10,0 m,
.

, .
:

222

MHXANIKH

,
.

,
.
38

() ( )
() ,
h = 5,0 m
.
36

1 ,

()
;
() ~ = 600
: i)
72 km/h, 10min
, ii)
3,14 s F 2 = 600

, iii) 10 s
F 3 = 120
iv)
1,57 s F 4 = 8000
v)
5 s
F 5 , .
.
.
() F5 ;
39

1, m. 1
2 ,
, 2
.
.
,
, 2 , 2
, 1 ,
1.
37

,
,

680 m
.

,
.
() .
() ~ ,
,
, 5: 4.
;
340 m/s.
40

~
2,00 rad/s
R = 25,0 m.



, .
850 Hz
340 m/s.

223

41

45

~ 40 m/s.
~ 30,0 m/s
.

400 Hz 340 m/s,

;

435 Hz
,
80 m
.
, : ()
2,0 s
() 2,0 s
. 340 m/s.

42

360 km/h
900 m. , 1 2 ,


1350 m, ,

. f

f~1, f~2
, f1 / f
f2 / f.
340 m/s.
43

800 Hz. 340 m/s.
,

,
,
20 000 Hz;
44

500 Hz,
,
x = 10,0 m/s2.
()

33,0 s .
()

.
330 m/s.

46

() = 589 m
,
927 Hz,

(),

72,0 km/h.

900 Hz.
() ()
()

.
47

1000 m,
1500 m
.
,
,
360 Hz,
, ,
340 Hz.

355 Hz.


( = 340 m/s).
48

~ ,
16 Hz 16 kHz,
. ~E

15,5 Hz.
,
, .
340 m/s.

224

MHXANIKH

4.4

1865 Maxwell,
.
, ,
,
.
, ,
() , ,
.
.
,
.

.

c.

,
c.
K
,
Maxwell
.
:
1. Maxwell .
2. () ,
, Maxwell
.
3. Maxwell
,
,
.

1905
3.
.
. Lorentz


, ,
( Maxwell)
. Lorentz

.
1899 1900 1904 Poincar e
( Michelson Morley)

225

226

MHXANIKH

,


.
.
()

.
1905
, :
(1)
(2)
.

.
Lorentz
,
. .

.

.
,
.
Lorentz
,
. ,
,
(

) .



,
.

(..
, , ..)
() .
( )
,
.

,

() .

() .
.


,

, .

.
.
.

. , ,
4.117.
()

, ,
u = u x x. (
)
(x, y, z, t) ~ ( )

4.117
P, x, y, z,
x , y , z . u x = u Ox , Ox .
t = t = 0.

227

228

MHXANIKH

(x , y , z , t ). ~
4.117

x = x ux t

y = y
z = z

(4.104)

t = t
.
,

.
.
(
,

).

~
.

,
( ) .

t 1 (x 1 , 0, 0) t 2
(x 2 , 0, 0). t1
(x 1 , 0, 0) t2 (x2 , 0, 0).
x, x .

x 2 x 1 = x = x 2 x 1 u x t 2 u x t1
y = y = z = z = 0

t = t

x = x u x t

x
x
=
ux
t
t

t, t, x, x
,
dx
dx
=
ux
dt
dt

x = x u x

G
G G
= u

()
( ).

.

c = c u, c c Einstein (
)
(.. Michelson -Morley).

.
MICHELSON MORLEY
,
.
Maxwell

.
.
1. Maxwell .

, .
2.
,
, ()
.
3. (
) .
.
.
(19 ) . ~


.

Michelson - Morley.
1881 Albert A. Michelson (1852 - 1931)

,
. . 1887 Michelson
Edward Morley ,
. ( ),
, c, ,
. Michelson - Morley
, Michelson
4.118.

229

230

MHXANIKH

4.118
Michelson.
1 , 2 3 .
.

. c
. u (
u),
, 2
c u ( ).
2 ,
c + u.

, ,
. ,
90 ,

,
.

, .
.
0,01

0,4
.
MICHELSON MORLEY
1. ~ .
, ,


90 .

.
,
. ,
.
2. ~ u .
4.118
2, c u,
, 1 ,
c + u, .
K 1 2 K 1

t1 =

L
L
+
c u c + u

t1 =

t1 =

2 Lc
2

c u

2L
c

1
1

u
c

(4.105)

3 ,
c 2 u 2 ,

, .

. u

, ,

c = u +

u
c 2 = u 2 + 2 ( )

c 2 u2

1 3 1

231

232

MHXANIKH

2L

t2 =

t2 =

c u

2L
c

1
1

(4.106)

u2
c2

(4.105) (4.106)
. (

).

t = t 1 t2

LM
2L M 1
=
c M
MM 1 uc
N

u2
1 2
c

OP L
OP
F
I
F
I
M
L
u
u
2
PP = MG 1 J G 1 J P
PP c MNH c K H c K PQ
Q
1

1
2

:
( 1 + x ) n 1 + nx

x<<1 (
!)
x =

u2
c

<< 1

( u 3 10 4 m/s,
) n = 1 1/ 2 . ~
t =

LM
MN

F
GH

2L
u2
u2
1 + 2 1+
2
c
c
2c

t =

I OP
JK PQ

Lu 2
c3

,
d = c t =

Lu 2
c2

2
2 Lu 2
d =
2

(4.107)

.
90, 2
1 ,
, . ~
,

233

= ( ) = 2
~ (4.107)
=

4 Lu 2
c

(4.108)

, , 90

= 2 , . ,
Michelson - Morley , , 0,4
.

.
.


,
, . ()
()
.
() :
1.
.
2. .
3.
.
4. .


.
.

. ~
. , ,
.

.
,
4.119. .
.

.
(x, y, z) (0, 0, 0)
, , (0, 0, 0)
t 0 , , (x, y, z).

t0 +

x2 + y2 + z2
c

4.119

.

.

234

MHXANIKH

.
.

.

.
,
, ()
()
.


,
!
1.

(
..)
.
2.
~ .

.
3.

,

, .

.
,
,
.
.

,
,
.

,
. ,
, ,
.

~
, ,
. ,
,
. ()
Einstein,
.

4.120
,
.

u (. 4.120).
.
, .
(, ) (, ) .


(. 4.120).
, .
, ,
. ~ ,

c ,

.
, .

235

236

MHXANIKH

c
, .

, . ,

. :

. ~

( ).
,
,
, .
~ , Lorentz
,
,
.
LORENTZ

Lorentz. (, ) (
) , ,
, t = t = 0. ,
u x (. 4.117) Lorentz
x ut

x =

u2

= x ut

c2

y = y
z = z
t
t =

x
c2
=
u2
1 2
c

FG t u x IJ
H c K
2

(4.109)

1
1

1
1 2

c2
=

u
c

, Lorentz :
~
(x, y, z, t ) (x, y, z, t).
Lorentz,

(x, y, z, t), (4.109)

u u ( ,

) ,
(x, y, z, t).

x = ( x + ut )

Lorentz

y = y
z = z
t =

FG t + u tIJ
H c K

(4.110)

.


. (, )
,
( )
. u/c << 1
Lorentz ,

x = x ut,

y = y,

z = z,

t = t

,
,
.
A
. .

x = x 2 x 1 , x = x 2 x1 , t = t 2 t 1 , t = t 2 t 1
.

Lorentz (4.109) (4.110)
x, x , t, t
x = ( x u t )

FG
H

t = t

u
c2

IJ
K

(4.111)

IJ
K

(4.112)

x = ( x + u t )

FG
H

t = t +

c2

237

CERN

1951

( ),
Conseil Europen
pour la Rechearche Nuclaire
(CERN). To 1953

. ,



, Nuclaire
().


Organisation
Europen pour la Recherche
Nuclaire

European
Organisation
for
Nuclear
Research,
.

CERN.

,
.
CERN

()
.




() ,

European Laboratory for Particle
Physics (Laboratoire Europen
pour la Physique des Particules),

.



.



.

238

MHXANIKH

y
z, , y = y , z = z ,
() x.
: TO TAYTOX

FG
H

t = t +

IJ
K

(4.112)
. ,

( x 0), ( t = 0)
, .
, ,
,
t = 0
t =

c2

t 0 .
,
.

A
Lorentz.

x x u
t 1 (x1 , y1 , z1 )
t2 (x 2 , y2 , z2 ). x ,
x =

x
x x1
= 2
t
t 2 t 1

t 0
x =

dx
dt

, (4.111),
x t,
x t ,
x
u
x u t
x =
= t
u
u x
t 2 x 1 2
c
c t

x , t

x u
u
1 2x
c

x =

x ,

x =

x
t

t 0

x =

dx
dt

~
x =

y =

x u
u
1 2 x
c
y

z =

(4.113)

F u IJ
G1
H c K
z

F u IJ
G1
H c K
z

, x , y , z
, ~ , :
x =

y =

x + u
u
1 + 2 x
c

FG
H

y
y

IJ
K

z
u
1 + 2 z
c

IJ
K

1+

z =

FG
H

u
c

(4.114)

,
u u.
: , u
c,
, .
u c.
M

~.

239

240

MHXANIKH

x. x = = c
,
x =

c cu
cu
=
= c
u
c

u
1 2 c
c

~, ~ c,
( c
).
, c,
c,
c () ( ) ,
.
=

1
1

u2
c2

, x, x ~, t, t~ , u < c.

c.
,
c, ,
.
4-30


. , 0,95 c
0,90 c.
; (
2 ).

4.121

~.
~ : u = 0,90 c = 0,95 c.
=

u
u
1 2
c

0 ,95 c 0 ,90 c
0 ,90 c
1 0 ,95 c
c2

~ = 0,34 c

4-31

0,95 c.

0,80 c .
;

; ( 2 ).

4.122

~ ~ . u = 0,95 c
~ = 0,80 c. ~
=

+ u
u
1+ 2
c

241

242

MHXANIKH

0 ,80 c + 0 ,95 c
= 0 ,99 c
(0,95 c)
1 + (0,80 c)
c2

~
= 0,99 c
c

c. ~ c
u = 0,95 c, : = c.
-
.

p m,
m

p =

= m

(4.115)

c2

~
c ( << c),

p = m ( ).
, , m, ( 1).
, m ,
.
p = m , m
.
, m (rest mass)
m 0 .
m . m (relativistic
mass) mrel ( m)
m rel ( = m ) =

m0
1

2
c2

p = mrel ,

F = mrel
K =

1
mrel 2 , .
2

()
=

p2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 = mc 2

(4.116)

p
p =

m
1

2
c2

= m

(4.117)

243

0 ( p = 0),
(4.116)
= 0 = mc2

(4.118)

0 .
() 0 = m c2.
() 0,
(4.117)
=p c

(4.119)

(4.115) (4.117)

c2 p
E

c2 p
E

(4.120)

m = 0 (4.119) (4.120)
=c
H :
()
.
(
). (4.119) , ,
,
p
p c m c 2
(4.116).

= 0 = m c2

(4.121)

, ,
.
,
, 1 2

p 1 , p 2 ,

3 , 4 , .. . p 3 , p 4 , ... ,
1 + 2 = 3 + 4 + ...

p 1 + p 2 = p 3 + p 4 + ...
M
()

pp K 0 K - +
0 + -
+

+

+

+
e e
0
0
K p
0

{ p p}
+

244

MHXANIKH

.
,
,
.
0 = mc 2
,
, .

. ..

.

. (!)
.
,
,
. ,
m = / c 2,
.

.
, ,
.

.


eV, MeV, GeV, TeV .. ,
eV/ c2,
MeV/c2 .. eV/c, MeV/c ..

SI (
).
.. 10 - - (10 GeV) ,
GeV/c 2, GeV/ c ..
4-32
1,4 W/m 2 .

, 1,4 W (1,4 J/s).
,
. -
, 1,5 10 11 m 1 kg 8,988 J.

, d, ,
= 4 d 2
d = 1,5 10 11 m

= 2,827 10 22 m 2

P = 1,4 2,827 10 22 J/s = 3,958 10 22 J/s
1 kg 8,988 10 16 J

m
= 3 ,958 10 22 / 8 ,988 10 16 kg / s
t

= 4,4 10 5 kg/s = 4,4 10 2 t/s

Lorentz

. L0 ,
~, .
.
x.
x (. 4.123).

4.123
L 0 , .

~ x~1
x~2 (x 1~ < x ~2 ) ~.
t~. , , ,
~ L 0 = x ~2 x 1~ = x~ ( x~1
x~2 , ).
, ,
(x 2 , x 1 )
t = 0 (). L = x 2
x 1 = x. (4.109) Lorentz
x ~1 = (x 1 t 1)
x~2 = (x 2 t 2)
,
x~2 x~1 = (x 2 x 1 ) + (t 2 t 1 )
t 2 = t 1

245

246

MHXANIKH

L0 = L
L =

2
L0
= L0 1 2

(4.122)

. L
, (
) .
L 0


2
L0
= L0 1 2

c
Lorentz
.
, 2 ( ) 2.
.
,
.
. ~ ,
,
() .
, !
.
.

, .. , ,
, .
4-33
~ ,
100 m.
0,99 c.
,
; (
).

4.124.

, L0 = 100 m
( ~ )
o L
.

u2

L = L0 1

c2

L = 100 1 (0,99) 2

= 14 ,1 m

4-34

0,800 c. ~
72 m.

. ; (
)

,
(
) L = 72 m.
.
~ . ~ :
L = L0 1

2
c2

L0 =

2
c2

72

L0 =
1

( 0 ,800 c )

L0 =

72
1 (0,64)

c2

L0 = 120 m

~ (.. )
(.. )
( ), (x~, 0, 0), ..

t~1 t~2 . ~,

247

248

MHXANIKH

0 = t 2~ t 1~ ,
= t 2 t 2 .
Lorentz (4.110) ~ ,

t2 = (t~2 + x 2~ ) t1 = (t~1 + x 1~ )

t 2 t 1 = ( t2 t1 ) +

( x2 x1 )

x 2~ x 1~ = 0 ( ~)
t2 t1 = (t~2 t~1 )

= 0

T =

T0
1

(4.123)

c2

.
0 ~
~, (.. ),
~ ,
=

1
1

2
c2

.

~,
( ) 0 , ~
= 0 . !
.

.

.
, ,
.
:

, , ..
,
.. ( ).
(.. )

. ,

( :
).

(.. )
( )
.
4-35
+

.
( ) 2,60 10 8s (
).
= 0,996 c.
, , ;
(c = 3,00 10 8 m/ s) ( )

, ,
, ,

=
=

2 ,60 10 8
1 ( 0 ,996 )

s = 2 ,910 10 7 s

d = 0,996 3,00 10 8 2,910 10 7 m = 87,0 m


M
~
.
. .

,
.

,
(c t, x, y, z) .
t c t.
,
(c t, x, y, z), .

ct

E
, x p x , y p y , z pz
c

249

250

MHXANIKH

(E/c, p x , p y , p z ) . ,
~ u x, x ~
,
(E/c, p x , p y , p z ) ,
(ct, x, y, z) Lorentz.

FG p
H

p x =

u
c

IJ
K

Lorentz

~

p y = p y
p z = p z

(4.124)

E = ( E up x )
1

u2
c2

, ,
~ .

FG p + u E IJ
H c K

px =

p y = p y
p z = p z
E = ( E + up x )

Lorentz

~

(4.125)

.
4-36
) ,
;
) ;

) :
m
1

= 2 m

1
2

c2
2
c

3
4

= 0,866.... c

( !!!)
0,866 c,
.

)
,
.
4-37

0,70 c, .

; 1836
. ( 7 )

p = 0

pp + pe = 0

pp pe = 0

m p p

2p

c2

(1836) 2 (0,70) 2 c 2

1 (0,70)

m e e

e2
c

2e

e
c

e = 0,9999998 c
4-38

, 0,05 c, ;
mp /me = 1836. ( )

p= e

( p 1) mp c2 = (e 1) mec2

( p 1) 1836 = e 1

1836 p = e + 1835

()

p =

1
1

2p

1
1 (0,05) 2

()

= 1,001353

c2

() ()
1836 1,001353 1835 = e

e = 3,2032

251

252

MHXANIKH

1
1

2e

= 3 ,2993

e
c

= 0 ,097

c2

e = 0,953 c
:
1
(
)
1 2

.
4-39
) , () 0
, .
) , 0
, .

)
mc 2

E =

2
c

E 1

2
c2

= mc 2

m = 0
E 1

= 0

c2

0
=c
)
E 1

2
c2

= mc 2

= c
m c2 = 0

m=0
: m = 0 = c
,
.
4-40
LEP (Large Electron Positron collider,
),

.
, 0 (), .
.
45,5935 GeV,
0. ( 5 )

,
,
.
- ,
0 . ,
, .
e 0
,
2 e = E

E =

p2 c 2 + m 2 c 4

p =

m
1

2
c

= 0

( 0 , = 0).

2 e = m c2

m =

2 Ee
c2

0
m = 2 45,5935 GeV/ c 2 = 91,187 GeV/ c 2

0,511 MeV/ c 2 = 0,000511 GeV/ c 2

() .
4-41
1763 , ,



= 0 ,37

253

254

MHXANIKH

,
,
. f E f .
-
, = u / c. ( )

Doppler.
Lorentz
Doppler.


= h f
p =

hf
c

~ p ~ ,
( ~) u ,
( ),
p .
(4.124),
Lorentz,
= ( ~ + c p~)
E = hf , = hf E , p =
=

1
1

hf E
c

1
1 2

c2

f = ( fE + c fE )

f = fE

1+
1

Doppler

f = f (1 - cos )
To ,
.

- (u)
. Doppler
. , ,
.
,
,

( ).

a =

= 0 ,37

1
1+

= E

a =

1
1
1+

+2
1 + (1 + ) 2

= 0,305

u
0,305 .

~,

u ,
, ( ),
Lorentz .

.
,
.

.

Lorentz .

, B (
). ,
, ~ .

.

E x~ = x

B x~ = Bx

y~ = ( y u z)

B y =

z~ = ( z + u y )

FG B
H
F
B = G B
H
z

~ ,

IJ
K
c
u
I

E J
K
c
+

Ez

(4.126)

255

256

MHXANIKH

E x = E x~

B x = B x~

y = (y~ + u z~)

By =

z = (z~ u y~)

Bz

FG B u E IJ
H c K
F u E IJ
= GB +
H c K

(4.127)

.
A .

, .
4-42
u ~

c u x
.
)

, B 1,
( 2, 3 ..).
)

,
q, u

= 0.
~.
.

) u << c 1
B x~ = Bx
E x~ = x
y~ = y u z

B y = B y +

z~ = z + u y

B z = B z

u
c

u
c

Ez
Ey

u u .
) ,

F = qu B

~ B ~
B.

~. (
x = E y = E z = 0)
E x~ = 0,

E y~ = uB z ,

z~ = uB y

A ,

~ = ( u B)

B = ex Bx + ey By + ez Bz

u u = e x u, u B

(0, uB z , uB y ). e x , e y , e z .
~
,

F = q ~ = q u B

F ~ = F,
~ .
4-43

q u
x. u
1. ~

, u.

~, ~.

(0, y~ = r ~, 0) ~,
.

: ~
Coulomb ~.
~ .

~ B ~ (0, r ~, 0), B ~ = 0

~
E x~ = 0, y~ = ~, z~ = 0

E y =

1
q
4 0 r 2

E x = E x~ = 0
E y = E y =

4.125

B x = B x~ = 0

1 q
4 0 r 2

B y = B y

z = z~ = 0

B z = B z +

u
c2
u
c2

E z = 0
E y =

1
q
=
c 4 0 r 2

0 uq
4 r2

r ~ = r, y,
Lorentz.

c2 =

1
0 0

257

258

MHXANIKH

E = E y ey =

B = B z ez =

1 q
ey
4 0 r 2
0 q
ez
4 r2

Biot - Savart
q u, (u << c).
Biot - Savart
B =

0 u sin
q
4
r2

sin = 1.




.

, ,
.
,
e 207 .
() , , (
), 0 2,2 10 - 6 s. A
= 0,99994 c
(
10 GeV), , , :
L = 0
L = 0,99994 c 2,2 106 660 m

PHOTO CERN

(
)

. ,
,
.
,
.

.
.
O ,
( ) , 0 , ~,
( )
=

0
1

2
c2

2 ,2 10 6
1 ( 0 ,99994 )

s = 200 10 6 s

,
L = 0,99994 c 3,00 10 8 200 10 6 m 60 km
, ,
(10 60 km).

h
,

FH

0 c

IK

1 2 h

0
1 2
h
c

FH

0 c

IK

1 2 h

.
,

0
<< 1 .
h

.

.
h, .
( > 0).
h , h ~,
h = h 1 2

( ). , ,
0 0 = c 0 ,
h ~
c 0
c 0
=
=
h
h 1 2

FH

0
1 2

IK

c
h

, .
, , 0 ,
h ~.
,
1976 CERN (

259

260

MHXANIKH

)
.
,
0,9994 c. ,
.
30
.
2 1000.

.
TO


.
()
, .
, ,
= 0,99 c,
, 4 .
,
. ,

t =

2d
24c
=
8 x

0 ,99 c

, , 38
.
, , ,

1

2
c2

1 0 ,99 2 0 ,14

8 ,
8 0,14 1 ,
, 31
. ;
,

, ,
, ,
.
, ,
.

,

,
.

. ,
, ,
( )
.
,
( ) ,
.
.
t 1 t 2 ,
, t i .
, ,
, i . i
()
Ti =

i2

c2

ti

T =

2i
c

ti

,
, L 0 ,
L0 =

Li
1

i2
c2

L i

i . i
,
L i .
,
L0 =

L
1

2
c2

i ( )
~ . t i , L i , L
.
.


~. .

.
Lorentz
.

261

262

MHXANIKH

, .

( )
. ,

!
( )
( ,
). , !
! (),
.

.


.

,
, ns, (10 9 s). ,

.
1971, National Bureau of
Standards, Hafele Keating,
,
. ,
.
, .

( )

. ( ).
,
, ...
, (59 10) 10 9 s
(273 7) 10 9 s ....

,
. , ,

. , ,
.

, F

F = m
m
. (.. )
:

B = m . g

(4.128)

, g m

.

G

m
r2

G , r
m ,
. ,

m1 m2
r 212

= G

m2 m1
r 221

(4.129)

m1
m1 , r12 = r21
, m2 = m2
m = m = m .
m , .
,
,
,
.

, ,

, , m = m g
.
a =

m
m

(4.130)

(
)
. m /m

263

264

MHXANIKH

1907
1997.
-


,
. E

1940.

.


1945.
1946 Erwin Schroedinger

. 1948
Manchester

.
1952

.
1962

(CNRS). 1975

Henri Poincar.


.

(, 1967)

(, 1974).

. , ,

1, m = m m = m = m
m .

.
:

( ) .

, .. .

F = qE

F
q
a =
=
E
m
m

q / m , .
,
.

, (1 2)
.

,
.
,
,

( )

= + , (

)
( ) .
2 ,
m F ,

m = F

m ( + ) = F

(4.131)

m = F m

F ( )

( D Alembert) m

.


( ).
m 2 r .
.

.
,
,
.
. ,
:
T
,

.
, (),
,
. (
),
,
(..
).
4-44
(.. ),

, g .

.

. ,

, g

g,
. ,

F , F = m , (

.

.
,
() ( ).
, ( )
.
,
!
4-45

, () , .
;

,
( 10 m/s 2 )
(

265

266

MHXANIKH

),

.
, 10 m/s 2
.



. ,


.
,

. 4.126

4.126
. ( )
. .
.

.
, ,
. .
,


,

*

.
, m
GM

F =

E
c

LM e (1 +
N

) ( er )

OP
Q

(4.132)

r , e r
.
mc 2

E =

F e r
() ()
m, ,

pc
E

, ,

E
c2

e r

E
c

, e r ,

e1 + j .
2

! ( = 1)
.
.

.
.
.

.
,
,
.

* Lev B. Okun

PHYSICS TODAY June 1989, pages 31-36.

267

268

MHXANIKH

,
.
.
.
.
4-46

4.127
g

.

.


. 4.126.

.

.
(. 4.127) ,
.


,
.
.
.
. :
() c l
l /c
S =

1
g
2

FG l IJ
Hc K

,

,
. ,
,
.
4-47

4.128

.
.

Doppler.

.
4.128 .
.

.
/c,
c.
( )
= at = a

H
c

Doppler
, .
<< c Doppler
( ):
f

=
=
= 2
f

c
c

g = ,
g.
- .

= 2

= .
= gH.
.

.
4-48


,
.

, c, ,
,
.

Rc =

2 GM
c2

(!)
1
m 2 = c!
2

1
Mm
mc 2 = G
2
Rc

Rc =

2 GM
c2

269

270

MHXANIKH

19 Maxwell
, .
.

. Maxwell
. ,
, ,

.
. ,
.
.
, ,
.
,
.

.
~ 30 km/h 3 10 8
.
, ,
.

( ).
1 100 . 1881
Albert A. Michelson
( E.W. Morley)
.
.
.


. Michelson
!
Lorentz

.
Lorentz. ,
() .
,
, , .
(
) .
.
(1971)
.

. ,
, ,
,
.
,
( )
(
, ) 2 ,


.
, ,
.
(nnalen der
Physik) [4] 17 (1905) 891, 549 132,
, .
,
Brown ( )

. Nobel
(1921) .

!
(1916).

. .

( ).
,
,
.
,
.
() .
,
.

.

, .

R. von tvs, ( , 1890 - 1920),
1:3 10 8 . P. G. Roll, R. Krotkov, R.. Dicke
1:1011.

, 1960 Pound
Rebka. 1801 Young & Fresnel

271

272

MHXANIKH

,
Johann Georg von Soldner
.
1911
.

.
1,74 , ! 1919

( 29, 1919). F.W. Dyson, A.S.
Eddington C. Davidson
.
V.S. Leverier 1859.
(43 )
. 1976 Viking,
,

.
J.R. Oppenheiner S. Snyder
1939.
, .., .

. ,
J.Weber ( 1960).
PSR 1913+16,
.
, .

,
. 1988


.

, 5 1927
Solvay .
.

drasthriothtes


R

.

Lorentz.
R Lorentz

x = (x ut)
y = y
z = z

FG
H

t = t

1
1

u
c

IJ
K
1

1 2

u
c

T x , y , z x, y, z, t

.
u
x.
R H
.
R

p = m
R
E =

FG E , p
Hc

, p y , pz

IJ
K

() c 2,
0 = mc 2

c2
=

.


,

(c t, x, y, z).

p2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 = m c 2

0 = m c 2
.
R

R
= 0 ,
, L = L 0 / ,
,
( ).

R
.
,
,
,
:




.


, .
R

.
R :

273

274

MHXANIKH

1.
.
2. .
3. .
4.
.

5. .
6. .
1 4
, 5
6 .

drasthriothtes

1.


.
.



.
.
( )

.
2.



, ,
.


.
,
,


.


( )
.
.
;
3.


.
c = 3 ,0 10 8 m /s

;
, ,

.


;



.
100 .
4.

,
30 km / h.
, ,

.
5.

.

,
;
.
6.

:

.


;
,

.

275

.
.

() ,

()
()
4

()
(Laser).

() ()
() ()
() ()
()

2

,



,
.
1.
. (-)
2.
.

3.
4.

5.
6. ,

7.

,

()
()

(gedanken experimente)

,
.

.
;
;
5

P1 P2
,
. , P1 ,

, ( )
. P1 P 1 ,
.
P1 P2 ,

() P 1
() P 2
()
;
6

276

MHXANIKH

, (P),
.

() ,
,
;
()
,

;
()
;
7

P 1 P2 ,
,

.



(
).




, ( ).

()
()
()
9

()
()
()
10

(11)
,
, ,
.
, ,


,
()
()

()

. , P1 ,
( )

. P 1
P1 .
P1 P2 ,

() P2
() 1
()
;

11

0,5 c

() ( )
()
()
()
() ,

277

12

16

, ,
( ) .

( ).

. .
, 0,50 c.
,
:
() ;
() ;
() ;
() ;

.
.
;

() x

() t
;
13

90 m
. 80 m.




()
()
()
()
14

.

, ,
,
,

()
()
()
()
()
15

;
, ;

17

,
(
)

.

.
;
18

20
,
8
0,8 c
.

12 .

()
()
()
19

1 m
() 1 kg
,
2 kg
1m. ;

() 0,5 c

() 2 c

()

3
c
2

()

3c
4

()

c
4

278

MHXANIKH

20

24

,

, ,

() 2 m
() 0,5 m
() 0,25 m
() 0,75 m

.
.
() ()

21

0,5 c.

0,5 c .

()
() c
() 0,8 c
() 1,33 c
22

() c 0,5c.

() c
() c/2
() 0
() 2 c
23

, ,
.

.
,
. k ,
,
,
: 0,70 c 0,40 c, : 0,40 c
0,70 c, : 0,20 c, 0,90 c :
0,50 c 0,60 c.
() ,
,
.
() ,
,
,
,
.

() 0,7 c
() 0,7 c
() 0,7 c
25

K

1.
. 1 eV
2.
. 1 eV/c
3.
. 1 eV/c 2
4.
26

,

.
.



()
()
()
()
27

,

: 1) , 2, 2) , 3, 3) 3, 4.
,

()
()
()
() ,
28

29

,
, ;

() ;
() ;
30

; ,
;
31

,
;
() .
() ,

.
32

;
() ,
,
.
()

.
33

,
, ,
()
()
()
34

,

,

279

()
()
()
35

,
,

.
()
.
()
;
() .
36

,
.
()
;
() ;
()
;
37

,
,

()
()
()
38

.
()
()
()

A -
1

d.


t0 ( ).

.
2

130 m

0,740 c.
()
;
()

280

MHXANIKH

,

;
3

,
1200 m

720 m ,
.
, , 5 10
6
s .
()
, ,
;
() ;
()
;
4

, K,

x = 100 km

t = 100 10 6 s.
,

, x
0,950 c ( ).
t = t = 0 x = x = 0.
5

= 0,60 c .
t = t = 0, x = x = 0,
. 1 t = 0
x = 0 2 x = 3 km
t = 4 10 6 s.
;
6

. ,
,
1440 km/h
5,00 ( )
.
() ;
()
;
[ /c << 1
(1+x)n 1+nx]

To 1961 o G.S. Titov

25,00 7,8 km/s.
()
;
() ,
;
8

105 .

15 65 ;
( : (1+x)n 1+nx)
9

~
0,8 c ( ).
() -
;
() -
;
() ;
- 3,84 10 8 m.
10

( x )
, x = 0,1 c
L = 110 m.
u x
( )
L = 100 m,
()
() u
() ,

11

()

0,991 c. A

1,77 10 - 8 s.

.
12

- = 0,99 c

3,0 km
.

281

() - (
,
)
()

.
,
;

13

~

0,840c . ~

0,360 c.

; ,

;

,
+ ()
3,0 km
. +
2,6 10 8 s ( )
()
,
;
() 139,6 MeV,
,
, ();

18

19

2,2 10 6 s.
,
,
16 10 6 s.
;

0,1 c
x
0,8 c .


: )
)
.

15

20

,
,
.
0,99 c .
26 10 6 s.

;

(quasi - stellar - source)

Q1
0,800 c
Q 2 ,
Q 1 , 0,400c.
, Q 2
Q 1 .

16

21

.
0,800c

0,900 c.
;

()

()

14

17

-
0,80 c .
,
0,60 c

22

:
()
() .
23

Stanford,

282

MHXANIKH

3 km, 20 GeV.
() ;
()
;
0,511 eV/c2.

,
.
10 41 W.

;

24

30

Fermi
500 GeV.
()
() /c
() ,
, 750 m,
;
938,3 MeV.

2,20 10 6 s
() ;
()
() ;
207
.

25

~ 0,95c. :
() ,
()
() .
26

,
1,00 s.
() e ,
;
() ;
()

;
27

~ () 938,28 MeV/c2

() 0,5c
() 0,99c.


;
28

~ 3,32 10 - 27 kg
9,65 10 - 19 kg^m/s.
() ;
() ;
()
;
29

31

(
),
55,0 MeV 121 MeV/ c.
;
32

.() 2,0 eV, ()
0,40 MeV () 10,0 MeV.
(1) ;
(2) ;
(3) ;
(4) ;
33

10,0 MeV.
() /c ()
Lorentz , : 1) , 2)
3) .
34

0,990 cm
. ,
,
) , ) ;
35

()

.
()
.
36

q
m,

,

r =

() Everest; (
8000 m)

qB

39

2 m

T =

qB

.
<< c. ,
,
.

10,0 MeV,

= 2,20 : ()
() .
;
37

GM
F =

FG E IJ LMe e1 + j ( e )OP
Hc K N
Q

283

R
,
, ,
=

0
.
38

() Eiffel 300m.

;

R c2

~.
= 2,0 10 30 kg, R H =7,0 10 8 m,
G = 6,7 10 11 Nm 2/ kg 2.
40

( )
~H
(); 2,3 1017 kg/m3.

;
41

2 GM

12 000 m.
850 km/h.


(
).
c = 3,0 10 8 m/s,

g = 10 m/s 2

284

MHXANIKH

NASA: (Space Shuttle)

PHOTO CERN
ATLAS CERN.
higgs () 4 .
.

285

4.5

, 19 ,

.
.
,
. ,

.

.
19 ,
,
,
.
.
19 20 ,

.
,
.

.


.

, ,
,
. ()

, .
( )
.
, ,
.

(. 4.129).
, ,
, ,
, .
,
.
,
,
4.130. ()

4.129

.

286

(
)

( =

I
).
-

.
4.130

4.130
To .

:
) ,
.
) Wien: max
,
.
max = 2 ,898 10 3 m K

(4.133)

) Wien:
-
.
) Stefan-Boltzmann:
, .
= 4

(4.134)

= 5,67 10 - 8 Wm - 2 K 4
4-49
3000 )
; )
;

) ,

max =

2 ,90 10 3
m
3000

287

max = 0 ,970 m

) = 4

I = 5 ,67 10 8 3 10 3

m2

4.131

I = 4 ,59 10

Rayleigh - Jeans
.

m2

Rayleigh Jeans ,
,
4.130. Rayleigh Jeans
( )
4.131. , ,
.
" ".
Max Planck
,
. Planck

.
,

= 0, h f, 2h f, 3h f, ...
n = n h f, n = 0, 1, 2, ...

(4.135)

h ,
Planck, hf (quantum)
n,
.
()

,

E = n h f,

n = 1, 2, 3

(4.136)

Planck
,
h = 6,626 10 - 34 J s

(4.137)

Planck 14 1900
,
( ),
.
( ).

MAX PLANCK
(1858-1947)

.


1879.

1889

Kirvhhoff.

,


.


1919
Nobel

.

288

Einstein
,
.
4-50
,
3,74 10 2 6 W
500 nm.
c = 3,00 10 8 m/s.

t,
Nh f = Pt

c
Pt
, f =

hf

N=

A,
N
3,74 10 26 W 500 10 9 m
N
=

= 9 ,40 10 44
34
8
1
t
t
6 ,629 10
J s 3 10 m s

4-51
- 5 Hz
5 cm. 1 kg, n
.

E =

1
k A2
2

E = 2 2 m f 2 A 2

nhf = 2 2 m f 2 A 2

n=

2 2 m f A 2
h

n=

2 3,14 2 1 5 5 10 2
6 ,626 10

34

n = 3,70 10 32

-
,
( ) ,
. Hertz
1887 1905 P.
Lenard W. Hallwachs.
4.132 ,
.
, .
.
, .

289

4.132
.

G .

) ,
i V
4.133. ,
.
, , .
,
V0 . V0 .
,
,
, .

, K max ,
max = e V 0

(4.138)

e .
) f ,
,

4-133

.

290

4.134

fc

4.135



.

K max , 4.134. max

6,
V 0 .
, f c , .
) ,
() (),
Kmax . 4.135
Kmax f
. , f c
. ,
.
4.133., 4.134 4.135
.
1 :
(. 4.133.)
2 :

(. 4.134).
3 :

fc,
. f c
(. 4.134 4.135).
4 :
,
.

, . ,
,
.
,
.
4-52

10-3 Watt. 1 m.
.
, ,
: 5 eV, 1 eV = 1,6 10 - 19 J

10 - 9 m.
10-18 m2,
10 3

10 18 m 2 W
4 1

1
10 21 W
4

,
t =

5 eV
1
10 21 W
4

4 5 1,6 10 19 Joule
10

21

= 32 10 2 s 0 ,9 h !!

291

EINSTEIN
Einstein, 1905,

Planck. Einstein


,

,
, .

= hf
(4.139)
h Planck f .
4-135
.
Einstein
h f = + K max

(4.140)
(4.140) hf
. , ,
'
.
.

:
,
'
(1 ).
(4.140)
(4.141)
K max = h f
,
(2 ). Kmax = 0 (4.141)

= h fc

fc =

(4.142)

,
f c (3
).

,
(4 ).
(4.141)
(4.143)
max = h f h f c
4.135,

Planck h ( h).

4.136

()
.

292

4-53
3,90 eV. )
fc . )
150 nm,
.

)
fc =

fc =

3 ,90 1,60 10 19 J
6,63 10

34

Js

fc = 9 ,41 10 14 Hz

) V0 =

K max
.
e

K max = h f h fc = h

c
h fc

V0 =

6 ,63 10 34
V0 =

c
h fc

F 3 10
GH 150 10

0 ,941 10 15

1 ,60 10

19

I
JK
V

V0 = 4,39 V

. ,
.
,

.
Compton, ,
.
: ,
;
,
.
,
.
, (
) . (

)
,
.
( ),

.
.

,
-
.

E =

c2 p 2 + m 2c4

(4.144)

, p , m ()
c .
c,
m = 0, (4.144)
E =cp

p=

E
hf
=
c
c

p=

= c / f .
E = h f,

p =

(4.145)

,
,
, .

f =

k =

, (4.145)
= h,
h
h =

p = hk

(4.146)

Planck.

k
4-54
f = 2,5 MHz. ~
,
, 2 10 17
W.
.

293

294

E = h f = 6 ,6 10 34 2 , 5 10 6 J = 1,7 10 27 J

t
,
N E = Pt

N
P
=
t
E

~,
N
2 10 17
=
27
t
1,7 10

N 1,21 1010 / s
t

,
1010 , '
,
.
4-55
600 nm,
: ) 0,20 kg
10 m/s. ) .

) K =
E = h f =

1
m 2
2

hc
.

N=

N =

K
E

N=

1 / 2m 2
c
h

m 2
2 10 2 600 10 9
=
34
8
2h c
2 6 ,626 10
3 10

= 3,0 1020 .
) p = m p =

h
.

,
,
N=

N =

p
p

N =

m
h/

m
2 10 600 10 9
=

34
h
6 ,626 10

= 1,8 1028

295

COMPTON

Compton (1923). Compton
.
Compton 4.137.


.
,
.


, ,
. ,
.
>.
= Compton.
Arthur Holly Compton (1892 - 1962)
. X

, . 4.138

. .
.
h f + m c2 = h f +
h

m 2c 4 + c 2 p2

c
hc
+ m c2 =
+ c m 2 c2 + p 2

h
h
+ mc =
+

m2 c 2 + p2

()

m p .
(4.144) (4.145)
.
xx
h
h
+0 =
cos + p cos

()

yy
0 =

h
sin p sin

()

() ()
p

F h h cos IJ
cos = G
H K
Fh I
p sin = G sin J
H K
2

4.137
.

4.138

.

296

h2

p2 =

h2

h2
cos

()

()
m 2 c2 + p 2 =

p2 =

h2

h2

+2

h
h
+ mc

h
h
h2
mc 2 mc 2

2 2
()
= =

h
1 cos
mc

(4.147)

.
h / mc c
Compton . , (4.147)

(4.148)
= c (1 cos )
Compton
. ,
1923, Compton 1927
Nobel.
,
. X.
.
4-56
0,080 nm
= 30. : )
, )
, ) .

4.139

)
= c (1 cos )

= + c (1 cos )

c =

h
= 0 ,24 10 11 m
mc

= 0 ,08 10 9 + 0 ,24 10 11 1 cos 30 o

= 4 10 - 9 m = 4 nm
) ,
.
= h

FG
H

c
c
1
1
h
= 6 ,626 10 34 3 10 8

9
9

0 ,08 10
4 10

= 2,435 10 -15 J

2 ,435 10 15
1,6 10

eV

19

IJ J
K

= 15,23 keV
)
,
.
m c2
1

m c 2 =

= c
1+

c2
1

= c
1+

= 0,17c

= 7 ,0 10 7

15

= 5 ,1 107

mc

9 ,11 10 31 9 10 16
2 ,435 10

m
s

1
m 2 = ( ), 2

m
, .
s

.
. (4.148)
,

= c 1 cos

(4.149)

>> c ,
, , ,

,
. c ,
,
.

297

298

- BOHR ()

,

De Broglie (
). .
1860 1885
. 1885
Johan Jacob Balmer (1825 - 1898)
.

:

FG
H

1
1
2
= RH 2 2

2
n

IJ
K

, n = 3, 4, 5

()

R H
Rydberg
R H = 1,097 10 7 m -1

()

Balmer

FG
H

1
1
1
= RH
2
2

m
n

IJ
K

()

m, n = (m<n)
()
f = cR H

cR H
l

FG 1
Hm

1
n

IJ
K

()

= fl ()

f = fm fn

.
, ,
fl,

f (. . 1).
Bohr Rutherford,
,
= h f Planck,
, Bohr.
Bohr,

, ,
.
Bohr
, ,
. ,
.
, .
(-h)
- hfl , ()

g b

h f = h f m h fn = h fn h fm = E n E m

()
h f = En Em
n
m,
.
Bohr
L n ,
,
n = 1, 2, 3, ...
L n = n h,
h
h =

h Planck

DE BROGLIE
,
, , De
Broglie 1923, :
" , ",
(4.145) .
, p,

f =

E
,
h

h
p

(4.150)

299

300

, , p .
p = m
De Broglie
Bohr.

,
. ,
,
. , 3.2
.
,
r ,
, 4.140. ,
LOUIS VICTOR
DE BROGLIE
(1892 - 1987)

2 r = n

Dieppe
.

.

1924 .

Nobel

.

pr = n

2 r = n

h
2

h
p

m r = h

~,
L n = n h
2 Bohr,
!
De Broglie
Davisson - Germer,
. Davisson - Germer ,
,
. ,
,
, .
4-57
1,0 10 5 m/s. De
Broglie. ,
2,0 10 8 m/s;

=
4.140
K
,
.

h
p

6 ,626 10 34
9 ,11 10

31

10

h
m

= 7,27 nm

h
m
1

2
c

h
2
1 2
m
c

6 ,626 10 34
9 ,11 10

31

2 10

301

F 2 10 I
1 G
H 3 10 JK
8
8

= 0,21 10 - 11 m = 2,1 10 -3 nm

,
,
;

, .
,
, (x, t).

. ,
(x, t), (x, t).
,
, , 2
,
.
,

. , .
(x, t)
() .
,

.
Max Born 1926 Born, Bohr
Heisenberg Jordan
,
.

.
P(x) = (x)2 = (x) * (x)
(x) :
* (x): (x)
x
x + dx
dP [x, x + d x] = P (x) dx = (x)2
~, (x)2 4.141.
,

4.141


(a,b).

302

x = a x = b
(a, b),
P [a , b ] = dP =

P ( x )dx

P [a , b ] =

z
b

( x ) dx

4.141.

1 (100%),

( x ) dx =

ERWIN
SCHRDINGER
(1887 - 1961)

1887.
.

.



Heisenberg. 1927

Planck.
1953
Nobel

. 17
1956

.

P ( x ) dx = 1

(4.151)

(4.151)
.

(a, b).
(x, t),
, .

,
.

SCHRDINGER
1922 Schrdinger
, ,
(x, t) De Broglie.
( << c)
( = (x)) .

h2 d 2
2 m dx 2

+ U (x) = E

(4.152)

,
U(x) ,
(, ,
).
Schrdinger
.
, , ,
1 2 ,
.

U(x), . ,

(. 4.142).

4.142

303

4.143

() = .
x,
U (x) = 1/ 2 kx 2 ,
= K + U. x 0,
x > x 0, x 0
. x
F =

dU
,
d x -

.
.
4.143.
To 1, x
x . 2 - x .
3, - +,
4, x +.
x > 0 ,
.
,
.

. ,
(
).

,
,
4.144. U(x) ( )

b g RST0

U x =

0 < x < L

x 0 x L

4.144
~ .

304

.
,
( ),
,
.
= sin k x + B cos k x

2mE

k =

h2
x.
, x = 0 = 0,
0 = sin 0 + cos 0

0=

= sin k x
, x = L = 0,
0 = A sin k L
2mE

h2

E n = n2

kL = n

n
L

En =

F h I
GH 8 m L JK
2

n 2 2 h 2
2m L

n = 1, 2 , 3 , . ..

(4.153)

4.153
.
n .
n, k =
,
n ( x ) = A sin

FG n xIJ
HL K

n
L

(4.154)

(
4.151)
A =

2
L

4.145
.
, n.
,
. , ..
,
x .
4.145; ,

4.145
O
.

.
4-58
m = 1,0 mg
L = 1,0 cm.
, 0,10 cm/s.

E =

FG
H

1
1
1
m 2 =
10 6 kg
10 2
2
2
10

E =

IJ
K

m2 s 2

1
10 12 J = 5,0 10 13 J
2

n
E = n2

n =

L
h

8m E =

h2
2

8m L

10 2
6 ,63 10

34

8 10 6 5 ,0 10 13

n = 3,0 10 22

, 3 10 22 !!
,
, x (.
4.146). ,
3 10 22 1 cm. ()
,
P(x) =

1
L

4.146

305

306

4-59
m = 1,0 10 - 27 kg
L = 8,0 10 - 12 m.
2 (x).

En = n 2

F h I
GH 8m L JK
2

n = 2

e6 ,626 10 j
8 10
e 8 10 j
34

E2 = 2 2

27

12

2 = 5,2 10 - 19 J 2 = 3,3 eV
x

bg

n x = A sin

FG n x IJ
HL K

n = 2
2 ( x) =

2
8 10

sin

12

FG 2
H 8 10

12

FG 10 xIJ (
H4
K

2 ( x ) = 5 10 5 sin

12

IJ
K

SI)

, ,
4.147. U 0
( , )
L. ( ,
z m,
mgz).
, U0,
E<U0. U(x)

R|U
|
U ( x ) = S0
||
|T U

4.147
.

L
2
L
L

< x <
2
2
L
x >
2
x <

I ( x ) = A ecx

x <

III ( x ) = B e cx

c=

x < +

2 m U0 E

L
2
L
2

II ( x ) = sin k x + cos k x

L
L
< x <
2
2

k =

2mE

h2

,
=

d
d
=
dx
dx

, x =

L
2

I = I

d I
d I
=
,
dx
dx

x =

L
2

.
, ,
. 4.148
,
.
.

4.148
.

:
,
, E < U 0 ,
.
(x) x,
2.

307

308

, U
4.149.
E < U 0 ,
"" ,
, .

.
(tunnel effect) .
Schrodinger ,
,
4.150.
,
,
.

4.149

4.150

, E<U0
,
, (x) .
(
)

,

(4.155)
e- 2 L

2 m U0 E

R

R+T=1
(4.156)

4-60
40 eV
41 eV.
, )
10 nm, ) 1,0 nm ) 0,10 nm.

T = e

2m U 0 E
h2

gL

T = e 1 ,9 10

) L = 10 nm = 10 10 - 9 m
-9

= e - 1,9 10 10 10
= e-19 T 5,6 10-9
.
) L = 1,0 nm
9

T e 1 ,9 10

10

= e- 1,9

0,15

15%

) L = 0,1 nm
T e 1 ,9 10

0 ,1 10

= e- 0,19 0,83 83%

L
.
,
,
.

) (tunnel diode):
,
, .
,
, ( ),
( ).

, .
) (alpha decay): Coulomb
( ),
( e) ,
4.151.

4.151

309

310

U0,
,
, .
) .
( ),
, ,
.
, ,
.

4.152
,
.

. ,
y, 4.152.
, , x
x. , ,
, .

.
.
,
yy~, .
. ,
,
x. x,
. ,
x ,
x , ,
x , x = 0. ,
, 4.153,

4.153
x .

()
.
, ,
.
,
x,
x . x (
x), (),
x.

x x .

x,
x , .
4.153, ,
.
. ,
, .

p p

p (h / )

h
x

x p h


() .
Heisenberg 1927,
.
Heisenberg (
) :
" ,
x
h
).
p, h ( h =
2

x p h

(4.157)

(gedanken)
. , ! (.
4.154).
, ,
. , ,

311

WERNER
HEISENBERG
(1901 - 1976)
Wnrzburg
. 1923


Sommerfeld .



,

Schrodinger.

1932
Nobel.

312

.
,
p

4.154
.

h
. ,

. H

, x .

x p

x p h

.
x p h

(4.157).
4-61
,
2,0 10 4 m/s
0,010%.

p = 0 ,01 p = 0 ,01m = 0 ,01 9 ,1 10 34 2 10 4 kg

p = 0 ,18 10 27 kg

m
s

m
s

()
x p h

6 ,63 10 34
0 ,18 10

27

h
p

x 3 ,7 10 6 m

x 3,7 m.
.
,
.
p x x h
p y y h
p z z h

p x y = p y x = p z z = . . . = 0

,

t h

(4.158)

, .
, = 0,
() .
4-62
,

r. To

f =

E E
h

f
.
( )
= 10 10 - 8 s , f .

t h

= h f

t = = 10 -8 s

h f t
f

h
2

1
1
=
Hz
2 t
2 10 8

f = 1, 6 10 7 Hz

LaSi 2.
. (

313

314

(E)

.
,

= {1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6},

= {, , , },
() ()
.

, ,
,
.

2 3,
= {2, 3}
PA =

2
1
NA
= =
6 3
N

( ).

,

(.
2).

x

x
3 (

xi i ).
.
x,
P =

dx,
dP =

.

f (x)

bg

f x = lim

x 0

P
x

bg

f x =

dP
dx

f(x) , 4.
:
1) f (x) > 0
2) x
() P f (x)x,
( ) x.
3)
< x < ,
4).

P< x< =

ch
z f c x hdx

P = f x x

P< x< =

f (x) x x 0
f (x) .
4) P (- < x < +) = 1 .

z f c x hdx = 1

( ).

5) x (
x = 0).
:

.

.
, ,


( 5). ,

315

316

,

(
Pauli).
G .
, -

, . ,

.
, .

G
() (. 6).
)
G ( 5 eV)

.
)
G ( 1 eV, Si 1,4 eV
Ge 0,67 eV)
,
. , .
)

,

() .

, (
)
() .

7, 8
Si.
i) .
ii) -
.
iii)
.

7, 8 Si

.
p ( positive).
,
,

9
(. 9). ,
.
,

.
.

317

318

) n:
Si
.. (As),
As
Si ,
.
( )
-
. ,
(negative) ,
,
n.
) p:
..
Al,
,
,

10
Al.

, Al . ,
-
.
(positive) ,
, p.
p-n
,
p n,

p - n (. 11).
11
12
p - n .
, ,
.

12

.

npn pnp

1mm2.
, (emitter, E) (base, B)
(collector, C).
13


npn pnp,
.

13


()
.
. ,
,
.
,
1948,

.

Rutherford, 1910,

. ,
.
Rutherford ,
,
.
,
. ~,

. ,
, ,

. . Bohr
.
,
. ,
,
. ,
,
,
( f )
h = 1 2
h Planck

319

320

H Bohr
.

, .
. ~

(
).
. Planck, 1900,
(!)

()
.

E = h

(quanta, ,
). Planck Bohr
.

Planck
, .
. Einstein
Nobel .
Einstein ,
, .

().
.
, ,
. ,
,
.
Compton. ,
, h/c .
( )
, ,
( = h, p = h/c).
. ,
,

. ~, .

,
() .
! Louis de Broglie
, ,
. ,
p = h/p. ,

. ,


. Bohr
, ,
, ,
( ).
,

, ,

. Schrdinger
de
Broglie. Werner Heisenberg
.
Schrdinger .

14

14.
(
)
,
( Max Born).
,
. ()
, ,
(
Heisenberg). ,


, . ohr.
( ), Einstein
Schrdinger, .

.
)

321

322

15

.
.
Young , .
,

.
( )

.

()

,

.
( -).


, ,
.
,
1 2

.
,
, .

.


,

. 16
. ~
( )
Geoffrey Taylor,

16

. ().

Cambridge ,
! ~ ,
, John King
MIT ...
)

.

.
, ,
.
, ,
,
(
).
1949 L.M. Biberman, N.C. Sushkin V.A.
Fabrikant ~.
,
.


.

.
, ..
laser, , ,
.

323

324

Adrasthriothtes
N A
R

. ~
Stefan - Boltzmann



I = 4

R
Planck
,

(
).
n = n h f

n = 1, 2, 3 ...

f
h Planck.
R

Einstein,

,
h f = + max

h f
,
max
.
R
Compton
,
.

E = h f,

p =

R Compton

() .

,
= =

h
( 1 cos )
mc

,
m

R de Broglie :



E
h
=
f =
,
p
h
R (x, t)
(

)



.
P (x, t) = (x, t)2 = *(x, t) (x, t)
R ,
(x, t), Schrdinger

h 2 d 2
+ U ( x ) = E
2 m dx 2

= (x)
R
L

n =

En

2
n
sin
x
L
L

F h I
= n G
H 8 mL JK
2

2 m (U 0 E )
h

n = 1, 2, 3, ...
R
,

,

.
U 0 L,

R
Heisenberg ,
p x
p
x
h,
x p h
,

t

t h

T e 2 L

drasthriothtes

1.

1 cm,
( ),

,
.
1000 V,
.
,

.

.

( ), !



. ,
,

. .

.
2.
.
20

.
)

, .. Al.

325

326

) ,

.
)
h ( h) Planck
.
)
,
.
;

3.
(STM)
(..
Young, . ,
1994)
STM. :
,

;

. -

.
() ().
()
.
()


.
()
.

.
2

4.131
(Rayleigh - Jeans)


.

I f ;

,

,
;
5

() ()
.
() ().

()
.
()
() ()
.
()
()
()
.
6

()

327

()
,
.
() , ,

1 2
.
()
.
10

I .
I-
()
(),
.
()
() ;
()

;
7

.

;

1
1
=
2
2

()
();
() 1/ 2, () 4, () 8,
() 16

11

I-
.

() max
.
()
.
()

.

328

G;
(i)
(ii)
;
(iii) ;
12

,
11,
G;
(i) ;
(ii) ;
(iii) ;
13

11
.

;
() .
()
.
() .
14

;
15

, K max

16

;
17

.

.
;
18

;
19

;
20

4.138 ,
, ,
()
()
()
21

,
Compton;
22

Compton;
23

()
.

;

,
;

329

24

.

;
()
.
()
.
()
.
25

.
.
()
,
.
()


.
()

.
()
,
.
() ,


,
(
).

.

.
;
29

;
30

(x)
().

26

, ()
;

(), (), ()
;

27

31

.
0,7.

;
() - x1
() x1

28

() ()

330

34

() x2
() - +
32

() .
() .
35

() () .
() L

()
x = 2
()
x = 1,5
()
1 3

(i)

33

L
2

(ii) 2L (iii)

L
4

(iv)

L
2

() ,

(i) 2E

(ii) /4

(iii) /16

(iv) 16E ;

36

,
. ,

. L
m
Planck h.

,
;
37

.
.

331

40

10 J .

()
x1
x2.
() x2 .
()
U0 .
() x1,
x2.
38

,
;
39

.
;

()
.
()
, ,
,
.
()
.
()
, U0.
()
.

41

< U0
L
.
.

() L

.
()
> V0
.
() L
,
V0,
.
42

332

43

, ,
x
.
.
()
.
()
.
()

.

A -
1

() n
, - ,

0,50 mm.
= 5000 .
= 5,67 10 - 8 W/ m2 K 2.

E = nh f +

1
hf
2

()

n 1.
k = 100 /m
m = 1 kg, Planck
h = 6,626 10-34 J . s
0,20 m.
2

f = 5,0 1015 Hz
10
h = 1 m; Planck
h = 6,626 10 -34 J.s.
3

= 6000
()
.
()
.
= 5,67 10 - 8 W/m2. K2.

100 W

= 5,9 10-10 m. : )
. )

1,0 m2
1000 m.
Planck h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s
c = 3,0 108 m/s.
6

37 o C,
.
,
1,65 m2. = 5,67 10 - 8 W/m2. K2.
7

max = 640 nm
;

333

Al 4,2 eV.
2,0 10 - 7 m
Al,
.
l.
c = 3,0 10 8 m/s
Planck h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.
9

Li 2,3 eV.
Li

f = 1,5 10 15 Hz. h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.
10

0,6 V
800 nm.

.
c = 3,0 10 8 m/s h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.
11

500 nm
0,57 eV. :
) , )

600 nm. c = 3,0 108 m/s
h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.
12

400 nm,
0,5 eV.
:
()

.
() .
() . c =
3,0 10 8 m/s h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.
13

Planck.
,
e = 1,60 10 - 19 C.
14

= 0,20 nm

= 60.


.

8
c = 3,0 10 m/s, Planck
h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s
m = 9,1 10 - 31 kg.
15

f = 2,0 1015 Hz
.
1,0 1011 /m3.
: )
1,0 m 2 . )

(). )
.
c = 3,0 108 m/s h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.
16

0,30 nm
120
: )
. )

.

h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s,
8
c = 3,0 10 m/s
m = 9,1 10 - 31 kg.

334

17

24

0,020 nm
Compton.
,
45.
c = 3,0 108 m/s
m = 9,1 10 - 31 kg.

2,0 10 - 12 m.
(
).
m = 9,1 10 - 31 kg
c = 3,0 10 8 m/s Planck
h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.

18

Compton 90.

Compton
,
.
.
h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s, c = 3,0 108 m/s
m = 9,1 10 - 31 kg.
19

Compton
180;
20

Compton .
f = f

b
1+b f

b=

c 1 cos

c Compton ,
c .


.
21

De roglie
1,0 106 m/s.
m = 9,11 10 -31 kg
Planck h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.
22

V = 100 V. De Broglie
.
m = 9,1 10 - 31 kg
Planck h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.

25

27 C. e = 4,
, Avogadro N = 6 10 23 mol -1
R = 8,31 J.K-1.mol-1
Planck h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.
26

De Broglie 1,0 10-10 m.

t .
Planck h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s
m = 9,1 10 - 31 kg
c = 3,0 10 8 m/s.
27

m = 1,0 10 - 30 kg

L = 1,0 10 - 10 m.
3
(x).
Planck h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.
28

,
x = 0,
x = L : (x) = 104 sin (3 10 8 x).
.
h = 6,626 10 - 34 J . s
m = 9,11 10 - 31 kg.
29

m = 1,0 10 - 8 kg
x = 0
x = 2 10 - 6 m
E = 1,37 10 - 46 J. h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.

23

m = 0,03 kg
1000 m/s.
De Broglie ; h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.

30

694,3 nm.

, n = 2 n = 1
, .
h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s, c = 3,0 10 8 m/s
m = 9,1 10 - 31 kg.
31

,
,
. A
n = 1
.
L = 40 cm
m = 0,20 kg.

10 cm. h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s.
32

, 3
.
2,0 10-14 m
1,67 10 - 27 kg.
33

4 eV
0,40 nm 8,0 eV.

.
m = 9,11 10 31 kg
Planck
h = 6,626 10 34 J.s.
34

U0 E = 10 6 eV.
m = 6,7 10 27 kg.
2 10 14 m.
35

m = 8,0 kg
= 99 J.
U0 = 100 J
L = 5,0 cm; h = 6,626 10 -34 J.s.
36

i = 10 mA
.
U0 E = 0,01 eV
L = 0,20 nm
.
h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s
m = 9,11 10 - 31 kg.

335

37

5,0 10 4 m/s 0,0020%.

. h = 6,63 10 - 34 J.s
m = 9,11 10 - 31 kg.
38

4,0 cm.
.
m = 9,11 10 - 31 kg
Planck h = 6,63 10 - 34 J.s.
39

10%.
,
1,0 MeV;
h = 6,626 10 - 34 J.s, e = 1,6 10 - 19 C
mp = 1,67 10 - 27 kg.
40

,
m
.

:

F hI F H I
x = G J G J
H mK H 2g K
1/ 2

1/ 4

g .
41

m = 50 g 500 m/s.

0,020 %,
.
Planck h = 6,63 10 - 34 J.s.
42

1,0 10 -14 m.

.
K

!!
1,67 10 - 27 kg Planck
h = 6,63 10 - 34 J.s.

336

337

,

(1)
(2),

,
.
A


.
,

(1)
(2),

.


,
.
, .
,

,
,
.
,
.


.

.
.

,
.

,

.

() ,
,
.

,
.


.

.

,
.



.

.

338

.
Bernoulli
,
() .


.


, .

.
,

.

, ,
,
.


,
.

.
.

.



.

,
.

,

.
Compton

.
Doppler

(),
() -
().

.

,

.

339

() .
( ) ,
.
= {} []

.
= {}{} [][] = {}[]
{} [] ()

{} [ ]
=
=
{} [ ]

.
{ } () -
/ ms 1

20,0
10,0

1,0

2,0

3,0

t/s

IF / mA

VF / V

0,0

0,0

0,5

0,2

1,0

0,4

10

0,6

.
.
:

m s 1

(/ )

, .

, (m s 1), t(s), IF (mA), VF (V).

340

()

l
t

( = / )

km/h , t s, l m :
{} km/h = 3,6 {l} m /{t} s
3,6 .
. -
.
(coherent) ,

. (.. S.I )
()
, , , B,
C, .
Q

Q = ABC + ...
().
.
(dimension) Q : dim Q = A B C (
) A , B ,C, A, B, C, , ,
.
S.I. ( , Systme International d unite~s)
( )
, 7 : , , , ,
( ) , .
( ).
, m (), kg (), s (),
A (), K(), mol (, ) cd ().

LT 1

-1

LMT - 2

(molar)

L2MT-2-1-1

341

: L, M, T, I, , N, J.
= = = = 0. = 0 0 = 1.
S.I.
dim Q = L M T I N J
( )
(
) ..
E =

1
m 2
2
,

dim E = M L2 T 2

, kg . m2/s2 = 1 J = 1 joule ().

, .
(m). H , ,
(J).
()
(S.I.) .
.
() .
.
.

.
.

( , , ..)
.

342

2
O S.I.
(Systme International dunits)
S.I., 11 1960 (Confrence
Gnrale des Poids et Mesures, C.G.P.M.). S.I.
, , :
1. , metre, mtre
) (m) 1 / 299 792 458

) The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1 / 299 792 458 of a second
) Le mtre est la longueur du trajet parcouru dans le vide par la lumire pendant une dure de
1/299 792 458 de seconde. (17th CGPM 1983 Resolution 1)
2. , kilogram, kilogramme
) To (kg)
.
) The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the intrernational prototype of the kilogram.
) Le kilogramme est l unit de masse; il est gal la masse du prototype international du kilogramme. (1st CGPM 1889 and 3rd CGPM 1901)
3. , second, seconde
) (s) 9 192 631 770
()
-133.
) The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium - 133 atom.
) La seconde est la dure de 9 192 631 770 priodes de la radiation correspondant la transition entre
les deux niveaux hyperfins de l e~tat fondamental de l atome de cesium - 133. (13th CGPM, 1967,
Resolution 1).
4. , ampere, ampre
) To () ,

1 , 2 10 7
.
) The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in a vacuum, would produce
between these conductors a force equal to 2 10 7 newton per metre of length.
) L ampre est l intensit d un courant constant qui, maintenu dans deux conducteurs parallles,
rectilignes, de longueur infinie, de section circulaire ngligeable, et placs une distance de 1 mtre l
un de l autre dans le vide, produirait entre ces conducteurs une force gale 2 10 7 newton par mtre

343

de longueur. (9th CGPM, 1948, Resolutions 2 and 7).

5. , kelvin, kelvin
) T (), , 1/ 273,16

13 C G P M (1967, A 3)

.
( )
(Celsius), t ,
t = T T0
0 = 273,15 . ( oC).

.
) The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/ 273,16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
) Le kelvin, unit de temperature thermodynamique, est la fraction 1/ 273,16 de la temprature thermodynamique du point triple de l eau. (13th CGPM 1967, Resolution 4).
6. (), mole, mole
) (mol)
0,012 - 12.
,
, , , .
: - 12 ,
() .
) The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as
there are atoms in 0,012 kilogram carbon 12.
When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons, other particles or specified groups of such particles.
) La mole est la quantit de matire d une systme contenant autant d entits lmaintaires qu il y
a d atomes dans 0,012 kilogramme de carbone 12.
Lorsqu on emploie la mole, les entits l mentaires doivent tre spcifies et peuvent tre des atomes,
des molcules, des ions, des lectrons, d autres particules ou des groupements spcifis de telles particules. (14th CGPM 1971, Resolution 3).
7. , candela, candela
) (cd) ,
540 10 12 (Hz)
1/683 (W/sr).
) The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of (1/683) watt
per steradian.
) La candela est l intensit lumineuse, dans une direction donne, d une source qui emet une radiation monochromatique de frquence 540 10 12 hertz et dont l intensit energetique dans cette direction est 1/683 watt par stradian. (16th CGPM 1979, Resolution 3).

344

3
(SI)
To (Systme
International d Units), SI.
1, .
1

S.I.

()

meter

kilogram

kg

second

ampere

kelvin

mole

candela

()

mol

cd

~ (coherently) , , .

. , ,
2.
SI
3.
SI Meter Convention ( ),
17 20 1875
1921. 47 .
(Confrence Gnrale des Poids et Mesures, CGPM),
.
(Comit International des Poids
et Mesures, CIPM). (Consultative
Committees, CC), .

(Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, BIPM),
Svres CIPM. SI 11
CGPM 1960, ,
. BIPM
(Consultative Committee for Units, CCU),
(CIPM),
CGPM ( )
CIPM SI.
,
~ (Commission for Symbols, Units, Nomenclature,
Atomic Masses and Fundamental Constants of the International Union or Pure and Applied Physics,

345

IUPAP). (
) E .
SI
.
A 1995 20 CGPM
1 ( ), ,
, (rad) (sr)
2.
2

S.I.

radian

steradian

()

rad

m/m=1

sr

m2/m2=1

m/s

m/s2

rad/s

rad/s2

hertz

Hz

s-1
rad/s

newton

kg.m/s2

, ()

pascal

Pa

N/m2

, ,

joule

N.m, kg.m2/s2

N.s, kg.m/s

watt
coulomb

J/s

A.s

volt

J/C, W/A

ohm

V/A

siemens

A/V, -1

weber

Wb

V.s

( )

henry

Wb/A

farad

C/V

V/M, N/C
tesla

C/m2

()
()

Wb/m2, N/(A.m)

A/m
degree

Celsius

lumen
lux
becquerel

lm

cd.sr

lx

lm/m2

Bq

s1

346

S.I.

1024

yotta

21

zetta

1018

exa

E
P

10
10

15

peta

10

12

tera

10

giga

10

mega

10

kilo

()

10

hecto

101

deca

da

-1

deci

()

10-2

centi

()

-3

milli

()

10-6

micro

-9

10
10

nano

10

-12

pico

10

-15

fempto

10

-18

atto

10

-21

zepto

10

-24

yocto

10

( ) (),
. (italics),
(roman), .. F = 15 N.

. .
, .. tesla, (T), meter (m).
( )
, .. , gram, g, gm,
, second, s, sec, , .. mol, cd
Hz.
s , .. 3 kg, 3 kgs.

, .. 3 meter 3 meters, 3 .
(degree) , ,
( kelvin K, kelvin, oK).
t, t = T T0
= 273,15 , ( (Celsius), C).
SI 106 . ~
. .
(.. pF, F).

347

(.. 1 cm = 10 2 m (1 cm) 3 = 1 cm 3 = (10 2 m) 3 = 10 6 m 3). ~

,
, , (.. megahertz, Megahertz, Mhertz).
kilogram () ,
, . kilogram
gram g.
4

S.I. S.I.

minute

min

1 min = 60 s

1 h = 60 min = 3600 s

1 d = 24 h = 86 400 s

degree

1o = ( / 180) rad

minute

1 = (1/60) = (/10 800)rad

second

1 = (1/60) = (/648 800)rad

1 L = 1 dm 3 = 10 -3 m

1 t = 1000 kg

Np
B

1 Np = 1
1 B = 0,5 (ln 10) Np

day

liter

metric ton

(attenuation),
(level)

hour

neper
bel

()
(.. . m N m). H
, (.. m/s, m. s1),
(.. m/s,
m/s/s). ,
(.. W/(m2 . K4) W . m
2 . 4
K ). (.. kJ/mol, W/cm2).
(..
meter second meter/second, meter.second,
). ~ ,
( ), ()
(.. newton meter newton - meter, newton.meter).

(.. 299 792 458, 299.792.458)
(
). ISO ( )
.
.
,
(.. 3 m, 3m 3-m). N
.
(,) .. 0,3 J ,3 J ,
3,0 J 3, J.
, 0,1 1000 (.. 200 kN, 0,5 mA).

348

SI SI
~ SI .
, SI .
4 SI. ,
, ~ ~~
L l ()
1 (). SI ,
5.
5

S.I. S.I.

eV

1,60217733(49) 10- 19 J

1,6605402(10) 10- 27 kg

ua

1,49597870691(30) 1011 m

S.I. ,
1 = 1852 ,
1 knot () = 1 = 0,514 m/s,
1 are = 100 m2 ,
1 hectare () = 104 m2 ,
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 100 kN/m2 ,
1 angstrom = 100 pm
1 barn = 10- 28 m2

1,602 177 33 (49) 1019 J (49) 33
0,000 000 49 10-19 J.

S.I.
M

- ()
kg f (kp)

1 kg f = 9,806 65 N
()

atm

torr

mm Hg

at

1 atm = 101 325 Pa

()
1 orr = 1/ 760 atm ()
= 133,322 4 Pa
1 mm Hg = 13,595 1 mm H 2 O
= 133,322 4 Pa
1 at = 1 kg f / cm 2
= 98 066,5 Pa () =
= 0,967 841 atm
1 mm H 2 O = 10 4 at = 9,806 65 Pa
()

mm H 2 O

()

Fahrenheit ()
o
F

t
o

+ 32

1 G = 10 4 T

1 yd () () = 3 ft () = 0,914 4 m ()
1 mile () = 5280 ft () = 1,609 344 m ()

1 (1 d) = 24 h = 86 400 s

, gauss
Gs
( G)

1 ft () = 12 in () = 0,304 8 m ()

1 (1 h) = 60 min = 3600 s

1 cal 15 = 4,185 5 J
(
1 g , ,
14,5 oC 15,5 C 101,325 k Pa
1950)

1 in () = 2,54 cm ()

1 (1 min) = 60 s

tF
o

15 C
cal 15 ( cal)

1 L () =10 3 m 3 ()

1 (1 CV = 1 PS)
= 75 kg f m/s ()
= 735,498 75 W ()
1 hp = 745,699 9 W ()
= 550 ff lbf/s

349

350

1 year () a, atrop () = 365,242 20 d = 31 556 926 s

o

1 angstrom (1 A) = 10 10 m ()
1 () = /180 rad = 0,017 453 3 rad
g n = 9,806 65 m/ s 2 ()
1 pound, lb (, ) = 0,453 592 37 kg ()
1 acre = 4840 yd 2 () = 4 064,856 m 2
1 (US) .. = 9702 in 3 = 158,987 3 L
1 pound - force (lbf) ( - ) = 4,448 222
1 tu ( ) = 788,169 ft lbf = 1 055,056 J

.
. ,
.
:

L, J
n, ()
P

()
t,
tF

Avogadro

L, NA

Q, q

, J

F g , (G), (W), (P)

, i
j, J
V,

()

U, V
()

p, P

r , K

( )

( )

P, N

( )

TIME (2006)
, ,
Committee on Data for Science and Technology of the International Council of Scientific Unions (CODATA), .
(3/ 2008), 2006.
(.)
NIST (ational Institute of Standards and Technology - )
... ... ( )
.

351
From:

Fundamental Physical Constants Frequently used constants

Quantity

Symbol

Value

Unit

Relative std.
uncert. ur

m s1
N A2
N A2
F m1

(exact)

0

299 792 458

4 107
= 12.566 370 614... 107
8.854 187 817... 1012

6.674 28(67) 1011

m3 kg1 s2

1.0 104

Planck constant
h/2
elementary charge
magnetic flux quantum h/2e
conductance quantum 2e2/h

h
h

e
0
G0

6.626 068 96(33) 1034

1.054 571 628(53) 1034
1.602 176 487(40) 1019
2.067 833 667(52) 1015
7.748 091 7004(53) 105

Js
Js
C
Wb
S

5.0 108
5.0 108
2.5 108
2.5 108
6.8 1010

electron mass
proton mass
proton-electron mass ratio
fine-structure constant e2/40
hc
inverse fine-structure constant

me
mp
mp /me

9.109 382 15(45) 1031

1.672 621 637(83) 1027
1836.152 672 47(80)
7.297 352 5376(50) 103
137.035 999 679(94)

kg
kg

5.0 108
5.0 108
4.3 1010
6.8 1010
6.8 1010

Rydberg constant 2 me c/2h

Avogadro constant
Faraday constant NA e
molar gas constant
Boltzmann constant R/NA
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(2 /60)k 4/
h3 c2

R
NA , L
F
R
k

10 973 731.568 527(73)

6.022 141 79(30) 1023
96 485.3399(24)
8.314 472(15)
1.380 6504(24) 1023

m1
mol1
C mol1
J mol1 K1
J K1

6.6 1012
5.0 108
2.5 108
1.7 106
1.7 106

5.670 400(40) 108

W m2 K4

7.0 106

2.5 108

kg

5.0 108

speed of light in vacuum

magnetic constant

c, c0
0

electric constant 1/0 c2

Newtonian constant
of gravitation

electron volt: (e/C) J

(unified) atomic mass unit
1
m(12 C)
1 u = mu = 12
= 103 kg mol1/NA

Page 1

Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI

eV
1.602 176 487(40) 1019
u

1.660 538 782(83) 1027

(exact)
(exact)

ysics.nist.gov/constants

352
From: http://physics.nist.gov/constants

Fundamental Physical Constants Physico-chemical constants

Quantity

Symbol

Value

Unit

Relative std.
uncert. ur

Avogadro constant
atomic mass constant
1
m(12 C) = 1 u
mu = 12
3
= 10 kg mol1/NA
energy equivalent
in MeV
Faraday constant1 NA e

NA , L

6.022 141 79(30) 1023

mol1

5.0 108

mu

1.660 538 782(83) 1027

kg

5.0 108

mu c2

1.492 417 830(74) 1010

931.494 028(23)
96 485.3399(24)

J
MeV
C mol1

5.0 108
2.5 108
2.5 108

molar Planck constant

NA h
NA hc
R
k
k/h
k/hc

3.990 312 6821(57) 1010

0.119 626 564 72(17)
8.314 472(15)
1.380 6504(24) 1023
8.617 343(15) 105
2.083 6644(36) 1010
69.503 56(12)

J s mol1
J m mol1
J mol1 K1
J K1
eV K1
Hz K1
m1 K1

1.4 109
1.4 109
1.7 106
1.7 106
1.7 106
1.7 106
1.7 106

Vm
n0
Vm

22.413 996(39) 103

2.686 7774(47) 1025
22.710 981(40) 103

m3 mol1
m3
m3 mol1

1.7 106
1.7 106
1.7 106

S0 /R

1.151 7047(44)
1.164 8677(44)

c1
c1L
c2

5.670 400(40) 108

3.741 771 18(19) 1016
1.191 042 759(59) 1016
1.438 7752(25) 102

W m2 K4
W m2
W m2 sr1
mK

7.0 106
5.0 108
5.0 108
1.7 106

b
b0

2.897 7685(51) 103

5.878 933(10) 1010

mK
Hz K1

1.7 106
1.7 106

molar gas constant

Boltzmann constant R/NA
in eV K1

molar volume of ideal gas RT /p

T = 273.15 K, p = 101.325 kPa
Loschmidt constant NA /Vm
T = 273.15 K, p = 100 kPa
Sackur-Tetrode constant
(absolute entropy constant)2
5
2 3/2
kT1 /p0 ]
2 + ln[(2mu kT1 /h )
T1 = 1 K, p0 = 100 kPa
T1 = 1 K, p0 = 101.325 kPa
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(2 /60)k 4/
h3 c2
first radiation constant 2hc2
first radiation constant for spectral radiance 2hc2
second radiation constant hc/k
Wien displacement law constants
b = max T = c2 /4.965 114 231...
b0 = max /T = 2.821 439 372... c/c2

3.8 106
3.8 106

The numerical value of F to be used in coulometric chemical measurements is 96 485.3401(48) [5.0 108 ] when the relevant current is
measured in terms of representations of the volt and ohm based on the Josephson and quantum Hall effects and the internationally adopted conventional values of the Josephson and von Klitzing constants KJ90 and RK90 given in the Adopted values table.
2
The entropy of an ideal monoatomic gas of relative atomic mass Ar is given by S = S0 + 32 R ln Ar R ln(p/p0 ) + 52 R ln(T /K).
1

Page 1

353
From: http://physics.nist.gov/constants

Fundamental Physical Constants Adopted values

Quantity
relative atomic mass1 of 12 C
molar mass constant
molar mass of 12 C
conventional value of Josephson constant2
conventional value of von Klitzing constant3
standard atmosphere
1

Symbol

Value

Unit

Ar (12 C)
Mu
M (12 C)
KJ90
RK90

12
1 103
12 103
483 597.9
25 812.807
101 325

kg mol1
kg mol1
GHz V1

Pa

Relative std.
uncert. ur
(exact)
(exact)
(exact)
(exact)
(exact)
(exact)

The relative atomic mass Ar (X) of particle X with mass m(X) is defined by Ar (X) = m(X)/mu , where mu = m(12 C)/12 = Mu /NA = 1 u
is the atomic mass constant, NA is the Avogadro constant, and u is the atomic mass unit. Thus the mass of particle X in u is m(X) = Ar (X) u
and the molar mass of X is M (X) = Ar (X)Mu .
2
This is the value adopted internationally for realizing representations of the volt using the Josephson effect.
3
This is the value adopted internationally for realizing representations of the ohm using the quantum Hall effect.

Page 1

354

MA
,
. . SI
.

def

def

=, =

a = b, p = m
ab

a b
To a = b

ab

a b

~,

a ~ b, a b

To a b

a , <a>

M a
1
1
-~
sin ( x a)
xa

-~

1
(
sin ( x a)

1
x a
xa

(x a)
e x, exp x

( e) x

T

() .
SI

cos x
sin x

x
x

x
x

tan x =

sin x
cos x

tg x =

sin x
cos x

cot x =

1
tan x

cotan x =
sec x =

1
tan x

1
cos x

csc x =

1
sin x

cosec x =

355

1
sin x

A
arcsin x
arccos x
arctanx
( arctg x)
arccot x
arcsec x
arccsc x
( arccosec x)

x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x

sin - 1 x, cos - 1 x .. ( - 1 x,
- 1 x, ..), ,
, sin n x, cos n x .., (sin x) n , (cos x) n ..
(
SI). ,
.

log a x

a x

, x, log x,
log x x
.

ln x

ln x = log e x
x ( e = 2,718 281 8 ...)

lg x

lg x = log 10 x
( 10)

lb x

lb x = log 2 x
x ( 2)

log x ln x, lg x, lb x, log e x, ..

356

, , (bold) ,
, .

a, a

a, a, a

a ( a, a)

a, a = ae a

ea

ex , ey , ez

i, j, k

e i (i = 1, 2, 3)

ax , ay , az

a i (i = 1, 2, 3)

a = axex + ayey + azez

T a x e x .. a x ..
.
.
. .
()
. .
. ( )

() .
( ).

357

.

.
, ,
.
, .
.
,
. 56,72 mm,
, (56,72 0,02) mm,
() 56,70 mm 56,74 mm. 0,02 mm
, .
,
(). .
,

.
A I,

.
.
,

.
.
, .

.
:
1,35
3
0,107
3
0,050 20
4
500
3
500,0
4
50 10 1

5 10 2
1,520 10

1
5

1,7 10 4
2
,
() .

358

,
0,516 784 252. 0,517,
. ,
.
1,723 ,
1,7. , .
1,75 ,
1,8 ( ),
.
. ,
,
, , () .
1,75 , , 1,8 (), 2,65
2,6 (). ,
10, .
, 500, 3
. 5 10 1 5,0 10 2 0,50 10 3 ..
,
.

. , , ,
2 .
, L, 2 L, 2 .
L .
() ()


. ,
( ) (
).
()
.
.
.
.

3,25 0,21/ 0,8 = 0,9

0,851 0,80 = 0,68
0,075 2 / 0,012 = 6,3
1,35 10 4 0,73/ 2 10 2 = 0,5 10 2
()

( ).
.

359

. .

10,00 1

10 3 ()

0,000 3

10 4 ( )

0,85

10 2 ()

10 2 ()
10,00 1 + 0,000 3 0,85 = 9,15
124

10 0 ()

5,0 10 2

10 1 ()

7,8

10 1 ()

10 1 ()
124 5,0 10 2 + 7,8 = 3,7 10 2

( ) 10. ,
1,24 10 2
5,0 10 2
0,078 10 2

1,24 10 2 5,0 10 2 + 0,078 10 2 = (1,24 5,0 + 0,078) 10 2 = 3,7 10 2

.
,
.
, 0,000 3
9,15 .
:
.
. 1,25 0,85 1,1 = 1,2 1,25 0,85 1,1 = 1,1 0,85 = 0,94

.
!!

.

.
. ,
,
3 ,
. ,
5 2 / 7 , ,
!

360

361

3)
5)
6)
7)
9)
10)
11)
15)
19)
22)
24)
25)
27)
29)
30)
31)
33)
35)
43)
44)
46)
47)
48)
49)

()
() , () , () , ()
() , () , () , ()
(i) (), (ii) (), (iii) , (iv) (),
(v) ()
() , () , () , ()
i = Im sin t, Q = Q m cos t
(i) (), (ii) ()
() , ()
()
() 2 > 1, ()
()
() , () , () , ()
3

(),
()
() , () , ()
() 2, () 1, () 4, () 3
()
() , () , () , () , ()
()
()

1) () 10 7 rad/s, () 1/ 3 pF
2) 0,4 10 4 z, 0,29 10 4 Hz, 0,24 10 4 Hz,
0,5 10 4 Hz
3) 1,0 F, 4,0 H
4) 4 F
5) 2 ,5 3 Watt
6)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
16)

() 2,6 A, () 6,8 10 2 J, () 75 10 2 A/s

16 J/s, 5 10 6 s
1,5 10 1 H, 24 nF
2 10 4 F, 0,5 10 4 F, 0,25 mH
2m
ln 2
b
60,65 %
3,0 %
21 s
() 1,5 cos 5 t, () 0,017 m, 0,017 m/s

FG
H

17) () 0 ,25 sin 8 t

18)
19)
20)
21)
22)
23)
24)

IJ , () 1,57 J,
K

() 2 2 m/s, 4 Watt
10 Watt
6 Hz
10
2,6 e 30 t cos 5 t (10 3 C)
3 10 4 rad/s
() 10 5 A/s, () 400 J/s, () 420 J/s
f =

24 10 5 Hz

FG
H

25) 5 cos 10 t

IJ
K

26) () x 2 + y 2 = 9, () .

362

2) (), ()
3) () , () , () ,
()
4) (i) (), (ii) (), (iii) (), (iv) ()
6) () , () , () , ()
8) (), ()
10) ()
12) ()
19) ()
25) () , () , ()
27)
29) ()
32) () , () , () , ()
34) () , () , () , ()
41) 1 (), 2 (), 3 ()
45) (i)
46) () 3, () 2, () 1
51) () , () , ()
52) ()
54) ()

1) () 30 cm/s, () 30 cm/s, ()
2) 0,017 m < < 21,25 m
0,0725 m < < 90,625 m
3) 10 cm, 2 cm 1, 50 Hz, 100 cm/s
4) 5 m
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
19)
20)
21)
22)
23)

5 cm/s, 2 ,5 2 cm / s
12 m/s, y = 0,08 sin (6 t 0,5 x)
1200 m/s
3,76 m/s
0,15 s
393 nm, 35,3 o
29,4 o
32,7 o
366 nm
2,04 o
41,8 o
41,8 o
1,49
0,707 cm, 6,120 cm
136,03 m/s
0
, 6 cm/s
6 sin (150 t + 0,6 x), 6 sin (150 t 0,6 x),
250 cm/s
24) 180 Hz
26)

1
2 2

27) n=1, ..., 310

28) () 212 Hz, 423 Hz, () 2 m, 1 m
() 4 sin x cos 424 t, 3 sin 2 x cos 846 t
29) 2 z
30) 19,1 cm, 57,41 cm
31) 0,243 m, 700 Hz, 1400 Hz, 2100 Hz
32) 5, 335 m/s
33) 335 m/s
34) 162 Hz, ..., n81, ... 1944, 212,5 Hz, 425 Hz,
... 1912,5Hz
35) n 0,34 Hz
36) 5760 Hz
37) 0,664
38) 1,5 m
39)
40) 512 nm

363

1)
4)
6)
8)
12)
15)
17)
18)
20)
22)
23)
24)
26)
27)

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

(i) , (ii)
() , () , ()
()
() , () , () , () , ()
() , () , () , () , ()
()
1,07 m/s
() 3, () 4, () 1
()
()
()
()
(iv), (ii)
1 2, 2 3, 3 4, 4 1

6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)

1,528 h
1,8 m
0,35 m/s
3,9 10 5 N/m 2
7,75 m/s, 16,9 m/s
.
/ 2
20 cm
0,081 m 3/ s
3,16 m/s, 19,0 m/s
204 km/h
2 10 8 W
5J
11700 kg
272 m/s

15)
16)
17)
18)

() 3 2 , () 72,8%
43,8 m/s
() 120 m/s, () 53,67 m/s
2

20)

mg
6 R

2)
3)
4)
6)
7)
8)
9)
11)
12)
13)
17)
19)
20)

()
()
()
()
()
()
()
() , () , ()
() , () , ()
() , () , () , () , ()
() , () , () , ()
F, I m, , x, a
()

1) x = 2 cm, y = 2,25 cm
2) 62,14 cm

3) 3 cm

4) 7,3 10 5 rad/s, 460 m/s
5) /30 rad/s, /20 cm/s
6) 18 m/s 2
7) () 45 kg m 2, () 18 kg m 2 , () 11 kg m 2
8) 8,0 10 2 J
9) 7,7 m/s
10) 6,0 m/s
11) 5,0 sec 2

364

21)
26)
31)
32)
33)
34)
35)

()
()
() , () , ()
() , () , () , ()
()
()
()

12) 1,0 m/s

13) 100 s 2, 200 s 1
14) ()

20
m /s 2 , () 2 m/s
3

15) 5 m/s 2
16) 5 m/s 2
18)
19)
21)
22)
23)
24)
25)
26)
27)
28)
29)
30)
31)
32)
33)
34)
35)

mg 37 / 4

tan /3
100
1/3
F = 80 N
27,5 cm
3,1 m
4m
69,3 .
156,2 26,3
600, 750
() = 45 cm
(): () =4 cm
(OK) = 2 cm
() 135,6 m, () 85,2 hp
() 16 m, () 144 10 3 J, 480 W,
() 960 W, 576 W
() 460,8 J, () 230,4 W
1 Hz
10,5 J

37) 0 = 4

g 0R
15

38) () 5 rad/s, () 530 m/s

39) 9,8 rad/s, 45 J
40) h = R 0
41) =

5 1
2

9 3
m /s = 7 ,8 m / s
2

K

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

()
, ,
()
()
()
()
()

1) () 9,375 J, () 7,5 m/s, 17,5 m/s
2) () 2,0 m/s, 4,0 m/s, 16 m/s
() 240 , 160
3) 0,28 m/s, 0,32 m/s
4) 0,20 m
5) 1,0 m/s
6) () e 2 h, () e 2 h, () (1 e 2 ) E i ()

8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
21)
22)
23)
24)
25)
26)
27)
28)
29)
32)
34)
39)
40)
41)
43)
44)
45)
46)

()
()
()
()
()
, ,
, , ,
()
, ,
()
()
()
1) , 2)
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
() 1/ 2 MV c2
()
() 1/2 (m 1 + m 2 ) Vc2 ( )
()
,
()
()
()
() ()

365

7) 0,80
8) 0,750
9) 0,268
10) k =
11) ()
()
()
12) ()

2 k 1 m1 m 2 m 3 .. . mk 1
1 , 1
( m1 + m2 )( m2 + m3 ). .. ( mk 1 + mk )

h 1 = h 2 = 5 10 2 m,
h 1 = 3,125 10 3 m, h 2 = 2,81 10 2 m,
h 1 = h 2 = 1,25 10 2 m
0,7 m/s, () 3,2 10 2 J

13) min =

M +m
m

E
2M

14) 1 m/s
15) 1 m/s ,
2 3 m /s
30 ,
2 3 m /s 30

.
16) 1 m/s, 90 o 1 m/s, 30 o
17) , 2 = 21,0 m/s = 75,6 km/h
18) 1 =

b
, 2 =
2R

cos =

K =

4 R 2 b2
, 2R
b
2R

1
b2 4R 2
m 2
<0
2
8
R

19) ) 9,1 10 31 kg m e ,
) 0,8350 10 27 kg = mp / 2 = m n / 2
20) 1 =

m 2 ( 1 2 )
m ( 2 )
, 2 = 1 1
,
m 1 + m2
m1 + m2

p1 = ( 1 2 ), p2 = ( 1 2 ),
.
24) 9,2 10 6 J, 0 9,2 10 6 J, 1,7 10 6 J
25) ) 3,4 10 5 J, 3,6 10 5 J 3,4 10 5 J
) 3,6 10 5 J
27) ) 60 , 24,0 m/s, ) 20,0 s, 240 m
28) 20

3
24 ,5 s
2

29) 49 o
30) ,
10 s
32) 1,2 m/s 2
33) 2,5 s

366

34) ) 5,10 m/s, ) 578

35) ) = 60 , ) 1/ z
37)

g 3

38)
39)
40)
41)

) 480
) , ) 16,0 s
f min = 741 Hz, f max = 996,5 Hz
450 Hz
f
f1
= 1,21
42)
= 0 ,850
f
f
,
2

43)
44)
45)
46)
47)
48)

> 323 m/s

) 250 Hz, ) 0
) 460 Hz, ) 372 Hz
) 340 m, ) 300 m
t = 0
11 m/s

1) ()
2) 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,
6 , 7
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27) ) 1 3, 2 2 1
) 1 2, 2 1 3
) 1 2, 2 1 3 3
) 1 3, 2 2 3 1

1)
u=

t0 2
c
d

2) ) 87,4 m, ) 394 10 6
3) ) 0,480 c, ) ,
) 4,39 10 6 s
4) 229 km, 613 10 6 s
5) 0, 2,5 10 6 s
6) ) 1,6 10 8 s, )
7) (1 + 3,4 10 10 ), ) 3,0 10 5s
8) ( /c < 1)
9) ) 1,6 s, ) 2,3 10 8 m, ) 0,96 s
10) ) 0,43 c, ) 0,34 c, ) 111 m
11) 39,2 m
12) ) 1,42 s, ) 423 m
13) ) 0,99999662 c, ) 5,37 10 4 eV
14) 0,99 c
15) 55 m
16) 0,357 c
17) 0,95 c
18) 0,688 c,
19) ) 0,978 c, ) 0,648 c
20) 0,588 c
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3
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367

) 0,866 c, ) 0,986 c
) 0,9999999996 c, ) 7,66 cm
) 534, ) 0,99999825, ) 2,23
) 939,4 eV, ) 3,008 10 3 eV,
) 2,069 10 3 MeV
) 0,134 c, ) 4,65 KeV, ) 1,1%
) 117,3 MeV, 140,7 MeV,
) 459,8 eV, 5723,5 MeV
) 4,16 10 10 J, ) 1,17 10 10 J, ) 0,393
36 10 30 kg/
) 0,948 c, ) 226 MeV, ) 314 MeV/c
207 m e ,
1) , 2) , 3)
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1) 0,9988, 20,6, 2) 0,145, 1,01, 3) 0,073,
1,0027
) 5,71 GeV, 6,65 GeV, 6,58 GeV/c
) 3,11 eV, 3,62 MeV, 3,59 MeV/c
hf
) p =
c

36) ) 0,776 10 3 m, 16,25 10 12 s

) 16,0 10 3 m, 335 10 12 s,
38) ) 3,3 10 14, ) 8,7 10 13
39) 4,25 10 6 rad
40) 3km
41) 3 10 13, 13 10 13

KBANTOMHXANIKH

2)
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) 1,895 10 33, ) 5,27 10 32%

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27,8 Watt
) 8,9 10 17, ) 70,9 10 9
0,175 Watt
4528 K
2,013 eV, 295,8 nm
3,91 Volt
0,953 eV
) 1,916 eV, ) 0,155 Volt
) 0,5 eV, ) 2,61 eV, ) 476 nm
33,13 10 25 kg m/s, 0,121 10 11 m
) 3 10 9 , ) 26,504 10 8, ) 26,504 10 8
30,36 10 11 m, 7,86 10 18 J

368

31)
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() , () , () , ()
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1,456 10 11 m, 3,05 10 22 kg m/s
0,485 10 11 m
0,727 10 9 m
8,14 10 13 m
2,21 10 29 m
3,313 10 22 kg m/s, 9,94 10 14 J,
12,82 10 14 J
7,27 10 11 m
8,2 10 14 J
5 10 17 J, 1,41 10 5 sin 3 10 10 x
5,42 10 21 J
10 3 sin 5 10 6 x
4,59 10 14 m
1,7 10 24
3,29 10 13 J, 13,1 10 13 J
29,6 10 13 J
0,0279 %
2,37 10 6 %
0
8,148 mA
0,728 %
0,0182 m/s
0,287 10 12 m
1,33 10 31 m
6,63 10 2 kg m/s, 8,23 10 6 eV

264
184, 226
72
51
106
196
111
190
190
10
47
3
3
310, 311
149
105
266
125
124
53
51
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292
106
19
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Schrdinger 302
() 98
58
Heisenberg 311
Huygens 50, 58
3
70, 74
75
315
65

Steiner 129, 131

Torricelli 102
138
LC 3
107
49
14
(quantum) 287
143
122, 193
62
68
171
173, 175
174, 180
175
174, 180
48
10, 21
10
134
De Broglie 299
48
K 301
Lissajous 32
285
Lorenz 236
237
228
192
245
255
249
249
247
189
189
49
185
ichelson - Morley 229, 231
47

369

370

290
Bernoulli 99
52, 55
Wien 286
52, 56
Wien 286
() 97
Stefan - Boltzmann 286
57
109
292
58
302, 306
10
301, 314
76
95
96
127, 129, 130, 140
136
Planck 287
61
143
122
147, 148
58, 59, 66
24

Bohr 286
175
13, 14, 15, 20
14
16
26
26
190
190
242
242
237
Pitot 105
Young () 67
Compton 295
Doppler 201
260
308, 309
16
9
97
288
58
226
233, 234
104
11

371

1901 - 2007
Physics 1901
RNTGEN, WILHELM CONRAD, Germany, Munich University, b. 1845, d. 1923: "in recognition of the extraordinary services
he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him".
Physics 1902
The prize was awarded jointly to:
LORENTZ, HENDRIK ANTOON, the Netherlands, Leyden University, b. 1853, d. 1928; and
ZEEMAN, PIETER, the Netherlands, Amsterdam University, b. 1865, d. 1943:
"in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation
phenomena"
Physics 1903
The prize was divided, one half being awarded to:
BECQUEREL, ANTOINE HENRI, France, cole Polytechnique, Paris, b. 1852, d. 1908:
"in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity";
the other half jointly to:
CURIE, PIERRE, France, cole municipale de physique et de chimie industrielles, (Municipal School of Industrial Physics and
Chemistry), Paris, b. 1859, d. 1906; and his wife
CURIE, MARIE, ne SKLODOWSKA, France, b. 1867 (in Warsaw, Poland), d. 1934:
"in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel"
Physics 1904
RAYLEIGH, Lord (JOHN WILLIAM STRUTT), Great Britain, Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, b. 1842, d. 1919:
"for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies"
Physics 1905
LENARD, PHILIPP EDUARD ANTON, Germany, Kiel University, b. 1862 (in Pressburg, then Hungary), d. 1947:
"for his work on cathode rays"
Physics 1906
THOMSON, Sir JOSEPH JOHN, Great Britain, Cambridge University, b. 1856, d. 1940:
"in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases"
Physics 1907
MICHELSON, ALBERT ABRAHAM , U.S.A., Chicago University, b. 1852 (in Strelno, then Germany), d. 1931:
"for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid"
Physics 1908
LIPPMANN, GABRIEL, France, Sorbonne University, Paris, b. 1845 (in Hollerich, Luxembourg), d. 1921:
"for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference"
Physics 1909
The prize was awarded jointly to:
MARCONI, GUGLIELMO, Italy, Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co. Ltd., London, Great Britain, b. 1874, d. 1937; and
BRAUN, CARL FERDINAND, Germany, Strasbourg University, Alsace (then Germany), b. 1850, d. 1918:
"in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy"
Physics 1910
VAN DER WAALS, JOHANNES DIDERIK, the Netherlands, Amsterdam University, b. 1837, d. 1923:
"for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids"
Physics 1911
WIEN, WILHELM, Germany, Wrzburg University, b. 1864, d. 1928:
"for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat"

372

Physics 1912
DALN, NILS GUSTAF, Sweden, Swedish Gas-Accumulator Co., Liding-Stockholm, b. 1869, d. 1937:
"for his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys"
Physics 1913
KAMERLINGH-ONNES, HEIKE, the Netherlands, Leyden University b. 1853, d. 1926:
"for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia to the production of liquid helium"
Physics 1914
VON LAUE, MAX, Germany, Frankfurt-on-the Main University, b. 1879, d. 1960:
"for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals"
Physics 1915
The prize was awarded jointly to:
BRAGG, Sir WILLIAM HENRY, Great Britain, London University, b. 1862, d. 1942; and his son
BRAGG, Sir WILLIAM LAWRENCE, Great Britain, Victoria University, Manchester, b. 1890 (in Adelaide, Australia), d. 1971:
"for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays"
Physics 1916
The prize money allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.
Physics 1917
BARKLA, CHARLES GLOVER, Great Britain, Edinburgh University, b. 1877, d. 1944:
"for his discovery of the characteristic Rntgen radiation of the elements"
Physics 1918
PLANCK, MAX KARL ERNST LUDWIG, Germany, Berlin University, b. 1858, d. 1947:
"in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta"
Physics 1919
STARK, JOHANNES, Germany, Greifswald University, b. 1874, d. 1957:
"for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields"
Physics 1920
GUILLAUME, CHARLES EDOUARD, Switzerland, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights
and Measures), Svres, b. 1861, d. 1938:
"in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel
steel alloys"
Physics 1921
EINSTEIN, ALBERT, Germany and Switzerland, Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut (now Max-Planck-Institut) fr Physik, Berlin, b. 1879, d.
1955:
"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
Physics 1922
BOHR, NIELS, Denmark, Copenhagen University, b. 1885, d. 1962:
"for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them"
Physics 1923
MILLIKAN, ROBERT ANDREWS, U.S.A., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, b. 1868, d. 1953:
"for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect"
Physics 1924
SIEGBAHN, KARL MANNE GEORG, Sweden, Uppsala University, b. 1886, d. 1978:
"for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy"
Physics 1925
FRANCK, JAMES, Germany, Goettingen University, b. 1882, d. 1964; and
HERTZ, GUSTAV, Germany, Halle University, b. 1887, d. 1975:
"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom"

373

Physics 1926
PERRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE, France, Sorbonne University, Paris, b. 1870, d. 1942:
"for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium"
Physics 1927
The prize was divided equally between:
COMPTON, ARTHUR HOLLY, U.S.A., University of Chicago b. 1892, d. 1962:
"for his discovery of the effect named after him"; and
WILSON, CHARLES THOMSON REES, Great Britain, Cambridge University, b. 1869 (in Glencorse, Scotland), d. 1959:
"for his method of making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation of vapour"
Physics 1928
RICHARDSON, Sir OWEN WILLANS, Great Britain, London University, b. 1879, d. 1959:
"for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him"
Physics 1929
DE BROGLIE, Prince LOUIS-VICTOR, France, Sorbonne University, Institut Henri Poincar, Paris, b. 1892, d. 1987:
"for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons"
More...
Physics 1930
RAMAN, Sir CHANDRASEKHARA VENKATA, India, Calcutta University, b. 1888, d. 1970:
"for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him"
Physics 1931
The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.
Physics 1932
HEISENBERG, WERNER, Germany, Leipzig University, b. 1901, d. 1976:
"for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of
hydrogen"
Physics 1933
SCHRDINGER, ERWIN, Austria, Berlin University, Germany, b. 1887, d. 1961; and
DIRAC, PAUL ADRIEN MAURICE, Great Britain, Cambridge University, b. 1902, d. 1984:
"for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory"
Physics 1934
The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
Physics 1935
CHADWICK, Sir JAMES, Great Britain, Liverpool University, b. 1891, d. 1974:
"for the discovery of the neutron"
Physics 1936
The prize was divided equally between:
HESS, VICTOR FRANZ, Austria, Innsbruck University, b. 1883, d. 1964:
"for his discovery of cosmic radiation"; and
ANDERSON, CARL DAVID, U.S.A., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, b. 1905, d. 1991:
"for his discovery of the positron"
Physics 1937
The prize was awarded jointly to:
DAVISSON, CLINTON JOSEPH, U.S.A., Bell Telephone Laboratories, New York, NY, b. 1881, d. 1958; and
THOMSON, Sir GEORGE PAGET, Great Britain, London Universi ty, b. 1892, d. 1975:
"for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals"
Physics 1938
FERMI, ENRICO, Italy, Rome University, b. 1901, d. 1954:
"for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons"

374

Physics 1939
LAWRENCE, ERNEST ORLANDO, U.S.A., University of California, Berkeley, CA, b. 1901, d. 1958:
"for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements"
Physics 1940
The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
Physics 1941
The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
Physics 1942
The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
Physics 1943
STERN, OTTO, U.S.A., Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburg, PA, b. 1888 (in Sorau, then Germany), d. 1969:
"for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton"
Physics 1944
RABI, ISIDOR ISAAC, U.S.A., Columbia University, New York, NY, b. 1898, (in Rymanow, then Austria-Hungary) d. 1988:
"for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei"
Physics 1945
PAULI, WOLFGANG, Austria, Princeton University, NJ, U.S.A., b. 1900, d. 1958:
"for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli Principle"
Physics 1946
BRIDGMAN, PERCY WILLIAMS, U.S.A., Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, b. 1882, d. 1961:
"for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made therewith in the field
of high pressure physics"
Physics 1947
APPLETON, Sir EDWARD VICTOR, Great Britain, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London, b. 1892, d. 1965:
"for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer"
Physics 1948
BLACKETT, Lord PATRICK MAYNARD STUART, Great Britain, Victoria University, Manchester, b. 1897, d. 1974:
"for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and
cosmic radiation"
Physics 1949
YUKAWA, HIDEKI, Japan, Kyoto Imperial University and Columbia University, New York, NY, U.S.A., b. 1907, d. 1981:
"for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces"
Physics 1950
POWELL, CECIL FRANK, Great Britain, Bristol University, b. 1903, d. 1969:
"for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made
with this method"
Physics 1951
The prize was awarded jointly to:
COCKCROFT, Sir JOHN DOUGLAS, Great Britain, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Harwell, Didcot, Berks., b. 1897,
d. 1967; and
WALTON, ERNEST THOMAS SINTON, Ireland, Dublin University, b. 1903, d. 1995:
"for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles"
Physics 1952
The prize was awarded jointly to:
BLOCH, FELIX, U.S.A., Stanford University, Stanford, CA, b. 1905 (in Zurich, Switzerland), d. 1983; and
PURCELL, EDWARD MILLS, U.S.A., Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, b. 1912, d. 1997:
"for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith"
Physics 1953
ZERNIKE, FRITS (FREDERIK), the Netherlands, Groningen University, b. 1888, d. 1966:
"for his demonstration of the phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope"

375

Physics 1954
The prize was divided equally between:
BORN, MAX, Great Britain, Edinburgh University, b. 1882 (in Breslau, then Germany), d. 1970:
"for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction"; and
BOTHE, WALTHER, Germany, Heidelberg University, Max-Planck Institut (former Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut) fr medizinische
Forschung, Heidelberg, b. 1891, d. 1957:
"for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith"
Physics 1955
The prize was divided equally between:
LAMB, WILLIS EUGENE, U.S.A., Stanford University, Stanford, CA, b. 1913:
"for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum"; and
KUSCH, POLYKARP, U.S.A., Columbia University, New York, NY, b. 1911 (in Blankenburg, then Germany), d. 1993:
"for his precision determination of the magnetic moment of the electron"
Physics 1956
The prize was awarded jointly, one third each, to:
SHOCKLEY, WILLIAM, U.S.A., Semiconductor Laboratory of Beckman Instruments, Inc., Mountain View, CA, b. 1910 (in
London, Great Britain), d. 1989;
BARDEEN, JOHN, U.S.A., University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, b. 1908, d. 1991; and
BRATTAIN, WALTER HOUSER, U.S.A., Bell Telephone Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ, b. 1902, d. 1987:
"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"
Physics 1957
The prize was awarded jointly to:
YANG, CHEN NING, China, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, U.S.A., b. 1922; and
LEE, TSUNG-DAO, China, Columbia University, New York, NY, U.S.A., b. 1926:
"for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary
particles"
Physics 1958
The prize was awarded jointly to:
CHERENKOV, PAVEL ALEKSEYEVICH, USSR, Physics Institute of USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, b. 1904, d. 1990;
FRANK, IL'JA MIKHAILOVICH, USSR, University of Moscow and Physics Institute of USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, b.
1908, d. 1990; and
TAMM, IGOR YEVGENYEVICH, USSR, University of Moscow and Physics Institute of USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow,
b. 1885, d. 1971:
"for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect"
Physics 1959
The prize was awarded jointly to:
SEGR, EMILIO GINO, U.S.A., University of California, Berkeley, CA, b. 1905 (in Tivoli, Italy), d. 1989; and
CHAMBERLAIN, OWEN, U.S.A., University of California, Berkeley, CA, b. 1920:
"for their discovery of the antiproton"
Physics 1960
GLASER, DONALD A., U.S.A., University of California, Berkeley, CA, b. 1926:
"for the invention of the bubble chamber"
Physics 1961
The prize was divided equally between:
HOFSTADTER, ROBERT, U.S.A., Stanford University, Stanford, CA, b. 1915, d. 1990:
"for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the stucture of the nucleons"; and
MSSBAUER, RUDOLF LUDWIG, Germany, Technische Hochschule, Munich, and California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, CA, U.S.A., b. 1929:
"for his researches concerning the resonance absorption of gamma radiation and his discovery in this connection of the effect
which bears his name"
Physics 1962
LANDAU, LEV DAVIDOVICH, USSR, Academy of Sciences, Moscow, b. 1908, d. 1968:
"for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium"

376

Physics 1963
The prize was divided, one half being awarded to:
WIGNER, EUGENE P., U.S.A., Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, b. 1902 (in Budapest, Hungary), d. 1995:
"for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and
application of fundamental symmetry principles";
and the other half jointly to:
GOEPPERT-MAYER, MARIA, U.S.A., University of California, La Jolla, CA, b. 1906 (in Kattowitz, then Germany), d. 1972; and
JENSEN, J. HANS D., Germany, University of Heidelberg, b. 1907, d. 1973:
"for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure"
Physics 1964
The prize was divided, one half being awarded to:
TOWNES, CHARLES H., U.S.A., Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) , Cambridge, MA, b. 1915; and the other half
jointly to:
BASOV, NICOLAY GENNADIYEVICH, USSR, Lebedev Institute for Physics, Akademija Nauk, Moscow, b. 1922; and
PROKHOROV, ALEKSANDR MIKHAILOVICH, USSR, Lebedev Institute for Physics, Akademija Nauk, Moscow, b. 1916:
"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based
on the maser-laser principle"
Physics 1965
The prize was awarded jointly to:
TOMONAGA, SIN-ITIRO, Japan, Tokyo, University of Education, Tokyo, b. 1906, d. 1979;
SCHWINGER, JULIAN, U.S.A., Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, b. 1918, d. 1994; and
FEYNMAN, RICHARD P., U.S.A., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, b. 1918, d. 1988:
"for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles"
Physics 1966
KASTLER, ALFRED, France, cole Normale Suprieure, Universit de Paris, b. 1902, d. 1984:
"for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying hertzian resonances in atoms"
Physics 1967
BETHE, HANS ALBRECHT, U.S.A., Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, b. 1906 (in Strasbourg, then Germany):
"for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars"
Physics 1968
ALVAREZ, LUIS W., U.S.A., University of California, Berkeley, CA, b. 1911, d. 1988:
"for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states,
made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis"
Physics 1969
GELL-MANN, MURRAY, U.S.A., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, b. 1929:
"for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions"
Physics 1970
The prize was divided equally between:
ALFVN, HANNES, Sweden, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, b. 1908, d. 1995:
"for fundamental work and discoveries in magneto-hydrodynamics with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics";
and
NEL, LOUIS, France, University of Grenoble, Grenoble, b. 1904:
"for fundamental work and discoveries concerning antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism which have led to important applications in solid state physics"
Physics 1971
GABOR, DENNIS, Great Britain, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, b. 1900 (in Budapest, Hungary), d.
1979:
"for his invention and development of the holographic method"

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Physics 1972
The prize was awarded jointly to:
BARDEEN, JOHN, U.S.A., University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, b. 1908, d. 1991;
COOPER, LEON N., U.S.A., Brown University, Providence, RI, b. 1930; and
SCHRIEFFER, J. ROBERT, U.S.A., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, b. 1931:
"for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory"
Physics 1973
The prize was divided, one half being equally shared between:
ESAKI, LEO, Japan, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, U.S.A., b. 1925; and
GIAEVER, IVAR, U.S.A., General Electric Company, Schenectady, NY, b. 1929 (in Bergen, Norway),
"for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively"
and the other half to:
JOSEPHSON, BRIAN D., Great Britain, Cambridge University, Cambridge, b. 1940:
"for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which
are generally known as the Josephson effects"
Physics 1974
The prize was awarded jointly to:
RYLE, Sir MARTIN, Great Britain, Cambridge University, Cambridge, b. 1918, d. 1984; and
HEWISH, ANTONY, Great Britain, Cambridge University, Cambridge, b. 1924:
"for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars"
Physics 1975
The prize was awarded jointly to:
BOHR, AAGE, Denmark, Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen, b. 1922;
MOTTELSON, BEN, Denmark, Nordita, Copenhagen, b. 1926 (in Chicago, U.S.A.); and
RAINWATER, JAMES, U.S.A., Columbia University, New York, NY, b. 1917, d. 1986:
"for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the
theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection"
Physics 1976
The prize was divided equally between:
RICHTER, BURTON, U.S.A., Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford, CA, b. 1931;
TING, SAMUEL C. C., U.S.A., Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, (European Center for Nuclear
Research, Geneva, Switzerland), b. 1936:
"for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind"
Physics 1977
The prize was divided equally between:
ANDERSON, PHILIP W., U.S.A., Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ, b. 1923;
MOTT, Sir NEVILL F., Great Britain, Cambridge University, Cambridge, b. 1905, d. 1996; and
VAN VLECK, JOHN H., U.S.A., Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, b. 1899, d. 1980:
"for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems"
Physics 1978
The prize was divided, one half being awarded to:
KAPITSA, PYOTR LEONIDOVICH, USSR, Academy of Sciences, Moscow, b. 1894, d. 1984:
"for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics";
and the other half divided equally between:
PENZIAS, ARNO A., U.S.A., Bell Laboratories, Holmdel, NJ, b. 1933 (in Munich, Germany); and
WILSON, ROBERT W., U.S.A., Bell Laboratories, Holmdel, NJ, b. 1936:
"for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation"

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Physics 1979
The prize was divided equally between:
GLASHOW, SHELDON L., U.S.A., Lyman Laboratory, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, b. 1932;
SALAM, ABDUS, Pakistan, International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, and Imperial College of Science and
Technology, London, Great Britain, b. 1926, d. 1996; and
WEINBERG, STEVEN, U.S.A., Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, b. 1933:
"for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including inter alia the prediction of the weak neutral current"
Physics 1980
The prize was divided equally between:
CRONIN, JAMES, W., U.S.A., University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, b. 1931; and
FITCH, VAL L., U.S.A., Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, b. 1923:
"for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons"
Physics 1981
The prize was awarded by one half jointly to:
BLOEMBERGEN, NICOLAAS, U.S.A., Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, b. 1920 (in the Netherlands); and
SCHAWLOW, ARTHUR L., U.S.A., Stanford University, Stanford, CA, b. 1921, d. 1999:
"for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy";
and the other half to:
SIEGBAHN, KAI M., Sweden, Uppsala University, Uppsala, b. 1918:
"for his contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy"
Physics 1982
WILSON, KENNETH G., U.S.A., Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, b. 1936:
"for his theory for critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions"
Physics 1983
The prize was awarded by one half to:
CHANDRASEKHAR, SUBRAMANYAN, U.S.A., University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, b. 1910 (in Lahore, India), d. 1995:
"for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars"
and by the other half to:
FOWLER, WILLIAM A., U.S.A., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, b. 1911, d. 1995:
"for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in
the universe"
Physics 1984
The prize was awarded jointly to:
RUBBIA, CARLO, Italy, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, b. 1934; and
VAN DER MEER, SIMON, the Netherlands, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, b. 1925:
"for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of
weak interaction"
Physics 1985
VON KLITZING, KLAUS, Federal Republic of Germany, Max-Planck-Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart, b. 1943:
"for the discovery of the quantized Hall effect"
Physics 1986
The prize was awarded by one half to:
RUSKA, ERNST, Federal Republic of Germany, Fritz- Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Berlin, b. 1906, d. 1988:
"for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope"
and the other half jointly to:
BINNIG, GERD, Federal Republic of Germany, IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, Rschlikon, Switzerland, b. 1947; and
ROHRER, HEINRICH, Switzerland, IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, Rschlikon, Switzerland, b. 1933:
"for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope"
Physics 1987
The prize was awarded jointly to:
BEDNORZ, J. GEORG, Federal Republic of Germany, IBM Research Laboratory, Rschlikon, Switzerland, b. 1950; and
MLLER, K. ALEXANDER, Switzerland, IBM Research Laboratory, Rschlikon, Switzerland, b. 1927:
"for their important breakthrough in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials"

379

Physics 1988
The prize was awarded jointly to:
LEDERMAN, LEON M., U.S.A., Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, IL, b. 1922;
SCHWARTZ, MELVIN, U.S.A., Digital Pathways, Inc., Mountain View, CA, b. 1932; and
STEINBERGER, JACK, U.S.A., CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, b. 1921 (in Bad Kissingen, FRG):
"for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon
neutrino"
Physics 1989
The prize was awarded by one half to:
RAMSEY, NORMAN F., U.S.A., Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, b. 1915:
"for the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks"
and the other half jointly to:
DEHMELT, HANS G., U.S.A., University of Washington, Seattle, WA, b. 1922 (in Grlitz, Germany); and
PAUL, WOLFGANG, Federal Republic of Germany, University of Bonn, Bonn, b. 1913, d. 1993:
"for the development of the ion trap technique"
Physics 1990
The prize was awarded jointly to:
FRIEDMAN, JEROME I., U.S.A., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, b. 1930;
KENDALL, HENRY W., U.S.A., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, b. 1926, d. 1999; and
TAYLOR, RICHARD E., Canada, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, U.S.A., b. 1929:
"for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which
have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"
Physics 1991
de GENNES, PIERRE-GILLES, France, Collge de France, Paris, b. 1932:
"for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex
forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers"
Physics 1992
CHARPAK, GEORGES, France, cole Suprieure de Physique et Chimie, Paris and CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, b. 1924 ( in
Poland):
"for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber"
Physics 1993
The prize was awarded jointly to:
HULSE, RUSSELL A., U.S.A., Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, b. 1950, and
TAYLOR Jr., JOSEPH H., U.S.A., Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, b. 1941:
"for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation"
Physics 1994
The prize was awarded
"for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter"
by one half to: BROCKHOUSE, BERTRAM N., Canada, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, b. 1918:
"for the development of neutron spectroscopy"
and by the other half to: SHULL, CLIFFORD G., U.S.A., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, b. 1915:
"for the development of the neutron diffraction technique"
Physics 1995
The prize was awarded
"for pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics"
with one half to: PERL, MARTIN L., U.S.A., Stanford University, Stanford, CA, U.S.A., b. 1927,
"for the discovery of the tau lepton"
and with one half to: REINES, FREDERICK, U.S.A., University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA, U.S.A., b. 1918, d. 1998:
"for the detection of the neutrino"
Physics 1996
The prize was awarded jointly to:
LEE, DAVID M., U.S.A., Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, U.S.A., b. 1931;
OSHEROFF, DOUGLAS D., U.S.A., Stanford University, Stanford, CA, U.S.A., b. 1945; and
RICHARDSON, ROBERT C., U.S.A., Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, U.S.A, b. 1937:
"for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3"

380

Physics 1997
The prize was awarded jointly to:
CHU, STEVEN, U.S.A., Stanford University, Stanford, California, U.S.A., b. 1948;
COHEN-TANNOUDJI, CLAUDE, France, Collge de France and cole Normale Suprieure, Paris, France, b. 1933; and
PHILLIPS, WILLIAM D., U.S.A., National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, U.S.A, b. 1948:
"for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light"
Physics 1998
The prize was awarded jointly to:
LAUGHLIN, ROBERT B., U.S.A., Stanford University, Stanford, CA, U.S.A., b. 1950;
STRMER, HORST L., Germany, Columbia University, New York, NY and Bell Labs, NJ, USA b. 1949; and
TSUI, DANIEL C., U.S.A., Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, U.S.A, b. 1939:
"for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations"

Physics 1999
The prize was awarded jointly to:
't HOOFT, GERADDUSG, Netherlands, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands, b. 1946; and
VELTMAN, MARTINUS J.G., Netherlands, University of Michigan, USA, b. 1931:
"for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics"
Physics 2000
The prize was awarded with one half jointly to:
ALFEROV, ZHORES IVANOVICH, Russia, A.F. Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia, b. 1930;
KROEMER, HERBERT, Federal Republic of Germany, University of California at Santa Barbara, California, USA, b. 1928:
"for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and optoelectronics";
and one half to
KILBY, JACK ST. CLAIR, USA, Texas Instruments, Dallas, Texas, USA, b. 1923, d. 2005:
"for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit"
Physics 2001
The prize was awarded jointly to:
CORNELL, ERIC ALLIN, USA, JILA and National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Boulder, Colorado, USA, b.
1961;
KETTERLE, WOLFGANG, Federal Republic of Germany, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA, b. 1957;
WIEMAN, CARL EDWIN, USA, JILA and University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA, b. 1951:
"for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the
properties of the condensates"
Physics 2002
The prize was awarded with one half jointly to:
DAVIS, RAYMOND Jr., USA, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA, b. 1914,
d. 2006;
KOSHIBA, MASATOSHI, Japan, International Center for Elementary Particle Physics, University of Tokyo, Japan, b. 1926:
"for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos";
and one half to
GIACCONI, RICCARDO, USA, Associated Universities Inc., Washington DC, USA, Associated Universities Inc., Washington
DC, USA, b. 1931:
"for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources"
Physics 2003
The prize was awarded jointly to:
ABRIKOSOV, ALEXEI ALEXEEVICH, USA and Russia, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, USA, b. 1928;
GINZBURG, VITALY LAZAREVICH, Russia, P.N. Lebedev Physical Institute, Moscow, Russia, b. 1916; and
LEGGETT, ANTHONY JAMES, UK and USA, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA. b. 1938:
"for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids"

381

Physics 2004
The prize was awarded jointly to:
GROSS, DAVID J., USA, Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA, b. 1941;
POLITZER, H. DAVID, USA, California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena, USA, b. 1949; and
WILCZEK, FRANK, USA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, USA, b. 1951:
"for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction"
Physics 2005
The prize was awarded with one half to:
GLAUBER, ROY J., USA, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA, b. 1925:
"for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence" ; and one half jointly to
HALL, JOHN L., USA, JILA, University of Colorado and National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, USA, b.
1934; and
HANSCH, THEODOR W., Germany, Max-Planck-Institut f?r Quantenoptik, Garching and Ludwig-Maximilians-Universit?t,
Munich, Germany, b. 1941:
"for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique"
Physics 2006
The prize was awarded jointly to:
MATHER, JOHN C., USA, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA, b. 1946; and
SMOOT, GEORGE F., USA, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA, b. 1945:
"for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation"
Physics 2007
The prize was awarded jointly to:
FERT, ALBERT, France, Unite Mixte de Physique CNRS/THALES, Universite Paris-Sud, Orsay, France, b. 1938; and
GRUNBERG, PETER, Germany, Forschungszentrum J?lich, Germany, b. 1939:
"for the discovery of giant magnetoresistance"