Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Submitted by
AMIT KUMAR
ROLLNO: 100904009
Ms.MANVIR KAUR
Asst. Professor
Thapar University
Faculty Coordinator
Industry Coordinator
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work entitled is an authentic record of my own work carried
out at GHTP as requirements of six months project semester for the award of degree of B.E.
(Electrical Engineering), Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology (Deemed
University), Patiala, under the guidance of Ms. JASWINDER SINGH, Sr. Executive
Engineer and Ms. MANVIR KAUR, lecturer during July to December, 2012.
Amit Kumar
100904009
Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of our knowledge
and belief.
Asst. Professor
Thapar University
(Faculty Coordinator)
(Industry Coordinator)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Industrial training is the effort to provide linkage between the student and Industry in order to
develop the awareness of industrial approach for saving damage from problems and is based
on broad understanding of tools, modes of operation of Industrial Organization
With a deep sense of gratitude, I express my sincere thanks to PSEB, Patiala for permitting
me to take up training at the Organization. I wish to extend my thanks to
Er. H.C. KAMBOJ (S.E.)
Er. JASWINDER SINGH (Sr. EXECUTIVE ENGINEER)
Er. JASVINDER SINGH (A.E)
and other members of their team for their considerable help to complete the training in
different sections of electrical department. I humbly express my cordial thanks to all the
people for their extra pain to see me through my problems. They have been always a source
of encouragement and inspiration for me. Under their efficient guidance, I had no problem in
understanding the various phenomenon occurring in the organization.
I am also thankful to staff of industry for their kind cooperation and help, which made my
training a success. Also I will like to thank http://electrical-engineering-portal.com for
providing the information that helped me a great deal to complete this report.
I feel that information gathered by me during this training will surely help me a lot in coming
future.
SUMMARY
My training at GHTP Lehra Mohabbat was from 12th July to 31th Dec 2012. The department
of my training was ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE CELL.
The first part of my training was spent in learning the maintenance of HT & LT motors, and
turbo generator which covered the testing of motors and problems we come across in motors.
The second part was about learning the importance and types of maintenance at switchgear
cell. I learned about the various aspects of switchgear, battery bank, ESP, DC generator.
The third part was about protecting the electrical auxiliaries with relay protection system. I
studied about different types of relays used for the protection of generator and motor .
I also witnessed the over hauling of one of the generating unit which helped me to understand
the physical structure of various components that constitute a generator and turbine.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Summary
1. Introduction to GHTP
1.1 Introduction
10
1.2 Energy management policy 11
1.3 Electrical maintenance circle 13
1.3.1 Introduction
13
1.3.2 Four cells
13
2. Technical Specification of HT Motor
2.1 Scope
14
2.2 General 14
2.3 Site conditions 14
2.4 Applicable codes 14
2.5 Duty 16
2.6 Electrical system 16
2.7 Rating and performance 16
2.8 Direction of rotation 17
2.9 Enclosure 17
2.10 Windings 17
2.11 Winding temperature detectors 17
2.12 Terminal box 18
2.13 Bearings 18
2.13.1 Grease lubricated bearings 19
2.13.2 Sleeve bearing 19
2.13.3 Forced lubrication bearing 19
2.14 Insulation 19
2.14.1 Winding insulation 19
2.14.2 Bearing insulation 20
2.15 Joints
20
2.16 Bearing temperature detectors 20
2.17 Cooling 20
2.18 Space heater 20
2.19 Earthing terminals 20
2.20 Name plate 21
2.21 Inspection and testing 21
2.21.1 Schedule of type tests 22
2.21.2 Schedule of routine tests 22
3. Generator
3.1 Introduction
24
6
10
14
24
3.2 Stator 24
3.2.1 Stator frame 24
3.2.2 Stator core
25
3.2.3 Stator winding 25
3.2.4 Stator cooling
26
3.3 Rotor
26
3.3.1 Rotor winding
27
3.3.2 Rotor cooling
27
3.3.3 Slip rings and brush gear 28
4. Switchgears
4.1 Terminology used in switchgears 29
4.1.1 Index A 29
4.1.2 Index B 31
4.1.3 Index C 33
4.1.4 Index D 38
4.1.5 Index E 40
4.1.6 Index F 41
4.1.7 Index G 42
4.1.8 Index H 43
4.1.9 Index I 43
4.1.10 Index L 45
4.1.11 Index M 46
4.1.12 Index N 49
4.1.13 Index P 50
4.1.14 Index Q 52
4.1.15 Index R 52
4.1.16 Index S
55
4.1.17 Index T
60
4.1.18 Index U
63
4.1.19 Index V
63
4.1.20 Index W
64
4.1.21 Index Z
64
5. Electrostatic Precipitator
5.1 Introduction
67
5.2 Working principle 68
5.2.1 Rectified output for ESP 68
5.3 General description 69
5.3.1 Mechanical system 70
5.3.2 Electrical system
71
5.4 General safety
73
5.5 Special instruction 74
5.6 Commissioning
76
5.7 Preparation after maintenance 81
5.8 Air load test
82
7
29
67
5.8.1 Preparations 83
5.8.2 Procedure
83
5.8.3 Start up
83
5.8.4 Operation
84
5.8.5 Operational checks 84
5.8.6 Shut down
85
5.9 Important instructions 87
6. Battery Bank
6.1 DC system at thermal power station 89
6.2 Types of battery used 90
6.3 Procedure followed in commissioning a battery 90
6.4 Equipment used in 220V DC supply system 90
6.4.1 Sources of AC power
90
6.4.2 Voltage level indicating device 90
6.4.3 AVR
90
6.4.4 Insulation monitoring device 90
6.4.5 Flickering light device
90
6.4.6 Heaters 91
6.4.7 Zones
91
6.4.8 Diodes
91
6.4.9 Motors
91
6.5 Features
91
6.5.1 Spark regulation
91
6.5.2 Fast ramp control
91
6.6 Modes of operation
92
6.6.1 Black corona mode 92
6.6.2 Charge ratio mode 92
6.6.3 Charge ratio
92
6.7 Testing and commissioning of substation DC system 92
6.7.1 Objective 92
6.7.2 Test instruments required
92
6.7.3 Commissioning test procedure
92
6.8 Battery limit
93
6.9 Acceptance limits
94
6.10 Different types of battery 94
6.11 Ni-Cd battery
97
7. Protection System
7.1 Relay : an introduction
99
7.1.1 What is relay
99
7.1.2 Functions of protective relay 99
7.2 Desirable quantities of protective relaying 99
7.3 Terminology of protective relay 100
7.4 Types of relays
101
7.4.1 Types of protection relays 101
8
89
99
102
117
118
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO GHTP
1.1 INTRODUCTION:Guru Hargobind Thermal Plant is the third and the latest of the thermal plants of Punjab State
Power Corporation Limited and is located 23 km short of Bathinda on National High Way
No. 64 and is situated opposite Village Lehra Mohabbat. Total Plant area is 1025 Acres.
Basic fuel is coal and furnace oil.
GHTP Lehra Mohabbat comprised of two stages during establishment:1. Stage-I consisting of two Units of 210MW each.
2. Stage-II consisting of two units of 250 MW each.
a. Unit-1 & 2 of stage-I were synchronized on 29-12-97 & 16-10-98 and the units started
commercial operation w.e.f. 26-6-99 and 4-1-99 respectively.
b. Unit-3 & 4 of stage-II are generating electricity w.e.f 05.02.2008 and 11.10.2008 and
these units started commercial operation w.e.f. 16.10.2008 & 25.01.2010 respectively.
GHTP has surpassed its own records of highest generation during previous four Successive
years and is being operated at the lowest cost of generation amongst all PSPCL power plants
despite having higher interest and depreciation. This plant has shown excellent performance
and huge savings have been made in terms of earning incentives by performing better than
PSERC targets through meticulous Planning. GHTP Lehra Mohabbat known for its
performance has surpassed another milestone by generating 75152 Lac units (Including
14729 Lac Units generated by Unit-4 during stabilization period before its commercial
operation) against the target of 65790 Lac units set by Central Electricity Authority, New
Delhi. The plant load factor of 96.44% for commercial operation is the highest ever plant
load factor in PSPCL. The plant has surpassed its own previous highest record of 95.10%
plant load factor achieved during the year 2007-08. This plant load factor of 96.44% achieved
during 2009-10 is even higher than the plant load factor of 95.99% which was achieved by
GHTP Stage-I units and was the highest amongst all state sector power plants during 200809.
10
The plant utilization factor of GHTP remained more than 100% at an ever highest value of
100.38% during 2009-10. The auxiliary consumption during this year remained at its lowest
ever value of 8.23% against a PSERC target of 9.00%, thus saving Crores of rupees, which
speaks of high plant performance at which the plant is being operated. The oil consumption
remained at 0.373 ml/ kWh against the set the set target of 1.0ml/kWh.
GHTP has achieved the highest ever monthly generation of 7065 Lakh units at a plant load
factor of 103.21% during March 2010 which is highest ever monthly plant load factor at any
plant of PSPCL.
GHTP Unit 1 has run continuously from 28.02.2009 to 12.09.2009 (195.4 days) without any
interruption. This is a new record of longest continuous run by any unit of PSPCL.
The relentless pursuit of excellence has helped to make GHTP a trend-setter, leader and a
light house in Punjab State Power Corporation Limited by achieving high plant performance
and economy. GHTP has taken a lead in cutting down its capital overhauling period from
traditional practice of 45 days to as low as 28.5 days and annual overhauling period from 20
days to less than 14 days resulting into savings of Crores of rupees by PSPCL in terms of
purchase of power. This had been possible due to lust of excelling continuously prevailing
amongst GHTP engineers and staff. In the year 2009-10, annual maintenances of unit no. 1 &
2 were carried out in less than 29 days against approved shut down period of 40 days. The
units were brought on bar 11.12 days ahead of schedule; thereby an extra generation of 560
Lac units saving Rs. 30 Crores approx. was done in terms of power purchase.
1.2 ENERGY MANAGEMENT POLICY:Team of engineers and staff of GHTP Lehra Mohabbat are committed to evolve, improve and
sustain in energy conservation through:
1. Improved plant utilization.
2. Benchmarking specific energy consumption with the best norms in country.
3. Monitoring of energy consumptions to identify the areas for improvements.
4. Optimum Utilization of auxiliaries for reduction of energy consumption.
5. Promoting energy awareness and encouraging employee participation for energy
conservation.
11
The team of engineers and officials of GHTP are fully committed and motivated to bring
more laurels to PSPCL and the state of Punjab. Suggestions for improvement keep pouring
in, are encouraged, discussed and implemented.
In- house interactions and training sessions help in sharing experiences and thus thinking
about the various innovative methods to save energy is possible.
Energy Conservation:The following benefits have been accrued to GHTP as a result of implementation of
innovations / best practices to improve the energy efficiency of GHTP:
1. GHTP has achieved thermal efficiency of 35.52% during 2009-10 against a target of
34.40% set up by Punjab State Electricity Regulatory Commission.
2. Auxiliary consumption of GHTP remained at its lowest ever value of 8.23%.
3. At GHTP, differential pressure across feed control valves of Boiler feed pump has
been reduced from its normal value of 6.0Kg/cm2 to 0.4Kg/cm2. This has resulted in
reduction of nearly 13 Amperes of current on 6.6 KV on each running BFP.
4. Two no. TACW pumps of 110 KW each are being stopped in winter by running one
no. TACW pump against normal running of 2 no. TACW pumps for each unit.
5. As DM water make up is very low, so one no. hot well make up pump has been put
into operation for two units against running of one no. separate pump for each unit.
6. 125 Watt Mercury vapour lamps have been replaced with 70 watt Sodium vapour
lamp, wherever possible.
7. The deviation in all the parameters affecting efficiency of the plant has been made
available online to the operators. Alarm signals are generated in all such cases to take
corrective actions by the operator.
8. Startup of auxiliaries has been optimized.
12
EM 1 CELL
EM 2 CELL
EM 3 CELL
EM 4 CELL
HT & LT
motors, generators
, bus ducts,lifts
and hoists
HT & LT
switchgear,
Protection system,
fix detection and
alarm,
communication
system, variable
frequency drives,
generator excitation
system
220KV
switchyard, 66kv
switchyard,
Dc batteries,
Battery chargers
All transformer
lighting
13
CHAPTER 2
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION FOR HT MOTOR
2.1 SCOPE
These specifications cover the design, manufacture, inspection, testing, packing and supply of
flameproof, weather proof high voltage squirrel cage induction motor and associated
accessories, to run mainline pump as specified.
2.2 GENERAL
The motor and its components parts and auxiliaries shall be designed and manufactured to
provide inter-changeability in the product of any vendor between the same class, size and
type. The vendor shall use only highest standard material and the workmanship employed
shall be of best quality accepted internationally.
2.3 SITE CONDITIONS
Motor shall be suitable for operating satisfactorily in humid and highly corrosive atmosphere
prevailing in Refineries and other petroleum installations.
Ambient temperature: 5oCto50oC
Humidity: 98%
Altitude: Less than 1000 mtrs above (MSL) Mean Sea Level
2.4 APPLICABLE CODES
The offered motor and its components shall be in accordance with latest editions of following
standards. Vendor shall clearly bring out in the offer the applicable standard for every
features of the offered motor, if different from the following standards.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
IS: 1231/ Equivalent IEC Std.: Dimensions of three phase foot mounted Induction
motors.
g)
IS: 2223/ Equivalent IEC Std.: Dimensions of flange mounted AC induction motors
h)
i)
j)
IS: 8789/ Equivalent IEC Std.: Value of performance characteristics for three
Phase induction motors
k)
IS: 4029/ Equivalent IEC Std.: Guide for testing of three phase induction motors
l)
m)
IEC 60034-14
o)
p)
q)
IS: 7816/ Equivalent IEC Std.: Guide for testing insulation resistance of rotating
machines
r)
IEC 60034-9
: Noise level
15
2.5 DUTY
Motor offered shall be suitable for continuous duty for driving the pump having details given
in the pump data sheet, at the required loads. The motor shall be designed suitable for inverter
operation using variable frequency drives as per specification given in Clause-5 of 9579-02TS-102 as well as direct on line. The starting current shall be limited to 5 times the full load
current. Motor shall be designed for restarting under full load, after a momentary loss of
voltage with the possibility of application of 100% of the rated voltage when the residual
voltage has dropped down to 50% and is in phase opposition to the applied voltage. The
offered motor shall also be suitable for DOL starting at 80% of rated voltage.
The motor shall be designed to allow the minimum of consecutive starts indicated below:
1. No. of consecutive start ups with initial temperature of motor at ambient level (cold)
2. No. of
temperature(hot)
3. No. of
working temperature
2.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
(i) Rated voltage: 6600 Volts10%
(ii) Rated frequency: 50 Hz3% (Shall be suitable for variable frequency drives)
(iii) Any Combination of (i) & (ii)
(iv) Rated output: To meet the pump requirement as specified
2.7 RATING & PERFORMANCE
Motors will be required for continuous, satisfactory operations under following conditions.
1. Direct On Line
2. With a solid state power supply consisting of an adjustable frequency inverter for
speed control
3. Current waveforms produced by the power supply including the current harmonics
generated by the waveform
4. At any speed to meet pump operational parameters as per the requirements
16
Standard. Winding shall be adequately braced to prevent any relative movement during
operating conditions
2.11 WINDING TEMPERATURE DETECTORS
The motor shall be provided with platinum resistance temperature detector (RTD) of 100
resistance and temperature coefficient of 3.85 x 10-3. RTDs shall be located in suitable
positions to measure the winding temperature. A minimum of duplex type three (one per
phase) or Simplex type Six (Two per phase) detectors shall be provided between the coil
sides to measure the winding temperature and Duplex type three (one per phase) or Simplex
type Six (Two per phase) at the base of the slots to measure core temperature, each placed
120 OC apart. A separate terminal box shall be provided for the temperature detectors for
17
connection with the remotely located controller unit of the Owner. Details of this terminal
box are given elsewhere in the tender.
2.12 TERMINAL BOX
The ends of the winding shall be brought out into the terminal box by means of non-tracking
fire proof and non-hygroscopic bushing with adequately sized bolted anti vibration terminals.
The terminals shall be adequately designed to prevent slackening of connections & reduction
of clearances due to vibration. Line terminal shall be thoroughly insulated from the frame.
The terminal box shall be located on the right side of motor, viewed from the driving end.
The terminal box shall be EEx(d) terminal box suitable for bottom cable entry.
Neutral point of the star windings shall be brought out through a bushing in separate
flameproof terminal box for housing neutral CT for differential protection. The housing shall
be flameproof/explosion proof certified. CT shall be in the vendors scope of supply. CT
ratio, burden, short time rating etc. shall be firmed up during detail engineering. Accuracy
class shall be PS (with designed magnetizing current and the knee point potential) or
as per the differential relay requirements (relay shall be part of the Owner supplied
HT switchboards).
Terminal box and cable entries shall be flameproof and explosion proof certified having
flameproof designation as EEx(d). Necessary clearances and crepage distances between live
parts and between live parts & earth shall be kept. Motor terminal box shall be suitable for
withstanding a 3-phase short circuit at the terminals of the motor for 0.25 sec.
Terminals shall be distinctly marked inside the terminal box as per relevant IS./ International
Standards.
lubrication shall be furnished along with the offer. Motors shall have preferably Grease
lubricated bearings (Ball or Roller) or of manufacturers standard type. Whenever sleeve
bearings are provided (For 2 Pole motors with rating above 750kW), it should be of proven
design. In case motor bearings are forced lubricated, the system for same shall also be
supplied with the motors & bidder has to submit details thereof with the offer.
2.13.1 GREASE LUBRICATED BEARINGS
Bearings shall be capable of grease injection from outside without removal of covers. When
grease nipples are provided, these shall be associated where necessary, with appropriately
located relief devices, which ensure passage of grease through the bearings. The motors shall
have facility of on line greasing.
2.13.2 SLEEVE BEARINGS
Sleeve type bearings shall be fitted with oiler rings for continuous lubrication. The Oil
reservoirs shall have a form suitable for allowing settling of any solids or residuals particles
contained in the oil. The covers shall be provided with suitable openings for adding and
draining oil, together with an overflow plug and level indication. The shaft shall have perfect
seals so as to prevent entry of dust or moisture.
2.13.3 FORCED LUBRICATION BEARINGS
The oil lubrication system shall be independent of the driven machine. Common lubrication
system for the driven equipment and the motor can be accepted provided it is separate from
the seal oil system. The common lubrication system shall be provided with suitable degassing
equipments to extract gas reducing the probability of gas entering the motor.
2.14 INSULATION
2.14.1 WINDING INSULATION
The motor winding shall be specially treated to resist the action of corrosive agents,
liquid or gaseous substances and sulphur vapour as may be present in the atmosphere of
petroleum installation that may tend to dissolve or deteriorate the insulation. The winding
shall be tropicalized and shall be suitably varnished, baked and treated with epoxy gel for
operating satisfactorily in humid and corrosive atmospheres. Adequate insulation shall be
provided between coils of different phases, which lie together.
19
Motor insulation shall be designed to withstand high levels of dv/dt for inverter operation.
The supplier shall clearly indicate the level of inter turn insulation provided.
2.14.2 BEARING INSULATION
The NDE bearing shall be insulated from the motor frame to avoid circulating shaft current.
A detailed drawing showing the insulation arrangement shall be furnished. In any case, the
induced voltage at the shaft end with motor running on no-load shall not exceed 250 mV rms
for ball/roller bearings and 400 mV rms for sleeve bearings.
2.15 JOINTS
All joints in the motor insulation such as coil connection etc shall be insulated to the same
level as that of complete motor. Additionally, joints should have minimum resistance and
mechanically strong. Joints shall be braced to withstand various stresses likely to encounter
during their service
2.16 BEARING TEMPERATURE DETECTORS
Resistance type temperature detectors for both DE & NDE shall be provided. Details of the
temperature sensing device and their termination are given in the Instrumentation section of
the tender.
2.17 COOLING
Motor shall be fan-cooled. Cooling fan should be arranged to direct the airflow towards the
motor pump coupling. The fans shall be of corrosion resistant material, non-sparking type
and appropriately protected with a fan guard.
2.18 SPACE HEATER
The motor shall have space heater, suitable for 240 V single phase, to avoid condensation
during shut down period. Heater shall conform to the provisions of applicable IEC/IS codes
for installations in hazardous areas. The heater leads shall be brought out into separate
flameproof (EExd) -weather proof terminal box fitted with flameproof gland of NPT size suit.
2.19 EARTHING TERMINALS
Provision shall be made on the body of the motor to earth effectively at two distinct locations
(Diametrically Opposite). Requisite nuts and spring washers shall be provided for earth
20
connection. These earthing terminals shall be in addition to the earth terminal provided in the
terminal box for earthing of the armour. Minimum size of the stud shall be 12mm
2.20 NAME PLATE
A corrosion resistant stainless steel nameplate shall be affixed on the body of the motor at an
accessible and easily visible place and shall have the following data.
1. Manufacturers name
2. Serial number and frame size
3. Duty
4. Rated KW, voltage, current, frequency
5. Number of phases
6. Winding connection
7. Type of motor with ISI/International marking
8. RPM at full load
9. Insulation class
10. Maximum temperature rise
11. Type of cooling
12. Certifying authority & certificate no.
13. Tag. No. (shall be furnished by the Owner at the time of drawing approval)
14. Owners purchase order No.
15. NDE bearing type and cat. No.
16. DE bearing type and Cat. No.
17. Any other data specified by relevant IS/IEC.
18. Any other data the manufacturer deems fit.
2.21 INSPECTION & TESTING
Owner and/or representative of Owner shall have free entry in the factory of the manufacturer
for inspection of the motor during the process of manufacture and after the motor is ready for
final inspection and testing. It shall be the responsibility of the vendor to submit approval
certificate from competent authority of explosive of their country, in support of having got
the approval of subject motor for its application in hazardous area.
The vendor shall inform the Owner, not less than Four weeks in advance, when the motors
are ready for final inspection and testing. All routine and type testing shall be done in
21
vendor
shall
make
all
arrangements for inspection and testing at his or manufacturers works. The testing and
inspection facilities shall be as per internationally acceptable norms. The motor shall be
subjected to routine test and type tests as per latest editions of IS or IEC standards.
Type test shall be conducted on One Motor of each rating and frame size and routine test
shall be conducted on all motors. All tests shall be duly witnessed by the owners Inspector.
Internal tests certificate for all motors from the motor manufacturer along with approval
certificate from the competent authority of explosives from the country of origin in support of
having got the approval of subject motor for its use in hazardous area as specified, are to be
submitted to the Inspector for verification & endorsement.
2.21.1 SCHEDULE OF TYPE TESTS
Type tests to be carried out & witnessed in one sample of each type/rating
1. Full load test to determine efficiency, power factor and slip
2. Temperature rise test
3. Measurement of surface temperature of frame and space heater
4. Momentary over load test
5. Over speed test
6. Measurement of starting torque, starting current, full load torque, pull out torque
7. Tan delta test
8. Measurement of efficiency & power factor on the motor by giving , and full load
9. NDE Bearing insulation checking
2.21.2 SCHEDULE OF ROUTINE TESTS
Routine tests to be carried out & Witnessed 100 %. Following checks and tests to be carried
out under routine tests.
1. General visual checks & dimensional checks, name plate details and mounting
2. Terminal box type and location checking (Exd). Checking of size of cable glands
3. Verification of CT rating in neutral terminal box
4. Winding resistance measurement
22
5. Reduced voltage running up test at no load - to check the ability of motor to run up to
the full speed on no load with 1/3 of the rated line voltage applied to the motor for
squirrel cage motors
6. Insulation resistance test (both before and after the high voltage tests)
7. High voltage test
8. No load test of motor to measure power, current & speed to determine no load loss,
etc
9. Locked-rotor test and measurement of Voltage, current and power input at a suitable
reduced voltage
10. Polarisation Index test
11. Shaft voltage checking
12. Resistance measurement of space heater, RTDs & BTDs.
13. Measurement of Vibration level
14. Measurement of Noise level
15. Measurement of shaft centre height dimensions and clearance in terminal box.
16. Verification of direction of rotation, cooling system & lubrication system.
23
CHAPTER 3
GENERATOR
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Generators in steam power plant (synchronous m/c) consists of two-pole rotor excited by a
winding around the poles fed from a DC supply rotating in a stator containing a winding
which can act as a generator when driven by a prime mover, or can drive a mechanical
device, when receiving power from the supply system. The generator stator is a gas tight
construction, supporting and enclosing the stator winding, core and hydrogen coolers .The
cooling medium, hydrogen, is contained within the frame, and circulated by fans mounted at
either end of the rotor. The generator is driven by a directly coupled steam turbine at a speed
of 3000 rpm
3.2 STATOR
3.2.1 STATOR FRAME
The stator frame is casing of welded plate construction. The function of stator frame is to
contain and support the stator core, windings, and hydrogen coolers and also to provide paths
for distributing the cooling hydrogen through the generator. The internal section plates
provide stiffness to support the core, decrease vibration and impact necessary mechanical
strength to withstand the gas pressure encountered even under extreme operating conditions.
Wedge shaped steel guide bars are welded on the beams in the stator to support the stator
core. The stator frame is supported by the foundation through footing welded to the sides of
the shell. The end shield are made of manganese steel casting, are bolted to the inside of the
shields. Inner and Side walls are suitably blanked to house four longitudinal hydrogen gas
coolers inside the stator body.
The end shields, coolers, inspection windows etc., are carefully sealed to prevent any leakage
of hydrogen from the generator and the entire generator is leak-proof.
Owing to the explosive nature of the mixture of hydrogen and air, the frames are designed to
withstand any incidental exposing and over pressure that may develop.
24
120 winding bars; two in each slot, forming fractional pitch double layer winding. Pure high
conductivity copper is used.
3.2.4 STATOR COOLING
One of the efficient ways of taking away the losses due to heat from the winding of any
machine is by direct cooling using water. High quality de-mineralised water is circulated
through the hollow conductor of the stator winding. The cooling water must have
conductivity less than 2.5 micro mho/cm.
The stator water cooler is shell and tube type heat exchanger and vertically mounted. D.M.
water flow through the non-magnetic shell. The heat absorbed by the D.M. water is dissipated
to secondary coolant in the primary water cooler. Cooling water flows through the stainless
steel tubes provided inside the cooler. The magnetic filter consists of upper and lower body
housing the permanent magnet system comprising of magnets, pole shoes and pole rings and
is vertically mounted to trap Ferro-magnetic particles present in the water.
3.3 ROTOR
The turbo-generator rotor shaft is forged from a single piece of special chromium, nickel and
molybdenum alloy steel carefully heat treated to obtain the required mechanical and magnetic
properties. The solid poles are provided with additional slots in short lengths of two different
configurations, one slot acts as an outlet for the hydrogen, which cools the over hang and the
other is used to accommodate damper segments. Within the barrel portion the rotor slot
wedges behave as damper winding bars during unbalanced operation. Longitudinal slots are
distributed over the circumference so that two solid poles are obtained. The field coils are
inserted in the slots against centrifugal force by wedges. These wedges are individually fitted
and driven into dovetail openings machined in the rotor. The coils are wound around the
poles to obtain one north magnetic and one south magnetic pole on the shaft.
26
27
M/s B.H.E.L
Type
MW Rating
210
MVA Rating
247
16.5 KV
8645 Amps.
Rotor Cooling
Hydrogen
Stator Cooling
D.M.Water
28
CHAPTER 4
SWITCHGEARS
4.1 TERMINOLOGY USED IN SWITCHGEARS
4.1.1 INDEX A
Air Blast Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker using compressed air to force the extinction of the arc through an arc-chute
system.
Air Magnetic Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker that uses air as its insulating medium, and an arc-chute system for
dissipating the arc, a method of generating a magnetic field which forces the arc into the arc
chute, and with possible assistance from a air puffer system to blow the arc into the arc
chutes.
ANSI Device Function Numbers
Defined in ANSI standard C37.2, the Device Function Numbers are a world-wide
standardized system for describing the function of many protection and control components
within switchgear.
They are commonly used to describe the type of protection applied to a circuit. For example,
the most common form of protection is overcurrent, usually designated as 50/51. This
designation actually covers two types of overcurrent protection, 50 which is instantaneous
protection, and 51 which is a time overcurrent protection.
Various suffixes can be used, which are sometimes context sensitive. For example, 87
represents differential protection in general, while 87T is specifically transformer differential
protection and 87G is specifically generator differential protection. However, 50G refers to
instantaneous overcurrent protection on the ground circuit (in this case the G refers to ground,
not generator).
29
Type A eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front of the switchgear
during an internal arcing fault,
2.
Type B eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the
switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
30
3.
Type C eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the
switchgear, from between compartments within the same cell, and between adjacent
cells during an internal arcing fault.
Arc-resistant switchgear has traditionally been metal-clad, but the basic concept could also be
applied to other types of switchgear as well.
Arcing Contacts
The contacts of a switching device upon which the arc is deliberately drawn after the main
contacts have parted.
Arcing Time
The amount of time between the first initiation of the arc and the instant of final arc
extinction in all phases.
Asymmetrical Current
The current which appears in a circuit during fault conditions, composed of the total of the
AC component of the fault current and the DC offset component.
Auxiliary Circuits
All the control, indicating and measuring circuits in the switchgear. When speaking of the
circuit breaker, these are often called the secondary circuits (with the main current path called
the primary circuit).
Auxiliary Relay
A relay whose function is to assist another relay or control device in performing a general
function by supplying supplementary actions. Some examples are a relay used to provide
seal-in functions, to increase the number of available contacts, to provide circuit opening
instead of circuit closing contacts or vice-versa etc.
4.1.2 INDEX B
Backfeed
To energize a section of a power network, supplied from a source other than its normal
source. This may be a desired state, or may be non-desired if the circuit is thought to be
31
deenergized with the main incoming device turned off, but is actually being backfed, for
example, through the secondary of a transformer.
It is known that workers are sometimes injured when they try to work on a system they think
is de energized but is actually back fed from a source they did not know about.
BIL (Basic Impulse Insulation Level)
A reference impulse insulation strength expressed in terms of the crest value of the withstand
voltage of a standard full impulse voltage wave. It is commonly used to define the overall
insulation strength of the design, with other test levels (e.g. applied tests) related in a standard
method to the BIL.
Typically 5 kV class switchgear is 60 kV BIL, 15 kV class switchgear is 95 kV BIL, 25 kV
class switchgear is 125 kV BIL (although 150 kV BIL is not uncommon at 27.6 kV), and 38
kV class switchgear is 150 kV BIL (with some requests for 170 or 200 kV BIL at times).
Bifurcated Feeder
A feeder connection where two loads are connected to one power source. Higher number of
connections are also possible, such as trifurcated feeders for three loads etc.
Bolted Fault
A short circuit condition that assumes zero impedance exists at the point of the fault, as if a
heavy bus bar was solidly bolted across the point of the fault. This assumption is typically
used to calculate the worst-case fault current levels.
This term can also imply a fault that does not burn away in any reasonable time, but must be
actually removed or repaired.
Burden (of a Relay)
The load impedance imposed by a relay on its source, expressed in ohms and phase angle at
specified conditions.
Modern solid state protective relays have very small burdens, while some older
electromechanical relays had significant burdens, requiring the use of high output instrument
transformers to drive them.
32
Bus
A conductor, or group of conductors, which serve as a common connection for two or more
circuits. In practice, bus generally refers to the main power bus in the switchgear, but it
could also refer to a data bus, or ground bus etc.
Bushing
An insulating structure including a through conductor, or a passageway for such a conductor,
with provision for mounting on a barrier (conducting or insulating), used for the purpose of
insulating the conductor from the barrier and conducting current from one side of the barrier
to the other.
Bushings may use porcelain, epoxy or other type of insulating material in the structure, be
smooth surfaced or with sheds to increase the creepage distance. In metal-clad switchgear,
bushing is sometimes the term used to describe the assembly of the primary disconnect
system (the term spouts is also used).
4.3 INDEX C
Cartridge Fuse
A low voltage fuse consisting of a current-responsive element inside of a fuse tube with
connection terminals on both ends. Commonly used to protect control circuits in the
switchgear LV control cabinet.
Cassette
An assembly which provides all the necessary mechanical and electrical interlocks, circuit
breaker supports, shutter mechanism, racking mechanism etc. for a withdrawable circuit
breaker, and which comprises nearly the entire circuit breaker compartment. It still requires
the front door to be added, and the other switchgear compartments as well (low voltage, main
bus, cable etc.).
Typically supplied to OEM switchgear manufacturers when they purchase a circuit breaker
from a primary manufacturer so that they do not have to design all of these components
themselves.
33
Closing Time
The amount of time from the initiation of the closing operation and the instant when metallic
continuity is established in all phases.
Circuit Breaker
A mechanical switching device, capable of making, carrying and interrupting currents under
normal circuit conditions, and also making and carrying for specified time and interrupting
current under abnormal circuit conditions such as those occurring during short circuits.
Many different methods of achieving this functionality have been developed over the years,
such as Air-blast, Air-magnetic, Minimum Oil, Bulk Oil, etc., but most modern medium
voltage applications today use either SF6 or Vacuum methods. Circuit breakers are usually
intended to operate infrequently, although some types are made to operate frequently.
Circuit Switcher
A mechanical switching device with an integral interrupter, suitable for making, carrying and
interrupting currents under normal circuit conditions. It can also interrupt specified short
circuit currents which may be less than its close and latch, momentary and short time current
ratings. It is usually less expensive than a circuit breaker, but does not achieve the same
performance level.
Clearing Time
For a circuit breaker, it is the interval between the time the actuating quantity in the main
circuit reaches the value causing actuation of the release and the instant of final arc extinction
on all poles of the primary arcing contacts. It is numerically equal to the sum of the contact
parting time plus the arcing time.
For a fuse, it is the interval between a specified overcurrent to the final circuit interruption at
rated maximum voltage. It is equal to the sum of the melting time plus the arcing time.
Close And Latch
The rating of the ability of a circuit breaker or other switching device to close against the
electromagnetic forces (which are trying to force the contacts open), to latch into the closed
position, and to carry a specified current through the device under specified conditions. This
34
is mostly related to ensuring the operating mechanism has sufficient mechanical energy to
overcome the electromagnetic forces.
Close-Open Operation
A close operation of the switching device, followed immediately by an opening operation,
without introducing any deliberate time delay. It is commonly shown as CO.
Closing Coil
A coil in the electromagnet that supplies power for closing the device, such as the circuit
breaker. It must be specified to have the correct control voltage rating for the installation.
Compartment
Inside of a cell of metal-clad switchgear, there are different and separate compartments used
to segregate different components and functions from one another, to improve reliability and
improve safety. Each compartment is separated by a grounded metal barrier. Standard
compartments are low voltage, circuit breaker, main bus and cable, with other compartments
possible as the design demands.
Conformance Tests
Those tests made to demonstrate compliance with the applicable standards, such as CSA,
ANSI or IEC. These tests are generally performed after the test item has been subjected to all
of the required production tests. Demonstration of margin (capability) beyond the
requirements of the standards is not required.
Connected Position (of a Circuit Breaker)
That position of the removable element in which both the primary and secondary
disconnecting devices are in full contact.
Contactor
A contactor is (usually) a magnetically operated switch for repeatedly establishing and
interrupting an electric power circuit. It may also include a mechanical latching system to
hold the contactor closed without requiring a continuous power supply.
35
A typical application is motor starting. It differs from a circuit breaker in that it will
withstand a very high number of operations (300,000 or more compared to 10,000 for a
circuit breaker), has generally lower continuous current ratings than ANSI circuit breakers
and has lower interrupting and making capacities. It is not intended to interrupt fault current
on its own and is therefore often used in association with fuses or a circuit breaker.
Control Power Transformer (CPT)
A transformer used to supply control power to switchgear. It is connected to the main
switchgear bus as its power source, is usually single phase only, and is usually 120 volts
output (other voltages are possible). It is often a VT located in a standard VT drawer, but may
be a small power transformer if a sufficiently high power output is required.
Control Relay
An auxiliary relay whose function is to initiate or permit the next desired operation in a
control sequence.
Control Voltage
The voltage of the power supply used to energize a device in the switchgear. Typical voltages
are 24, 48, 60, 110, 125, 220 or 250 volts DC, and 120, 127, 220 or 250 volts
Conversion (of Switchgear)
A general term pertaining to the process of altering existing power switchgear equipment.
Conversion can involve as little as replacing the main or arcing contact tips with other than
the original design material, to replacing the entire arc-interrupting structure.
Changeover of an existing air-magnetic circuit breaker to an SF6 or vacuum design is
properly called a conversion (not retrofit as is commonly used).
Corona
An electrical discharge in air that only partially bridges the gap between two or more
electrodes. Corona leads to power loss (although this is fairly minor at medium voltage) and
causes radio interference, as well as leading to physical damage of the insulation over time if
it is severe enough.
36
Corona can be tested by measuring the discharge magnitude using a radio receiver, and this is
then referred to as a Radio Influence Voltage (RIV) Test.
Cradle
An assembly which provides all the necessary mechanical and electrical interlocks, circuit
breaker supports, shutter mechanism, racking mechanism etc. for a withdrawable circuit
breaker, which is intended in turn to be installed inside of a switchgear cell manufactured by
others.
Typically supplied to OEM switchgear manufacturers when they purchase a circuit breaker
from a primary manufacturer so that they do not have to design all of these components
themselves.
Creepage Distance
The shortest distance along the surface of an insulator from one conducting part to another,
which may be energized or at ground potential. When designing the device, the Creepage
Distance must be long enough that it will withstand the highest voltage foreseen for the
installation within the specified conditions (such as pollution or moisture).
CSA Standards
CSA is the acronym for the Canadian Standards Association. The National Standards of
Canada are published and controlled by the Canadian Standards Association. CSA has both
mandatory standards and performance standards.
There are mandatory standards published relating to switchgear, which are safety related.
Current Injection
A synthetic test method where current is injected into a circuit in order to determine the
operating characteristics of other components connected to it. For example, it can be used to
inject primary current into a current transformer, to monitor what happens to secondary
devices attached to the current transformer secondary.
Current Limiting Fuse (CLF)
A fuse unit that when it is melted by a current within its specified current limiting range,
abruptly introduces a high resistance to reduce the current magnitude and duration. CLFs are
37
used to limit damage to equipment by dramatically reducing the energy let-though of the
fuse.
Current Transformer
A transformer specially designed to accurately represent the primary current in a secondary
circuit. Typically in North America, current transformers are standardized to be 5 amperes
when rated current is passed through the primary circuit, although other values are possible.
Current transformers can be used to power or provide information to such equipment as
metering devices, or protective relays.
4.1.4 INDEX D
Dead-tank
A switching device in which a vessel at ground potential surrounds and contains the
interrupter and insulating medium. Metal-enclosed and metal-clad switchgear are obviously
of dead front design, as are station breakers.
Dead Time
Usually referencing a circuit breaker on a reclosing operation, Dead Time refers to the
interval between interruption on all poles on the opening stroke, and the re-establishment of
the circuit on the reclosing stroke.
Definite Time Relay
A relay in which the operating is substantially constant regardless of the input quantity.
Derating Factors
There are a number of derating factors possible for switchgear. The two most common are
related to altitude above sea level. At high elevations, the breakdown strength of air
decreases, and its ability to remove heat also decreases.
Other derating factors may involve high ambient temperatures, high harmonics in the power
system etc.:
1.
Voltage: At and below 1000 meters, the normal rating applies. At 1500 meters
elevation, the voltage must be reduced to 95% or clearances increased accordingly. At
38
3000 meters, the voltage must be reduced to 80% or clearances increased accordingly.
Intermediate values may be obtained by interpolation. Surge arresters are strongly
recommended at any elevation above 1000 meters.
2.
Current: At and below 1000 meters, the normal rating applies. At 1500 meters
elevation, the current must be reduced to 99% or conductor cross sections increased
accordingly. At 3000 meters, the current must be reduced to 96% or conductor cross
sections increased accordingly. Intermediate values may be obtained by interpolation
Design Tests
Those tests made to determine the adequacy of a particular type, style or model of equipment,
with all of its component parts, to meet its assigned ratings and to operate satisfactorily under
its normal service conditions, or under special service conditions if specified.
These tests are usually performed on representative apparatus, and are not intended to be
performed on a regular production basis. These tests are sometimes called Type Tests.
Differential Protection
A method of protecting apparatus in which an internal fault is identified by comparing the
electrical conditions on the terminals of the apparatus. In the case of busbar differential
protection, it is very straight forward (the current that goes in must exactly equal the current
that goes out).
In the case of motors or transformers, then special consideration must be given to inrush
currents, and in the case of transformers, to the turns ratio and winding connections as well.
Direct Acting Overcurrent Trip Device
A release or tripping system that is completely self contained on a circuit breaker and
requires no external power or control circuits to cause it to function.
Disconnected Position (of a Circuit Breaker)
That position in which the primary and secondary disconnecting devices of the removable
element are separated by a safe distance from the stationary element contacts. See Connected
Position, Test Position.
Disconnecting Switch
39
Same as Isolating Switch. A mechanical switching device used for changing the connections
in a circuit, or for isolating a circuit or equipment from the source of power.
It is required to carry normal load current continuously, as well as abnormal or short circuit
currents for short times as specified. It is required to open or close circuits when negligible
current is interrupted or made.
Dual Element Fuse
A fuse having responsive elements of two different fusing characteristics in a single series of
fuse.
Duty Cycle
A prescribed sequence of operations for a specific time, with specific time intervals between
sequences. For example, a motor may only be allowed to have a certain number of starts per
hour, due to the overheating effect of the high starting current.
The motor must be given time to cool off between starts in order to maintain the normal life
expectancy.
4.1.5 INDEX E
Electrically Trip Free
A term applied to electrically operated switching devices such as circuit breakers, indicating
that the opening release can open the device even though the closing release circuit is
energized.
Electrically trip free devices are also usually designed with an anti-pumping relay, so that the
closing mechanism will not reclose the switching device after opening until the closing
control circuit is opened and again closed.
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
A measure of the tolerance of equipment to external electromagnetic fields. It is very
important for electronic devices (for example) that are used in power equipment to have a
high tolerance to electromagnetic fields.
40
Expulsion Fuse
A vented fuse or fuse unit in which the expulsion effect of gases produced by the arc and the
lining of the fuse holder, either alone or aided by a spring, extinguishes the arc.
4.1.6 INDEX F
Feeder
A section of a switchgear assembly which supplies a load. A simple switchgear assembly
typically consists of an incomer (supplying power to the switchgear), a number of feeders
(supplying power to various loads so that they can be individually switched and/or protected),
and perhaps a tie (to connect to another switchgear assembly).
Ferroresonance
An electrical resonant condition associated with the saturation of a ferromagnetic device,
such as a transformer, through capacitance.
Ferroresonance can arise, for example, when a weak source is isolated with a lightly loaded
feeder containing power cables or power factor correction capacitors. Ferroresonance can
produce dangerously high voltages which can cause equipment damage or failure.
Fuse
An overcurrent protective device with a circuit opening fusible part that is heated and severed
by the passage of current through it.
The term fuse comprises all the parts that form a unit capable of performing the prescribed
function, but it may or may not be the complete device necessary to connect it into an electric
circuit. See Cartridge Fuse, Current Limiting Fuse, Fuse Link, Expulsion Fuse.
Fuse Link
A replaceable part or assembly, comprised entirely or principally of the conducting element,
required to be replaced after each circuit interruption to restore the fuse to operating
conditions.
41
4.1.7 INDEX G
GIS (Gas Insulated Substation)
GIS equipment is a type of metal-clad switchgear construction, where all the switchgear
power components are located inside of a sealed metal envelope filled with (usually) SF6 gas.
GIS equipment is often supplied into high voltage applications, but there are now offerings at
medium voltage. GIS has small space requirements, is impervious to atmospheric
contaminants and no derating is required for high elevations.
Ground and Test Device (GATD)
A term applied to a switchgear accessory device that can be inserted in place of the drawout
circuit breaker for the purpose of either grounding the main bus and/or the external circuits
connected to the switchgear assembly, and/or primary circuit testing.
A normal GATD can carry the same full fault current of the switchgear assembly for a
specified time. Optionally, a modified circuit breaker can be used to provide the GATD
functions and in addition allow full fault switching capability.
Ground Bus
A bus to which the grounds from individual pieces of equipment are connected, and that in
turn is connected to ground at one or more points. Typically in metal-enclosed switchgear,
the ground bus is not insulated, and is extended into every cell and every compartment in
each cell (except the main bus compartment).
Ground Fault Protection
A method of protection in which faults to ground within the protected equipment are detected
and action taken (alarm, trip etc.). Ground faults are usually detected using zero-sequence
current transformers as the sensors.
Grounding Switch
A mechanical switching device by means of which a circuit or piece of apparatus may be
electrically connected to ground.
42
The switch may or may not have fault making capabilities. Integrated grounding switches are
common in European switchgear designs, but are rare in North American designs, although
their popularity is slowly growing.
4.1.8 INDEX H
Handling Device
That accessory used with metal-clad switchgear, used for the removal, replacement or
transportation of the removable element (e.g. circuit breaker). Not all metal-clad designs
require the use of a Handling Device to move the circuit breakers, but many do.
High Speed Relay
In current practice, a relay that operates in less than 50 ms (milliseconds), which is less than
three cycles on a 60 Hz system.
4.1.9 INDEX I
IEC Standards
The acronym for the International Electrotechnical Commission.
This series of standards is produced by the IEC, and are typically used in most countries of
the world, but not widely in North America. Each country may adapt IEC standards to their
own needs, especially in the past, but it is now preferred that the basic standard be applied as
is, where possible. When it comes to switchgear and circuit breaker design and ratings, the
two main global standards are IEC and ANSI.
The world is very slowly moving towards adopting IEC standards, but ANSI and IEC are
different enough that this is not easy to do.
Interlock
A device actuated by the operation of some other device with which it is directly associated,
to govern succeeding operations of the same or allied devices. Interlock systems are a series
of interlocks applied to associated equipment in such a manner as to prevent or allow
operation of the equipment only in a prearranged sequence.
43
There are three main types of interlocks, namely mechanical, electrical and key. Mechanical
and electrical interlocks are always present in some way in switchgear to provide for safe
operation of the basic equipment. Key interlocks are typically more of an optional accessory
used to provide customer prescribed operation sequences.
Interrupter Switch
An air insulated switch, equipped with an interrupter, for making or interrupting specified
currents, or both. The nature of the current being made or interrupted is indicated by a
suitable prefix, such as load interrupter switch, fault interrupter switch, capacitor current
interrupter switch, etc.
Inverse-time Relay
A relay in which the input quantity and operating time are inversely related throughout at
least a substantial portion of the performance range. Various adjectives are commonly used to
illustrate the level of inverseness of the operating characteristics, such as standard, very,
extremely, ultra etc.
Isolated Phase Bus
A bus in which each phase conductor is enclosed by an individual metal housing separated
from adjacent conductor housings by an air space. The bus may be self cooled or may be
forced cooled, using gas or liquid. Isolated phase bus is commonly used at very high current
ratings, such as the output of large generators.
Isolating Switch
Same as Disconnecting Switch. A mechanical switching device used for changing the
connections in a circuit, or for isolating a circuit or equipment from the source of power. It is
required to carry normal load current continuously, as well as abnormal or short circuit
currents for short times as specified. It is required to open or close circuits when negligible
current is interrupted or made.
44
4.1.10 INDEX L
Load Interrupter Switch
An interrupter switch designed to interrupt currents which are not in excess of the continuous
current rating of the switch. It may be designed to close and carry abnormal or short circuit
currents as specified. Also colloquially referred to as a Load Break Switch.
Load Shedding
The process of deliberately removing preselected loads from a power system in response to
abnormal conditions, in order to maintain the integrity of the power system.
Load shedding can also be used to reduce demand in a specified part of a power distribution
system for economic reasons e.g. an industrial customer may shed specific loads to keep their
kilowatt demand below a price increase threshold (kW demand is often priced based on the
peak usage in a calendar year, so keeping the demand below a certain level can affect a whole
years electrical billing).
4.1.11 INDEX M
Main Contacts
The main continuous current carrying contacts in a current interruption device. Typically, the
interruption device is designed so that the main contacts never see arcing themselves, that
function being provided by arcing contacts specifically designed to do so. Main contacts are
sometimes referred to as the Primary Contacts.
Main Connections
Those that electrically connect together devices in the main circuit, or connect them to the
bus, or both. Also referred to as the Primary Connections.
Maintenance Interval
The period, which can be defined in terms of real time, operating time, number of operating
cycles or a combination of these, during which satisfactory performance is expected without
maintenance or adjustment.
45
Margin
The difference between the demonstrated capability of the equipment and that required inservice for specific conditions.
Medium Voltage
The term medium voltage refers to voltages above 1,000 volts and below 69,000 volts. The
highest voltage metal enclosed switchgear in general use in North America is generally 38 kV
class, although there is a small amount of 44 kV. Usually at 44 kV and above, switching is
achieved by the use of air-insulated substations with discreet components.
Metal-clad Switchgear
Metal-clad switchgear is a specific type of metal-enclosed switchgear. While all metal-clad
switchgear is metal-enclosed, not all metal-enclosed switchgear can be classified as metalclad.
Metal-clad is characterized by always having the following features:
1.
2.
Major parts of the primary circuit are completely enclosed by grounded metal barriers
that have no intentional openings between compartments. A metal barrier shall be
included in front of or part of the circuit interrupting device to ensure that when in the
connected position, no primary circuit components are exposed by the opening of a
door.
3.
4.
Automatic shutters that cover primary circuit elements when the removable element is
in the disconnected, test or connected positions.
5.
Primary bus conductors and connections are covered with insulating material
throughout.
46
6.
Mechanical interlocks are provided for proper operating sequence under normal
operating conditions.
7.
Instruments, meters, relays etc. and their wiring are isolated by grounded metal
barriers from all primary circuit elements (short lengths of wire such as CT secondary
leads are excepted).
8.
The door through which the removable element is inserted may serve as an instrument
or relay panel, and may also provide access to the control compartment within the
housing.
9.
Note the proper spelling of metal-clad, with a dash and a lower case c.
Metal-enclosed Switchgear
Switchgear which is surrounded by a metal case or housing, usually grounded. Note the
proper spelling of metal-enclosed, with a dash and a lower case e.
Metal-enclosed Bus
An assembly of conductors with their associated connections, joints and insulating supports
within a grounded metal enclosure.
The conductors may be rigid or flexible (if the flexible conductors are individual cables, then
it may be called cable bus). There are three types of metal-enclosed bus :
1.
Non segregated-phase bus, in which all phase conductors are in a common metal
enclosure without barriers between phases. If associated with metal-clad switchgear,
then the primary bus and connections shall be covered with insulating material
equivalent to the switchgear insulation system.
2.
Segregated-phase bus, in which all phase conductors are in a common metal enclosure
but are segregated by metal barriers between phases.
3.
47
circuit
breaker
using
relatively
small
quantity
of
mineral
oil
for
48
4.1.12 INDEX N
Natural Frequency
A mechanical term, used to describe the frequency at which a body vibrates due to its own
physical characteristics (mass, shape) and electric restoring forces brought into play when the
body is distorted in a specific direction and then released while restrained or supported at
specific points.
In general switchgear usage, generally important only for seismic analysis.
Nominal System Voltage
A nominal value assigned to designate a system of a given voltage class. For example, in the
15 kV voltage class, a Nominal System Voltage may be 13.8 kV, or 12.47 kV, or other.
4.1.13 INDEX O
Octave
The interval between two frequencies that have a frequency ratio of two. For example, 1 to 2
Hz, 4 to 8 Hz, 64 to 128 Hz.
May be used in discussion of harmonics, or sound level spectrum analysis.
Opening Time
The amount of time between the moment the actuating quantity of the release circuit reaches
its operating value, and the instant the primary contacts have parted. Typically, any
intentional time delays which may be a part of normal operation are reduced to zero for the
purposes of determining opening time.
Operating Mechanism
As part of a switching device, the part of the mechanism that actuates all the main circuit
contacts of the switching device either directly or by the use of a pole-unit mechanism.
It must provide sufficient mechanical force for the performance specified, and is designed to
meet the specific requirements of the switching device (for example, for vacuum circuit
breakers, the operating mechanism is expected to provide only a small contact travel distance,
but very high acceleration and deceleration).
49
4.1.14 INDEX P
Partial Discharge
A localized electric discharge resulting from ionization in an insulation system when the
voltage stress exceeds the critical value. This discharge partially bridges the insulation
between electrodes.
It is commonly used as a test to monitor the quality of manufacture of moulded or cast
components (such as current or voltage transformers, or stand-off insulators). If the discharge
occurs in air, then it may also be referred to as corona discharge.
Pickup (of a relay)
The action of a relay as it makes designated response to progressive increase of input. As a
qualifying term, it is the state of a relay when all response to progressive increases of input
has been completed.
Pickup is also used to identify the minimum value of an input quantity reached by
progressive increases that will cause the relay to reach the pickup state from reset. Pickup is
also used to denote contact operation on relays having multiple inputs, but in this case the
pickup value of any input in meaningful only when related to all other inputs.
Pilot Protection
A form of line protection that uses some sort of a communications channel as a means to
compare electrical conditions at the terminals of a line. The communications channel may be
metallic conductor, fiber optic cable, microwaves etc.
Pilot Wire Protection
Pilot protection in which a metallic circuit is used for the communicating means between
relays at the circuit terminals.
Plating (of Joints)
Copper (or aluminium) forms an oxide layer which will commonly cause a joint to have
increased resistance and a higher temperature rise. To obtain satisfactory lifetime
performance, the high power joints in the main bus system are plated with another metal,
50
usually silver. Silver is the most conductive of all metals, and provides good service with
only a very thin plating thickness required (flash plating).
For very polluted environments, especially those containing high levels of sulphur, tin plating
is used, as the silver will rapidly tarnish. While tin is very stable in most atmospheres, it
naturally provides a higher resistance joint than silver, and therefore it is only used where its
non-corroding properties are really required.
Pole
That portion of the device associated with one electrically separated conducting path of the
main circuit of the device. The poles may be separate for each phase, or may be combined
into a unified enclosure.
Potential Transformer
An obsolete name for Voltage Transformer.
Prestrike
The initiation of current between the contacts during a closing operation before the contacts
have mechanically touched.
Primary
Used as an adjective, primary can mean:
a.
b.
c.
the main circuit as opposed to auxiliary or control circuits e.g. primary disconnecting
device
d.
the energy input side of a transformer (not necessarily the high voltage side)
Production Tests
Those tests made to check the quality and uniformity of the workmanship and materials used
in the manufacture of switchgear or its components. Performed on each switchgear that has
been manufactured.
51
Proof
So constructed, protected or treated so that successful operation is not interfered with when
the device is subjected to the specified material or condition.
For example, a sprinkler-proof switchgear can continue to operate if the fire protection
sprinklers are operating. As another example, the reason that the term arc-proof switchgear is
not acceptable as a term, is that in the case of an internal arcing fault, the switchgear cannot
usually continue to be used until clean-up and repairs are completed.
Protection Relay
A relay whose function is to detect defective lines or apparatus, other power system
conditions of an abnormal or dangerous nature and to initiate appropriate control circuit
action.
A protective relay may be described according to its input quantities (e.g. negative phase
sequence relay), operating principles (e.g. differential protection) or performance
characteristics.
4.1.15 INDEX Q
Quick-break
A term used to describe a device that has a high contact opening speed which is independent
of the operator.
Quick-make
A term used to describe a device that has a high contact closing speed which is independent
of the operator.
4.16 INDEX R
Racking (a Circuit Breaker)
The process of moving a circuit breaker or other removable element from the disconnected
position to the test position (if the test position is a different physical position) and into the
connected position, or vice-versa. Racking may be performed manually with the door open
52
(rare in a modern switchgear design), manually with the door closed (referred to as throughthe-door racking) or electrically with the door closed.
For safety reasons, through-the-door racking systems are preferred, and are essentially
required for arc-resistant designs.
Rated Operation Sequence
A standard operating sequence that a circuit breaker has been tested in accordance with.
Under ANSI testing rules, the Rated Operation Sequence is a close-open operation, followed
by a 15 second delay to allow the operating mechanism to recharge, and then a second close
open operation. This is represented by CO 15s -CO. Note that a fully tested ANSI circuit
breaker has been tested for many other operation sequences as well.
Under IEC testing rules, there are three common Rated Operation Sequences. The first is an
open operation, followed by three minutes for cooling of the contacts, followed by a CO
operation, then 3 minutes, then a final CO (O 3 min CO 3 min CO). The second is a O
0.3s -CO 15 s CO. The third is O 0.3 s -CO 3 min CO.
Reconditioning (of switchgear)
A general term covering the process of maintaining existing switchgear equipment in
operating condition as recommended by the manufacturers instructions, using only the
original manufacturers recommended replacement parts, without altering the original design.
Recovery Voltage
The voltage that appears across the terminals of a pole of a circuit interrupting device upon
interruption of the current.
Refurbishment (of Switchgear)
The portion that normally carries the circuit switching and circuit interrupting devices and the
removable part of the primary and secondary disconnecting devices. In metal-clad
switchgear, generally the circuit breaker is the removable element.
Renewal Parts
Those parts that must be replaced during maintenance as a result of wear.
53
54
its interrupting medium quickly following the breaking of the current, in order to be able to
withstand the recovery voltage generated.
A switching device that can withstand a high recovery voltage will be less likely to restrike.
4.1.17 INDEX S
Seal-in Relay
An auxiliary relay that remains picked up through one of its own contacts, which bypasses
the initiating circuit until deenergized by some other device.
For example, if a pressure switch is temporarily closed due to a momentary pressure surge, a
seal-in relay can be used to show it had tripped though an annunciator panel, until the
operator manually resets it.
SCADA
An acronym for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition. A system operating with coded
signals over communication channels so as to provide control of remote equipment, typically
using one communications channel per remote station.
The supervisory system may be combined with a data acquisition system by adding the use of
coded signals over communication channels to acquire information about the status of the
remote equipment for display or recording functions.
Typical supervisory control functions are :
1.
Alarm functions
2.
Analogue functions
3.
Control functions
4.
5.
Secondary
Used as an adjective, secondary can mean :
55
1.
2.
second in preference
3.
referring to auxiliary or control circuits as contrasted with the main circuit e.g.
secondary disconnecting devices, secondary and control wiring
4.
referring to the energy output side of transformers (which does not have to be the low
voltage side)
sawtooth waveform to the voltage waveform. As the distance to the fault increases, the
amplitude of the sawtooth component increases, but the rate of rise decreases, and the fault
current decreases.
The increased amplitude of the voltage negatively affects the interrupting capability of the
circuit switching device while the decrease in rate of rise and the decrease in current makes
interruption easier. Since the effects are not proportional, a distance is reached where the
affect on interruption is most severe, even though the current is less than for a terminal fault.
The critical distance depends on the type of interrupting medium used (air, oil, SF6 or
vacuum) and with the particular design of device.
At higher voltages, the critical distance may be on the order of 1.5 km, while at medium
voltages the distance is less.
Shunt Release
A release, typically used to trip a circuit breaker or switch, which is energized by a source of
voltage, which may be derived from either the main circuit or from an independent source.
The voltage is applied only when tripping is desired.
Shutter
A device that is automatically operated to completely cover the stationary portion of the
primary disconnecting devices when the removable element is either in the disconnected
position, the test position, or has been completely removed. Grounded metal shutters are
usually preferred for safety reasons, but insulating materials may also be used in some
applications.
Single Element Fuse
A fuse having a current responsive element comprising one or more parts with a single fusing
characteristic.
Sound Level
A weighted Sound Pressure Level obtained through the use of a metering characteristic and a
weighting algorithm.
57
Typically, the A weighting is used which represents the sensitivity of an average human
ear, based on the hearing ability of a young adult. Other weighting scales (B and C) are
available but are not often used.
Essentially, a weighting of C is the same as the Sound Pressure Level itself. The designation
of the weighting scale used is indicated following the decibel symbol e.g. weighting scale A
is indicated as dBA.
Sound Pressure Level (SPL)
Twenty times the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the pressure of a sound to the
reference sound pressure of 20 micro Pascals (mPa), expressed as an rms value. The unit is
decibel (dB).
Spouts
The insulator/bushing system at the back of the circuit breaker compartment in drawout
switchgear, which allow the main (primary) connections of the circuit breaker to be plugged
into the bus system (the main bus on one connection, the feeder bus on the other). Sometimes
referred to as the primary disconnects.
Station Ground
A ground grid or any equivalent system of grounding electrodes buried beneath or adjacent to
a substation that determines the rise of ground voltage level relative to remote earth and
controls the distribution of voltage gradients within the substation during a fault.
The characteristics of the Station Ground are linked to the type, shape, number and
composition of the ground electrodes, the type of soil, the moisture content of the soil etc.
Stationary Contact
A conducting part having a contact surface that remains substantially stationary during use.
Strike Distance
The shortest distance measured though the insulating medium between parts of different
polarities. These parts may be conducting or insulating. The insulating medium is commonly
air, but could be oil or SF6 etc.
58
Surge Arrester
A device used to limit the severity of a voltage surge in a power system. In its simplest form,
it could be a spark gap, however a more repeatable (and less stress-inducing) method is
preferred. The first modern style of surge arrester used silicon carbide (SiC) discs in series
with a small spark gap.
When the voltage became too high, the spark gap flashed over and the SiC discs conducted
and absorbed excess energy due to their inverse resistance (as the voltage across them
increased, their resistance decreases).
In the early 1980s, modern zinc oxide (ZnO) discs were introduced and as have such an
extreme inverse characteristic, no spark gap is usually required. ZnO surge arresters are
sometimes referred to as metal-oxide type.
Switchboard
A type of switchgear assembly that consists of one or more panels with electric devices
mounted thereon, and an associated framework.
Switchgear
A general term which covers switching and interrupting devices and their combination with
associated control, metering, protective and regulating devices.
Also, assemblies of these devices with their associated interconnections, accessories,
enclosures and supporting structures used primarily in connection with the generation,
transmission, distribution and conversion of electric power.
Switchgear Assembly
An assembled piece of equipment used indoors or outdoors, including one or more of the
following : switching, interrupting, control, metering, protective, regulating etc. devices,
together with their supporting structures, enclosures, conductors, electrical interconnections
and accessories.
59
60
61
Transient Overvoltage
The voltage which occurs during the transient conditions resulting from the operation of a
switching device. The voltage is expressed as the peak.
Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV)
The voltage transient that occurs across the terminals of a pole of a switching device when
the current is interrupted. In a multiple pole switching device, the term is usually applied to
the voltage across the first pole to interrupt.
Transition Cell
A cell supplied in a switchgear assembly used to physically transition the bus coming in a
specific location or phasing on one side of the cell to the different bus location or phasing
leaving the other side of the cell.
Trip-free
The capability of a switching device to have the moving contacts return to and remain in the
open position when the open operation is initiated after the initiation of the closing operation,
even if the closing force and the opening command are maintained.
It may be necessary for the contacts to momentarily reach the closed condition.
Trip-free Relay
An auxiliary relay whose function is to open the closing circuit of an electrically operated
switching device so that the opening operation can prevail over the closing operation.
TOC
Truck Operated Contacts. A set of auxiliary contacts which are operated by the action of the
truck of the removable switching device changing physical position within the cell i.e.
moving between the connected and disconnected positions.
Truck
The mechanical structure which supports the operating mechanism and the current
interruption components, the wheels or side rollers, and some of the required mechanical
interlocks, for a removable device such as a circuit breaker.
62
4.1.18 INDEX U
Under voltage Release
A type of circuit breaker triiping release which is held energized during normal operation,
with the tripping action being caused with the removal of the voltage. Not as common in
North America as the Shunt Release.
Unit Substation
A close-coupled arrangement consisting of one or more medium voltage service entrance
cells of switchgear (usually metal-enclosed type), a transformer (dry or liquid), and a line-up
of typically low voltage (but perhaps medium voltage) switchgear with feeder cells.
Close coupled means that the MV service entrance switchgear is bolted directly to the
transformer which is bolted directly to the LV (or MV) switchgear. If the transformer is cable
connected or remote, then by definition it is NOT a unit substation.
4.1.19 INDEX V
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker which uses a vacuum bottle for its interrupting method.
Voltage Transformer
A transformer specially designed to accurately represent the primary voltage in a secondary
circuit.
Typically in North America, voltage transformers are standardized to output 120 volts when
rated voltage is impressed on the primary circuit, although other values are possible. Voltage
transformers can be used to power metering devices, or provide control power.
Some users still use the previous term, Potential Transformer, however the term Voltage
Transformer is the correct one.
63
4.1.20 INDEX W
Withstand Voltage
The specified voltage that can be applied to insulation under specified conditions without
causing flashover of puncture to occur.
4.1.21 INDEX Z
Zone of Protection
That segment of a power system in which the occurrence of assigned abnormal conditions
should cause the protective relay system to operate.
There are three main functions, namely:
1. Circuit protection takes three main fault types into account:
a.
Overloads,
b.
Short-circuits,
(Both of which adversely affect the lifetime of cables and loads)
c.
2. Isolation is used to separate a circuit or a device from the remainder of the installation to
allow 100% safe operation,
3. Control allows the user to take voluntary action on installation operation:
a.
When such action takes place in normal operating conditions (on load, with
no overcurrent) in order to energise or de-energise all or part of the
installation, control is said to be functional,
b.
When such action is essential (whatever the load condition of the installation) in order
to immediately de-energise all or part of the installation, control is said to be of the
emergency stop kind.
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Fuse
Yes (3)
Yes
No
No
No
Disconnector
No
No
No
Yes
No
Switch
No
No
Yes? (1)(2)
Yes?
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Switch fuse
Yes
Yes
Yes? (1)(2)
Yes?
Yes
Contactor
No
No
No
No
Yes
Circuit-breaker
Yes
Yes
Yes? (2)
Yes?
Yes
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66
CHAPTER 5
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The separation of suspended particles from gases is one of the basic scientific and technical
problems of the industrial era. Control of these emissions by adequate gas-cleaning processes
is essential to prevent heavy, devastating air pollution, and, in many instances, to recover
valuable materials, such as copper, lead or gold which otherwise would be carried up the
stack and lost by dispersion into the atmosphere. Gas-cleaning processes may be classified
broadly as mechanical and electrical. Mechanical processes include all those which depend
fundamentally on inertial or mechanical forces, namely, gravity settling, centrifugal or
cyclonic separation, gas washing, or scrubbing, filtration through screens, fabric bags, or
packed beds, and some agglomeration. The electrical process, commonly referred to as
electrostatic precipitation, differs basically from all mechanical methods in that the forces of
separation acting on the suspended particles are electrical in nature.
This fundamental difference is reflected in unique advantages both in operation and in
application of the electrical method. Separation forces are applied directly to the particles
themselves instead of to the entire gas stream, as in most mechanical separation methods. It is
limited neither to relatively coarse particles as gravitational and inertial methods are nor by
resistance to the motion of the gas as filters and scrubbers are. Even the finest particles in the
submicron size range are collected effectively by electrostatic precipitation because of the
relatively large electric forces which act on the particles. There is no fundamental limit to the
degree of cleaning attainable, and, in practice, most precipitator installations operate in the
range of 90% to 99% efficiency, with some as high as 99.99%. The high collection
efficiency, the low resistance to gas flow, the ability to treat huge gas quantities at high
temperature, and the ability to cope successfully with corrosive atmosphere and particles
account for the wide acceptance and diverse applications of the electrical precipitation
process.
The
process
is
physical
in
character
and
is
most
accurately
classified
as
67
68
69
hammers tumble on to the shock bar/shock beam which transmits the blow to the electrodes.
One complete revolution of the rapping shaft will clean the entire field. The rapper
programmer decides the frequency of rapping. Rapping frequency chart is given in this
manual. The tumbling hammer disposition and the periodicity of rapping are selected in such
a way that less than 2% of the collecting area is rapped at any instance. This avoids reentertainment of dust and puffing at the stack.
The rapping shaft of emitting electrodes system is electrically isolated from the geared motor
drive by a shaft insulator. The space around the shaft insulator is continuously heated to avoid
condensation.
Insulator housing:
The support insulator, supporting the emitting electrodes system is housed in insulator
housing. The HV DC connection is taken through a bushing insulator mounted on the
insulator-housing wall.
In order to avoid the condensation on the support insulators, each insulator is provided with
one electrical heating element. Heating elements of one pass are controlled by one
thermostat.
5.3.2 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM:
High voltage transformer rectifier (HVR) with electronic controller (EC):
The transformer rectifier supplies the power for particulate charging and collection. The basic
function of the EC is to fed the precipitator with maximum power input under the constant
current regulation. Should there be any flashover between collecting and emitting electrodes,
the EC will sense the flashover and quickly react by bringing he input voltage to zero and
block it for a specific period. After the ionized gases are cleared and the dielectric strength
restored, the control will quickly bring back the power to preset value and raised it to the
original non-sparking level. Thus EC ensure adequate power input to the precipitator while
reckoning the electrical disturbances within the precipitator. Regulated AC power from EC is
to fed to the primary of the transformer, which is stepped up and rectified to give a full wave
power output. The transformer-rectifier is mounted on the roof of the precipitator while the
EC is located in an air-conditioned control room.
71
While working with with HV testing equipment the following precautions shall be taken note
of:
1. Use of cables with adequate insulation
2. Use of rubber hand gloves, Provision of earthing to discharge the equipment.
3. All earthing rods and other safety equipments shall be checked for soundness and good
working conditions periodically.
5.5 SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS:
The area housing EP and EP control rooms shall be made inaccessible to unauthorized person
without a written permission.
The person authorized to work on EP must be fully trained in tendering first-aid in case of
injuries from electric shock and also the use of for fighting equipments. The following safety
accessories shall be provided in the EP control room:
1. Rubber mat in-front of the panels.
2. Adequate number of fire-fighting equipment at suitable locations.
3. First-aid kit.
4. Display of first-aid kit, artificial respiration and fire fighting instructions.
An elaborate earthing scheme is provided for the EP, which connects all the electrical
equipments/components mounted on the precipitator at two points. Earthing strips are
provided across the gasket joints to ensure continuity of earthing. Flexible earthing cables are
also provided for connecting all the doors/covers to the respective body. The earthing scheme
on EP ultimately gets connected to earth-pit at two locations.
An earth mat is also provided in the EP control room below the ground level to which all the
control and power panels are earthed at two points. The soundness of all the earth
connections shall be checked periodically.
Adequate number of earthing rods is provided for earthing the high voltage system during the
any work/maintenance of high-voltage line/parts when power supply is switched off.
74
75
76
Internals
Ensure that:
1. All critical distances are maintained within tolerance as per the drawing enclosed.
2. All bolts and nuts are arrested by tack welding. In case of HSFG bolts of collecting
electrodes and shock bars locking welding should not be done.
3. A slight play of the rapper shaft is maintained.
4. A minimum axial play of 5 mm on either side of the shaft insulator is maintained.
5. Correct style of scavenging screws in the case of horizontal drive arrangement is installed
concentrically around the shaft insulator where applicable. Scavenging screws should be
freely rotating and nt rubbing with the casing.
6. Shock bars are moving free.
7. Shock bar guide and its support are aligned properly.
8. Shock pads and hammers are aligned.
9. Set rings are in position as per allowable gap between gap and tact welded.
NOTE:
1. Plain bearings of the shaft shall never be greased.
2. Remove temporary earthing after completion of the job.
77
General Motors
Ensure that:
1. Correct lubrication oil level is maintained (level to be 50% of the viewing glass).
Overfilling will cause leakage.
2. Clutch, coupling and shaft are in alignment.
3. Filling plugs, cooling fan blades are covers in position.
4. Cables are terminated properly with crimped lugs and glands and terminal box covers are
watertight.
5. Cable armor and two earth-points of the motor are earthed.
6. Winding resistance across RY, YB and BR phases is equal.
7. IR value of the windings is above 2M ohm.
8. Trail run the Rapping System. The inner arm shall be locked by tact welding bolts and
nuts after the trail run of the system. Set rings should be tact welded with the shaft. The
hammer shall hit at the centre of the shock pad/shock beam. While replacing the
shaft/inner arm care to be taken to maintain the angle of successive hammers as per
drawing.
NOTE:
If the rapping shaft is allowed to rotate in the reverse direction even for a short while, the
shock bars will get damaged. Before the shaft is connected to the motor ascertain the correct
direction of the rotation of the motor as indicated in Rapping mechanism for Emitting and
Collecting System drawing.
For further details refer O&M instructions are furnished by the geared motor vendor.
78
5. Screw legs and nuts for placement of alignment jigs are welded.
6. Doors are closed tightly.
7. Interlocks are working properly.
8. Each insulator housing is provided with a danger plate and two external earth connection
to earth grid.
9. Insulator housing is insulated with thermal insulation.
High voltage bus ducts
Ensure that:
1. Flanged joints are provided with gaskets and earthing cables.
2. Copper tubes are straight and tightly connected.
Heating element
Ensure that:
1. IR value is above 2M Ohm (use 500 V Megger only).
2. Continuity is ascertained.
3. Cables are terminated properly with crimped lugs and glands and terminal box cover is
watertight.
4. Cable armor and earth points are connected to earth.
Thermostat:
Ensure that:
1. Cables are terminated properly.
2. Cover is watertight.
3. Setting of thermostat is 1200 C for hopper heaters and 140o C for support insulator heater.
4. Contact continuity is verified.
80
81
82
5.8.1 PREPERATIONS
1. Remove all the temporary earth connection made with discharge rods.
2. Close all insulator housing, disconnecting switch and inspection doors adopting the
interlock sequence and return the key to the electronic controller.
3. Check the IR value of individual fields using 1 KV megger. Megger shall be done between
earth and emitting system at disconnecting switch keeping the moving blade in between the
two fixed contacts.
5.8.2 PROCEDURE
1. Make supply available to ACPs and ECs. Ensure switching on of all heaters 4 hrs.
2. Switch on all rapping motors on continuous mode.
3. Keep Intermittent Charge Ratio= 1:1 and IM= 100% in BAPCON.
4. Switch on EC and slowly raise the current by increasing Is. Note the meter readings for
each interval of 50 mA. Raise upto rated current. Look for flashover if any and record.
5. The rapping motors are to be changed to intermittent rapping mode after taking the
voltage & current readings.
6. Keep all the fields energized for a period of 8 hours.
7. Switch off the ECs, ACPs and LT boards.
8. If the fields are properly erected and aligned, they can be loaded upto the rated current
without sparks.
5.8.3 START UP
1. Since the precipitator will contain moisture, I is essential to give the precipitator sufficient
time to heat up and dry out prior to operation. Switch on the heaters at least 24 hours before
start up.
2. The rapping motors shall be switched on before the gas is passed through and kept in the
intermittent operation mode.
3. The precipitator should not be energized until the temperature rise above the dew point.
83
4. During oil firing, when the flue gas temperature exceeds the dew point, energize the
transformer with a current setting of 50 mA in all.
5. If, however any flashover occurs, reduce the current level.
6. Record the flue gas temperature at APH outlet, meter readings on EC and ACP in log
sheet.
NOTE:
1. Operation of EP under continuous sparking during oil firing any cause fire hazards.
2. Acid dew point normally lie in the range 80o C to 120o C depending on the coal oil
composition, moisture content and start up conditions.
5.8.4 OPERATION
START UP PROCEDURE
1.
Switch on the heating elements atleast 24 hours before the start up of the boiler.
2.
3.
The precipitator design allows for start up from cold condition. However if the
precipitator is energized in cold condition, considerable moisture from the gases will
condense on the EP internals leading to formation of the ashcake, which is difficult to
dislodge by normal rapping. Hence, the transformers shall not be energized until the gas
temperature is above 100o C.
4.
For commissioning the transformer rectifiers refer suppliers manual furnished in section
1 of part III.
5.8.5 OPERATIONAL CHECKS
1. Check the normal function of the Transformer Rectifier, Electronic controllers, Auxiliary
control panels, Rapping mechanisms, Heating Elements and Ash handling system.
2. The following shall be recorded in a logbook atleast once ion a shift.
A. All the meter readings in the electronic controller and Auxiliary control panel.
B. Boiler load.
84
85
5. The water pressure in the flushing equipment shall be maintained between 2-3
kg/cm2. Higher water pressure may damage the functional parts. The water shall
be sprayed to internals through a nozzle.
6. The flushing shall commence from the top of the internal and proceed towards the
bottom.
7. All the fields in the casing shall be water washed at a time. If a field is left
unflushed high humidity inside the casing may leave sticky deposit in the fields,
which may lead to corrosion.
8. Dry off the support, shaft insulators using dry cloth.
5.9 IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS
1. Log the meter readings hourly.
2. Do not operate the controllers with more than 5 sparks per minute.
3. Never leave the control panels unattended.
4. Empty the hoppers continuously.
5. Do not use the hoppers as storage bins.
6. Do not energize the fields when fields when hopper is overfilled or when the internals are
damaged/ Dislocated.
7. Switch off the corresponding rapping motors when hoppers are overfilled.
8. Observe all safety aspects.
9. Use master keys only in exigencies.
10. Never bypass interlock sequence.
11. Energize the fields only after he fuel gas temperature reaches above dew point.
12. Keep the control room dust free/well ventilated and air-conditioned.
13. Do not keep the panels open.
14. Keep all the heaters in service.
87
CHAPTER 6
BATTERY BANK
6.1 220V DC System at Thermal Power Station
The 220V DC system supplies direct current as source of operating power for control,
signalling, relays, tripping and closing of switchgears, emergency motors of most important
auxiliary systems. Under normal conditions of station generation, the storage battery units are
kept floating in DC bus bars by means of the trickle chargers (also known as float chargers).
The trickle chargers of each battery unit, which is a rectifier with AC input, is normally made
to take all DC requirements of the power station without allowing the battery to discharge.
This is achieved by maintaining the DC output voltage of trickle charger a few volts higher
than the voltage of the battery.
With this, the trickle charger besides meeting all the DC requirements of the power station,
supplies a few hundred milliamps of direct current to the battery to compensate the loss in the
capacity of the battery due to action between the plates of the cell. With this arrangement, the
battery remains connected to the DC bus bars as a standby supply source and immediately
supplies the DC load in the vent of temporary failure of complete AC system.
The complete AC power system failure in a power station is known as emergency situation.
DC battery units are designed to supply station DC loads for an emergency period of one
hour. The tickle charger normally supplies the station DC load and the momentary loads will
also be catered for by the trickle charger and if such a load is more than its capacity, the
battery being in parallel with the trickle charger will supply the excessive load. The trickle
charger will normally be kept operating at around 1152.15 V ie 247 volts. In case of AC
mains failure the full battery of 115 cells will supply the load ie 230 volts. If the emergency
lasts for one hour with an appropriate load of 450 Amps, then battery will supply the load for
one hour when its end voltage will drop down to 1.75 volts per cell ie 201 volts.
After the emergency when the quick charger is closed the full battery will receive a boost
charge and at the same time only the voltage of 98 cells will appear across the load.
If a second emergency occurs during quick charging, then immediately all the 115 cells are
connected to the bus by closing the switch meant for the purpose. During routine daily testing
of emergency DC motors connected to main distribution board middle section, supply has to
be taken from the quick charger and the middle section has to be kept isolated from the left
and right sections of main distribution board. This is to test the quick charger.
6.2 Types of battery being used:
1. Lead-acid battery tubular
2. Lead-acid battery plaint
3. Ni-Cd battery
88
should be kept switched to the set of bus bars fed by MDB. Left section and the loads of the
second panel should be kept connected to the set of bus bars fed by MDB right section.
6.4.6 Heaters
Heaters are provided to raise the temperature of flue gases, as they become conductive when
heated. 24 heaters are provided for stage I electrostatic precipitators. Rating: 550W heaters
6.4.7 Zones
The flue gases from the boiler section reach electrostatic precipitator section through ducts.
The flue gases are allowed to pass through various zones each having its own heaters,
collecting and emissive electrodes and DC supply. These zones are provided to lessen the
burden on a single zone and to take the load of other zone in case of maintenance or damage
of a particular zone. Stage I have 16 zones eight belonging to PASS A and rest to PASS B.
Stage II has 20 Zones five belonging to each PASS A, PASS B, PASS C and PASS D.
6.4.8 Diodes
These are provided to rectify the AC voltage to the required DC voltage for electrostatic
precipitators to work. The required DC voltage is 70 kV, 1000 mA. Type: BY 127
6.4.9 Motors
Rapping motors are provided along with each zone. A hammer is coupled to each of the
motors shaft. Due to rotary motion of motor these hammers hit the collecting electrodes after
a certain time delay and the ash is allowed to flow down through outlet in form of slurry.
Rating: .5A motors
A GD screen (gas diverting) motor is also provided in electrostatic precipitator to provide a
zigzag motion of flue gas so as to allow the heavy dust particles to settle down and removed.
6.5 Features:
6.5.1Spark regulation
Flashovers of extremely low intensity are difficult to detect using the comparator technique.
Non detection results in sustained arcing which may damage the collecting electrode. For
such digital detection system is adopted.
6.5.2 Fast ramp control
In case of fast changes in operating conditions of precipitator many sparks may occur within
a short time reducing current to a low value, when the disturbance disappears, it may take a
relatively long time before the current can assume its normal value. This is the case
particularly if selected rate of rise is low
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5. Charger put in Commissioning mode for duration specified only one time during
initial commissioning of the batteries. (By means of enabling switch.)
6. Battery charger put in fast charging boost mode and battery set boost charged for the
duration specified by the battery manufacturer.
7. After the boost charging duration, the battery charger is to be put in float charging
(trickle charge) mode for continuous operation.Some chargers automatically switch to
float charge mode after the charging current reduces below a certain value.
8. Voltage and current values are recorded during the boost charging and float-charging
mode.
This test establishes the correct operation of the battery charger within the specified voltage
and current levels in various operational modes.
6.8 Battery Unit
1. Mandatory Condition: The battery set should have been properly charged as per the
commissioning instructions of the battery manufacturer for the duration specified.
2. Visual Inspection: Cleanliness of battery is checked and the electrolyte level checked
as specified on the individual cells. The tightness of cell connections on individual
terminals should be ensured.
3. The load current, minimum voltage of battery system, ampere-hour, duration etc., is
preset in the test equipment using the keypad.
For (e.g.) a 58 AH battery set, 5 Hr. duration specification 11.6 A and 5 Hr. duration are set.
Minimum voltage setting is = No. of cells x end cell voltage of cells as per manufacturer
specification.
4. It is to be ensured that the set value of the current and duration is within the discharge
capacity of the type of cell used. Also the total power to be dissipated in the load unit
should be within the power rating of the battery load kit.
5. Individual cell voltages to be recorded before the start of the test.
6. Battery charger to be switched off/load MCB in charger to be switched off.
7. Loading of the battery to be started at the specified current value.
Individual cell voltages of the battery set are to be recorded every half an hour.
8. It is to be ensured that all the cell voltages are above the end-cell voltage specified by
the manufacturer.
If any of the cell voltages falls below the threshold level specified by the
manufacturer, this cell number is to be noted and the cell needs to be replaced.
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9. Test set automatically stops loading after set duration (or) when minimum voltage
reached for the battery set.
10. Test to be continued until the battery delivers the total AH capacity it is designed for.
Value of AH and individual cell voltages to be recorded every half an hour.
6.9 Acceptance Limits
This test establishes the AH capacity of battery set at required voltage
The acceptance limit for the test is to ensure the battery set is capable of supplying the
required current at specified DC voltage without breakdown for the required duration.
6.10 Different types of battery used for auxiliary power supply in substations and power
plants
In industrial or substation applications mainly three types of batteries are used namely:
1. Vented / Flooded Lead Acid batteries
2. Sealed maintenance free batteries/Valve Regulated Lead Acid
3. Nickel Cadmium (Ni-cd) batteries
For UPS applications batteries are the most popular and hence are widely used. Hence, in this
detailing, mainly emphasize has been put on these type of batteries.
Vented / Flooded Lead Acid Batteries
There are two types for vented or flooded lead acid batteries namely tubular and Plante. The
difference between the two is the construction. For tubular battery normal life is 8-10 years.
The Plant battery is both mechanically and electrically more durable. The normal life for
Plant batteries is 15-20 years. Because this type of battery generates corrosive fumes when
charging and because the sulfuric acid electrolyte does evaporate to some extent, these
batteries must be used in a special room, which is well ventilated to the outside and kept
away from delicate electronic equipments.
It needs separate room/racks with acid proof tiles for installation. Because of evaporation, it
needs regular maintenance to check specific gravity, to add water and acid. These batteries
can withstand high temperature, voltage, and deep discharge with minimum damage to itself.
A notice should be exhibited in the battery room prohibiting smoking and use of naked
flames. These batteries cannot be transported in charged condition and therefore need
charging at site.
Typical initial charging of the battery will take about 55 to 90 hours. Nominal cell voltage is
2V/cell. The charger for this battery should be able to provide the first charge at 2.6 to 2.7
V/cell.
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These types of batteries are typically used for UPS Systems of very high rated capacity,
typically engaged for plant application, wherein maintenance and space is not really an issue.
Sealed Maintenance Free batteries (SMF)
These are also known as Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) batteries. These batteries are
the most popular for usage with UPS systems for computer or commercial application. Being
sealed, these batteries do not emit any fumes and hence can be very well installed next to
electronic equipment. These batteries also can be housed in a close enclosure if necessary.
These batteries are also maintenance free and avoid any hassles of checking specific gravity,
adding water or acid, etc.
These batteries have a relatively lesser life of approx. 3-5 years. The life expectancy typically
depends on the number of charge/discharge cycle experienced by the batteries and the
ambient temperature in which the batteries are used. These batteries are primarily the most
popular for commercial applications due to Install and forget approach.
The Performance and service life of these batteries can be maximized by observing the
following guidelines:
1. Permissible operating temperature range of SMF batteries is 15 deg C to 50 deg C, but
using within an operating range 5 C to 35 C will extend service life. Below 15 deg C, the
battery changes its chemical composition and cannot hold a charge. You will enjoy longer
service life, if batteries are operated in ambient temperature range of 20 deg C to 25 deg C
(68F to 77F). At lower temperature they have longer life and lower capacity while at higher
temperature they have higher capacity and lower life.
2. A good rule of thumb when determining battery service life in relation to temperature is
that for every 8.3 deg C (15F) average annual temperature above 25 deg C (77F), the life of
the battery is reduced by 50%. Therefore warranty of the battery should be ideally reduced to
50% for every 8.3 deg C (15F) increase in operating temperature above 25 deg C (77F).
3. SMF batteries are designed to have a float voltage of 2.3 V/cell. This means that a 12 V
battery (with 6 internal cells) has a float voltage of 13.8 Volts. Most of the battery
manufacturers recommend float voltage of 2.25 2.3 volts per cell. When there are more
cells (generally >120) in series, to compensate for higher temperatures, float voltage should
be decreased by approx. 3 mV per cell per deg C above 25 deg C. It should be increased by
the same amount when operated at a temperature less than 25 deg C to avoid undercharge.
The Cut off voltage is 1.67 V/cell for high rate of discharge
4. It is recommended that SMF batteries should not be left in totally discharged state more
than 72 hrs. The batteries may get partially or fully damaged due to SULPHATION if
charging does not start within 72 Hrs from totally discharged state. Sulphation is the
formation of lead sulphate on negative plates which acts as an insulator and has a detrimental
effect on charge acceptance.
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5. In normal float / equalize use (2.25 to 2.35V/cell), gas generated inside battery is
recombined into negative plates, and return to water content of the electrolyte. Thus electrical
capacity is not lost because of this recombination. There is no need to add external water, but
due the corrosion of the electrodes battery will eventually lose capacity.
6. At ambient temperature of 30 40 deg C, the shelf life of batteries is 5-6 months only. A
freshening charge must be given to the batteries every 6 months, if needed to be stored for
longer periods. Batteries should be kept in dry, cool place. At ambient temperature of 20 deg
C (68F), the self-discharge rate is 3-4% (approx.) of rated capacity per month. The selfdischarge rate varies with ambient temperature.
7. SMF batteries are equipped with a safe, low pressure venting system, which operates at 7
psi to 10 psi (can vary slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer), automatically releasing
excess gas in the event that gas pressure rises to a level above the normal rate ensuring no
excessive buildup of gas in the batteries. Resealing is automatic once the pressure is returned
to normal.
8. Cyclic life of the battery depends on ambient operating temperature, the discharge rate, the
depth of discharge, and the manner in which the battery is recharged. The most important
factor is the depth of discharge. At a given discharge rate and time, the shallower the depth of
discharge, the longer is the cyclic life.
9. Failure mode at the end of life includes:
1. Capacity decrease
2. Internal short circuit
3. Damage to container/lid
4. Terminal corrosion
5. Reduced open circuit voltage.
10. The IEEE defines B (Bend of useful life) for a UPS battery as being the point when it
can no longer supply 80 percent of its rated capacity in ampere-hours (AH). The relationship
between AH capacity and runtime time is not linear, a 20% reduction in capacity results in a
much greater reduction in runtime. When battery reaches 80% of its rated capacity, the aging
process accelerates and the battery should be replaced. Some UPS/ Battery manufacturers
define B (Bend of useful life) for a UPS battery when battery capacity reaches 50-60% of
its rated capacity.
11. Mixed use of batteries with different capacities, different makes should be avoided as it
will cause accelerated aging of the whole string.
12. If two or more battery groups are to be used, connected in parallel, they must be
connected to the UPS through lengths of wires, cables or busbars that have the same loop line
resistance as each other. This makes sure that each parallel bank of batteries presents the
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same impedance to the UPS as any other of the parallel banks thereby ensuring correct
equalization of the source to allow for maximum energy transfer to the UPS load.
13. The normal life SMF battery will support approx. 200 charge/discharge cycles at 25 deg
C (77F) and 100% depth of discharge.
14. The term B (Bend of useful life) for a UPS battery refers to the fact that these batteries
do not require fluid. But preventive maintenance like checking for cracks and deformation of
the container & lid, electrolyte leakage/spills tightening of the connection etc, particularly for
higher AH capacity batteries should be done to prevent any damage.
6.11 Nickel Cadmium Batteries (Ni-Cd)
Ni-cd batteries do emit hydrogen and oxygen gas, products of electrolysis, but there are no
corrosive gases as lead acid batteries, so these can be installed near electronic equipment.
Water consumption is relatively low and so therefore maintenance is low. Normal service life
is 20-25 years. These are most expensive of the various types of batteries previously
discussed. Initial cost may be approximately three times that of lead acid battery depending
upon their AH capacity.
These batteries do not experience the severe shortening of life when operated at elevated
temperatures and perform better at low temperatures than do the lead acid batteries. Nominal
cell voltage is 1.2 V/cell. The battery chargers and inverters have to be designed to operate
with low end cell cutoff voltages and higher recharging voltages needed for such batteries.
These batteries occasionally demand boost charging and typically find their applications
wherein UPSs support critical equipment in hazardous environment such as chemical,
fertilizer, cement industry.
Merits/demerits
As spelled earlier, all the above discussed types of batteries have their own merits and
demerits. Let us now look at them individually.
A) Vented / flooded Lead acid batteries
Merits
1. Most economical among three types of batteries.
2. Life is higher than SMF batteries.
3. Robust- not much sensitive to temperature.
Demerits
1. Needs periodic maintenance- twice a month.
2. Emits corrosive fumes.
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CHAPTER 7
PROTECTION SYSTEM
2.
3.
4.
To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from healthy part,
causing least disturbance to the healthy system.
5.
6.
4. Sensitivity
5. Power consumption
6. System Security
7. Reliability
8. Adequateness
9. Speed & Time
Pickup level of actuating signal: The value of actuating quantity (voltage or current)
which is on threshold above which the relay initiates to be operated. If the value of
actuating quantity is increased, the electromagnetic effect of the relay coil is increased
and above a certain level of actuating quantity the moving mechanism of the relay just
starts to move.
2.
Reset level: The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts
and comes in original position.
3.
Operating Time of Relay: Just after exceeding pickup level of actuating quantity the
moving mechanism (for example rotating disc) of relay starts moving and it ultimately
close the relay contacts at the end of its journey. The time which elapses between the
instant when actuating quantity exceeds the pickup value to the instant when the relay
contacts close.
4.
Reset time of Relay: The time which elapses between the instant when the actuating
quantity becomes less than the reset value to the instant when the relay contacts
returns to its normal position.
5.
Reach of Relay: A distance relay operates whenever the distance seen by the relay is
less than the pre-specified impedance. The actuating impedance in the relay is the
function of distance in a distance protection relay. This impedance or corresponding
distance is called reach of the relay.
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Differential
ii.
Unbalance
iii.
Neutral Displacement
iv.
Directional
v.
vi.
Over Fluxing
vii.
Distance Schemes
viii.
ix.
x.
Loss of excitation
xi.
Current Relays
ii.
Voltage Relays
iii.
Frequency Relays
iv.
ii.
Static Relay
iii.
Analog Relay
iv.
Digital Relay
v.
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vi.
Mechanical relay.
1.Thermal
1. OT Trip (Oil Temperature Trip)
2. WT Trip (Winding Temperature Trip)
3. Bearing Temp Trip etc.
2.Float Type
1. Buchholz
2. OSR
3. PRV Water level Controls etc.
3.Pressure Switches.
4.Mechanical Interlocks.
5.Pole discrepancy Relay.
e) Based on Applications:
i.
Primary Relays.
ii.
Backup Relays
ii.
b) Solid State (Static) Relay: Solid-state (and static) relays are further categorized
under following designations.
i.
Analog Relay: In Analog relays are measured quantities are converted into
lower voltage but similar signals, which are then combined or compared
directly to reference values in level detectors to produce the desired output.
ii.
iii.
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2.
Most relays come enclosed in a semi flush-mounting draw out case. Installers
typically install relays usually on the door of the switchgear cubicle. They
bring sensor and control wiring to connections on the case. The relay inserts
into the case and connects by means of small switches or a bridging plug,
depending on the manufacturer.
3.
As such, we can disconnect and withdraw it from the case without disturbing
the wiring. When the relay is disconnected, the current transformer (CT)
connections in the case are automatically shorted to short circuit the CT
secondary winding and protect the CT from over voltage and damage.
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7.5 Operation of Electromagnetic-attraction Relay: Figure shows a typical electromechanical relay. An input voltage is applied to the coil mechanism. The input voltage
magnetizes the core which pulls the arm towards it. This action causes the output contacts
to touch, closing the load circuit. When the input voltage is removed, the spring lever will
push the contacts away from each other, breaking the load circuit connection.
103
a)
This closes the circuit the relay is controlling. The greater the sensed fault, the greater
the current in the coils, and the faster the disk rotates.
b)
A calibrated adjustment called the time dial sets the spacing between the moving and
stationary contacts; this varies the operating time of the relay from fast (contacts only
slightly open) to slow (contacts nearly a full disk revolution apart). Reset action
begins upon removing the rotational force, either by closing the relay contact that trips
a breaker or by otherwise removing the malfunction the relay is sensing. The
restraining spring resets the disk to its original position. The time required to reset
depends on the type of relay and the time-dial setting (contact spacing).
c)
Most electromechanical Relays are typically rated for minimum input to output
isolation voltages of 1500 to 2000 VAC.
b)
c)
d)
Relay is Bulky: Because there are internal mechanical components with physical
dimension restraints, the package size of an electromechanical Relay can limit the size
of a PCB design Excessive power consumption.
e)
f)
g)
Inherent in its design, the Electromechanical Relay must make mechanical contacts in
order to switch a load. At the point of these contacts, oxidation breakdown occurs
over extended life cycling (typically 106 operations), and the relay will need to be
replaced.
h)
i)
History of Relay: The static relay are next generation relays .The Solid Static relays
was first introduced in 1960s. The term static implies that the relay has no moving
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mechanical parts in it. Compared to the Electromechanical Relay, the Solid Static
relay has longer life-span, decreased noise when operates and faster respond speed.
However, it is not as robust as the Electromechanical Relay.
b)
c)
The static relays have been designed to replace almost all the functions which were
being achieved earlier by electromechanical relays.
d)
Measuring principles: The working principle of the Solid Static relays is similar to
that of the Electromechanical Relay which means the Solid Static relays can perform
tasks that the Electromechanical Relay can perform.
e)
The Solid Static relays use analogue electronic devices instead of magnetic coils and
mechanical components to create the relay characteristics. the measurement is carried
out by static circuits consisting of comparators, level detectors, filter etc while in a
conventional electro-magnetic relay it is done by comparing operating torque (or
force) with restraining torque (or force). The relaying quantity such as voltage/current
is rectified and measured. When the quantity under measurement attains certain welldefined value, the output device is triggered and thereby the circuit breaker trip circuit
is energized.
f)
In a solid state relay, the incoming voltage and current waveforms are monitored by
analog circuits, not recorded or digitized. The analog values are compared to settings
made by the user via potentiometers in the relay, and in some case, taps on
transformers.
g)
In some solid state relays, a simple microprocessor does some of the relay logic, but
the logic is fixed and simple. For instance, in some time over current solid state
relays, the incoming AC current is first converted into a small signal AC value, and
then the AC is fed into a rectifier and filter that converts the AC to a DC value
proportionate to the AC waveform. An op-amp and comparator is used to create a DC
that rises when a trip point is reached. Then a relatively simple microprocessor does a
slow speed A/D conversion of the DC signal, integrates the results to create the timeover current curve response, and trips when the integration rises above a set point.
Though this relay has a microprocessor, it lacks the attributes of a digital/numeric
relay, and hence the term microprocessor relay is not a clear term.
h)
Function of Relay: Early versions used discrete devices such as transistors and
diodes in conjunction with resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc., but advances in
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electronics enabled the use of linear and digital integrated circuits in later versions for
signal processing and implementation of logic functions. While basic circuits may be
common to a number of relays, the packaging was still essentially restricted to a
single protection function percase, while complex functions required several cases of
hardware suitably interconnected.
i)
j)
In some cases, relay burden is reduced, making for reduced CT/VT output
requirements. in a static relay there is no armature or other moving element and
response is developed by electronic, magnetic or other components without
mechanical motion.
k)
A relay using combination of both static and electro-magnetic units is also called a
static relay provided that static units accomplish the response.
l)
m)
The performance of static relay is better than electromagnetic relays as they are fast
acting and accuracy of measurement is better than electromagnetic relay.
n)
The constraint in static relay is limited function/features. In the last decade, some
micro processors were introduced in this relay to achieve the functions like (i) Fuse
failure features (ii) Self check feature (iii) Dead Pole detection and iv) Carrier aided
protection features.
a)
Operation of Relay: The essential components of static relays are shown in fig. The
output of CT and PT are not suitable for static components so they are brought down
to suitable level by auxiliary CT and PT. Then auxiliary CT output is given to
rectifier. Rectifier rectifies the relaying quantity i.e., the output from a CT or PT or a
Transducer
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Static Relay burden is less than Electromagnetic type of relays. Hence error is less.
2.
Low Weight
3.
4.
5.
No acoustical noise.
6.
Multi-function integration.
7.
Fast response.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
No contact bounce
15.
Microprocessor compatible.
16.
Isolation of Voltage
17.
No moving parts: There are no moving parts to wear out or arcing contacts to
deteriorate that are often the primary cause of failure with an Electro Mechanical
Relay.
107
18.
19.
20.
Cost Issues: In the past, there has been a rather large gap between the price of an
electromechanical relay and the price of a solid state relay. With continual
advancement in manufacturing technology, this gap has been reduced dramatically
making the advantages of solid state technology accessible to a growing number of
design engineers.
b)
Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients which are caused by operation of
breaker and isolator in the primary circuit of CTs and PTs.
c)
Serious over voltage is also caused by breaking of control circuit, relay contacts etc.
Such voltage spikes of small duration can damage the semiconductor components and
also cause mal operation of relays.
d)
e)
Highly sophisticated isolation and filter circuits are required to be built into the relay
design to take care of electromagnetic interference and transient switching
disturbances in the power system.
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
108
History of Relay: Around 1980s the digital relay entered the market. Compared to
the Solid State Relay, the digital relay takes the advantages of the development of
microprocessors and microcontrollers. Instead of using analog signals, the digital
relay converts all measured analog quantities into digital signals.
a)
b)
By the mid-1990s the solid state and electromechanical relay had been mostly
replaced by digital relay in new construction. In distribution applications, the
replacement by the digital relay proceeded a bit more slowly. While the great majority
of feeder relays in new applications today are digital, the solid state relay still sees
some use where simplicity of the application allows for simpler relays, and which
allows one to avoid the complexity of digital relays
c)
d)
The Microprocessors used in Digital Relay have limited processing capacity and
memory compared to that provided in numerical relays.
e)
f)
The limited power of the microprocessors used in digital relays restricts the number of
samples of the waveform that can be measured per cycle. This, in turn, limits the
speed of operation of the relay in certain applications. Therefore, a digital relay for a
particular protection function may have a longer operation time than the static relay
equivalent. However, the extra time is not significant in terms of overall tripping time
and possible effects of power system stability.
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g)
Operation of Relay: Digital relay consists of: (1) Analogue input subsystem, (2)
Digital input subsystem, (3) Digital output subsystem, (4) A processor along with
RAM (data scratch pad), main memory (historical data file) and Power supply.
h)
Digital relaying involves digital processing of one or more analog signals in three
steps: Conversion of analogue signal to digital form Processing of digital form
Boolean decision to trip or not to trip
2.
3.
Functional flexibility.
4.
5.
They can implement more complex function and are generally more accurate
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
More Accurate.
11.
12.
2.
3.
110
4.
As digital systems become increasingly more complex they require specially trained
staff for Operation.
5.
111
112
Numerical relays are micro processor based relays and having the features of recording of
parameter used as disturbance recorder flexibility of setting & alarms & can be used one
relay for all type of protections of one equipment hence less area is required. Wide Range of
setting, more accurate, Low burden hence low VA of CT is required which minimize the cost.
Numeric relays take the input analog quantities and convert them to numeric values. All of
the relaying functions are performed on these numeric values.
The following sections cover relay hardware, relay software, multiple protection
characteristics, adaptive protection characteristics, data storage, instrumentation feature, selfcheck feature, communication capability, additional functions, size and cost-effectiveness.
Numerical protection devices are available for generation, transmission and distribution
systems. Modern power system protection devices are built with integrated functions. Multifunctions like protection, control, monitoring and measuring are available today in numeric
power system protection devices. Also, the communication capability of these devices
facilitates remote control, monitoring and data transfer.
These relays provide great precision and convenience in application in the sophisticated
electronic products. By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save
capital cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays. The disadvantages of a
conventional electromechanical relay are overcome by using micro controller for realizing
the operation of the relays. Micro controller based relays perform very well and their cost is
relatively low
Also, the communication capability of these devices facilitates remote control, monitoring
and data transfer. Traditionally, electromechanical and static protection relays offered singlefunction, single characteristics, whereas modern numeric protection offers multifunction and
multiple characteristics. Some protections also offer adaptable characteristics, which
dynamically change the protection characteristic under different system conditions by
monitoring the input parameters.
Operation of Relay: A current signal from CT is converted into proportional voltage signal
using I to V converter.
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The ac voltage proportional to load current is converted into dc using precision rectifier and
is given to multiplexer (MUX) which accepts more than one input and gives one output.
Microprocessor sends command signal to the multiplexer to switch on desired channel to
accept rectified voltage proportional to current in a desired circuit.
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115
16. Basic hardware is shared between multiple functions, the cost of individual protection
functions can be reduced significantly.
17. Loss of voltage feature helps block the relay in case of momentary/permanent loss of
voltage.
7.9.5 Limitations of Numerical Relay:
a)
Numerical Relay offers more functionality, and greater precision. Unfortunately, that
does not necessarily translate into better protection.
b)
Numerical Relay can make faster decisions. However, in the real world, faster
protection itself is of no value because circuit breakers are still required to interrupt at
the direction of the protective equipment, and the ability to make circuit breakers
interrupt faster is very limited.
c)
d)
e)
Numerical Relay protection shares common functions. This means that there are
common failure modes that can affect multiple elements of protection. For example,
failure of a power supply or an input signal processor may disable an entire protective
device that provides many different protection functions. This problem has receive a
lot of design attention, and experience generally has supported the notion that the
equipment has a very high reliability once it is past the infant mortality stage. But it
remains something to be aware of.
f)
A multifunction numeric relay can provide three phase, ground, and negative
sequence directional or non-directional over current protection with four shot recloser,
forward or reverse power protection, breaker failure, over/under frequency, and
over/under voltage protection, sync check, breaker monitoring and control, It would
take 10 11 single function Solid State or Electromechanical relays at least 5 to 6
times the cost. Additionally Numeric relays have Communications capabilities,
sequence-of-events recording, fault reporting, rate-of-change frequency, and metering
functions, all in an integrated system.
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LIST OF REFERENCES
1. Induction motor manual of caca motors by bhel
2.220KV switchyard panel manual by abb
3. http://electrical-engineering-portal.com
4. http://google.com
5. Manual of electrostatic precipitator by bhel
6. Library of GHTP Lehra Mohabbat
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