The Indian Mutiny of 1857-1858: Causes and consequences

By David A. Granger, 10 May 2007

The conflict which came to be known as the Indian Mutiny (also as the Indian Revolt, the
First War of Indian Independence and the Sepoy Mutiny) erupted over one hundred and fifty
years ago in May 1857. The mutiny, in effect, was a prolonged period of armed uprisings
against British occupation.
The British presence in India, at that time part of the Moghul Empire, began in the 17th
century when the East India Company acquired its first territory in Bombay. Over the years,
the company extended its control and expanded its territory eventually expelling the French
after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, exactly 100 years earlier. The companys army comprised
British officers who commanded Indian soldiers, called sepoys (sepahi).
Causes
The conflict, the cumulative effect of several causes developing for a hundred years, was
complex in character. These causes arose largely out of the British policy of westernisation
which accelerated markedly in the decade after 1848 during the regime of the Marquess of
Dalhousie, the young, authoritarian and impetuous Governor-General. The main causes could
be described broadly as political, economic, social, military and geographical in nature.
Politically, the most serious issue arose out of the British
introduction of the British Doctrine of Lapse. This doctrine
permitted the British to extend their imperial domain at the
expense of Indian princes by forbidding the inheritance of
states by persons who were not natural heirs; it was also extended to pensions and princely titles. The result was that several states Udaipur, Jhansi and Nogpur and, finally in 1856,
the state of Oudh lapsed into British sovereignty.

Lord Dalhousie

In addition, the policy of excluding Indians from high civil and

military offices, and from having a real role in the running of
India, rankled. This was aggravated by the fact that, by the
doctrine of lapse, several Indian princes and nobles were
rendered redundant, and found no place to fit their rank or
expectations under the British system.

Economically, the British agrarian policy created widespread distress. Sale Laws enforced
against defaulting zamindars and landholders, and the resumption of rent-free holdings, resulted in the dispossession of thousands of families and individuals from their estates and
farms. This was coupled with a new form of direct assessment of heavy rates on land which
many could not afford and, therefore, were evicted from the land. The British import and
export policy also disrupted the Indian economy. British manufactured goods glutted the
markets, undermining the sale of Indian cottage and craft commodities.
Socially, both Hindu and Muslim leaders feared that, as part of its modernisation and
westernisation programme, the British intended to replace their traditional customs and
religions with Christianity. Thus, the Religious Disabilities Act of 1856 which protected the
inheritance rights of converts, the suppression of certain practices particularly saathi, child
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marriage and infanticide and granting permission for the remarriage of widows, were all
regarded with alarm. The unrestricted entry of Christian missionaries that was permitted
under the Charter Act, especially in prisons, orphanages and the army, at the same time was
perceived as threatening.
Geographically, the greatest impact of some of these British policies was felt in one part of
the North including Oudh and the North-Western provinces. Even some technological improvements such as the construction of canals and railways and the introduction of the telegraph which occasionally necessitated the demolition of a temple or shrine or trespassed
across sacred ground were regarded as unwanted and unwarranted intrusions.
Finally, the military causes of the mutiny were most directly responsible for igniting the
conflagration. The ratio of Indians to Europeans in the armies of the three presidencies was
about 6:1 (240,000 to 40,000 approximately). Indians were abused and treated badly, however. Their pay was inadequate and conditions of service were harsh. By the General Services
Enlistment Act of 1856, new recruits were required to serve anywhere in India or overseas.
Some sepoys felt that this would result in their becoming polluted, and losing caste.
Their religious prejudices had already been offended by earlier regulations requiring the
removal of caste marks and beards and the wearing-of turbans with cockades made of leather
(which might have been made either from cowhide or pigskin). Worse was the introduction
of the new breech-loaded Lee-Enfield rifle which fired a .303 calibre cartridge that had to
manually loaded before firing. Priming involved biting the end of the cartridges which the
sepoys felt had been greased with the fat of cows or pigs, before inserting them into the
chambers of the rifles. This was sacrilegious to Hindus and Muslims alike and, although their
British officers realised their mistake and changed the grease to vegetable oils, suspicion
persisted. It was this last imposition which triggered the mutiny at Meerut on the morning of
10th May 1857, which was the spark which ignited the mutiny.
The causes of the mutiny, therefore, were several, and had been simmering for a long period
of time but especially from 1848 to 1857. Many of the innovations were introduced by Lord
Dalhousie. They might have been intended to modernise India but, at the same time, irritated
and alienated some conservative elements who lost property, prestige and power by these
measures.
Consequences
With the fall of Gwalior on 20th June 1858, thirteen months after the Meerut Mutiny of 10th
May 1857, the British effectively suppressed the conflict. The consequences, however, lasted
over ninety years right up to the time of Indian independence in 1947 and beyond. Like the
causes, the consequences were political, economic, social and military in nature.
Politically, the British government changed its entire administrative strategy for controlling
India in the aftermath of the mutiny. These changes were embodied for the most part in the
Government of India Act of 1858, the main provision being the transfer of power from the
Company (i.e., the East India Company) to the Crown.
The Indian rajahs (traditional rulers) were assured that treaties made with them would be
observed and that territorial annexation would be curtailed. The people of India were promised collectively that their traditional and religious rights would be respected, that there
would be no interference with their customs and that they would not be discriminated against.
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Although the life of the titular Moghul emperor Bahadur Shah was spared, he was deposed
and, with this, ended some 200 years of Muslim Moghul rule in India. Queen Victoria was
proclaimed empress in 1877 and the Governor-General was appointed Viceroy.
The spurious Doctrine of Lapse that Lord Dalhousie introduced was repudiated, and the right
of adopted children to succeed to the titles of their princely parents was recognised. By the
Indian Councils Act of 1861, the Viceroy's Council was strengthened and the central
legislature was expanded to permit the inclusion of Indians. By these measures, the British
began the process of admitting Indians into the higher echelons of administration.
Economically, a new agrarian policy was introduced to guarantee security of tenure and to fix
rent for lands. This policy freed cultivators from tedious settlements and excessive demands
of the state. The Bengal Rent Act of 1859 served as a model for this enlightened approach to
an age-old, but vexatious problem. In addition, a revenue policy was introduced to levy new
taxes personal income tax, professional license tax and a tobacco tax which helped to
augment revenues. The financial system, also, was decentralised by entrusting some items of
taxation to local governments.
These measures, although helping to stabilise agriculture, stimulate production and develop
public works, also accelerated the export of raw materials to, and the import of industrial
manufactures from, Britain.
Socially, a major consequence of the mutiny was the rise of a conservative gentry of rajahs
and other prominent Indians who remained loyal to the British. They were embraced as a
docile and dependable class. They even included in their numbers some taluqdars and
zamindars who became a buffer between the British ruling class and the Indian masses. The
mutiny also caused a marked rise in racial consciousness and extremism as the British,
seeking to prevent a recurrence of the violence, ensured that Indians were not placed in
positions of power or influence to threaten British rule again.
In military terms, the consequences of the mutiny were also far-reaching. The old company
army was demobilised, and new regular forces raised. These were based on the recruitment of
soldiers from the so-called martial races Sikhs, Jats, Pathans and Gurkhas who had
remained loyal to the British during the mutiny, in preference to Brahmins and other groups
who were regarded as troublesome. The ratio of Indians to Europeans was fixed at 2:1, and
Indians were precluded from manning the artillery and from entering certain scientific
branches of the army.
In general terms, the most significant consequences were a break with the old imperial
system, and the rise of a conscious Indian national movement. The social, political and
economic changes which took place in the wake of the mutiny opened a new chapter in
Indian history leading to the stimulation of agricultural and industrial development, the
stirring of political democracy and the struggle for independence.