Sand Mining Management and Its Environmental Impact in Cauvery and Kabini River Basins of Mysore District Karnataka

International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), ISSN 0976 6308 (Print),
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JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
ISSN 0976 6316(Online), Volume 5, Issue 9, September (2014), pp. 169-180 IAEME
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IJCIET
ISSN 0976 6308 (Print)

ISSN 0976 6316(Online)
Volume 5, Issue 9, September (2014), pp. 169-180
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SAND MINING, MANAGEMENT AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT IN

CAUVERY AND KABINI RIVER BASINS OF MYSORE DISTRICT,
KARNATAKA, INDIA USING GEOMATICS TECHNIQUES
Basavarajappa H.T,
Manjunatha M.C,
Jeevan L
Department of Studies in Earth Science, Centre for Advanced Studies in Precambrian Geology,
University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore-570006, Karnataka, India
ABSTRACT
Sand is one of the most important non-living resource/mineral formations on the earths
surface. The sand formation is recorded only in the recent ages of the earths history. Sand has
become a very important mineral resource in our society due to its applications in various fields.
Sands of river streams have no substitute for use as building material in reinforced concrete cement.
It can be used for making concrete, filling roads, building sites, brick-making, glass industries,
sandpapers, reclamations to replace eroded coastline etc. Efforts have been made to evaluate IRS-1D,
PAN+LISS-III of False Color Composite (FCC) through Visual Image Interpretation Techniques
(VIIT) using GIS softwares. The whole study area is drained by Cauvery and Kabini river basins
that carry sand from different locations and deposits largely at meandering. Especially, Talakadu
area has massive deposits of sands on the windward side of river. It covers sand dunes in the river
bank by the fault running through the river Cauvery. Rapid urbanization is the major cause for sand
demand and is responsible for unsustainable extraction of sand from dried river paths. Currently sand
extraction is permitted up to three feet, but it is being dug up even up to 25-30 ft which later fails the
possessing irrigation wells. Production of adulterated sand is a mixture of sand from estuary and
coastal land that are gradually increased due to high cost of sand. It is a growing imbalance as
prevailing uncontrolled sand mining and its adulteration continues to cause significant environmental
damage and socio-economic problems. A complex interaction between economic, demographic,
social and political encouragement are required to avoid the adverse effects of sand mining on
riverbed environments. The final results highlight the impacts of environment and its management in
Cauvery and Kabini river basins of Mysore District, Karnataka, which is a suitable model in similar
geological conditions.
Keywords: Sand mining, Impact on Environment, Management, River basins and Geomatics.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral
particles under the influence of weathering and abrasion. Sand accumulation as layers in river
courses is a dynamic phenomenon. Sand is vital for the existence of the rivers. Riverbeds, streams,
channels, beaches are excellent sources of sand. As a resource, sand by definition is a loose,
incoherent mass of mineral materials and is a product of natural processes. River sand is one of the
worlds most plentiful resources (perhaps as much as 20% of the Earths crust is sand). When sand is
freshly formed; the particles are usually angular and sharply pointed but they form gradually smaller
and more rounded as they become constantly worn down by the wind or water. Sand has become a
very important mineral for the expansion of society. The most common natural process of sand
formation is weathering which involves chemical, mechanical and biological process in breakdown
of rock masses. The process can take more than thousand years or even more that depends on other
factors like temperature, pressure, rainfall, wind, parent material etc. Sand is indispensable
reinforced concrete cement for modern construction sector. Sand mining activity involves scooping,
moving, carrying and transporting sand and pebbles increases the number of physical, socioeconomic and environmental problems including land use. Another reason for sand mining is for the
extraction of minerals such as rutile, ilmenite, zircon which contain titanium and zirconium are the
industrially useful elements. The fertile soils of the Cauvery basin seemed to have become fine
particles of soft sand. Large trenches are being dug up in the middle of the riverbed to extract sand
that later could alter the river course. Mining had to be done in a conservative manner without
affecting the river and its ecosystem; but the possible ecological impact owing to indiscriminate
illegal sand mining in 40 acres of area in the banks of river Cauvery. Many people do not understand
the close ties between human activities and the environment because they have inaccurate or
insufficient information (Keating, 1994). Geomatics techniques encompasses Survey of India (SoI)
toposheet, Satellite Remote Sensing data (RS), Geographic Information System (GIS) and Global
Positioning System (GPS) in mapping of geomorphology, litholody, soil, drainage, lineament and
other related features in assessing the environmental impacts and its management of a region
(Basavarajappa et al, 2014). The main purpose of the Geomatic techniques is to provide
environmental quality in planning and decision making processes.
2. STUDY AREA
It lies in between 750 59- 790 05 E Longitude and 110 45- 120 40 N Latitude with an aerial
extent of 6,854 Km2 of which 1,145 Km2 is covered by forest area. It includes 7 taluks namely
Krishna Raja Nagar, Periyapatna, Hunsuru, Heggadadevana Kote, Mysore, Nanjungudu and
Tirumalakudu Narasipura with the general elevation of 700-800 m above MSL. The net cultivable
land is 4,86,410 hectares and irrigated land is 1,14,010 hectares. The study area can be divided into 3
physiographic regions. Firstly, north to eastern portions are riverine plains of river Cauvery and
South easterly flowing river Kabini and both joins at T.Narasipura. Secondly, the central part is of
gentle slopes towards eastern sides at Hunsur, Heggadadevana Kote, Krishnaraja Nagara,
Nanjungudu and Mysore plains with both irrigated and dry seasonal crops. Western Ghats of
Hunsuru and Periyapatna with thick natural forest is the third physiographic region.
170
3. CLIMATE & RAINFALL

The temperature varies from 160C to 270C in winter and 270C to 350C in hot summer. The
average annual rainfall is 866.5mm (2012) recorded from 11 rain gauging stations in the district
(Central Ground water Board-2008; Basavarajappa et al, 2013a).The summer season starts from
March to June, followed by the monsoon season from July to November and the winter season from
December to February (Basavarajappa et al., 2012).
4. METHODS & MATERIALS
i. Topomaps - TIFF Images of 48P/15, 57D/2, 57D/3, 57D/4, 57D/5, 57D/6, 57D/7, 57D/8, 57D/11,
57D/12, 58A/1, 58A/5 and 58A/9 of scale-1:50,000 (Survey of India, Bangalore).
ii. Satellite Imagery: IRS-1D, PAN (5.8 m Resolution) +LISS-III (23.5m Resolution) of the year 2000, of Path-99 & Row 64. (NRSC, Hyderabad).
iii. GIS Tools - Erdas imagine v2013, PCI Geomatica v2012 & Arc GIS v10.
iv. GPS - A field survey using GPS (Garmin-12) is conducted to check the exact locations during
sample collection.
171
5. GEOMORPHOLOGY
Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms. The geomorphology layer is digitized
using IRS-1D, PAN+LISS-III and toposheets as base map through ArcGIS v10. It represents almost
all types of variation in the topography and classifications of the upland areas falling under semimalnad category. Ridges and valleys are mainly restricted to Nanjungud, H.D Kote taluk and north
western parts of the study area. The general elevation ranges from 700-800 m above MSL except for
the denudational hills and ridges; while the southern parts H.D Kote taluk has higher elevation
ranging from 2200-3150 m above MSL. The Mullur Betta Naganpur Reserved Forest, the Shigebetta
(3231 m above MSL) of the Bedrampadi Reserved Forest mark the water divide making the southern
boundary of H. D. Kote taluk and also of the district. The thematic map of geomorphology helps in
identification and mapping of various landforms such as hills & plateaus, piedmont zone, plains,
reservoir, reservoir islands, river/stream and settlements etc (Pushpavathi and Basavarajappa 2009,
Basavarajappa et al., 2008). The average elevation of the Chamundi hill is about 1,000 m above
MSL.
6. LITHOLOGY
The lithology of study area is largely consists of igneous and metamorphic rocks. The
lithology map incorporates the rock succession of the study area which gives an idea about the host/
parent rock that are responsible for sand formation. The study area is characterized by the
172
occurrences of gneisses, pink and grey granite, meta-ultramafites, limestone and dolomite,
granodiorite and granite, Charnockite, Chamundi granite, amphibolites schist and hornblende schist.
173
7. SOIL TYPES
Soils are essential units in controlling the infiltration of rainwater and surface flow patterns
(Basavarajappa et al, 2013b). The thematic layer helps in the classification of soils and further
identification of sand deposits. The soil types identified in the study area are red sandy soil, red
loamy soil and deep black soil. Almost entire district is covered by red sandy soil except in small
parts of T. Narasipura taluk, characterized by clayey mixed sand which is less permeable compare to
sandy soil having good moisture capacity, water holding capacity and is fertile. The thickness varies
from less than 1 m to 16 m. These 3 types of soils are having high permeability and nearly neutral
with a pH of 7 (Nelson, 1993; Meador and Layher, 1998).
8. DRAINAGE SYSTEM
The drainage map is digitized from IRS-1D, PAN+LISS-III data that helps in study of surface
water runoff and transportation of sediments in water. The study area includes number of major
perennial and non-perennial rivers with an elevation of 3150 ft above MSL. River Cauvery flow
from north-west to eastern parts along with tributaries; Kabini, Suvarnavathi, Nugu, Gundal and
Laxmanthirtha. The Cauvery rises at Thala Kaveri at Kodagu district flowing along the boundary of
Periyapatna taluk, K. R. Nagara taluk further flows into T. Narasipura. River Kabini is the major
tributary of river Cauvery that rise at waynad in Kerala state, enters into the Karnataka state at
Siddapur in Kodagu district. Kabini flows diagonally from south western parts to north east before
joining the river Cauvery at T. Narasipura. Both Cauvery and Kabini river carries the finely
decomposed rocks and mineral particles from north west and south west parts respectively and
deposits most at meanders of various riverbeds.
174
9. LINEAMENT
A lineament is a linear feature of structural, lithological, vegetational, drainage anomalies
which represents the underlying geological structure (Basavarajappa et al., 2012). Fracture and shear
zones will comprise a series of fault or fold-aligned hills, an igneous intrusions such as dykes. The
direction of most of the lineaments is from north-west and south-east parts of the study area.
Lineaments are often appears as abducted/subducted line features in geological or topographic maps
as well as on aerial/satellite imagery (Basavarajappa et al., 2008, 2009; Dinakar., 2007). The number
of major and minor lineaments is recorded based on their length and width. The lineament map of the
study area is delineated from IRS-1D PAN+LISS-III through Visual Image Interpretation
Techniques (VIIT) using PCI Geomatica v2012. A large part of Talakadu is covered by sand dunes
in the river bank due to fault running through the river Cauvery (Valdiya, 2008).
175
11. OCCURRENCES OF SAND IN THE STUDY AREA

Generally the occurrence of sand is of alluvial type where the river has its influence on sand
deposition. The deposition is mainly due to minor fault zones all along the river path; later this leads
to upliftment and shifting of river courses by forming the meandering at many places along the river
path particularly helps in accumulation of sand. The host/parent rock of sand is mainly composed of
igneous and metamorphic bodies which are of granitic and granulitic in composition. These sands are
carried by the wind from the dry bed of river Cauvery. Clean sand is indeed a rare commodity on
land that is common in sand dunes, sand bars and riverbeds. The area has massive deposits of sands
on the windward side of river. The sand dunes get inundated with sand over the years. The eastward
flowing river Cauvery changes its course and seem magnificently spreads over a wide area. There are
huge mounds of sand by the banks of the river, like a beach and identified as small hillocks as even
15 meters.
Sand deposits of Cauvery river basin are recorded at many locations in the study area such as;
Sosale, Yeddore, Gargeshwari, Hakkuru, Thirumalakudalu, Nilasoge, S.Megahalli, Somanathapura,
Tumbla, Rangasamudra, Hole salu, Hembige, Hosapura, Doddebagalu, Hambige, Madawadi etc.;
while the sand deposits of Kabini river are located at Sargur, Chakkur, Madapura, kalihundi,
Tumbasoge, Hampapura, Yechagalli, Nanjangud, Hejjige, Basavanapura, Kullankanahundi,
Doddanayakana pura, Bokahalli, Sutturu etc.
12. CONSTITUENTS OF SAND

In geological terms; is defined as rock particles that range in diameter from 0.0625 to 2.0
mm and the individual particle known as sand grain. Silica is the most common/basic constituent of
sand which is usually in the form of quartz having chemical composition (SiO2) along with the traces
of feldspar. Quartz is usually colorless or slightly pink with chemical inertness, considerable
hardness and resistant to weathering, while feldspar is pink/amber in color. The composition of sand
is highly variable from nearly pure silicon, feldspar and gypsum to varying degrees of impurity from
mixture with other sediments. This variation is due to local mineral/rock sources and geological
conditions of the area. Arkose is a sand or sandstone with considerable feldspar content derived from
176
weathering and erosion of a granitic rock outcrop. Some of the heavy mineral assemblages are
noticed from the collected sand samples from Talakadu area such as magnetite, ilmenite, limonite,
zircon, rutile, biotite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum. tourmaline etc. Some of the light minerals are
also identified as quartz, feldspar, mica etc.
13. IMPACT OF SAND MINING
Sand has become a very important mineral for our society due to its many uses. As
communities grow, construction requires less wood and more concrete that increases the sand
demand. In addition, sand has industrial use as raw material in glass making. Due to its increasing
effective demand, sand is being over extracted at different depths varying from three to forty feet,
from different river streams and basins. These effects directly on the riverine habitats such as, the
riverbed lose its ability to hold water and affects groundwater recharge threat to river banks & nearby
structures and premature failure of irrigation wells associated in farming causes erosion or
degradation of the rivers or nearby environment (Rinaldi et al., 2005). If sand is extracted in
quantities higher than the capacity of river to replenish them; that directly impacts on velocity, flow
regime, river bed level, bank erosion, eco-system, migratory system, extinction of species, fish
breeding etc. The environmental impact of sand mining may vary depending upon geologic and
geomorphic settings, river sizes, resource availability, climatic conditions, etc in order to mitigate the
impact. The River basins are seriously threatened due to excessive sand extraction which in turn
affects the groundwater recharge. The continuous mining of sand leads to the depletion of sand
resources. Sand mining is the actual removal of sand from the foreshore including rivers, streams and
lakes. Sand acts like a sponge which helps in groundwater recharge; but the progressive depletion in
riverbed is accompanied by sinking water tables in nearby areas that adversely affecting the peoples
daily lives, even their livelihood. Stream mining resulted in channel degradation & erosion, head
cutting, increased turbidity, stream bank erosion and sedimentation of riffle areas (Kondolf, 1997).
Sand mining is regulated by law at many places, but is still often done illegally. Increase in sand
demand has placed immense pressure on sand resources which is one of the major environmental
issues. Sand mining is a direct and obvious cause of erosion and also impacts the local wildlife.
Since the extraction of sand is a simple process, the people carry out the sand mining in huge
quantity without considering their adverse effect on environment (Basher, 2006). The water table
depressed by several meters due to deepening of the channel, several water wells are being dried up
throughout the year and even affects the water quality. Uncontrolled and unscientific way of sand
mining implies increase in velocity of the water, erosion & loss of land, loss in groundwater level,
vegetation eco system, migratory system, extinction of species, fish breeding etc. and adversely
affecting the aquatic life & marine environment (Collins et al, 1990). This immediately affects the
scarcity of surface water as well as groundwater resources and its taste. Scarcity of water sharply
declines the agricultural practices, landslides, flooding activity which intern affects the nearby
human habitation across the districts and state. As the agriculture could not provide adequate
employment opportunities to the local landless laborers, the situation forces them to seek the support
of illegal miners for getting their livelihood assured. As the agricultural practices are dwindling day
by day, the farmers either sell their lands to the miners or allow the miners to dredge the precious
sand lying beneath their lands. Excessive in-stream sand mining is a threat to dams, bridges, river
banks and nearby structures. The physical habitat characteristics of the stream directly impacts on
groundwater, water quality, channel geometry, bed elevation, substrate composition and stability,
instream roughness elements, depth, velocity, turbidity, sediment transport, stream discharge,
temperature and sand dredging. These geologically impacts on morphology of the channel, increase
in suspended sediments & its load, unsuitable aquatic conditions, reduction in light penetration, loss
177
of phytosynthesis in micro and macrophytes, reduced food availability for plant biomass, damage in
infrastructures, river bank erosion, loss of cultivable land, loss of biodiversity.
14. MANAGEMENT/ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
i. Granite powder may add with sand to reduce the sand consumption.
ii. Bubble Deck comprises a hollow, flat slab that spans in two directions, in which plastic balls are
incorporated to replace and therefore eliminate the concrete in the middle of a conventional slab.
Less amount of exhaust gases are emitted and energy consumption is very less during production and
transportation of bubble deck. Bubble Decks biaxial deck provides 35% more longer span, low
weight and have capacity in maintaining strength with that of concrete. Bubble Deck slab has the
same applied load capacity with only 50% of the concrete required for a solid slab, or the same slab
has thickness twice the load capacity using 65% of the concrete. Concrete usage is significantly
reduced by 1kg of recycled plastic that can replace 100kg of concrete proving an environmentally
friendly factor. Bubble Deck has 40% larger span and is furthermore 15% cheaper as the same
amount of steel and concrete. Bubble Deck reduces the amount of concrete of 33% with reduced
price of 30%.
iii.Clay bricks are the fine-grained soil that combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal
oxides and organic matter. These are the sources from de-silting of dead water tanks and only natural
additives like coal ash, rice husk and saw dust that represents a sustainable alternative solutions for
sand mining. Clay bricks are larger in size and low weight material that provides improved sound
insulation, high thermal storage capacity and seismic-resistance for safe construction during
earthquake. Porotherm clay bricks are 60% lighter than solid concrete block allowing faster
construction, easy handling, high compressive strength and exceptionally provides long life. Its an
excellent thermal insulation that's 45% better compared to conventional walling material. It doesn't
catch fire easily as it is already fired at 1000 C and has a fire rate of F240 (240 minutes). It provides
compressional strength of 35 Kg/cm2, approximate density of 694-783 Kg/m3 and water absorption is
up to 20%.
15. SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
An integrated environmental assessment, management and monitoring programme should be
a part of any sand extraction that has to be encouraged at national, regional, district and local levels.
The problem is now solved to some extend by substituting river sand with crusher sand. It is
necessary to build check dams at regular intervals of each stretch in river/streams to specify a
reference line for bed profile. Thus the sand deposition above check dam can be permitted for sand
mining to minimize its impacts on environment (Binoy et al, 2013). Sand mining sites should be
situated outskirt of the active floodplain and excavation should not take place from below the water
table. Larger rivers and streams should be used preferentially than small rivers and streams. Bar
skimming should not be restricted. Pit excavation located on adjacent floodplain or terraces should
be separated from the active channel. Turbidity levels should be monitored periodically. Sand
extraction and storage of heavy equipment within vegetated habitat should be restricted.
Sensitization and awareness among people are required. Sand mining should be done within given
premises. There should be a time limit for sand mining and its extraction. It is necessary to fix the
limited amount of sand carriage for each transportation vehicles (trucks and lorries).
178
16. CONCLUSIONS
Geomatics is the advent high-tech tool that provides synoptic view of a larger area, accurate
& effective results in environmental quality, planning and decision making processes. The locations
of the sand deposits are identified by bright reflectance of light color on aerial/satellite imagery. The
socio-economic significance of mining operations is often overlooked and need to protect for its
economic and social benefits. The mining impact cannot reshape the original environment, short
term benefits are only counted. The River basins are seriously threatened due to excessive sand
extraction which in turn affects the groundwater recharge. Currently sand extraction is permitted up
to 3 ft, but is being dug up even up to 25-30 ft. It is necessary to avoid the mining equipments and
instruments that produce CO2 and other exhaust gases which add to air and noise pollutions. Leakage
of toxic metals and petroleum in these equipments and other boats using under water may affects the
quality of water bodies and direct impact on micro & macro-organisms. Granite powder can reduce
the sand consumption up to some extent. Bubble deck and clay bricks are the best alternative
solutions to avoid maximum amount of sand and its mining from riverbeds.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are indepthly acknowledged to Prof. S. Govindaiah, Chairman, DoS in Earth
Science, CAS in Precambrian Geology, University of Mysore, Mysore-06; Jagadish, Plant Manager,
Weinerberger, India Pvt. Ltd and UGC-MRP, New Delhi.
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Sand Mining Management and Its Environmental Impact in Cauvery and Kabini River Basins of Mysore District Karnataka

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International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), ISSN 0976 6308 (Print),

ISSN 0976 6308 (Print)

SAND MINING, MANAGEMENT AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT IN

3. CLIMATE & RAINFALL

11. OCCURRENCES OF SAND IN THE STUDY AREA

12. CONSTITUENTS OF SAND

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