HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Year One - 2013/14

Module: Module Digital & Analogue Devices

Power
Supplies

Keith A. Hudson
M1306117
03/12/2013

<This page is intentionally blank>

Keith A. Hudson
M1306117

Digital / Analogue
03 December, 2013

Contents
1

Linear Power Supply (Q1a)........................................................................................................................................ 4

1.1

Transformer ...................................................................................................................................................... 4

1.2

Rectifier ............................................................................................................................................................. 5

1.3

Smoothing ......................................................................................................................................................... 5

1.4

Regulator ........................................................................................................................................................... 6

1.5

The Power Supply ............................................................................................................................................. 6

Load Regulation (Q1b) .............................................................................................................................................. 7

Switched Mode vs. Linear (Q2) ................................................................................................................................. 8

Construction of a Linear Power Supply (Q3a) ........................................................................................................... 9

4.1

Power Source .................................................................................................................................................... 9

4.2

Transformer (TR1) ............................................................................................................................................. 9

4.3

Rectifier (BR1) ................................................................................................................................................... 9

4.4

Smoothing (C1).................................................................................................................................................. 9

4.5

Regulator (U1) ................................................................................................................................................... 9

4.6

Load (RV1) ......................................................................................................................................................... 9

4.7

Complete circuit - simulation .......................................................................................................................... 10

4.8

Complete circuit - wired.................................................................................................................................. 11

Calculations (Q3b) ................................................................................................................................................... 13

Power Supply Analysis and Improvements (Q3c) ................................................................................................... 15

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................................ 17

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Figures
Figure 1: The conversion steps. ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Figure 2: The changes in the wave form of the voltage / current. ................................................................................... 4
Figure 3: The magnetic flux of a transformer ................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 4: Bridge using separate diodes ............................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 5: Bridge diode package ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 6: Regulator TO-220 package ................................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 7: The complete power supply............................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 8: Block diagram of a switched mode power supply ............................................................................................. 8
Figure 9: The power supply with no load........................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 10: The power supply under full load .................................................................................................................. 10
Figure 11: Wiring the circuit on a Digiac 3000 Power supply module ......................................................................... 11
Figure 12: Almost 5V output ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 13: Full load - 51.7mA .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 14: Part load - 41.7mA ......................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 15: Oscilloscope display ....................................................................................................................................... 12

Tables
Table 1: Types of transformer ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Table 2: Load regulation of a 12VDC, 0-5A power supply ................................................................................................ 7
Table 3: Advantages / disadvantages - Switched mode and Linear power supply ........................................................... 8
Table 4: Load Regulation ................................................................................................................................................. 13
Table 5: Line Regulation .................................................................................................................................................. 13
Table 6: %Efficiency of the power supply (calculated at full load) ................................................................................. 13
Table 7: Power loss ......................................................................................................................................................... 14
Table 8: %Efficiency of the Transformer (calculated at full load) ................................................................................... 15
Table 9: Efficiency of the Rectifier (calculated at full load) ............................................................................................ 15
Table 10: Adjusting the Transformer to optimise the Regulator minimum input voltage ............................................. 16
Table 11: Efficiency of the Rectifier (calculated at full load) .......................................................................................... 16

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Keith A. Hudson
M1306117

Digital / Analogue
03 December, 2013

1 Linear Power Supply

(Q1a)

The purpose of a linear power supply is to provide a suitable voltage and current to a specific load. The load is an
electronic circuit, which may be simple or complex. The available high voltage (mains), alternating current must be
converted into a low voltage, regulated, direct current. To convert high voltage A.C.to (lower voltage) D.C. the basic
process is the same regardless of the levels of input and output, voltage and current. The values of the components
are dependent upon the input voltage, current and the requirements of the load. Any variation in the input supply
and changes to the current drawn by the source must also be factored in.

A.C. Voltage
Input

Transformer

Rectifier

Smoothing

Regulator

D.C. Voltage
Output

Figure 1: The conversion steps.

Figure 2: The changes in the wave form of the voltage / current.

The components required to convert A.C. mains voltage to a suitable D.C. low voltage are shown in Figure 1. Figure 2
shows how the input wave form is transformed until the desired output wave form is achieved.

1.1 Transformer
The basic parts of a transformer are shown in Error! Reference
source not found. (electrical4u.com, n.d.). An alternating
current is passed through the primary winding. This causes a
magnetic flux that is concentrated by the soft iron core. As the
current alternates (positive to negative and back to positive) the
magnetic flux alternates. This induces an EMF (voltage) in the
secondary winding. If this circuit is closed, then an alternating
current will flow through the secondary winding. For further
explanation see Faradays Law of Electro-magnetic Induction.

Figure 3: The magnetic flux of a transformer

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Digital / Analogue
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Table 1: Types of transformer

Number of
Primary
Windings

Number of
Secondary
Windings

Transformer
Type

>N

Step-up

1:1
(Isolation)

<N

Step-down

Result
O/P Voltage
>
I/P Voltage
O/P Voltage
=
I/P Voltage
O/P Voltage
<
I/P Voltage

For our power supply a step-down transformer will be used to reduce the high voltage (see Figure 2.1), low current
power into low voltage (see Figure 2.2), high current power. Because the secondary windings conduct higher current
than the primary windings, they are usually made from thicker wire.

1.2 Rectifier
The purpose of the rectifier is to convert the alternating current, Figure 2.2 from the transformer into direct current.
Figure 2.3 shows the result of full-wave rectification. Here the negative portion of the sine wave is inverted to
produce only a positive voltage. (There may be circumstances were only negative voltages are required. This can be
achieved by configuring the rectifier circuit appropriately.) Half wave rectification is achieved by only allowing
positive (or negative) current to flow. During the negative (or positive) part of the sine wave the resultant voltage is
zero. A half-wave rectifier combined with a centre-tapped transformer, also results in a full wave rectification. A
rectifier consists of a number of diodes, either individually wired (see Figure 4) or more commonly; they are
integrated into a single package (see Figure 5) (Wikipedia, 2013).

Figure 4: Bridge using separate diodes

Figure 5: Bridge diode package

1.3 Smoothing
The output voltage from the rectifier is far from constant, in fact it varies from 0V to a maximum and then back to 0V
(see Figure 2.3). By connecting a suitable capacitor to the rectified output we can get a voltage with far less variation
(see Figure 2.4). This is called a smoothing capacitor. They are usually electrolytic type capacitors with a value over
470F.

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Digital / Analogue
03 December, 2013

1.4 Regulator
For some applications the smoothed voltage may be stable enough, but for other applications it may resulting in
malfunction of the load circuit. To produce a constant output voltage (see Figure 2.5) the smoothed output is passed
through an electronic device called a regulator. The most popular form for these solid state devices is the TO-220
package (see Figure 6).

Figure 6: Regulator TO-220 package

The LM78xx produce positive voltages and LM79xx produce negative voltages. The xx indicates the output voltage,
common are 5 and 12V.

1.5 The Power Supply

Figure 7 shows a complete power supply circuit. On the left is the supply voltage (240V, 50Hz) and on the right is the
load (RV1). These are not part of the power supply. In this example we have chosen a step-down transformer and
then a bridge rectifier. Next are the smoothing capacitor and the regulator.

Figure 7: The complete power supply

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Year One: 2013/14

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2 Load Regulation

Digital / Analogue
03 December, 2013

(Q1b)

Load regulation is a measure of how the output voltage of a power supply is affected by changes to the output
load (current). It is given as a percentage and the smaller the value the better.
Table 2: Load regulation of a 12VDC, 0-5A power supply

(Implied in the question.)

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Year One: 2013/14

Keith A. Hudson
M1306117

Digital / Analogue
03 December, 2013

3 Switched Mode vs. Linear

(Q2)

In a linear power supply, the supply voltage is reduced by a transformer and then it is rectified. A switched mode
power supply, however, the supply voltage is rectified and then it is reduced by a transformer. Figure 8 shows the
steps involved in a switched mode power supply (Wellforces Ltd, 2012).

Figure 8: Block diagram of a switched mode power supply

The Filter reduces E.M.I. The Inrush current control protects the power supply at start up. Input Rectification
converts A.C. to D.C. Power Factor Correction a circuit to condition the input current waveform. The Convertor is a
high frequency transformer. An Output Rectifier converts D.C. pulses to steady D.C. Finally, the Feedback control
maintains a steady output voltage by varying the pulse width into the transformer. Feedback is another difference
between the switch mode supply and a linear one.
Table 3: Advantages / disadvantages - Switched mode and Linear power supply

Linear

Switched-Mode

Efficiency
Size/weight

Poor (typically 25 50%).

Large/heavy transformer and heat sink.

Circuit
complexity

Low: transformation, rectification,

smoothing and regulation.

Cost

Cheap for low power output.

Expensive for high power output.

Reliability

High (decreases as temperature rises).

Interference

No.

Input voltage

Efficiency significantly reduced if a wide

input range is required.
No D.C. input
High (0.001 0.1%)
Small (<10V)
Quick (10s 1ms)

Good (typically 65 90%).

Small/light (typically 75 90% less than linear
equivalent).
High: rectification, pulse-width control,
transformation, rectification, feedback, and
regulation.
Cheap for low power output.
Average price for high power output.
(Getting cheaper.)
Reduced temperature means improved
reliability. More components but fit on a
single PCB.
Yes: Electro-magnetic interference (E.M.I.).
Can be reduced using filters.
Wide range: 110 240, no problem.
Can accept D.C. input.

Stability
Ripple voltage
Transient
Response

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Medium (0.1 3.0%)

Large (10 200mV)
Medium (0.5 10ms)

Year One: 2013/14

Keith A. Hudson
M1306117

Digital / Analogue
03 December, 2013

4 Construction of a Linear Power Supply

(Q3a)

A power supply was simulated using Proteus (see Figure 9 and Figure 10) with the components / values as follows:

4.1 Power Source

Amplitude of 339V and a frequency of 50Hz were selected for the generator. This gives an RMS value of
approximately 240V, i.e. a UK mains supply.

4.2 Transformer (TR1)

TRAN-2P2S
Primary Inductance: 144H, Secondary Inductance: 1H. This results in an approximate step-down of 12:1.
. This actually drops the input voltage down to about 20V.

4.3 Rectifier (BR1)

BRIDGE
A bridge rectifier was chosen to convert the alternating current from the transformer to direct current. Although a
bridge rectifier has more components than required for half-wave rectification, this cost is far out-weighed when
comparing a standard transformer against the cost of a centre tapped one.

4.4 Smoothing (C1)

A capacitor was chosen to smooth the output from the rectifier. The default value of 1mF was used.
After rectification and smoothing the voltage is now at 26.0V (no load) down to 20.5V (full load).

4.5 Regulator (U1)

7812
As an output of 12V was required, a 12V regulator was selected. The minimum input voltage for this component is
19.0V to a max of 35.0V (Farnell UK Limited, 2013). The range of voltages present at the regulator input fall within
this range.

4.6 Load (RV1)

A 100 variable resistor was used to apply varying loads to the output.

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Digital / Analogue
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4.7 Complete circuit - simulation

Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the complete power supply circuit. There are a number of meters measuring A.C. and
D.C. current and voltage at various points in the circuit. These values could then be used to calculate various
performance figures for the power supply.

Figure 9: The power supply with no load

Figure 10: The power supply under full load

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M1306117

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11

4.8 Complete circuit - wired

Figure 11 is the Digiac 3000 experiment platform with a power supply board. (It is show without wires for clarity.) By
connecting circuit #1, #8, #9 and #13 the power supply could be wired up using real components. A number of
meters readings were taken at various points in the circuit (See Figure 12, Figure 13 and Figure 14). These values
could (if required) be used to calculate various performance figures for the power supply.

Figure 11: Wiring the circuit on a Digiac 3000 Power supply module

Figure 12: Almost 5V output

Figure 13: Full load - 51.7mA

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Figure 14: Part load - 41.7mA

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M1306117

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Digital / Analogue
03 December, 2013

An oscilloscope was also connected (see Figure 15). The output is fuzzy due to interference from electrical devices
in the classroom.

Figure 15: Oscilloscope display

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Digital / Analogue
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5 Calculations

(Q3b)

Using the values in Figure 9 and Figure 10 various performance values can be calculated for the power supply.
Table 4: Load Regulation

The following are output voltages:

Table 5: Line Regulation

The following are input voltages:

(i.e. no variation)

The following are output voltages:

Table 5 would indicate that for a variation in input voltage (220 250) there is no change to the output voltage. The
above tests were carried out under nominal load. The test was repeated under full load, with the same results.
Table 6: %Efficiency of the power supply (calculated at full load)

As Table 6 show, this linear power supply is not efficient.

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Digital / Analogue
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Table 7: Power loss

Table 7 shows that 35.85 W of power enter the power supply, but only 9.4 W leaves as electrical power. The
remaining 26.45W leaves the power supply as other forms of energy. Most of this power will be converted to heat
by the voltage regulator. A small amount will be lost through the transformer, some down to internal resistance of
the windings, some due flux leakage and some as sound.

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Digital / Analogue
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15

6 Power Supply Analysis and Improvements

(Q3c)

By comparing the power going into individual components against the power out we will identify the inefficient
component.
Table 8: %Efficiency of the Transformer (calculated at full load)

Table 8 shows that the transformer is extremely efficient, approaching 100%.

Table 9: Efficiency of the Rectifier (calculated at full load)

Table 9 shows that the efficiency of the rectifier is very poor, less than 50%. Here is where most of the power is
lost. The rectifier is reducing an input voltage from 25.9V to 12V without altering the current significantly. The lost
energy is dissipated as heat.
By reducing the output value of the transformer we can reduce the voltage supplied to the regulator, and hence
reduce the amount of energy converted to heat. If we lower the value too much, however, the voltage into the
regulator will be too low, reducing the output voltage.
Linear regulators will only produce the rated output voltage if the input voltage is at least a specific number of volts
above the rated output voltage. This is the dropout voltage and is specified in the data sheet for the rectifier.

The 7812 Regulator in the power supply has a Dropout Voltage,

specified as 14.5V (Farnell UK Limited, 2013).

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, although the minimum supply voltage is

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M1306117

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Digital / Analogue
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The Primary Inductance of the Transformer was adjusted until the voltage after rectification was 14.5V.
Table 10: Adjusting the Transformer to optimise the Regulator minimum input voltage

P:S
Primary Inductance (H)
Trans O/P Voltage (V)
Bridge O/P Voltage (V)
1:12
144
20.1
22.7
1:13
169
18.4
20.6
1:14
196
17.2
18.8
1:15
225
16.0
17.2
1:16
256
15.1
15.7
1:17
289
14.1
14.5
As Table 10 shows setting the Primary Inductance to 289 results in a rectified voltage of 14.5V which equals the
minimum input voltage for the Regulator.
Table 11: Efficiency of the Rectifier (calculated at full load)

Table 11 shows a massive increase in efficiency, up from about 45% to almost 80%. This is at the expense of a slight
drop in the maximum output current from 0.79A down to 0.74A. This equates to an output power of 8.8W
(previously 9.5W). If this drop in power is not acceptable then either:

a low-dropout regulator (LDO) could be used and/or

a lower inductance value could be used (at the expense of efficiency)

During simulation the Regulator input voltage and current sometimes fluctuated. The value of the smoothing
capacitor may be the cause. The datasheet (Farnell UK Limited, 2013) for the regulator suggests a 0.33F capacitor
on the input side of the regulator and a 0.1F capacitor on the output side.
A heat sink on the regulator would also be an improvement to the power supply. Although it would not have a direct
effect on the results it would improve reliability and prolong the life of the regulator.

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Digital / Analogue
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7 Bibliography
All About Circuits, 2012. All About Circuits : Free Electric Circuits Textbooks. [Online]
Available at: http://www.allaboutcircuits.com
[Accessed 25 11 2013].
electrical4u.com, n.d. What is transformer ?Definition and Working Principles of Transformer. [Online]
Available at: http://www.electrical4u.com/what-is-transformer-definition-working-principle-of-transformer/
[Accessed 24 11 2013].
Farnell UK Limited, 2013. L7812CP - STMICROELECTRONICS - IC, V REG +12V, 7812, TO-220FP | Farnell UK - Op.
[Online]
Available at: http://uk.farnell.com/stmicroelectronics/l7812cp/ic-v-reg-12v-7812-to-220fp-3/dp/9756442
[Accessed 28 11 2013].
LJ Create, 2013. LJ Create - Power Supplies Study Module 303-34. [Online]
Available at: http://www.ljcreate.com/products/product.asp?id=213&program=197&curr=2
[Accessed 02 12 2013].
Marian, P., 2013. Step Down Transformer. [Online]
Available at: http://www.electroschematics.com/4355/step-down-transformer/
[Accessed 30 11 2013].
Wellforces Ltd, 2012. Introduction to Linear and Switching power supply and their differences. [Online]
Available at: http://nz.wellforces.com/resources/introduction-linear-switching-power-supplydifferences/197/#.Upy-a6S0NCx
[Accessed 02 12 2013].
Wikipedia, 2013. Diode bridge - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [Online]
Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_bridge
[Accessed 25 11 2013].
Wikipedia, 2013. Load regulation - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [Online]
Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_regulation
[Accessed 25 11 2013].

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