Biotechnology

Insulin crystals.

Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses
in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Modern use similar term includes genetic
engineering as well as cell- andtissue culture technologies. The concept encompasses a wide range of procedures
(andhistory) for modifying living organisms according to human purposes - going back to domestication of animals,
cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial
selection and hybridization. By comparison to biotechnology, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field
with its emphasis more on higher systems approaches (not necessarily altering or using biological materials directly)
for interfacing with and utilizing living things. The United NationsConvention on Biological Diversity defines
biotechnology as:

[1]

"Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or
modify products or processes for specific use."
Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular
biology, biochemistry,embryology, cell biology) and in many instances is also dependent on knowledge and methods
from outside the sphere of biology (chemical engineering, bioprocess engineering, information
technology, biorobotics). Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular
ecology) are intimately entwined and dependent on the methods developed through biotechnology and what is
commonly thought of as the life sciences industry.
[edit]History

Brewing was an early application of biotechnology

Main article: History of Biotechnology

Biotechnology is not limited to medical/health applications (unlike Biomedical Engineering, which includes much
biotechnology). Although not normally thought of as biotechnology, agriculture clearly fits the broad definition of
"using a biotechnological system to make products" such that the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest
biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food
since the Neolithic Revolution. The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and
biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology, farmers were able to select the best suited
crops, having the highest yields, to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of
biotechnology were required as the crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific
organisms and organism by-products were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the use of
agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new
environments and breeding them with other plantsone of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those
in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Indiadeveloped the process of brewing beer. It is still done by the same basic method of
using malted grains (containing enzymes) to convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to
produce beer. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol.
Ancient Indians also used the juices of the plant Ephedra vulgaris and used to call it Soma.

[citation needed]

Later other

cultures produced the process of Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other
forms of food. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of
fermentation was not fully understood until Pasteurs work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a
food source into another form.

For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve production of crops and livestock to use
them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the
same characteristics. For example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops.

[2]

In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of
manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial
process, that of manufacturing corn starchusing Clostridium acetobutylicum, to produce acetone, which the United
Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives duringWorld War I.

[3]

Biotechnology has led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium.
His work led to the purification of the antibiotic by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley penicillin. In
1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans.

[2]

The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely begun on June 16, 1980, when the United States
Supreme Court ruled that a genetically modified microorganism could be patented in the case of Diamond v.
Chakrabarty.

[4]

Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had developed a bacterium (derived

from the Pseudomonas genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills.
Revenue in the industry is expected to grow by 12.9% in 2008. Another factor influencing the biotechnology sector's
success is improved intellectual property rights legislationand enforcementworldwide, as well as strengthened
demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population.

[5]

Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of
Energy estimating ethanolusage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The
biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeansthe
main inputs into biofuelsby developing genetically modified seeds which are resistant to pests and drought. By
boosting farm productivity, biotechnology plays a crucial role in ensuring that biofuel production targets are met.
[edit]Applications

[6]

A rose plant that began as cells grown in a tissue culture

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and
agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable
oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.
For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic
products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the
mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by
industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.
A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques,
and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to
as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then
applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on
a large scale."

[7]

Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural

genomics, andproteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.

Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of
biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection
and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow

under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology
might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is
the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides.
An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately
more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.

Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to
produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation.

White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes.
An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using
of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting
chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce
industrial goods.

[citation needed]

The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies

is termed as bioeconomy.
[edit]Medicine
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as

drug production

pharmacogenomics

gene therapy

genetic testing: techniques in molecular biology detect genetic diseases. To test the developing fetus for Down
syndrome,Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling can be used.

[2]

[edit]Pharmacogenomics

DNA Microarray chip Some can do as many as a million blood tests at once

Main article: Pharmacogenomics

Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her bodys response to
drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words pharmacology and genomics. It is hence the study of the
relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and
produce drugs that are adapted to each persons genetic makeup.

[8]

Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:

[8]

1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create

drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and
diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease
damage to nearby healthy cells.
2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patients genetics will enable
doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the
value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.
3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made
easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With
modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies,
which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.
4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of
genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection.
They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of
pathogen at once.
[edit]Pharmaceutical products

Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold symmetry, the zinc ions holding it together, and
the histidine residues involved in zinc binding.

Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively simple molecules that have been found primarily through trial and
error to treat the symptoms of a disease or illness.

[citation needed]

Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules

known asproteins and these usually target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady (but not always, as
is the case with using insulin to treat type 1 diabetes mellitus, as that treatment merely addresses the symptoms of
the disease, not the underlying cause which is autoimmunity); it is a relatively young industry. They can deal with
targets in humans that may not be accessible with traditional medicines. A patient typically is dosed with a small
molecule via a tablet while a large molecule is typically injected.

Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but larger molecules are created by living cells such as those found
in the human body: for example, bacteria cells, yeast cells, animal or plant cells.
Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically alteredmicroorganisms such as E.
coli or yeast for the production of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer totransgenic
animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster
Ovary (CHO) cells, are also used to manufacture certain pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology
application is the development ofplant-made pharmaceuticals.
Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis
B, hepatitis C,cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The
biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to
define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin, for example, was the first drug approved
for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the
protein HER2.
Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first
genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in
1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanizedinsulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the
bacterium Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the
pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle and/or pigs). The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the
production of vast quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost.

[9]

According to a 2003 study undertaken

by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) on the access to and availability of insulin in its member countries,
synthetic 'human' insulin is considerably more expensive in most countries where both synthetic 'human' and animal
insulin are commercially available: e.g. within European countries the average price of synthetic 'human' insulin was
twice as high as the price of pork insulin.

[10]

Yet in its position statement, the IDF writes that "there is no overwhelming

evidence to prefer one species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly purified] animal insulins remain a
perfectly acceptable alternative.

[11]

Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth
hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs.

[12]

Most drugs today are

based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways,
and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets.
[edit]Genetic testing

[12]

Gel electrophoresis

Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans a patients DNA sample
for mutated sequences.
There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (probes)
whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among
the base pairs of an individuals genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patients genome, the probe will
bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the
sequence of DNA bases in a patients gene to disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.
Genetic testing is now used for:

Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that
requires two copies for the disease to manifest;

Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals;

Determining sex;

Forensic/identity testing;

Newborn screening;

Prenatal diagnostic screening;

Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers;

Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders.

Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently
available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia,
and Huntingtons disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex
conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation
associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may
present different risks to different people and populations.

[12]

[edit]Controversial questions

The bacterium Escherichia coli is routinely genetically engineered.

The absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to discrimination in
employment or insurance or other use of personal genetic information. This raises questions such as whether genetic
privacy is different from medical privacy.

[13]

1. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the
possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For
example, germline therapy changes the genetic make-up of an individuals descendants. Thus, any error in
technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences (though the same can also happen through
natural reproduction). Ethical issues like designed babies and human cloning have also given rise to
controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses
witheugenics (see reductio ad hitlerum).
2. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service
providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic
information.
3. Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test
results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family.
4. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis--vis genetic
determinism, and the concepts of health and disease.
[edit]Gene therapy
Main article: Gene therapy

Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the
modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein.

Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using
normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be
used to target somatic (i.e., body) or gametes (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the
recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene
therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes to their
offspring.
There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:
1. Ex vivo, which means outside the body Cells from the patients blood or bone marrow are removed and
grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the
cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the
laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.
2. In vivo, which means inside the body No cells are removed from the patients body. Instead, vectors are
used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patients body.
As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified
worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various
types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe
combined immunodeficiency disorder (SCID) were reported to have been cured after being given genetically
engineered cells.
Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating disease.

[13]

At least four of

these obstacles are as follows:

1. Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common
vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human
cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the diseasecausing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce

10

problems like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In
addition, in order for gene therapy to provide permanent therapeutic effects, the introduced gene needs to
be integrated within the host cell's genome. Some viral vectors effect this in a random fashion, which can
introduce other problems such as disruption of an endogenous host gene.
2. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment
to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed
countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing
countries can take advantage of this technology.
3. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes.
Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known
exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing
such genes is indeed desirable.
4. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene.
Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many
people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit
specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also
contributed to their disease.

[edit]Human Genome Project

DNA Replication image from the Human Genome Project (HGP)

11

The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) that aims to generate a highquality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all the human genes.
The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new energy resources and
technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their
production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and
National Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (HGP), which officially began in
1990.
The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and worldwide participation
accelerated the completion date to 2003 (making it a 13 year project). Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint
genes associated with more than 30 disorders.

[14]

[edit]Cloning
Main article: Cloning
Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus
has either been deactivated or removed.
There are two types of cloning:

1. Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop
into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.
2. Therapeutic cloning.

[15]

The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells,

which have shown potentials for treating several ailments.

[16]

In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin
Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female.
The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used to
clone human beings.

[17]

This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical implications.

[edit]Agriculture
Main article: Genetically modified food
[edit]Crop yield
Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes (Smartstax from Monsanto in collaboration with
Dow AgroSciences will use 8, starting in 2010) may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new
character that would increase its yield.

[18]

However, while increases in crop yield are the most obvious applications of

modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current genetic engineering techniques work
best for effects that are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g.,
enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall
yield.

[19]

There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area.

12

[edit]Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses

Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For
example, drought and excessively salty soil are two important limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotechnologists
are studying plants that can cope with these extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that enable them to
do so and eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops. One of the latest developments is the
identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from Arabidopsis thaliana, a tiny weed that is often used for plant research
because it is very easy to grow and its genetic code is well mapped out. When this gene was inserted
into tomato and tobacco cells (see RNA interference), the cells were able to withstand environmental stresses like
salt, drought, cold and heat, far more than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger trials,
then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments.

[20]

Researchers

have also created transgenic rice plants that are resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa, this virus
destroys majority of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections.

[21]

[edit]Increased nutritional qualities

Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be
transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet.

[19]

A good example is the work

of Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer in creating Golden rice (discussed below).
[edit]Improved taste, texture or appearance of food
Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant
and then be transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This alters the taste, texture and
appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it could expand the market for farmers in developing countries due to the
reduction in spoilage. However, there is sometimes a lack of understanding by researchers in developed countries
about the actual needs of prospective beneficiaries in developing countries. For example, engineering soybeans to
resist spoilage makes them less suitable for producing tempeh which is a significant source of protein that depends
on fermentation. The use of modified soybeans results in a lumpy texture that is less palatable and less convenient
when cooking.
The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its ripening.

[22]

Researchers

in Indonesia,Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in
collaboration with the University of Nottingham and Zeneca.
Biotechnology in cheese production:

[24]

[23]

enzymes produced by micro-organisms provide an alternative to animal

rennet a cheese coagulant and an alternative supply for cheese makers. This also eliminates possible public
concerns with animal-derived material, although there are currently no plans to develop synthetic milk, thus making
this argument less compelling. Enzymes offer an animal-friendly alternative to animal rennet. While providing
comparable quality, they are theoretically also less expensive.
About 85 million tons of wheat flour is used every year to bake bread.

[25]

By adding an enzyme called maltogenic

amylase to the flour, bread stays fresher longer. Assuming that 1015% of bread is thrown away as stale, if it could

13

be made to stay fresh another 57 days then perhaps 2 million tons of flour per year would be saved. Other enzymes
can cause bread to expand to make a lighter loaf, or alter the loaf in a range of ways.
[edit]Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals
Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the dependence
of farmers on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with
insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal spray from these
bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxinoccurs as an inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective.
There are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered
to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect
ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of
the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number of countries to controlcorn
borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difficult process).
Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. The lack of
herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury was a consistent limitation in crop weed management.
Multiple applications of numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental
to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergencethat is, herbicide applications were
sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to actual weeds present. Mechanical
cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The
introduction of herbicide-tolerant crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used
for weed management, reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and increasing yield
due to improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance
to glyphosate, glufosinate and bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic
crops without inflicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds.

[26]

From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to commercially available transgenic
crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for
77% of the 626,000 square kilometres planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and "stacked genes"
for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn accounted for 8%.

[27]

[edit]Production of novel substances in crop plants

Biotechnology is being applied for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed can be modified to produce fatty
acids fordetergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals. Potatoes, tomatoes, rice tobacco, lettuce, safflowers, and
other plants have been genetically engineered to produce insulin and certain vaccines. If future clinical trials prove
successful, the advantages of edible vaccineswould be enormous, especially for developing countries. The
transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic
problems posed by having to transport traditional preparations over long distances and keeping them cold while in
transit. And since they are edible, they will not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the
traditional vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated.

14

[28]

In the case of insulin grown in

transgenic plants, it is well-established that the gastrointestinal system breaks the protein down therefore this could
not currently be administered as an edible protein. However, it might be produced at significantly lower cost than
insulin produced in costly bioreactors. For example, Calgary, Canada-based SemBioSys Genetics, Inc. reports that
its safflower-produced insulin will reduce unit costs by over 25% or more and approximates a reduction in the capital
costs associated with building a commercial-scale insulin manufacturing facility of over $100 million, compared to
traditional biomanufacturing facilities.

[29]

[edit]Criticism
There is another side to the agricultural biotechnology issue. It includes increased herbicide usage and resultant
herbicide resistance, "super weeds," residues on and in food crops, genetic contamination of non-GM crops which
hurt organic and conventional farmers, etc.
[edit]Biological

[30][31]

engineering

Main article: Bioengineering

Biotechnological engineering or biological engineering is a branch of engineering that focuses on biotechnologies and
biological science. It includes different disciplines such as biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, bioprocess engineering, biosystem engineering and so on. Because of the novelty of the field, the definition of
a bioengineer is still undefined. However, in general it is an integrated approach of fundamental biological
sciences and traditional engineering principles.
Biotechnologists are often employed to scale up bio processes from the laboratory scale to the manufacturing scale.
Moreover, as with most engineers, they often deal with management, economic and legal issues. Since patents and
regulation (e.g., U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulation in the U.S.) are very important issues for biotech
enterprises, bioengineers are often required to have knowledge related to these issues.
The increasing number of biotech enterprises is likely to create a need for bioengineers in the years to come. Many
universities throughout the world are now providing programs in bioengineering and biotechnology (as independent
programs or specialty programs within more established engineering fields).
[edit]Bioremediation

and biodegradation

Main article: Microbial biodegradation

Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms especially microorganisms in an effort to find
sustainable ways to clean up contaminated environments. The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes
from the environment is an absolute requirement to promote a sustainable development of our society with low
environmental impact. Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and biotechnology is
taking advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert such compounds. New
methodological breakthroughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast
amounts of information. In the field of Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era
providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution
of degradationpathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. Functional

15

genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different
pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they
will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes.

[32]

Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly
containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of petroleum
enter the marine environment every year from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of
petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial
communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic
bacteria (HCCB).

[33]

[edit]Biotechnology

regulations

The National Institute of Health was the first federal agency to assume regulatory responsibility in the United States.
The Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee of the NIH published guidelines for working with recombinant DNA and
recombinant organisms in the laboratory. Nowadays, the agencies that are responsible for the biotechnology
regulation are: US Department of Agriculture (USDA) that regulates plant pests and medical preparation from living
organisms, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that regulates pesticides and herbicides, and the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) which ensures that the food and drug products are safe and effective

[2]

[edit]Education
In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress, the National Institute of General Medical
Sciences (National Institutes of Health) instituted a funding mechanism for biotechnology training. Universities
nationwide compete for these funds to establishBiotechnology Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful
application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. Graduate students in turn compete
for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted then stipend, tuition and health insurance support is provided for two or three
years during the course of their PhD thesis work. Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs.
training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges.
[edit]See

also

Biotechnology portal

Outline of biotechnology

Bioeconomics

Bioengineering

Biopolitics

Biomimetics

Bioculture

Biochemistry

16

[34]

Biotechnology

Lancaster Laboratories

Pharmaceutical companies

Pharmaceutical chemistry

History of biochemistry

Bionic architecture

Biotechnology industrial park

Biotechnology Training Program University of Virginia

Competitions and prizes in biotechnology

Genetic Engineering

Green Revolution

International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development

International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications

Kelvin probe force microscope

List of biotechnology articles

List of biotechnology companies

List of emerging biotechnologies

NASDAQ Biotechnology Index

SWORD-financing

History of Biotechnology

Technobiology

National Industrial Biotechnology Facility

Outline of biotechnology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

See also: Index of biotechnology articles

Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine.
The UN Convention on Biological Diversity has come up with one of many definitions of biotechnology: Biotechnology
means any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or
modify products or processes for specific use.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biotechnology:
[edit]Essence

of biotechnology

Main article: Biotechnology

Bioengineering

17

 Biology
Technology
[edit]Applications

of biotechnology

Cloning

Reproductive cloning

Therapeutic cloning

Environmental biotechnology
Genetic engineering
Recombinant DNA
Tissue engineering
Use of biotechnology in pharmaceutical manufacturing
[edit]History

of biotechnology

Main article: History of biotechnology

Timeline of biotechnology

Green Revolution

[edit]General

biotechnology concepts

Bioeconomy

Biotechnology industrial park

Green Revolution

Human Genome Project

Pharmaceutical company

Stem cell

Telomere

Tissue culture

Biomimetics

[edit]Leaders

in biotechnology

Leonard Hayflick

Michael D. West

index of biotechnology articles

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

18

(Redirected from List of biotechnology articles)

Biotechnology is a technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine.
Of the many different definitions available, the one formulated by the UN Convention on Biological Diversity is one of
the broadest:
"Biotechnology means any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or
derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use." (Article 2. Use of Terms)
More about Biotechnology...
Template:Biotechnology title 17
See also: Outline of biotechnology
This page provides an alphabetical list of articles and other pages (including categories, lists, etc) about
biotechnology. For other overviews of the topic, please see the Biotechnology portal.
[edit]A
Agrobacterium -- Affymetrix -- Alcoholic beverages -- Category:Alcoholic beverages -- Amgen -- AnaSpec -Antibiotic -- Artificial selection
[edit]B
Biochemical engineering -- Biochip -- Biodiesel -- Bioengineering -- Biofuel -- Biogas -- Biogen Idec -Bioindicator -- Bioinformatics --Category:Bioinformatics -- Bioleaching -- Biological agent -- Biological warfare -Bioluminescence -- Biomimetics -- Bionanotechnology -- Bionics --Biopharmacology -- Biophotonics -Bioreactor -- Bioremediation -- Biostimulation -- Biosynthesis -- Biotechnology --Category:Biotechnology -Category:Biotechnology companies -- Category:Biotechnology products -- Bt corn -- BioSynergy
[edit]C
Cancer immunotherapy -- Cell therapy -- Chimera (genetics) -- Chinese hamster -- Chinese Hamster Ovary
cell -- Chiron Corp. -- Cloning-- Compost -- Composting -- Convention on Biological Diversity -Chromatography
[edit]D
Directive on the patentability of biotechnological inventions -- DNA microarray -- Dwarfing
[edit]E
Enzymes -- Electroporation -- Environmental biotechnology -- Eugenics
[edit]F
Fermentation -- Category:Fermented foods

19

[edit]G
Gene knockout -- Gene therapy -- Genentech -- Genetic engineering -- Genetically modified food -- Genetically
modified organisms --Genetics -- Genomics -- Genzyme -- Global Knowledge Center on Crop Biotechnology Glycomics -- Golden rice -- Green fluorescent protein
[edit]H
Human cloning -- Human Genome Project -- Human Metabolome Project[1]
[edit]I
Immunotherapy -- Immune suppression -- Industrial biotechnology -- Interactomics
[edit]J

Competitions and prizes in biotechnology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

There exist a number of competitions and prizes to reward distinguished contributions and to encourage
developments in biotechnology.
[edit]Inducement

prizes

The Archon X Prize for Genomics of US$10,000,000 is to be awarded to "the first Team that can build a device
and use it to sequence 100 human genomes within 10 days or less, with an accuracy of no more than one error
in every 100,000 bases sequenced, with sequences accurately covering at least 98% of the genome, and at a
recurring cost of no more than $10,000 (US) per genome."

The Prize4Life ALS biomarker prize is a US$1,000,000 award for a reliable way of tracking progression
of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

The Prize4Life ALS treatment prize is a US$1,000,000 award for a therapy that reliably and effectively extends
the life of ALS mice by 25%.

People for Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is offering a US$1,000,000 reward for a method of producing
enough meat to be marketed in 10 U.S. states at a price competitive with chicken prices.

[edit]Recognition

[1][2]

prizes

The Gotham Prize for Cancer Research is a US$1,000,000 prize awarded annually to "encourage new and
innovative approaches to cancer research by fostering collaboration among top thinkers in the field--with the goal
of leading to progress in the prevention, diagnosis, etiology and treatment of cancer."

[3]

Gruber Prize in Genetics is a US$500,000 prize awarded annually for distinguished contributions in any realm of
genetics research.

20

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is an annual grant worth approximately 10 million SEK. It is routinely
awarded for contributions to biotechnology.

Genetic engineering
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Genetic Engineering)

For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to Genetics. For the song by Orchestral Manoeuvres in
the Dark, seeGenetic Engineering (song).
Part of the Biology series on

Genetics
Key components

Chromosome
DNA RNA
Genome
Heredity
Mutation
Nucleotide
Variation

Glossary
Index
Outline
History and topics

Introduction
History

Evolution Molecular
Population genetics
Mendelian inheritance
Quantitative genetics
Molecular genetics

21

Research

DNA sequencing
Genetic engineering
Genomics Topics
Medical genetics

Branches in genetics
Biology portal v d e

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct human manipulation of
an organism'sgenetic material in a way that does not occur under natural conditions. It involves the use
of recombinant DNA techniques, but does not include traditional animal and plant breeding or mutagenesis. Any
organism that is generated using these techniques is considered to be a genetically modified organism. The first
organisms genetically engineered were bacteria in 1973 and then mice in 1974. Insulin producing bacteria were
commercialized in 1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994.
The most common form of genetic engineering involves the insertion of new genetic material at an unspecified
location in the host genome. This is accomplished by isolating and copying the genetic material of interest, generating
a construct containing all the genetic elements for correct expression, and then inserting this construct into the host
organism. Other forms of genetic engineering include gene targeting and knocking out specific genes via
engineered nucleases such as zinc finger nucleases or engineered homing endonucleases.
Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including research, biotechnology, and
medicine. Medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now produced in bacteria, experimental mice
such as the oncomouse and the knockout mouse are being used for research purposes and insect resistant and/or
herbicide tolerant crops have been commercialized. Genetically engineered plants and animals capable of producing
biotechnology drugs more cheaply than current methods (called pharming) are also being developed and in 2009 the
FDA approved the sale of the pharmaceutical protein antithrombinproduced in the milk of genetically
engineered goats.

Definition
Genetic engineering alters the genetic makeup of an organism using techniques that introduce heritable material
prepared outside the organism either directly into the host or into a cell that is then fused or hybridized with the
host.

[1]

This involves using recombinant nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) techniques to form new combinations of heritable

genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly
through micro-injection, macro-injection and micro-encapsulationtechniques. Genetic engineering does not include
traditional animal and plant breeding, in vitro fertilisation, induction of polyploidy,mutagenesis and cell fusion

22

techniques that do not use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the
[1]

process. Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic engineering,
genetic engineering can be used within them.

[3]

[2]

are closely related and

Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic

engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesized genetic material from raw materials into an
organism.

[4]

If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic. If genetic
material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is
called cisgenic.

[5]

Genetic engineering can also be used to remove genetic material from the target organism, creating

a knock out organism.

[6]

In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic engineering while within the

United States of America it can also refer to conventional breeding methods.

[7]

History
Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through artificial selection and more
recently mutagenesis. Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and
mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The term "genetic engineering" was first coined by Jack Williamson in
his science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951,
by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase,

[9]

[8]

one year before DNA's role in heredity was confirmed

and two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that

the DNA molecule has a double-helix structure.

In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combined DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with
that of the lambda virus.

[10]

In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by

inserting antibiotic resistance genes into theplasmid of an E. coli bacterium.

[11][12]

A year later Rudolf Jaenisch created

a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the worlds first transgenic animal.

[13]

In

1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a
year later and the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E.coli. Genentech announced the production
of genetically engineered human insulin in 1978.

[14]

In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court in the Diamond v.

Chakrabarty case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented.

[15]

The insulin produced by bacteria,

branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982.

[16]

The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the USA in 1986, tobacco plants were
engineered to be resistant to herbicides.

[17]

The Peoples Republic of China was the first country to commercialize

transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.

[18]

In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially

release the Flavr Savr tomato, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life.

[19]

In 1994, the European Union

approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered
crop commercialized in Europe.

[20]

In 1995, Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency,

making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the USA.

[21]

In 2009 11 transgenic crops were grown

commercially in 25 countries, the largest of which by area grown were the USA, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada,
China, Paraguay and South Africa.

[22]

23

In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute, announced that they had created the first synthetic
bacterial genome, and added it to a cell containing no DNA. The resulting bacterium, named Synthia, was the world's
first synthetic life form.

[23][24]

Process
Isolating the Gene

Elements of genetic engineering

First, the gene to be inserted into the genetically modified organism must be chosen and isolated. Presently, most
genes transferred into plants provide protection against insects or tolerance to herbicides.
of genes used are growth hormonegenes.

[26]

[25]

In animals the majority

Once chosen the genes must be isolated. This typically involves

multiplying the gene using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). If the chosen gene or the donor organism'sgenome has
been well studied it may be present in a genetic library. If the DNA sequence is known, but no copies of the gene are
available, it can be artificially synthesized. Once isolated, the gene is inserted into a bacterial plasmid.

Constructs
The gene to be inserted into the genetically modified organism must be combined with other genetic elements in
order for it to work properly. The gene can also be modified at this stage for better expression or effectiveness. As
well as the gene to be inserted most constructscontain a promoter and terminator region as well as a selectable
marker gene. The promoter region initiates transcription of the gene and can be used to control the location and level
of gene expression, while the terminator region ends transcription. The selectable marker, which in most cases
confers antibiotic resistance to the organism it is expressed in, is needed to determine which cells are transformed
with the new gene. The constructs are made using recombinant DNA techniques, such as restriction
digests, ligations andmolecular cloning.

[27]

24

Gene Targeting
Main article: gene targeting
The most common form of genetic engineering involves inserting new genetic material randomly within the host
genome. Other techniques allow new genetic material to be inserted at a specific location in the host genome or
generate mutations at desired genomic loci capable of knocking out endogenous genes. The technique of gene
targeting uses homologous recombination to target desired changes to a specific endogenous gene. This tends to
occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and generally requires the use of selectable markers. The
frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced with the use of engineered nucleases such aszinc finger
[28] [29]

nucleases,

[30] [31]

engineered homing endonucleases,

or nucleases created from TAL effectors.

[32] [33]

In addition

to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can also be used to introduce mutations at endogenous genes
[34] [35]

that generate a gene knockout

Transformation
Main article: Transformation (genetics)

A. tumefaciens attaching itself to a carrot cell

About 1% of bacteria are naturally able to take up foreign DNA but it can also be induced in other
bacteria.

[36]

Stressing the bacteria for example, with a heat shock or an electric shock, can make the cell membrane

permeable to DNA that may then incorporate into their genome or exist asextrachromosomal DNA. DNA is generally
inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cells nuclear envelope directly into
the nucleus or through the use ofviral vectors. In plants the DNA is generally inserted using Agrobacterium-mediated
recombinationor biolistics.

[37]

In Agrobacterium-mediated recombination the plasmid construct must also contain T-DNA.Agrobacterium naturally
inserts DNA from a tumor inducing plasmid into any susceptible plant's genome it infects, causing crown gall disease.
The T-DNA region of this plasmid is responsible for insertion of the DNA. The genes to be inserted are cloned into
a binary vector, which contains T-DNA and can be grown in both E. Coli and Agrobacterium. Once the binary vector

25

is constructed the plasmid is transformed into Agrobacterium containing no plasmids and plant cells are infected.
The Agrobacterium will then naturally insert the genetic material into the plant cells.

[38]

In biolistics particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells or plant embryos.
Some genetic material will enter the cells and transform them. This method can be used on plants that are not
susceptible to Agrobacterium infection and also allows transformation of plant plastids. Another transformation
method for plant and animal cells is electroporation. Electroporation involves subjecting the plant or animal cell to an
electric shock, which can make the cell membrane permeable to plasmid DNA. In some cases the electroporated
cells will incorporate the DNA into their genome. Due to the damage caused to the cells and DNA the transformation
efficiency of biolistics and electroporation is lower than agrobacterial mediated transformation and microinjection.

[39]

Selection
Not all the organism's cells will be transformed with the new genetic material; in most cases a selectable marker is
used to differentiate transformed from untransformed cells. If a cell has been successfully transformed with the DNA it
will also contain the marker gene. By growing the cells in the presence of an antibiotic or chemical that selects or
marks the cells expressing that gene it is possible to separate the transgenic events from the non-transgenic. Another
method of screening involves using a DNA probe that will only stick to the inserted gene. A number of strategies have
been developed that can remove the selectable marker from the mature transgenic plant.

[40]

Regeneration
As often only a single cell is transformed with genetic material the organism must be regrown from that single cell. As
bacteria consist of a single cell and reproduce clonally regeneration is not necessary. In plants this is accomplished
through the use of tissue culture. Each plant species has different requirements for successful regeneration through
tissue culture. If successful an adult plant is produced that contains the transgene in every cell. In animals it is
necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells. When the offspring is produced
they can be screened for the presence of the gene. All offspring from the first generation will beheterozygous for the
inserted gene and must be mated together to produce a homozygous animal.

Confirmation
Further tests using PCR, Southern Blots and Bioassays are needed to confirm that the gene is expressed and
functions correctly. The organism's offspring are also tested to ensure that the trait can be inherited and that it follows
a Mendelian inheritance pattern.

Applications
Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide
range of plants, animals and micro organism.

Medicine
In medicine genetic engineering has been used to mass produce insulin, human growth hormones, follistim (for
treating infertility),human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic factors, vaccines and many other

26

drugs.

[41]

Vaccination generally involves injecting weak live, killed or inactivated forms of viruses or their toxins into

the person being immunized.

[42]

Genetically engineered viruses are being developed that can still confer immunity,
[43]

but lack the infectious sequences.

Mouse hybridomas, cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies, have

been humanised through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies.

[44]

Genetic engineering is used to create animal models of human diseases. Genetically modified mice are the most
common genetically engineered animal model.

[45]

They have been used to study and model cancer (the oncomouse),

obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging and Parkinson disease.

[46]

Potential cures

can be tested against these mouse models. Also genetically modified pigs have been bred with the aim of increasing
the success of pig to human organ transplantation.

[47]

Gene therapy is the genetic engineering of humans by replacing defective human genes with functional copies. This
can occur insomatic tissue or germline tissue. If the gene is inserted into the germline tissue it can be passed down to
that person's descendants.

[48]

Gene therapy has been used to treat patients suffering from immune

deficiencies (notably Severe combined immunodeficiency) and trials have been carried out on other genetic
disorders.

[49]

The success of gene therapy so far has been limited and a patient (Jesse Gelsinger) has died during a

clinical trial testing a new treatment.

[50]

There are also ethical concerns should the technology be used not just for

treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence,
[51]

character or behavior.
establish.

[52]

The distinction between cure and enhancement can also be difficult to

Transhumanists consider the enhancement of humans desirable.

Research

Knockout mice

27

Human cells in which some proteins are fused with green fluorescent protein to allow them to be visualised

Genetic engineering is an important tool for natural scientists. Genes and other genetic information from a wide range
of organisms are transformed into bacteria for storage and modification, creating genetically modified bacteria in the
process. Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at 80C almost indefinitely. Once a gene is isolated it can be stored inside the bacteria providing an unlimited supply for
research.
Organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes. This could be the effect on the
phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with. These experiments
generally involve loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression.

Loss of function experiments, such as in a gene knockout experiment, in which an organism is engineered to
lack the activity of one or more genes. A knockout experiment involves the creation and manipulation of a DNA
construct in vitro, which, in a simple knockout, consists of a copy of the desired gene, which has been altered
such that it is non-functional. Embryonic stem cells incorporate the altered gene, which replaces the already
present functional copy. These stem cells are injected into blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate
mothers. This allows the experimenter to analyze the defects caused by this mutation and thereby determine the
role of particular genes. It is used especially frequently in developmental biology. Another method, useful in
organisms such as Drosophila (fruit fly), is to induce mutations in a large population and then screen the progeny
for the desired mutation. A similar process can be used in both plants andprokaryotes.

Gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are sometimes performed in
conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene. The process is
much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of
the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently.

28

Tracking experiments, which seek to gain information about the localization and interaction of the desired
protein. One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the
wild-type gene with a reporting element such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) that will allow easy visualization
of the products of the genetic modification. While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the
function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment.
More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their
function, such as the addition of small sequences that will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies.

Expression studies aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced. In these experiments, the
DNA sequence before the DNA that codes for a protein, known as a gene's promoter, is reintroduced into an
organism with the protein coding region replaced by a reporter gene such as GFP or an enzyme that catalyzes
the production of a dye. Thus the time and place where a particular protein is produced can be observed.
Expression studies can be taken a step further by altering the promoter to find which pieces are crucial for the
proper expression of the gene and are actually bound by transcription factor proteins; this process is known
as promoter bashing.

Industrial
By engineering genes into bacterial plasmids it is possible to create a biological factory that can produce proteins and
enzymes.

[53]

Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, a eukaryote, can also be used.

[54]

Bacteria and yeast

factories have been used to produce medicines such as insulin, human growth hormone, and vaccines, supplements
such as tryptophan, aid in the production of food (chymosin in cheese making) and fuels.

[55]

Other applications

involving genetically engineered bacteria being investigated involve making the bacteria perform tasks outside their
natural cycle, such as cleaning up oil spills, carbon and other toxic waste.

Agriculture

29

[56]

Bt-toxins present in peanut leaves (bottom image) protect it from extensive damage caused by European corn borerlarvae (top image).[57]

One of the best-known and controversial applications of genetic engineering is the creation ofgenetically modified
food. There are three generations of genetically modified crops.

[58]

First generation crops have been commercialized

and most provide protection from insects and/or resistance to herbicides. There are also fungal and virus resistant
crops developed or in development.

[59][60]

They have been developed to make the insect and weed management of

crops easier and can indirectly increase crop yield.

[61]

The second generation of genetically modified crops being developed aim to directly improve yield by improving salt,
cold or drought tolerance and to increase the nutritional value of the crops.

[62]

of pharmaceutical crops, crops that contain edible vaccines and other drugs.
have been genetically modified with growth hormones to increase their size
express drugs and other proteins in their milk.

The third generation consists

[63]

[64]

Some agriculturally important animals

while others have been engineered to

[65][66][67]

The genetic engineering of agricultural crops can increase the growth rates and resistance to different diseases
caused by pathogens and parasites.

[68]

This is beneficial as it can greatly increase the production of food sources with

the usage of fewer resources that would be required to host the world's growing populations. These modified crops
would also reduce the usage of chemicals, such as fertilizers and pesticides, and therefore decrease the severity and
frequency of the damages produced by these chemical pollution.

[68]

Ethical and safety concerns have been raised around the use of genetically modified food.

[69]

A major safety concern

relates to the human health implications of eating genetically modified food, in particular whether toxic or allergic

30

[70]

reactions could occur.

Gene flow into related non-transgenic crops, off target effects on beneficial organisms and

the impact onbiodiversity are important environmental issues.

[71]

Ethical concerns involve religious

issues,corporate control of the food supply, intellectual property rights and the level of labeling needed on genetically
modified products.

Other uses
In materials science, a genetically modified virus has been used to construct a more environmentally friendly lithiumion battery.

[72][73]

Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs

[74]

while

others have potential to be used as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental
[75]

conditions.
roses,

[77]

Genetic engineering is also being used to createBioArt

and glowing fish.

[76]

and novelty items such as blue

[78]

Opposition and criticism

This section requires expansion.

A 2010 study of Canola found transgenes in 80% of wild (uncultivated or "feral") varieties in North Dakota, meaning
80% of the plants which had established themselves in the area were genetically engineered varieties. The
researchers stated that "we found the highest densities of [such transgene-containing] plants near agricultural fields
and along major freeways, but we were also finding plants in the middle of nowhere" adding that "over time,..the
build-up of different types of herbicide resistance in feral [natural] canola and closely related weeds, like field
mustard, could make it more difficult to manage these plants using herbicides."

[79]

See also: Human genetic engineering, GM food controversy, and Genetically modified organism

See also

Biological engineering

Marker assisted selection a way to select suitable offspring without using genetic engineering

Paratransgenesis

Biological engineering, biotechnological engineering or bioengineering(including biological systems

engineering) is the application of concepts and methods of physics and mathematics to solve problems in life
sciences, usingengineering's own analytical and synthetical methodologies. In this context, while traditional
engineering applies physical and mathematical sciences to analyze, designand manufacture inanimate
tools, structures and processess, bioengineering uses the same sciences to study many aspects of living organisms.
Usually it is used to analyze and solve problems related to human health.
Biological engineering is a science based discipline founded upon the biological sciences in the same way that
chemical engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering are based upon chemistry, electricity and
magnetism, and statics, respectively.

[1]

31

Biological Engineering can be differentiated from its roots of pure biology or classical engineering in the following
way. Biological studies often follow a reductionist approach in viewing a system on its smallest possible scale which
naturally leads toward tools such as functional genomics. Engineering approaches, using classical design
perspectives, are constructionist, building new devices, approaches, and technologies from component concepts.
Biological engineering utilizes both of these methods in concert relying on reductionist approaches to define the
fundamental units which are then commingled to generate something new.

[2]

Although engineered biological systems

have been used to manipulate information, construct materials, process chemicals, produce energy, provide food,
and help maintain or enhance human health and our environment, our ability to quickly and reliably engineer
biological systems that behave as expected remains less well developed than our mastery over mechanical and
electrical systems.

[3]

The differentiation between Biological Engineering and overlap with Biomedical Engineering can be unclear, as many
universities now use the terms "bioengineering" and "biomedical engineering" interchangeably

[4]

. Some contend that

Biological Engineering (likebiotechnology) has a broader base which spans molecular methods (tends to emphasize
the using of biological substances - applying engineering principles to molecular
biology, biochemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, protein chemistry, cytology, immunology,neurobiology and neuros
cience, cellular and tissue based methods (including devices and sensors), whole organisms (plants, animals), and
up increasing length scales to ecosystems. Neither biological engineering nor biomedical engineering is wholly
contained within the other, as there are non-biological products for medical needs and biological products for nonmedical needs.
ABET

[5]

, the U.S. based accreditation board for engineering B.S. programs, makes a distinction between Biomedical

Engineering and Biological Engineering; however, the differences are quite small. Biomedical engineers must have
life science courses that include human physiology and have experience in performing measurements on living
systems while biological engineers must have life science courses (which may or may not include physiology) and
experience in making measurements not specifically on living systems. Foundational engineering courses are often
the same and include thermodynamics, fluid and mechanical dynamics, kinetics, electronics, and materials
properties.

[6] [7]

The word bioengineering was coined by British scientist and broadcaster Heinz Wolff in 1954.

[8]

The term

bioengineering is also used to describe the use of vegetation in civil engineering construction. The term
bioengineering may also be applied to environmental modifications such as surface soil protection, slope stabilisation,
watercourse and shoreline protection, windbreaks, vegetation barriers including noise barriers and visual screens,
and the ecological enhancement of an area. The first biological engineering program was created at Mississippi State
University in 1967, making it the first Biological Engineering curriculum in the United States.
have been launched at MIT

[10]

and Utah State University

[9]

More recent programs

[11]

Biological Engineers or bioengineers are engineers who use the principles of biology and the tools of engineering to
create usable, tangible products. Biological Engineering employs knowledge and expertise from a number of pure
and applied sciences, such as mass and heat transfer, kinetics, biocatalysts, biomechanics, bioinformatics,

32

separation and purification processes, bioreactor design, surface science, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and
polymer science. It is used in the design of medical devices, diagnostic equipment, biocompatible materials,
renewable bioenergy, ecological engineering, and other areas that improve the living standards of societies.
In general, biological engineers attempt to either mimic biological systems in order to create products or modify and
control biological systems so that they can replace, augment, or sustain chemical and mechanical processes.
Bioengineers can apply their expertise to other applications of engineering and biotechnology, including genetic
modification of plants and microorganisms, bioprocess engineering, and biocatalysis.
Because other engineering disciplines also address living organisms (e.g., prosthetics in mechanical engineering),
the term biological engineering can be applied more broadly to include agricultural engineering and biotechnology. In
fact, many old agricultural engineering departments in universities over the world have rebranded themselves
as agricultural and biological engineering or agricultural and biosystems engineering. Biological engineering is
also called bioengineering by some colleges and Biomedical engineering is called Bioengineering by others, and is a
rapidly developing field with fluid categorization. The Main Fields of Bioengineering may be categorised as:

Bioprocess Engineering: Bioprocess Design, Biocatalysis, Bioseparation, Bioinformatics, Bioenergy

Genetic Engineering: Synthetic Biology, Horizontal gene transfer.

Cellular Engineering: Cell Engineering, Tissue Culture Engineering, Metabolic Engineering.

Biomedical Engineering: Biomedical technology, Biomedical Diagnostics, Biomedical

Therapy, Biomechanics, Biomaterials.

Biochemistry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the journal, see Biochemistry (journal).

"Biological Chemistry" redirects here. For the journal formerly named Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler,
see Biological Chemistry (journal).
Biochemistry, sometimes abbreviated as "BioChem", is the study of chemical processes in living organisms.
Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. By controlling information flow through biochemical
signalling and the flow of chemical energy through metabolism; biochemical processes give rise to the seemingly
magical phenomenon of life. Much of biochemistry deals with thestructures and functions of cellular components such
as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules although increasingly processes rather than
individual molecules are the main focus. Over the last 40 years biochemistry has become so successful at explaining
living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine are engaged in biochemical
research. Today the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the
processes that occur within living cells which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of whole
organisms.

33

Among the vast number of different biomolecules, many are complex and large molecules (called polymers), which
are composed of similar repeating subunits (called monomers). Each class of polymeric biomolecule has a different
set of subunit types.

[1]

For example, a protein is a polymer whose subunits are selected from a set of 20 or

more amino acids. Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biological molecules, like proteins, and
in particular the chemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the endocrine system has been extensively described. Other areas of
biochemistry include thegenetic code (DNA, RNA), protein synthesis, cell membrane transport, and signal
transduction.
[edit]History
Main article: History of biochemistry
Originally, it was generally believed that life was not subject to the laws of science the way non-life was. It was
thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life (from other, previously existing biomolecules).
Then, in 1828, Friedrich Whler published a paper on the synthesis of urea, proving that organic compounds can be
created artificially.

[2][3]

The dawn of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase), in 1833
by Anselme Payen. Eduard Buchner contributed the first demonstration of a complex biochemical process outside of
a cell in 1896: alcoholic fermentation in cell extracts of yeast. Although the term biochemistry seems to have been
first used in 1882, it is generally accepted that the formal coinage of biochemistry occurred in 1903 by Carl Neuberg,
a German chemist. Previously, this area would have been referred to as physiological chemistry. Since then,
biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such
as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, dual polarisation interferometry, NMR spectroscopy,radioisotopic
labeling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and
detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric
acid cycle).
Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and its role in the transfer of information
in the cell. This part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology. In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis
Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins were instrumental in solving DNA structure and suggesting its
relationship with genetic transfer of information. In 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel
Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme. In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person
convicted of murder with DNA evidence, which led to growth of forensic science. More recently, Andrew Z.
Fire and Craig C. Mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference (RNAi), in the
silencing of gene expression
Today, there are three main types of biochemistry. Plant biochemistry involves the study of the biochemistry
of autotrophic organisms such as photosynthesis and other plant specific biochemical processes. General

34

biochemistry encompasses both plant and animal biochemistry. Human/medical/medicinal biochemistry focuses on
the biochemistry of humans and medical illnesses.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}
[edit]Monomers

and polymers

Main articles: Monomer and Polymer

The four main classes of molecules in biochemistry are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Many biological moleculesare polymers: in this terminology, monomers are relatively small micromolecules that are
linked together to create largemacromolecules, which are known as polymers. When monomers are linked together
to synthesize a biological polymer, they undergo a process called dehydration synthesis.
[edit]Carbohydrates
Main articles: Carbohydrates, Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides

A molecule ofsucrose (glucose + fructose), adisaccharide.

Carbohydrates are made from monomers called monosaccharides. Some of these monosaccharides
includeglucose (C6H12O6), fructose (C6H12O6), and deoxyribose (C5H10O4). When two monosaccharides undergo
dehydration synthesis, water is produced, as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are lost from the two
monosaccharides' hydroxyl group.
[edit]Lipids
Main articles: Lipids, Glycerol, and Fatty acids

A triglyceride with a glycerol molecule on the left and three fatty acids coming off it.

Lipids are usually made from one molecule of glycerol combined with other molecules. In triglycerides, the main
group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids. Fatty acids are considered the monomer
in that case, and may be saturated (no double bonds in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds
in the carbon chain).
Lipids, especially phospholipids, are also used in various pharmaceutical products, either as co-solubilisers (e.g.
in parenteral infusions) or else as drug carrier components (e.g. in a liposome ortransfersome).
[edit]Proteins
Main articles: Proteins and Amino Acids

35

The general structure of an -amino acid, with theamino group on the left and thecarboxyl group on the right.

Proteins are very large molecules macro-biopolymers made from monomers called amino acids. There are
20standard amino acids, each containing a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a side chain (known as an "R"
group). The "R" group is what makes each amino acid different, and the properties of the side chains greatly
influence the overall three-dimensional conformation of a protein. When amino acids combine, they form a special
bond called a peptide bond through dehydration synthesis, and become a polypeptide, or protein.
To determine if two proteins are related or in other words to decide whether they are homologous or not, scientists
use sequence-comparison methods. Methods like Sequence Alignments and Structural Alignments are powerful tools
that help scientist identify homologies between related molecules. The relevance of finding homologies among
proteins goes beyond forming an evolutionary pattern of protein families. By finding how similar two protein
sequences are, we acquire knowledge about their structure and therefore their function.
[edit]Nucleic

acids

Main articles: Nucleic acid, DNA, RNA, and Nucleotides

The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the picture shows the monomers being put together.

Nucleic acids are the molecules that make up DNA, an extremely important substance which all cellular organisms
use to store their genetic information. The most common nucleic acids aredeoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid.
Their monomers are called nucleotides. The most common nucleotides are adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine,
and uracil. Adenine binds with thymine and uracil; thymine only binds with adenine; and cytosine and guanine can
only bind with each other.
[edit]Carbohydrates

36

Main article: Carbohydrate

The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure. Sugars are carbohydrates, but not all
carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they
are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and
communications.
[edit]Monosaccharides

Glucose

The simplest type of carbohydrate is amonosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula CnH2nOn, where n is at least 3). Glucose, one of the most
important carbohydrates, is an example of a monosaccharide. So is fructose, the sugar commonly associated with
the sweet taste of fruits.

[4][a]

Some carbohydrates (especially after condensation to oligo- and polysaccharides)

contain less carbon relative to H and O, which still are present in 2:1 (H:O) ratio. Monosaccharides can be grouped
intoaldoses (having an aldehyde group at the end of the chain, e. g. glucose) and ketoses (having a keto group in
their chain; e. g. fructose). Both aldoses and ketoses occur in an equilibrium(starting with chain lengths of C4) cyclic
forms. These are generated by bond formation between one of the hydroxyl groups of the sugar chain with the
carbon of the aldehyde or keto group to form a hemiacetal bond. This leads to saturated five-membered (in
furanoses) or six-membered (in pyranoses) heterocyclic rings containing one O as heteroatom.
[edit]Disaccharides

Sucrose: ordinary table sugar and probably the most familiar carbohydrate.

Two monosaccharides can be joined together using dehydration synthesis, in which a hydrogen atom is removed
from the end of one molecule and a hydroxyl group (OH) is removed from the other; the remaining residues are
then attached at the sites from which the atoms were removed. The HOH or H2O is then released as a molecule
of water, hence the term dehydration. The new molecule, consisting of two monosaccharides, is called
adisaccharide and is conjoined together by a glycosidic or ether bond. The reverse reaction can also occur, using a

37

molecule of water to split up a disaccharide and break the glycosidic bond; this is termed hydrolysis. The most wellknown disaccharide is sucrose, ordinary sugar(in scientific contexts, called table sugar or cane sugar to differentiate it
from other sugars). Sucrose consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule joined together. Another
important disaccharide is lactose, consisting of a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule. As most humans age,
the production oflactase, the enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose back into glucose and galactose, typically decreases.
This results in lactase deficiency, also called lactose intolerance.
Sugar polymers are characterised by having reducing or non-reducing ends. A reducing end of a carbohydrate is a
carbon atom which can be in equilibrium with the open-chain aldehyde or keto form. If the joining of monomers takes
place at such a carbon atom, the free hydroxy group of the pyranose or furanose form is exchanged with an OH-side
chain of another sugar, yielding a full acetal. This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and
renders the modified residue non-reducing. Lactose contains a reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the
galactose moiety form a full acetal with the C4-OH group of glucose. Saccharose does not have a reducing end
because of full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbon of fructose (C2).
[edit]Oligosaccharides

and polysaccharides

Cellulose as polymer of -D-glucose

When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined together, it is called anoligosaccharide (oligo- meaning
"few"). These molecules tend to be used as markers and signals, as well as having some other uses. Many
monosaccharides joined together make apolysaccharide. They can be joined together in one long linear chain, or
they may be branched. Two of the most common polysaccharides are cellulose and glycogen, both consisting of
repeating glucose monomers.

Cellulose is made by plants and is an important structural component of their cell walls.Humans can neither
manufacture nor digest it.

Glycogen, on the other hand, is an animal carbohydrate; humans and other animals use it as a form of energy
storage.

[edit]Use

of carbohydrates as an energy source

Main article: Carbohydrate metabolism

Glucose is the major energy source in most life forms. For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their
monomers (glycogen phosphorylase removes glucose residues from glycogen). Disaccharides like lactose
or sucrose are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides.

38

[edit]Glycolysis (anaerobic)
Glucose is mainly metabolized by a very important ten-step pathway called glycolysis, the net result of which is to
break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate; this also produces a net two molecules of ATP,
+

the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents in the form of converting NAD to NADH. This does
not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the NAD is restored by converting the
pyruvate to lactate (lactic acid) (e. g. in humans) or to ethanol plus carbon dioxide (e. g. in yeast). Other
monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway.
[edit]Aerobic
In aerobic cells with sufficient oxygen, like most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized. It is irreversibly
converted to acetyl-CoA, giving off one carbon atom as the waste product carbon dioxide, generating another
reducing equivalent as NADH. The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the citric
acid cycle, producing two more molecules of ATP, six moreNADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones
(via FADH2 as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The produced
NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an electron transport
system transferring the electrons ultimately to oxygen and conserving the released energy in the form of a proton
gradient over a membrane (inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes). Thereby, oxygen is reduced to water and
+

the original electron acceptors NAD and quinone are regenerated. This is why humans breathe in oxygen and
breathe out carbon dioxide. The energy released from transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH
and quinol is conserved first as proton gradient and converted to ATP via ATP synthase. This generates an
additional 28 molecules of ATP (24 from the 8 NADH + 4 from the 2 quinols), totaling to 32 molecules of ATP
conserved per degraded glucose (two from glycolysis + two from the citrate cycle). It is clear that using oxygen to
completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any oxygen-independent metabolic
feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated
large amounts of oxygen.
[edit]Gluconeogenesis
Main article: Gluconeogenesis
In vertebrates, vigorously contracting skeletal muscles (during weightlifting or sprinting, for example) do not receive
enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so they shift to anaerobic metabolism, converting glucose to lactate.
The liver regenerates the glucose, using a process called gluconeogenesis. This process is not quite the opposite of
glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis (six molecules of ATP are
used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis). Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then
undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen (or starch in plants), or be converted to other
monosaccharides or joined into di- or oligosaccharides. The combined pathways of glycolysis during exercise,
lactate's crossing via the bloodstream to the liver, subsequent gluconeogenesis and release of glucose into the
bloodstream is called the Cori cycle.

[citation needed]

39

[edit]Proteins
Main article: Protein

A schematic ofhemoglobin. The red and blue ribbons represent the proteinglobin; the green structures are the heme groups.

Like carbohydrates, some proteins perform largely structural roles. For instance, movements of the
proteins actin and myosin ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle. One property many
proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of moleculesthey may
be extremely selective in what they bind. Antibodies are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of
molecule. In fact, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is currently one of the
most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules. Probably the most important proteins,
however, are the enzymes. These molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called substrates; they
then catalyze the reaction between them. By lowering the activation energy, the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a
rate of 10

11

or more: a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less

than a second with an enzyme. The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same
reaction with a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling
control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.
In essence, proteins are chains of amino acids. An amino acid consists of a carbon atom bound to four groups. One
+

is an amino group, NH2, and one is a carboxylic acid group, COOH (although these exist as NH3 and

COO under physiologic conditions). The third is a simple hydrogen atom. The fourth is commonly denoted "R" and
is different for each amino acid. There are twenty standard amino acids. Some of these have functions by themselves
or in a modified form; for instance, glutamate functions as an important neurotransmitter.

Generic amino acids (1) in neutral form, (2) as they exist physiologically, and (3) joined together as a dipeptide.

Amino acids can be joined together via a peptide bond. In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule is removed
and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic

40

acid group. The resulting molecule is called a dipeptide, and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than
around thirty) are called peptides or polypeptides. Longer stretches merit the title proteins. As an example, the
important bloodserum protein albumin contains 585 amino acid residues.
The structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels. The primary structure of a protein
simply consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; for instance, "alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamateasparagine-glycine-lysine-". Secondary structure is concerned with local morphology (morphology being the study
of structure). Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an -helix or into a sheet called
a -sheet; some -helixes can be seen in the hemoglobin schematic above.Tertiary structure is the entire threedimensional shape of the protein. This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids. In fact, a single change
can change the entire structure. The alpha chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acid residues; substitution of
theglutamate residue at position 6 with a valine residue changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results
in sickle-cell disease. Finally quaternary structure is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiple peptide
subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits. Not all proteins have more than one subunit.
Ingested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the small intestine, and then
absorbed. They can then be joined together to make new proteins. Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid
cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathwaycan be used to make all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants
possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them. Humans and other mammals, however, can only synthesize
half of them. They cannot synthesize isoleucine, leucine, lysine,methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan,
and valine. These are the essential amino acids, since it is essential to ingest them. Mammals do possess the
enzymes to synthesize alanine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline,serine,
and tyrosine, the nonessential amino acids. While they can synthesize arginine and histidine, they cannot produce it
in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids.
If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an -keto acid. Enzymes
calledtransaminases can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an -keto acid) to another keto acid (making it an amino acid). This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways,
intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the -keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is
added, often via transamination. The amino acids may then be linked together to make a protein.
A similar process is used to break down proteins. It is first hydrolyzed into its component amino acids.
+

Free ammonia (NH3), existing as the ammonium ion (NH4 ) in blood, is toxic to life forms. A suitable method for
excreting it must therefore exist. Different strategies have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals'
needs. Unicellular organisms, of course, simply release the ammonia into the environment. Similarly, bony fish can
release the ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted. In general, mammals convert the ammonia into urea,
via the urea cycle.
[edit]Lipids
Main article: Lipid

41

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble
or nonpolarcompounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid
derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids(e.g. retinoids and steroids). Some lipids are
linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are
flexible, while others are rigid.
Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is
nonpolar orhydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another
part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water.
This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case
of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol). In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are
considerably larger and more polar, as described below.
Lipids are an integral part of our daily diet. Most oils and milk products that we use for cooking and eating
like butter, cheese, ghee etc., are composed of fats. Vegetable oils are rich in various polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA). Lipid-containing foods undergo digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol,
which are the final degradation products of fats and lipids.
[edit]Nucleic

acids

Main article: Nucleic acid

A nucleic acid is a complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromolecule composed of nucleotide chains that
convey genetic information. The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA). Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and viruses. Aside from the genetic material of the cell, nucleic acids
often play a role as second messengers, as well as forming the base molecule for adenosine triphosphate, the
primary energy-carrier molecule found in all living organisms.
Nucleic acid, so called because of its prevalence in cellular nuclei, is the generic name of the family of biopolymers.
The monomers are called nucleotides, and each consists of three components: a nitrogenous
heterocyclic base (either a purine or a pyrimidine), a pentosesugar, and a phosphate group. Different nucleic acid
types differ in the specific sugar found in their chain (e.g. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid contains 2-deoxyriboses).
Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids are different: adenine, cytosine, andguanine occur in
both RNA and DNA, while thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil occurs in RNA.
[edit]Relationship

to other "molecular-scale" biological sciences

42

Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology

Researchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with
techniques and ideas from genetics, molecular biologyand biophysics. There has never been a hard-line between
these disciplines in terms of content and technique. Today the terms molecular biology and biochemistry are nearly
interchangeable. The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the
fields:

Simplistic overview of the chemical basis of love, one of many applications that may be described in terms of biochemistry.

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in
living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the
chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of
biochemistry.

Genetics is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred by the absence
of a normal component (e.g. one gene). The study of "mutants" organisms which lack one or more functional
components with respect to the so-called "wild type" or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions (epistasis) can
often confound simple interpretations of such "knock-out" studies.

43

Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and
translation of the genetic material. The central dogma of molecular biologywhere genetic material is transcribed
into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still
provides a good starting point for understanding the field. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of
emerging novel roles for RNA.

Chemical Biology seeks to develop new tools based on small molecules that allow minimal perturbation of
biological systems while providing detailed information about their function. Further, chemical biology employs
biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices (for example
emptied viral capsids that can deliver gene therapy or drug molecules).

[edit]See

also

Utline of biochemistry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from List of biochemistry topics)

See also: Index of biochemistry articles

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes and transformations in living organisms, including
the structure and function ofcellular components, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and
other biomolecules.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry:
[edit]Essence

of biochemistry

Main article: Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the science deals with chemical composition and its reactions, happening in the living cells of
organisms, such as mammals, vertebrates, plants and all living organisms.
[edit]Branches
[edit]Main

of biochemistry

Branches

Animal Biochemistry

Plant Biochemistry

Molecular Biology

Cell Biology

Metabolism

Immunology

Genetics

Enzymatic biology

44

[edit]Other

branches

Biotechnology, Bioluminescence, Molecular chemistry, Enzymatic Chemistry, Genetic

engineering, Pharmaceuticals, Endocrinology,Cytology, Hematology, Nutrition and Photosynthesis
[edit]History

of biochemistry

Main article: History of biochemistry

[edit]General

biochemistry concepts

Major categories of bio-compounds:

Carbohydrates : sugar -- disaccharide -- polysaccharide -- starch -- glycogen

Lipids : fatty acid -- fats -- essential oils -- oils -- waxes -- cholesterol

Nucleic acids : DNA -- RNA -- mRNA -- tRNA -- rRNA -- codon -- adenosine -- cytosine -- guanine -thymine -- uracil

Proteins :

amino acid -- glycine -- arginine -- lysine

peptide -- primary structure -- secondary structure -- tertiary structure -- conformation -- protein

folding

Chemical properties:

molecular bond -- covalent bond -- ionic bond -- hydrogen bond -- ester -- ethyl

molecular charge -- hydrophilic -- hydrophobic -- polar

pH -- acid -- alkaline -- base

oxidation -- reduction -- hydrolysis

Structural compounds:

In cells: flagellin -- peptidoglycan -- myelin -- actin -- myosin

In animals: chitin -- keratin -- collagen -- silk

In plants: cellulose -- lignin -- cell wall

Enzymes and enzyme activity:

enzyme kinetics -- enzyme inhibition

proteolysis -- ubiquitin -- proteasome

kinase -- dehydrogenase

Membranes : fluid mosaic model -- diffusion -- osmosis

phospholipids -- glycolipid -- glycocalyx -- antigen -- isoprene

ion channel -- proton pump -- electron transport -- ion gradient -- antiporter -- symporter -- quinone -riboflavin

Energy pathways :

45

pigments : chlorophyll -- carotenoids -- xanthophyll -- cytochrome -- phycobilin -- bacteriorhodopsin -hemoglobin -- myoglobin --absorption spectrum -- action spectrum -- fluorescence

Photosynthesis : light reaction -- dark reaction

Fermentation : Acetyl-CoA -- lactic acid

Cellular respiration : Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) -- NADH -- pyruvate -- oxalate -- citrate

Chemosynthesis

Regulation

hormones : auxin

signal transduction -- growth factor -- transcription factor -- protein kinase -- SH3 domain

Malfunctions : tumor -- oncogene -- tumor suppressor gene

Receptors : Integrin -- transmembrane receptor -- ion channel

Techniques : electrophoresis -- chromatography -- mass spectrometry -- x-ray diffraction -- Southern blot -fractionation -- Gram stain-- Surface Plasmon Resonance

Green Revolution (agriculture)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Green Revolution)

"Green Revolution" redirects here. For other uses, see Green Revolution (disambiguation).
Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between
1943 and the late 1970s, that increased industrialized agriculture production in India; however, the yield increase has
also occurred world wide.
The initiatives involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation
infrastructure, and distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.
The term "Green Revolution" was first used in 1968 by former USAID director William Gaud, who noted the spread of
the new technologies and said,
"These and other developments in the field of agriculture contain the makings of a new revolution. It is not a
violent Red Revolution like that of the Soviets, nor is it a White Revolution like that of the Shah of Iran. I call it the
Green Revolution."

[1]

[edit]History
With the experience of agricultural development begun in Mexico by Norman Borlaug in 1943 judged as a success,
the Rockefeller Foundation sought to spread it to other nations. The Office of Special Studies in Mexico became an
informal international research institution in 1959, and in 1963 it formally became CIMMYT, The International Maize
and Wheat Improvement Center.
In 1961 India was on the brink of mass famine.

[2]

Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the Indian minister of

agriculture M. S. Swaminathan. Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's grain monopolies, the Ford

46

Foundation and Indian government collaborated to import wheat seed from CIMMYT. Punjab was selected by the
Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops because of its reliable water supply and a history of
agricultural success. India began its own Green Revolution program of plant breeding, irrigation development, and
financing of agrochemicals.

[3]

India soon adopted IR8 - a semi-dwarf rice variety developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) that
could produce more grains of rice per plant when grown with certain fertilizers and irrigation. In 1968, Indian
agronomist S.K. De Datta published his findings that IR8 rice yielded about 5 tons per hectare with no fertilizer, and
almost 10 tons per hectare under optimal conditions. This was 10 times the yield of traditional rice.

[4]

IR8 was a

success throughout Asia, and dubbed the "Miracle Rice". IR8 was also developed intoSemi-dwarf IR36.
In the 1960s, rice yields in India were about two tons per hectare; by the mid-1990s, they had risen to six tons per
hectare. In the 1970s, rice cost about $550 a ton; in 2001, it cost under $200 a ton.

[5]

India became one of the world's

most successful rice producers, and is now a major rice exporter, shipping nearly 4.5 million tons in 2006.
[edit]IR8 and the Philippines
In 1960, the Government of the Republic of the Philippines with Ford and Rockefeller Foundations established IRRI
(International Rice Research Institute). A rice crossing between Dee-Geo-woo-gen and Peta was done at IRRI in
1962. In 1966, one of the breeding lines became a new cultivar, IR8.

[6]

IR8 required the use of fertilizers and

pesticides, but produced substantially higher yields than the traditional cultivars. Annual rice production in the
Philippines increased from 3.7 to 7.7 million tonnes in two decades.
rice exporter for the first time in the 20th century.
species found in rice paddies.

[8]

[7]

The switch to IR8 rice made the Philippines a

But the heavy pesticide use reduced the number of fish and frog

[9]

[edit]CGIAR
In 1970, foundation officials proposed a worldwide network of agricultural research centers under a permanent
secretariat. This was further supported and developed by the World Bank; on May 19, 1971, the Consultative Group
on International Agricultural Researchwas established, co-sponsored by the FAO, IFAD and UNDP. CGIAR, has
added many research centers throughout the world.
CGIAR has responded, at least in part, to criticisms of Green Revolution methodologies. This began in the 1980s,
and mainly was a result of pressure from donor organizations.

[10]

Methods like Agroecosystem Analysis and Farming

System Research have been adopted to gain a more holistic view of agriculture. Methods like Rapid Rural Appraisal
and Participatory Rural Appraisal have been adopted to help scientists understand the problems faced by farmers
and even give farmers a role in the development process.
[edit]Problems in Africa
There have been numerous attempts to introduce the successful concepts from the Mexican and Indian projects
into Africa.

[11]

These programs have generally been less successful. Reasons cited include widespread corruption,

insecurity, a lack of infrastructure, and a general lack of will on the part of the governments. Yet environmental

47

factors, such as the availability of water for irrigation, the high diversity in slope and soil types in one given area are
also reasons why the Green Revolution is not so successful in Africa.

[12]

A recent program in western Africa is attempting to introduce a new high-yield variety of rice known as "New Rice for
Africa"(NERICA). NERICAs yield about 30% more rice under normal conditions, and can double yields with small
amounts of fertilizer and very basic irrigation. However the program has been beset by problems getting the rice into
the hands of farmers, and to date the only success has been in Guinea where it currently accounts for 16% of rice
cultivation.

[13]

After a famine in 2001 and years of chronic hunger and poverty, in 2005 the small African country of Malawi launched
the Agricultural Input Subsidy Program by which vouchers are given to smallholder farmers to buy subsidized
nitrogen fertilizer and maize seeds. Within its first year, the program was reported with extreme success, producing
the largest maize harvest of the country's history; enough to feed the country with tons of maize left over. The
program has advanced yearly ever since. Various sources claim that the program has been an unusual success,
hailing it as a "miracle".
[edit]Agricultural

[14]

production and food security

[edit]Technologies
The Green Revolution spread technologies that had already existed before, but had not been widely used outside
industrialized nations. These technologies included pesticides, irrigation projects, synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and
improved crop varieties developed through the conventional, science-based methods available at the time.
The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat
cultivars. Agronomists bred cultivars ofmaize, wheat, and rice that are generally referred to as HYVs or high-yielding
varieties. HYVs have higher nitrogen-absorbing potential than other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra
nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing geneswere bred into their genomes. A
Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar (Norin 10 wheat), which was sent to Washington, D.C. by Cecil Salmon, was
instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be
developed by IRRI, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named Peta and a Chinese variety
named Dee-geo-woo-gen.
With advances in molecular genetics, the mutant genes responsible for Arabidopsis thaliana genes (GA 20oxidase,

[15]

[16]

ga1,

ga1-3

[17]

), wheat reduced-height genes (Rht)

[18]

and a rice semidwarf gene (sd1)

[19]

were cloned.

These were identified as gibberellinbiosynthesis genes or cellular signaling component genes. Stem growth in the
mutant background is significantly reduced leading to thedwarf phenotype. Photosynthetic investment in the stem is
reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become redirected to
grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield.
HYVs significantly outperform traditional varieties in the presence of adequate irrigation, pesticides, and fertilizers. In
the absence of these inputs, traditional varieties may outperform HYVs. Therefore, several authors have challenged

48

the apparent superiority of HYVs not only compared to the traditional varieties alone, but by contrasting the
monocultural system asssociated with HYVs with the polycultural system associated with traditional ones.
[edit]Production

[20]

increases

Cereal production more than doubled in developing nations between the years 19611985.
and wheat increased steadily during that period.

[21]

[21]

Yields of rice, maize,

The production increases can be attributed roughly equally to

irrigation, fertilizer, and seed development, at least in the case of Asian rice.

[21]

While agricultural output increased as a result of the Green Revolution, the energy input to produce a crop has
increased faster,

[22]

so that the ratio of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revolution

techniques also heavily rely on chemicalfertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, some of which must be developed from
fossil fuels, making agriculture increasingly reliant onpetroleum products.

[23]

Proponents of the Peak Oil theory fear

that a future decline in oil and gas production would lead to a decline in food production or even a Malthusian
catastrophe.

[24]

[edit]Effects

on food security

Main article: Food security

The effects of the Green Revolution on global food security are difficult to assess because of the complexities
involved in food systems.
The world population has grown by about four billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution and many believe
that, without the Revolution, there would have been greater famine and malnutrition. India saw annual wheat
production rise from 10 million tons in the 1960s to 73 million in 2006.

[25]

The average person in the developing world

consumes roughly 25% more calories per day now than before the Green Revolution.

[21]

Between 1950 and 1984, as

the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by over 250%

[26]

The production increases fostered by the Green Revolution are often credited with having helped to avoid
widespread famine, and for feeding billions of people.

[citation needed]

There are also claims that the Green Revolution has decreased food security for a large number of people. One claim
involves the shift of subsistence-oriented cropland to cropland oriented towards production of grain for export or
animal feed. For example, the Green Revolution replaced much of the land used for pulses that fed Indian peasants
for wheat, which did not make up a large portion of the peasant diet.

[27]

[edit]Criticisms
[edit]Food

security

[edit]Malthusian criticism
Some criticisms generally involve some variation of the Malthusian principle of population. Such concerns often
revolve around the idea that the Green Revolution is unsustainable,

[28]

and argue that humanity is now in a state

of overpopulation with regards to the sustainable carrying capacity and ecological demands on the Earth.

49

Although 36 million people die each year as a direct or indirect result of hunger and poor nutrition,

[29]

Malthus' more

extreme predictions have frequently failed to materialize. In 1798 Thomas Malthus made his prediction of impending
famine.

[30]

The world's population had doubled by 1923 and doubled again by 1973 without fulfilling Malthus'

prediction. Malthusian Paul R. Ehrlich, in his 1968 book The Population Bomb, said that "India couldn't possibly feed
two hundred million more people by 1980" and "Hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any
crash programs."

[30]

Ehrlich's warnings failed to materialize when India became self-sustaining in cereal production in

1974 (six years later) as a result of the introduction of Norman Borlaug's dwarf wheat varieties.

[30]

[edit]Is food production related to famine?

To some modern Western sociologists and writers, increasing food production is not synonymous with increasing
food security, and is only part of a larger equation. For example, Harvard professor Amartya Sen claimed
large historic famines were not caused by decreases in food supply, but by socioeconomic dynamics and a failure of
public action.

[31]

However, economist Peter Bowbrick refutes that Sen's theory is incorrect as Sen relies on

inconsistent arguments, and contradicting available information, including sources that Sen himself cited.

[32]

Bowbrick

further argues that Sen's views coincide with that of the Bengal government at the time of the Bengal famine of
1943 and the policies Sen advocates failed to relieve the famine.

[32]

[edit]Quality of diet
Some have challenged the value of the increased food production of Green Revolution agriculture. Miguel A. Altieri,
(a pioneer of agroecology and peasant-advocate), writes that the comparison between traditional systems of
agriculture and Green Revolution agriculture has been unfair, because Green Revolution agriculture
produces monocultures of cereal grains, while traditional agriculture usually incorporates polycultures.

[citation needed]

These monoculture crops are often used for export, feed for animals, or conversion into biofuel. According to Emile
Frison of Bioversity International, the Green Revolution has also led to a change in dietary habits, as less people are
affected by hunger and die from starvation, but many are affected by malnutrition such as iron or vitamin-A
deficiencies.

[12]

Frison further asserts that almost 60% of yearly deaths of children under age five in developing

countries are related to malnutrition.

[12]

High-yield rice (HYR), introduced since 1964 to poverty-ridden Asian countries, (such as the Philippines), was found
to have inferior flavor and be more glutinous and less savory than their native varieties.
price to be lower than the average market value.

[citation needed]

This caused its

[33]

In the Philippines the introduction of heavy pesticides to rice production, in the early part of the green revolution,
poisoned and killed off fish and weedy green vegetables that traditionally coexisted in rice paddies. These were
nutritious food sources for many poor Filipino farmers prior to the introduction of pesticides, further impacting the
diets of locals.

[34]

[edit]Political impacts
A major critic

[citation needed]

of the Green Revolution, U.S. investigative journalist Mark Dowie, writes:

50

[citation needed]

The primary objective of the program was geopolitical: to provide food for the populace in undeveloped countries and
so bring social stability and weaken the fomenting of communist insurgency.
Citing internal Foundation documents, Dowie states that the Ford Foundation had a greater concern than Rockefeller
in this area.

[35]

There is significant evidence that the Green Revolution weakened socialist movements in many nations. In countries
such as India, Mexico, and the Philippines, technological solutions were sought as an alternative to
expanding agrarian reform initiatives, the latter of which were often linked to socialist politics.

[36]

Adversely, a similar logic can be applied against Mark Dowie's own argument, such that his politicized argument
against the Green Revolution implies the advocation of and need to starve a nation's population into submission if a
Communist or socialist government is to be considered a viable alternative within the eyes of a desperate population.
[edit]Socioeconomic impacts
The transition from traditional agriculture, in which inputs were generated on-farm, to Green Revolution agriculture,
which required the purchase of inputs, led to the widespread establishment of rural credit institutions. Smaller farmers
often went into debt, which in many cases results in a loss of their farmland.

[10][37]

The increased level of

mechanization on larger farms made possible by the Green Revolution removed a large source of employment from
the rural economy.

[10]

Because wealthier farmers had better access to credit and land, the Green Revolution

increased class disparities. The rich - poor gap widened due to that. Because some regions were able to adopt Green
Revolution agriculture more readily than others (for political or geographical reasons), interregional economic
disparities increased as well. Many small farmers are hurt by the dropping prices resulting from increased production
overall.

[citation needed]

However, large-scale farming companies only account for less than 10% of the total farming

capacity.
The new economic difficulties of small holder farmers and landless farm workers led to increased rural-urban
migration. The increase in food production led to a cheaper food for urban dwellers, and the increase in urban
population increased the potential for industrialization.

[citation needed]

[edit]Globalization
In the most basic sense, the Green Revolution was a product of globalization as evidenced in the creation of
international agricultural research centers that shared information, and with transnational funding from groups like the
Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation, and United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
Additionally, the inputs required in Green Revolution agriculture created new markets for seed and chemical
corporations, many of which were based in the United States. For example, Standard Oil of New Jersey established
hundreds of distributors in the Philippines to sell agricultural packages composed of HYV seed, fertilizer, and
pesticides.

[citation needed]

[edit]Environmental

impact

[edit]Pesticides

51

Green Revolution agriculture relies on extensive use of pesticides, which are necessary to limit the high levels
of pest damage that inevitably occur in monocropping - the practice of producing or growing one single crop over a
wide area.
[edit]Water
Industrialized agriculture with its high yield varieties are extremely water intensive. In the US, agriculture consumes
70% of all fresh water resources. For example, the Southwest uses 36% of the nation's water while at the same time
only receiving 6% of the country's rainfall.

[citation needed]

Only 60% of the water used for irrigation comes from surface

water supplies. The other 40% comes from underground aquifers that are being used up in a way similar
to topsoil that makes the aquifers,
resources.

[citation needed]

[citation needed]

as Pfeiffer says, for all intents and purposes non renewable

The Ogallala Aquifer is essential to a huge portion of central and southwest plain states, but

has been at annual overdrafts of 130-160% in excess of replacement. This irrigation source for America's bread
basket will become entirely unproductive in another 30 years or so.

[citation needed]

Likewise, rivers are drying up at an alarming rate. In 1997, the lower parts of Chinas Yellow River were dry for a
record 226 days. Over the past ten years, it has gone dry an average of 70 days a year.

[citation needed]

such as the Nile and Ganges along with countless other rivers are sharing in the same fate.

Famous lifelines

[citation needed]

The Aral

Sea has lost half its area and two-thirds its volume due to river diversion for cotton production.
Also the water quality is being compromised. In the Aral Sea, water salinization has wiped out all native fish, leaving
an economy even more dependent on the agricultural model that originated the problem.
Fish are disappearing through another form of agricultural run off as well.

[citation needed]

[citation needed]

When nitrogen-

intensive fertilizers wash into waterways it results in an explosion of algae and other microorganisms that lead
to oxygen depletion resulting in dead zones, killing off fish and other creatures.
[edit]Biodiversity
The spread of Green Revolution agriculture affected both agricultural biodiversity and wild biodiversity.

[38]

There is

little disagreement that the Green Revolution acted to reduce agricultural biodiversity, as it relied on just a few highyield varieties of each crop.
This has led to concerns about the susceptibility of a food supply to pathogens that cannot be controlled by
agrochemicals, as well as the permanent loss of many valuable genetic traits bred into traditional varieties over
thousands of years. To address these concerns, massive seed banks such as Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Researchs (CGIAR) International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (now Bioversity International) have
been established (see Svalbard Global Seed Vault).
There are varying opinions about the effect of the Green Revolution on wild biodiversity. One hypothesis speculates
that by increasing production per unit of land area, agriculture will not need to expand into new, uncultivated areas to
feed a growing human population.

[39]

However, land degradation and soil nutrients depletion have forced farmers to

clear up formerly forested areas in order to keep up with production.

[40]

A counter-hypothesis speculates that

biodiversity was sacrificed because traditional systems of agriculture that were displaced sometimes incorporated

52

practices to preserve wild biodiversity, and because the Green Revolution expanded agricultural development into
new areas where it was once unprofitable or too arid. For example, the development of wheat varieties tolerant to
acid soil conditions with high aluminium content, permitted the introduction of agriculture in the Amazonian Cerrado
ecosystem in Brazil.

[39]

Nevertheless, the world community has clearly acknowledged the negative aspects of agricultural expansion as the
1992 Rio Treaty, signed by 189 nations, has generated numerous national Biodiversity Action Plans which assign
significant biodiversity loss to agriculture's expansion into new domains.
[edit]Health

impact

The consumption of the chemicals and pesticides used to kill pests by humans in some cases may be increasing the
likelihood ofcancer in some of the rural villages using them. Poor farming practices including non-compliance to
usage of masks and over-usage of the chemicals compound this situation.

[41]

In 1989, WHO and UNEP estimated

that there were around 1 million human pesticide poisonings annually. Some 20000 (mostly in developing countries)
ended in death, as a result of poor labeling, loose safety standards etc.

[42]

[edit]Pesticides and cancer

Long term exposure to pesticides such as organochlorines, creosote, and sulfallate have been correlated with higher
cancer rates and organochlorines DDT, chlordane, and lindane as tumor promoters in animals.
needed]

[citation

Contradictory epidemiologic studies in humans have linked phenoxy acid herbicides or contaminants in them

with soft tissue sarcoma (STS) and malignant lymphoma, organochlorine insecticides with STS, non-Hodgkin's
lymphoma (NHL), leukemia, and, less consistently, with cancers of
the lung andbreast, organophosphorous compounds with NHL and leukemia, and triazine herbicides with ovarian
cancer.

[43][44]

However, additional comprehensive studies in 2009 have been unable to link any human health issues to the use of
DDT. It is estimated that as many as 60 million people have died of malaria specifically because DDT was banned
from use in their country. Within first-world nations, such as the United States, cancer rates among farmers are
actually much lower than the general United States population.

[45]

[edit]Punjab case
See also: Green Revolution in India
The Indian state of Punjab pioneered green revolution among the other states transforming India into a food-surplus
country.

[46]

The state is witnessing serious consequences of intensive farming using chemicals and pesticide. A

comprehensive study conducted by Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER) has
underlined the direct relationship between indiscriminate use of these chemicals and increased incidence of cancer in
this region.

[47]

Increase in the number of cancer cases has been reported in several villages including Jhariwala,

Koharwala, Puckka, Bhimawali, Khara.

[48]

53

Ecologist Vandana Shiva has written extensively about the social, political and economic impacts of the Green
Revolution in Punjab. She has shown how the Green Revolution's reliance on heavy use of chemical inputs and
monocultures has resulted in a precarious situation of water scarcity, vulnerability to pests, and incidence of violent
conflict and social marginalization.

[49]

In 2009, under a Greenpeace Research Laboratories investigation, Dr Reyes Tirado, from the University of Exeter,
UK conducted the study in 50 villages in Muktsar, Bathinda and Ludhiana districts revealed chemical, radiation and
biological toxicity rampant in Punjab. 20% of the sampled wells showed nitrate levels above the safety limit of
50 mg/l, established by WHO, the study connected it with high use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers.

[50]

With increasing

poisoning of the soil, the region once hailed as the home to the Green revolution, now due to excessive use of
chemical fertilizer, is being termed the "Other Bhopal", and "even credit-takers of the Revolution have begun to admit
they had been wrong, now that they see wastelands and lives lost to farmer suicides in this granary of India".

[51]

[edit]Organic farming
About four decades after the Green Revolution widely helped the world to be able to produce food in sufficient levels,
a small percentage of farmers in India have chosen to employ organic farming methods in response to side effects
from their adoption of modern agriculturetechniques.

[52]

However, the techniques which these farmers perceive as harmful enough to sacrifice as much as a half of their food
production are often not properly applied in the way they were developed, many conventional Indian farmers misuse
concentrated chemicals in ways such as not wearing protective clothing or equipment, re-using pesticide containers
as kitchen containers, and using more pesticide and fertilizerthan necessary to maximize yield. In 2008,
approximately 85% of produce recalls in wholesale markets due to contamination and disease originated from
organic farms, while only 20% of contamination occurred after arrival at market.
[edit]Norman

[52]

Borlaug's response to criticism

He dismissed certain claims of critics, but did take other concerns seriously and stated that his work has been:
"a change in the right direction, but it has not transformed the world into a Utopia".

[53]

Of environmental lobbyists he said:

"some of the environmental lobbyists of the Western nations are the salt of the earth, but many of them are elitists.
They've never experienced the physical sensation of hunger. They do their lobbying from comfortable office suites in
Washington or Brussels...If they lived just one month amid the misery of the developing world, as I have for fifty
years, they'd be crying out for tractors and fertilizer and irrigation canals and be outraged that fashionable elitists back
home were trying to deny them these things".
[edit]See

[54]

also

Food security
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

54

Growth in food production has been greater than population growth. Food per person increased during the 1961-2005 period. The y-axis is
percent of 1999-2001 average food production per capita. Data source: World Resources Institute.

Barley is a major animal feed crop.

Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is considered food-secure when
its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. According to the World Resources Institute, global per
capita food production has been increasing substantially for the past several decades.

[1]

In 2006, MSNBC reported

that globally, the number of people who are overweight has surpassed the number who are undernourished - the
world had more than one billion people who were overweight, and an estimated 800 million who were
undernourished.

[2]

According to a 2004 article from theBBC, China, the world's most populous country, is suffering
[3]

from an obesity epidemic. In India, the second-most populous country in the world, 30 million people have been
added to the ranks of the hungry since the mid-1990s and 46% of children areunderweight.

[4]

Worldwide around 852 million people are chronically hungry due to extreme poverty, while up to 2 billion people
lack food security intermittently due to varying degrees of poverty(source: FAO, 2003). Six million children die of
[5]

hunger every year - 17,000 every day. As of late 2007, export restrictions and panic buying, US Dollar
Depreciation,
growth,

[9]

[6]

increased farming for use in biofuels,

climate change,

[10]

[7]

world oil prices at more than $100 a barrel,

loss of agricultural land to residential and industrial development,

consumer demand in China and India

[13]

are claimed to have pushed up the price of grain.

55

[8]

[11][12]

[14][15]

globalpopulation

and growing

However, the role of

some of these factors is under debate. Some argue the role of biofuel has been overplayed

[16]

as grain prices have

come down to the levels of 2006. Nonetheless, food riots have recently taken place in many countries across the
world.

[17][18][19]

It is becoming increasingly difficult to maintain food security in a world beset by a confluence of "peak" phenomena,
namely peak oil, peak water, peak phosphorus, peak grain and peak fish. More than half of the planet's population,
numbering approximately 3.3 billion people, live in urban areas as of November 2007. Any disruption to farm supplies
may precipitate a uniquely urban food crisis in a relatively short time.
farm credits, despite a boom in commodity prices.

[21]

[20]

The ongoing global credit crisis has affected

Food security is a complex topic, standing at the intersection of

many disciplines.
A new peer-reviewed journal of Food Security: The Science, Sociology and Economics of Food Production and
Access to Food began publishing in 2009.

[22]

In developing countries, often 70% or more of the population lives in

rural areas. In that context, agricultural development among smallholder farmers and landless people provides a
livelihood for people allowing them the opportunity to stay in their communities. In many areas of the world, land
ownership is not available, thus, people who want or need to farm to make a living have little incentive to improve the
land.
In the US, there are approximately 2,000,000 farmers, less than 1% of the population. A direct relationship exists
between food consumption levels and poverty. Families with the financial resources to escape extreme poverty rarely
suffer from chronic hunger; while poor families not only suffer the most from chronic hunger, but are also the segment
of the population most at risk during food shortagesand famines.
Two commonly used definitions of food security come from the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and
the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA):

Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social

[23]

and economic access to sufficient, safe

and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

[24]

Food security for a household means access by all members at all times to enough food for an active, healthy
life. Food security includes at a minimum (1) the ready availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, and
(2) an assured ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways (that is, without resorting to
emergency food supplies, scavenging, stealing, or other coping strategies). (USDA)

[25]

The stages of food insecurity range from food secure situations to full-scale famine. "Famine and hunger are both
rooted in food insecurity. Food insecurity can be categorized as either chronic or transitory. Chronic food insecurity
translates into a high degree of vulnerability to famine and hunger; ensuring food security presupposes elimination of
that vulnerability. [Chronic] hunger is not famine. It is similar to undernourishment and is related to poverty, existing
mainly in poor countries."
[edit]Stunting

[26]

and chronic nutritional deficiencies

56

Children and a nurse attendant at a Nigerian orphanage in the late 1960s with symptoms of low calorie and protein intake.

Many countries experience perpetual food shortages and distribution problems. These result in chronic and often
widespread hunger amongst significant numbers of people. Human populations respond to
chronic hunger and malnutrition by decreasing body size, known in medical terms as stunting or stunted growth. This
process starts in utero if the mother is malnourished and continues through approximately the third year of life. It
leads to higher infant and child mortality, but at rates far lower than during famines. Once stunting has occurred,
improved nutritional intake later in life cannot reverse the damage. Stunting itself is viewed as a coping mechanism,
designed to bring body size into alignment with the calories available during adulthood in the location where the child
is born. Limiting body size as a way of adapting to low levels of energy (calories) adversely affects health in three
ways:

Premature failure of vital organs occurs during adulthood. For example a 50 year old individual might die of heart
failure because his/her heart suffered structural defects during early development.

Stunted individuals suffer a far higher rate of disease and illness than those who have not undergone stunting.

Severe malnutrition in early childhood often leads to defects in cognitive development.

"The analysis ... points to the misleading nature of the concept of subsistence as Malthus originally used it and as it is
still widely used today. Subsistence in not located at the edge of a nutritional cliff, beyond which lies demographic
disaster. Rather than one level of subsistence, there are numerous levels at which a population and a food supply
can be in equilibrium in the sense that they can be indefinitely sustained. However, some levels will have smaller
people and higher normal mortality than others."
[edit]Global

[27]

water crisis

Grain storage facilities in Australia

57

Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous smaller countries,
same in larger countries, such as China or India.

[29]

[28]

may soon do the

The water tables are falling in scores of countries (including

Northern China, the US, and India) due to widespread overpumping using powerful diesel and electric pumps. Other
countries affected include Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran. This will eventually lead to water scarcity and cutbacks in
grain harvest. Even with the overpumping of its aquifers, China is developing agrain deficit.

[30]

When this happens, it

will almost certainly drive grain prices upward. Most of the 3 billion people projected to be added worldwide by midcentury will be born in countries already experiencing water shortages. After China and India, there is a second tier of
smaller countries with large water deficitsAfghanistan, Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Mexico, and Pakistan. Four of these
already import a large share of their grain. Only Pakistan remains self-sufficient. But with a population expanding by 4
million a year, it will also likely soon turn to the world market for grain.
[edit]Land

[31][32]

degradation

See also: Land degradation and Desertification

Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural
[33]

yields.

Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.

[34]

In Africa, if current trends of soil

degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to UNU's
Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.
[edit]Land

[35]

deals

Rich governments and corporations are buying up the rights to millions of hectares of agricultural land in developing
countries in an effort to secure their own long-term food supplies. The head of the Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO), Jacques Diouf, has warned that the controversial rise in land deals could create a form of
"neocolonialism", with poor states producing food for the rich at the expense of their own hungry people. The South
Korean firm Daewoo Logistics has secured a large piece of farmland in Madagascar to grow maize and crops
for biofuels. Libya has secured 250,000 hectares of Ukrainian farmland, and China has begun to explore land deals
inSoutheast Asia.

[36]

Oil-rich Arab investors, including the sovereign wealth funds, are looking

into Sudan, Ethiopia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan,Pakistan, Cambodia and Thailand.

[37]

Some countries are using the acquisition of land for agriculture in return for other gains. Egypt is seeking land
acquisition in Ukraine in exchange for access to its natural gas. Qatar has plans to lease 40,000 hectares of
agricultural land along Kenya's coast to grow fruit and vegetables, in return for building a 2.4 billion port close to the
Indian Ocean tourist island of Lamu.
[edit]Climate

[38]

change

[edit]Agriculture
See also: Climate change and agriculture
Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan
rivers.

[39]

India, China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh,Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by

58

severe droughts in coming decades.

than 500 million people.

[41][42]

[40]

In India alone, the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more

The west coast of North America, which gets much of its water from glaciers in
[43]

mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, also would be affected.

Glaciers aren't the only

worry that the developing nations have, sea level is also reported to rise as climate change progresses, reducing the
amount of land available for agriculture.

[44]

In other parts of the world a big effect will be low yields of grain according to the World Food Trade Model, specifically
in the low latitude regions where much of the developing world is located. From this the price of grain will rise, along
with the developing nations trying to grow the grain. Due to this, every 2-2.5% price hike will increase the number of
[45]

hungry people 1%.

And low crop yields is just one of the problem facing farmers in the low latitudes and tropical

regions. The timing and length of the growing seasons, when farmers plant their crops, are going to be changing
dramatically, per the USDA, due to unknown changes in soil temperature and moisture conditions.

[46]

[edit]Children
On 2008-04-29, a UNICEF UK report found that the worlds poorest and most vulnerable children are being hit the
hardest by the impact of climate change. The report, Our Climate, Our Children, Our Responsibility: The Implications
of Climate Change for the Worlds Children, says access to clean water and food supplies will become more difficult,
particularly in Africa and Asia.
[edit]Wheat

[47]

stem rust

Stripe Rust on a wheat stem

Watch the DIVERSEEDS short filmson ways to fight wheat rust using crop wild relatives to improve resistance in modern varieties.

59

An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by raceUg99 is currently spreading across Africa and intoAsia and is
causing major concern. A virulent wheat disease could destroy most of the worlds main wheat crops, leaving millions
to starve. The fungus has spread from Africa to Iran, and may already be inPakistan.

[48][49][50]

The genetic diversity of the crop wild relatives of wheat can be used to improve modern varieties to be more resistant
to rust. In their centers of origin wild wheat plants are screened for resistance to rust, then their genetic information is
analysed and finally wild plants and modern varieties are crossed through means of modern plant breeding in order to
transfer the resistance genes from the wild plants to the modern varieties.
[edit]Dictatorship

[51]

and kleptocracy

See also: Political corruption

Nobel Prize-winning economist Amartya Sen has observed that "there is no such thing as an apolitical food problem."
While drought and other naturally occurring events may trigger famine conditions, it is government action or inaction
that determines its severity, and often even whether or not a famine will occur. The 20th century is full of examples of
governments undermining the food security of their own nationssometimes intentionally.
When governments come to power by force or rigged elections, and not by way of fair and open elections, their base
of support is often narrow and built upon cronyism and patronage. Under such conditions "The distribution of food
within a country is a political issue. Governments in most countries give priority to urban areas, since that is where
the most influential and powerful families and enterprises are usually located. The government often neglects
subsistence farmers and rural areas in general. The more remote and underdeveloped the area the less likely the
government will be to effectively meet its needs. Many agrarian policies, especially the pricing of agricultural
commodities, discriminate against rural areas. Governments often keep prices of basic grains at such artificially low
levels that subsistence producers can not accumulate enough capital to make investments to improve their
production. Thus, they are effectively prevented from getting out of their precarious situation."

[52]

Further dictators and warlords have used food as a political weapon, rewarding their supporters while denying food
supplies to areas that oppose their rule. Under such conditions food becomes a currency with which to buy support
and famine becomes an effective weapon to be used against the opposition.
Governments with strong tendencies towards kleptocracy can undermine food security even when harvests are good.
When government monopolizes trade, farmers may find that they are free to grow cash crops for export, but under
penalty of law only able to sell their crops to government buyers at prices far below the world market price. The
government then is free to sell their crop on the world market at full price, pocketing the difference. This creates an
artificial "poverty trap" from which even the most hard working and motivated farmers may not escape.
When the rule of law is absent, or private property is non-existent, farmers have little incentive to improve their
productivity. If a farm becomes noticeably more productive than neighboring farms, it may become the target of
individuals well connected to the government. Rather than risk being noticed and possibly losing their land, farmers
may be content with the perceived safety of mediocrity.

60

As pointed out by William Bernstein in his book The Birth of Plenty: "Individuals without property are susceptible to
starvation, and it is much easier to bend the fearful and hungry to the will of the state. If a [farmer's] property can be
arbitrarily threatened by the state, that power will inevitably be employed to intimidate those with divergent political
and religious opinions."
[edit]Economic

approaches

There are many economic approaches advocated to improve food security in developing countries. Three typical
approaches are listed below. The first is typical of what is advocated by most governments and international
agencies. The other two are more common tonon-governmental organizations (NGOs).
[edit]Westernized

view

Conventional thinking in westernized countries is that maximizing the farmers profit is the surest way of maximizing
agricultural production; the higher a farmers profit, the greater the effort that will be forthcoming, and the greater the
risk the farmer is willing to take.

[citation needed]

Place into the hands of farmers the largest number and highest quality tools possible (tools is used here to refer to
improved production techniques, improved seeds, secure land tenure, accurate weather forecasts, etc.) However, it is
left to the individual farmer to pick and choose which tools to use, and how to use them, as farmers have intimate
knowledge of their own land and local conditions.
As with other businesses, a percentage of the profits are normally reinvested into the business in the hopes of
increasing production, and hence increase future profits. Normally higher profits translate into higher spending on
technologies designed to boost production, such as drip irrigation systems, agriculture education, and greenhouses.
An increased profit also increases the farmers incentive to engage in double-cropping, soil improvement programs,
and expanding usable area.
[edit]Food

justice

Fight Hunger: Walk the World campaign is a United Nations World Food Programmeinitiative.

An alternative view takes a collective approach to achieve food security. It notes that globally enough food is
produced to feed the entire world population at a level adequate to ensure that everyone can be free of hunger and
fear of starvation. That no one should live without enough food because of economic constraints or social inequalities
is the basic goal.
This approach is often referred to as food justice and views food security as a basic human right. It advocates fairer
distribution of food, particularly grain crops, as a means of ending chronic hunger and malnutrition. The core of the

61

Food Justice movement is the belief that what is lacking is not food, but the political will to fairly distribute food
regardless of the recipients ability to pay.
[edit]Food

sovereignty

A third approach is known as food sovereignty; though it overlaps with food justice on several points, the two are not
identical. It views the business practices of multinational corporations as a form of neocolonialism. It contends that
multinational corporations have the financial resources available to buy up the agricultural resources of impoverished
nations, particularly in the tropics. They also have the political clout to convert these resources to the exclusive
production of cash crops for sale to industrialized nations outside of thetropics, and in the process to squeeze the
poor off of the more productive lands. Under this view subsistence farmers are left to cultivate only lands that are so
marginal in terms of productivity as to be of no interest to the multinational corporations. Likewise, food sovereignty
holds it to be true that communities should be able to define their own means of production and that food is a basic
human right. With several multinational corporations now pushing agricultural technologies on developing countries,
technologies that include improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides, crop production has become an
increasingly analyzed and debated issue. Many communities calling for food sovereignty are protesting the imposition
of Western technologies on to their indigenous systems and agency.
Those who hold a "food sovereignty" position advocate banning the production of most cash crops in developing
nations, thereby leaving the local farmers to concentrate on subsistence agriculture. In addition, they oppose allowing
low-cost subsidized food from industrialized nations into developing countries, what is referred to as "import
dumping". Import dumping also happens by way of food aid distribution through programs like the USA's "Food for
Peace" initiative.
[edit]World

Food Summit

The World Food Summit was held in Rome in 1996, with the aim of renewing global commitment to the fight against
hunger. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) called the summit in response to
widespread under-nutrition and growing concern about the capacity of agriculture to meet future food needs. The
conference produced two key documents, the Rome Declaration on World Food Security and the World Food Summit
Plan of Action.

Irrigation canals have opened dry desert areas of Egypt to agriculture.

62

The Rome Declaration calls for the members of the United Nations to work to halve the number of chronically
undernourished people on the Earth by the year 2015. The Plan of Action sets a number of targets
for government and non-governmental organizations for achieving food security, at the individual, household,
national, regional and global levels.
[edit]World

Summit on Food Security

The World Summit on Food Security took place in Rome, Italy, between 16 and 18 November 2009. The decision to
convene the summit was taken by the Council of FAO in June 2009, at the proposal of FAO Director-General
Dr Jacques Diouf. Heads of State and Government attended the summit, which took place at the FAOs
headquarters.
[edit]Achieving

food security

"The number of people without enough food to eat on a regular basis remains stubbornly high, at over 800 million,
and is not falling significantly. Over 60% of the world's undernourished people live in Asia, and a quarter in Africa.
The proportion of people who are hungry, however, is greater in Africa (33%) than Asia (16%). The latest FAO figures
indicate that there are 22 countries, 16 of which are in Africa, in which the undernourishment prevalence rate is over
[53]

35%."

A liquid manure spreader, equipment that is used to increase agricultural productivity.

By way of comparison, in one of the largest food producing countries in the world, the United States, approximately
one out of six people are "food insecure", including 17 million children, according to the U.S. Department of
Agriculture.

[54]

Food insecurity is measured in the United States by questions in the Census Bureau's Current

Population Survey. The questions asked are about anxiety that the household budget is inadequate to buy enough
food, inadequacy in the quantity or quality of food eaten by adults and children in the household, and instances of
reduced food intake or consequences of reduced food intake for adults and for children.

[55]

A National Academy of

Sciences study commissioned by the USDA criticized this measurement and the relationship of "food security" to
hunger, adding "it is not clear whether hunger is appropriately identified as the extreme end of the food security
[56]

scale."

In its "The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2003", FAO states that:

63

[57]

'In general the countries that succeeded in reducing hunger were characterised by more rapid economic
growth and specifically more rapid growth in their agricultural sectors. They also exhibited slower population
growth, lower levels of HIV and higher ranking in the Human Development Index'.
As such, according to FAO, addressing agriculture and population growth is vital to achieving food security.
Other organisations and people (e.g. Peter Singer, ...) too have come to this conclusion and advocate
improvements in agriculture, and population control.
[59]

USAID

[58]

proposes several key steps to increasing agricultural productivity which is in turn key to increasing

rural income and reducing food insecurity. They include:

Boosting agricultural science and technology. Current agricultural yields are insufficient to feed the growing
populations. Eventually, the rising agricultural productivity drives economic growth.

Securing property rights and access to finance.

Enhancing human capital through education and improved health.
Conflict prevention and resolution mechanisms and democracy and governance based on principles of
accountability and transparency in public institutions and the rule of law are basic to reducing vulnerable
members of society.
The UN Millennium Development Goals are one of the initiatives aimed at achieving food security in the world.
In its list of goals, the first Millennium Development Goal states that the UN "is to eradicate extreme hunger and
poverty", and that "agricultural productivity is likely to play a key role in this if it is to be reached on time".
"Of the eight Millennium Development Goals, eradicating extreme hunger and poverty depends on
agriculture the most. (MDG 1 calls for halving hunger and poverty by 2015 in relation to 1990.)
Notably, the gathering of wild food plants appears to be an efficient alternative method of subsistence in tropical
countries, which may play a role in poverty alleviation.
[edit]The

[60]

agriculture-hunger-poverty nexus

Eradicating hunger and poverty requires an understanding of the ways in which these two injustices
interconnect. Hunger, and the malnourishment that accompanies it, prevents poor people from escaping
poverty because it diminishes their ability to learn, work, and care for themselves and their family members.
Food insecurity exists when people are undernourished as a result of the physical unavailability of food, their
lack of social or economic access to adequate food, and/or inadequate food utilization. Food-insecure people
are those individuals whose food intake falls below their minimum calorie (energy) requirements, as well as
those who exhibit physical symptoms caused by energy and nutrient deficiencies resulting from an inadequate
or unbalanced diet or from the body's inability to use food effectively because of infection or disease. An
alternative view would define the concept of food insecurity as referring only to the consequence of inadequate
consumption of nutritious food, considering the physiological utilization of food by the body as being within the
domain of nutrition and health. Malnourishment also leads to poor health hence individuals fail to provide for

64

their families. If left unaddressed, hunger sets in motion an array of outcomes that perpetuate malnutrition,
reduce the ability of adults to work and to give birth to healthy children, and erode children's ability to learn and
lead productive, healthy, and happy lives. This truncation of human development undermines a country's
potential for economic developmentfor generations to come.
There are strong, direct relationships between agricultural productivity, hunger, and poverty. Three-quarters of
the world's poor live in rural areas and make their living from agriculture. Hunger and child malnutrition are
greater in these areas than in urban areas. Moreover, the higher the proportion of the rural population that
obtains its income solely from subsistence farming (without the benefit of pro-poor technologies and access to
markets), the higher the incidence of malnutrition. Therefore, improvements in agricultural productivity aimed at
small-scale farmers will benefit the rural poor first.
Increased agricultural productivity enables farmers to grow more food, which translates into better diets and,
under market conditions that offer a level playing field, into higher farm incomes. With more money, farmers are
more likely to diversify production and grow higher-value crops, benefiting not only themselves but the
economy as a whole."

[61]

Researchers suggest forming an alliance between the emergency food program and CSA Farms, as currently
food stamps cannot be used at farmer's markets and places in which food is less processed and grown
locally.

[62]

[edit]Biotechnology

for smallholders in the (sub)tropics

The area sown to genetically engineered crops in developing countries is rapidly catching-up with the area
sown in industrial nations. According to the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications
(ISAAA), genetically engineered (biotech, GM) crops were grown by approximately 8.5 million farmers in 21
countries in 2005, up from 8.25 million farmers in 17 countries in 2004. The largest increase in biotech crop
area in any country in 2005 was in Brazil, provisionally estimated at 44,000 km (94,000 km in 2005 compared
with 50,000 km in 2004). India had by far the largest year-on-year proportional increase, with almost a
threefold increase from 5,000 km in 2004 to 13,000 km in 2005.

[63]

Current high regulatory costs imposed on varieties created by the more modern methods are a significant
hurdle for development of genetically engineered crops well suited to developing country farmers by modern
genetic methods. Once a new variety is developed, however, seed provides a good vehicle for distribution of
improvements in a package that is familiar to the farmer.
Currently there are some institutes and research groups that have projects in which biotechnology is shared
with contact people in less-developed countries on a non-profit basis. These institutes make use of
biotechnological methods that do not involve high research and registration costs, such as conservation and
multiplication of germplasm and phytosanitation.

65

Apart from genetic engineering, other forms of biotechnology also hold promise for enhancing food security. For
instance, perennial riceis being developed in China, which could dramatically reduce the risk of soil erosion on
upland smallholder farms.
[edit]Risks

to food security

Further information: More factors leading to food insecurity and crisis.

[edit]Fossil

fuel dependence

Further information: Agriculture and petroleum and Peak oil's effects on agriculture
While agricultural output increased as a result of the Green Revolution, the energy input into the process (that
is, the energy that must be expended to produce a crop) has also increased at a greater rate, so that the ratio
of crops produced to energy input has decreased over time. Green Revolution techniques also heavily rely on
chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, some of which must be developed from fossil fuels, making
agriculture increasingly reliant on petroleum products.
Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain
production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form
of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbonfueled irrigation.

[64]

David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, and Mario Giampietro, senior
researcher at the National Research Institute on Food and Nutrition (INRAN), place in their study Food, Land,
Population and the U.S. Economy the maximumU.S. population for a sustainable economy at 200 million. To
achieve a sustainable economy and avert disaster, the United States must reduce its population by at least
one-third, and world population will have to be reduced by two-thirds, says the study.

[65]

The authors of this study believe that the mentioned agricultural crisis will only begin to impact us after 2020,
and will not become critical until 2050. The oncoming peaking of global oil production (and subsequent decline
of production), along with the peak of North American natural gas production will very likely precipitate this
agricultural crisis much sooner than expected.

[13]

Geologist Dale Allen Pfeiffer claims that coming decades

could see spiraling food prices without relief and massive starvation on a global level such as never
experienced before.

[66]

However, one should take note that, (numbers taken from the CIA World Factbook), the country of Bangladesh
achieved food self-sufficiency in 2002 with both a far higher population density than the USA (~1000
2

inhabitants per square kilometer in comparison to just 30/km for the USA - so this is more than 30 times as
many), and at only a tiny fraction of the USA's usage of oil, gas, and electricity. Also, pre-industrial Chinese
mini-farmers/gardeners developed techniques to feed a population of more than 1000 people per square
kilometer (cf. e.g. F.H. King's 1911 report, "Farmers of Forty Centuries"). Hence, the dominant problem is not
energy availability but the need to stop and revert soil degradation.
[edit]Hybridization,

[citation needed]

genetic engineering and loss of biodiversity

66

In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to
increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". Often the handful of hybridized breeds originated in
developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the rest of the developing world to create
high yield strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing
hybridization which has resulted in several of the indigenous breeds becoming extinct or threatened. Disuse
because of unprofitability and uncontrolled intentional and unintentional cross-pollination and crossbreeding
(genetic pollution), formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing
widespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity
as a whole.

[67]

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using
the genetic engineeringtechniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetically Modified
(GM) crops today have become a common source for genetic pollution, not only of wild varieties but also of
other domesticated varieties derived from relatively natural hybridization.

[68][69][70][71][72]

Genetic erosion coupled with genetic pollution may be destroying unique genotypes, thereby creating a hidden
crisis which could result in a severe threat to our food security. Diverse genetic material could cease to exist
which would impact our ability to further hybridize food crops and livestock against more resistant diseases and
climatic changes.
[edit]Genetic

[67]

erosion in agricultural and livestock biodiversity

See also: Genetic erosion and Agricultural biodiversity

Genetic erosion in agricultural and livestock biodiversity is the loss of genetic diversity, including the loss of
individual genes, and the loss of particular combinants of genes (or gene complexes) such as those manifested
in locally adapted landraces of domesticatedanimals or plants adapted to the natural environment in which they
originated. The term genetic erosion is sometimes used in a narrow sense, such as for the loss of alleles or
genes, as well as more broadly, referring to the loss of varieties or even species. The major driving forces
behind genetic erosion in crops are: variety replacement, land clearing, overexploitation of species, population
pressure,environmental degradation, overgrazing, policy and changing agricultural systems.
The main factor, however, is the replacement of local varieties of domestic plants and animals by high yielding
or exotic varieties or species. A large number of varieties can also often be dramatically reduced when
commercial varieties (including GMOs) are introduced into traditional farming systems. Many researchers
believe that the main problem related to agro-ecosystem management is the general tendency towards genetic
and ecological uniformity imposed by the development of modern agriculture.
[edit]Intellectual

Property Rights

There is much debate on whether IPRs hurt or harm independent development in terms or agriculture and food
production. Hartmut Meyer and Annette von Lossau describe both sides of the issue, while saying "Among
scholars, the thesis that the impetus to self-determined development and the protection of intellectual property

67

go hand in hand is disputed - to put it mildly. Many studies have concluded that there is virtually no positive
correlation between establishing self-sustained economic growth and ensuring protection of intellectual
property rights. Dispute over food security
[edit]Price

setting

On April 30, 2008 Thailand announces the project of the creation of the Organisation of Rice Exporting
Countries with the potential to develop into a price-fixing cartel for rice.
[edit]Treating

[73][74]

food the same as other internationally traded commodities

On October 23, 2008, Associated Press reported the following:

"Former President Clinton told a U.N. gathering Thursday [Oct 16, 2008] that the global food crisis
shows "we all blew it, including me," by treating food crops "like color TVs" instead of as a vital
commodity for the world's poor....Clinton criticized decades of policymaking by the World Bank,
the International Monetary Fund and others, encouraged by the U.S., that pressured Africans in
particular into dropping government subsidies for fertilizer, improved seed and other farm inputs as a
requirement to get aid. Africa's food self-sufficiency declined and food imports rose. Now skyrocketing
prices in the international grain tradeon average more than doubling between 2006 and early
2008have pushed many in poor countries deeper into poverty."

[75]

Food is not a commodity like others. We should go back to a policy of maximum food self-sufficiency. It is crazy for
us to think we can develop countries around the world without increasing their ability to feed themselves.[75]
Former US President Bill Clinton, Speech at United Nations World Food Day, October 16, 2008

[edit]Further

reading

Environmental issues with agriculture

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

68

See also: Agriculture and the environment

Water pollution in a rural stream due to runoff from farming activity; in New Zealand.

There are numerous environmental issues with the various practices ofagriculture.
[edit]Issues
[edit]Climate

change

Main article: Climate change and agriculture

Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place on a global scale. Global
warming is projected to have significant impacts on conditions affecting agriculture,
including temperature, precipitation and glacial run-off. These conditions determine the carrying capacity of
the biosphere to produce enough food for the human population and domesticated animals. Risingcarbon
dioxide levels would also have effects, both detrimental and beneficial, on crop yields. The overall effect of climate
change on agriculture will depend on the balance of these effects. Assessment of the effects of global climate
changes on agriculture might help to properly anticipate and adapt farming to maximize agricultural production.
At the same time, agriculture has been shown to produce significant effects on climate change, primarily through the
production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, but also by altering
the Earth's land cover, which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light, thus contributing to radiative
forcing. Land use change such as deforestation anddesertification, together with use of fossil fuels, are the
major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide; agriculture itself is the major contributor to increasing methane and
nitrous oxide concentrations in earth's atmosphere.

[1]

69

[edit]Deforestation
Main article: Deforestation
One of the causes of deforestation is to clear land for pasture or crops. According to British environmentalist Norman
Myers, 5% of deforestation is due to cattle ranching, 19% due to over-heavy logging, 22% due to the growing sector
of palm oil plantations, and 54% due to slash-and-burn farming.

[2]

In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a
local setting may vary from decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population
pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions."
[edit]Genetic

[3]

engineering

See also: Genetically modified food controversies

Genetic engineering has caused controversies.
Seed contamination is problematic.
[edit]Intensive

farming

Intensive farming alters the environment in many ways. Some of the disadvantages of this method of farming include:

Limits or destroys the natural habitat of most wildlife, and leads to soil erosion

Use of fertilizers can alter the biology of rivers and lakes.

Pesticides generally kill useful insects as well as those that destroy crops

Generally not sustainable - often results in desertification or, in a worst case scenario, land that is so poisonous

[4]

and eroded that nothing else will grow

Requires large amounts of energy input to produce, transport, and apply chemical fertilizers/pesticides

Use of chemicals on fields creates run-off, excess runs off into rivers and lakes causing pollution

Use of pesticides have numerous negative health effects in workers who apply them, people that live nearby the
area of application or downstream/downwind from it, and consumers who eat the pesticides which remain on
their food

[edit]Irrigation
Main article: Environmental impact of irrigation
[5]

Irrigation can lead to a number of problems:

Depletion of underground aquifers through overdrafting.

Ground subsidence.

Groundwater recharge - an ecological restoration, mitigation, and remediation technique.

70

Underirrigation gives poor soil salinity control which leads to increased soil salinity with consequent build up of
toxic salts on soil surface in areas with high evaporation. This requires either leaching to remove these salts and
a method of drainage to carry the salts away.

Overirrigation because of poor distribution uniformity or management wastes water, chemicals, and may lead
to water pollution.

Deep drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising water tables which in some instances will lead to
problems of irrigationsalinity requiring watertable control by some form of subsurface land drainage.

Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage soil structure owing to the formation of alkaline soil.

Runoff causing surface water and groundwater-aquifer hydrologic cycle water pollution.

Bioretention - an ecological restoration, mitigation, and remediation technique.

[edit]Pollutants
A wide range of agricultural chemicals are used and some become pollutants through use, misuse, or ignorance.

Pesticide drift

soil contamination

groundwater and water pollution

air pollution spray drift

Pesticides, especially those based on organochloride

Pesticide residue in foods

Pesticide toxicity to bees

List of crop plants pollinated by bees

Pollination management

Bioremediation

[edit]Soil

degradation

Main article: Soil degradation

soil contamination

erosion

sedimentation

[edit]Waste
Plasticulture, the use of plastic materials in agriculture, raises problems around how to carry out the recycling of
agricultural plastics.
[edit]Issues by region

Hedgerow removal in the United Kingdom.

Soil salinisation, especially in Australia.

71

Phosphate mining in Nauru

Methane emissions from livestock in New Zealand. See Climate change in New Zealand.

Some environmentalists attribute the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico as being encouraged by nitrogen
fertilization of the algae bloom.

[edit]Sustainable

agriculture

Main article: Sustainable agriculture

Further information: Motivations for organic agriculture
The exponential population increase in recent decades has increased the practice of agricultural land conversion to
meet demand for food which in turn has increased the effects on the environment. The global population is still
increasing and will eventually stabilise, as some critics doubt that food production, due to lower yields from global
warming, can support the global population.
Organic farming is a multifaceted sustainable agriculture set of practices that can have a lower impact on the
environment
Other specific methods include: permaculture; and biodynamic agriculture which incorporating a spiritual element.

Category: Sustainable agriculture

Biological pest control

[edit]See

also

Agriculture and the environment

List of environmental issues

Animal welfare

Animal rights

Habitat

"Livestock's Long Shadow" - Environmental Issues and Options

by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations

Principles of Organic Agriculture

Research Institute for Organic Agriculture
Agro-hydro-salinity model for environmental impacts of irrigated agriculture
Spatial agro-hydro-salinity model for environmental impacts of irrigated agriculture

Industrial agriculture
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

72

Agriculture

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Particular

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Grazing Hydroponics IMTA
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73

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Industrial agriculture is a form of modern farming that refers to the industrialized production oflivestock, poultry, fish,
and crops. The methods of industrial agriculture are technoscientific, economic, and political. They
include innovation in agricultural machinery and farming methods, genetic technology, techniques for
achieving economies of scale in production, the creation of new markets for consumption, the application
of patent protection to genetic information, and global trade. These methods are widespread in developed
nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide. Most of the meat,dairy, eggs, fruits, and vegetables available
in supermarkets are produced using these methods of industrial agriculture.
[edit]Historical

development and future prospects

Main article: History of agriculture

The birth of industrial agriculture more or less coincides with that of the Industrial Revolution in general. The
identification of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus (referred to by the acronym NPK) as critical factors in plant
growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers, making possible more intensive types of agriculture. The
discovery of vitamins and their role in animal nutrition, in the first two decades of the 20th century, led to vitamin
supplements, which in the 1920s allowed certain livestock to be raised indoors, reducing their exposure to adverse
natural elements. The discovery of antibiotics andvaccines facilitated raising livestock in concentrated, controlled
animal feed operations by reducing diseases caused by crowding. Chemicals developed for use in World War II gave
rise to synthetic pesticides. Developments in shipping networks and technology have made long-distance distribution
of agricultural produce feasible.

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Agricultural production across the world doubled four times between 1820 and 1975
one billion human beings in 1800 and 6.5 billion in 2002.

[2]

farming dropped as the process became more automated.

[1]

to feed a global population of

During the same period, the number of people involved in

[citation needed]

In the 1930s, 24 percent of the American

population worked in agriculture compared to 1.5 percent in 2002; in 1940, each farm worker supplied 11 consumers,
whereas in 2002, each worker supplied 90 consumers.

[2]

The number of farms has also decreased, and their

ownership is more concentrated. In the U.S., four companies kill 81 percent of cows, 73 percent of sheep, 57 percent
of pigs, and produce 50 percent of chickens, cited as an example of "vertical integration" by the president of the U.S.
National Farmers' Union.
114,000,

[4]

[3]

In 1967, there were one million pig farms in America; as of 2002, there were

with 80 million pigs (out of 95 million) killed each year on factory farms, according to the U.S. National

Pork Producers Council.

[2]

According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the world's poultry, 43 percent of beef,

and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way.

[5]

According to Denis Avery of the agribusiness funded Hudson Institute, Asia increased its consumption of pork by 18
[6]

million tons in the 1990s.

billion pigs by 2050.

[6]

As of 1997, the world had a stock of 900 million pigs, which Avery predicts will rise to 2.5

He told the College of Natural Resources at the University of California, Berkeley that three

billion pigs will thereafter be needed annually to meet demand.

[7]

He writes: "For the sake of the environment, we had

better hope those hogs are raised in big, efficient confinement systems."
[edit]British

[6]

agricultural revolution

Main article: British Agricultural Revolution

The British agricultural revolution describes a period of agricultural development in Britain between the 16th century
and the mid-19th century, which saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. This in turn
supported unprecedented population growth, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped
drive the Industrial Revolution. How this came about is not entirely clear. In recent decades, historians cited four key
changes in agricultural practices, enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop rotation, and selective breeding, and gave
credit to a relatively few individuals.
[edit]Challenges

[8]

and issues

See also: Agricultural policy, Agribusiness, and Factory farming

The challenges and issues of industrial agriculture for global and local society, for the industrial agriculture sector, for
the individual industrial agriculture farm, and for animal rights include the costs and benefits of both current practices
and proposed changes to those practices.

[9][10]

Current industrial agriculture practices are temporarily increasing

the carrying capacity of the Earth for humans while slowly destroying the long term carrying capacity of the earth
needed]

[citation

for humans necessitating a shift to a sustainable agricultureform of industrial agriculture. This is a continuation

of thousands of years of the invention and use of technologies in feeding ever growing populations.
[W]hen hunter-gatherers with growing populations depleted the stocks of game and wild foods across the Near East,
they were forced to introduce agriculture. But agriculture brought much longer hours of work and a less rich diet than
hunter-gatherers enjoyed. Further population growth among shifting slash-and-burn farmers led to shorter fallow

75

periods, falling yields and soil erosion. Plowing and fertilizers were introduced to deal with these problems - but once
again involved longer hours of work and degradation of soil resources(Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural
Growth, Allen and Unwin, 1965, expanded and updated in Population and Technology, Blackwell, 1980.).
While the point of industrial agriculture is lower cost products to create greater productivity thus a higher standard of
living as measured by available goods and services, industrial methods have side effects both good and bad. Further,
industrial agriculture is not some single indivisible thing, but instead is composed of numerous separate elements,
each of which can be modified, and in fact is modified in response to market conditions, government regulation, and
scientific advances. So the question then becomes for each specific element that goes into an industrial agriculture
method or technique or process: What bad side effects are bad enough that the financial gain and good side effects
are outweighed? Different interest groups not only reach different conclusions on this, but also recommend differing
solutions, which then become factors in changing both market conditions and government regulations.

[9][10]

[edit]Society
The major challenges and issues faced by society concerning industrial agriculture include:
Maximizing the benefits:

Cheap and plentiful food

Convenience for the consumer

The contribution to our economy on many levels, from growers to harvesters to processors to sellers

while minimizing the downsides:

Environmental and social costs

Damage to fisheries

Cleanup of surface and groundwater polluted with animal waste

Increased health risks from pesticides

Increased ozone pollution and global warming from heavy use of fossil fuels

[edit]Benefits
[edit]Cheap and plentiful food
See also: World population and History of agriculture

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Population (est.) 10,000 BCE 2000 CE.

Very roughly:

30,000 years ago hunter-gatherer behavior fed 6 million people

3,000 years ago primitive agriculture fed 60 million people

300 years ago intensive agriculture fed 600 million people

Today industrial agriculture feeds 6 billion people

Estimated world population at various dates, in thousands

Year

World

Africa

Asia

Europe Central & South America North America* Oceania Notes

8000 BCE

8 000

[11]

1000 BCE

50 000

[11]

500 BCE

100 000

[11]

1 CE 200,000 plus

[12]

1000

310 000

1750

791 000 106 000

502 000 163 000

16 000

2 000

2 000

1800

978 000 107 000

635 000 203 000

24 000

7 000

2 000

1850

1 262 000 111 000

809 000 276 000

38 000

26 000

2 000

1900

1 650 000 133 000

947 000 408 000

74 000

82 000

6 000

1950

2 518 629 221 214 1 398 488 547 403

167 097

171 616

12 812

1955

2 755 823 246 746 1 541 947 575 184

190 797

186 884

14 265

77

1960

2 981 659 277 398 1 674 336 601 401

209 303

204 152

15 888

1965

3 334 874 313 744 1 899 424 634 026

250 452

219 570

17 657

1970

3 692 492 357 283 2 143 118 655 855

284 856

231 937

19 443

1975

4 068 109 408 160 2 397 512 675 542

321 906

243 425

21 564

1980

4 434 682 469 618 2 632 335 692 431

361 401

256 068

22 828

1985

4 830 979 541 814 2 887 552 706 009

401 469

269 456

24 678

1990

5 263 593 622 443 3 167 807 721 582

441 525

283 549

26 687

1995

5 674 380 707 462 3 430 052 727 405

481 099

299 438

28 924

2000

6 070 581 795 671 3 679 737 727 986

520 229

315 915

31 043

2005

6 453 628 887 964 3 917 508 724 722

558 281

332 156 32 998**

An example of industrial agriculture providing cheap and plentiful food is the U.S.'s "most successful program of
agricultural development of any country in the world". Between 1930 and 2000 U.S. agricultural productivity (output
divided by all inputs) rose by an average of about 2 percent annually causing food prices paid by consumers to
decrease. "The percentage of U.S. disposable income spent on food prepared at home decreased, from 22 percent
as late as 1950 to 7 percent by the end of the century."

[13]

[edit]Convenience and choice

Main article: Convenience food
Industrial agriculture treats farmed products in terms of minimizing inputs

[dubious discuss]

and maximizing outputs at

every stage from the natural resources of sun, land and water to the consumer which results in a vertically
integrated economic sector that genetically manipulates crops and livestock; and processes, packages,
and markets in whatever way generates maximum return on investment creating convenience foods many customers
will pay a premium for. A consumer backlash against food sold for taste, convenience, and profit rather
than nutrition and other values (e.g. reduce waste, be natural, be ethical) has led agriculture to also provide organic

78

food,minimally processed foods, and minimally packaged foods to maximally satisfy all segments of society thus
generating maximum return on investment.
[edit]Liabilities
[edit]Environment
Main article: Environmental science
Industrial agriculture uses huge amounts of water, energy, and industrial chemicals; increasing pollution in the arable
land, usable waterand atmosphere. Herbicides, insecticides, fertilizers, and animal waste products are accumulating
in ground and surface waters. "Many of the negative effects of industrial agriculture are remote from fields and farms.
Nitrogen compounds from the Midwest, for example, travel down the Mississippi to degrade coastal fisheries in the
Gulf of Mexico. But other adverse effects are showing up within agricultural production systems -- for example, the
rapidly developing resistance among pests is rendering our arsenal of herbicides and insecticides increasingly
ineffective."

[14]

[edit]Social
Main article: Rural sociology
A study done for the US. Office of Technology Assessment conducted by the UC Davis Macrosocial Accounting
Project concluded that industrial agriculture is associated with substantial deterioration of human living conditions in
nearby rural communities.

[15]

[edit]Animals
Main article: Industrial agriculture (animals)
"Confined animal feeding operations" or "intensive livestock operations", can hold large numbers (some up to
hundreds of thousands) of animals, often indoors. These animals are typically cows, hogs, turkeys, or chickens. The
distinctive characteristics of such farms is the concentration of livestock in a given space. The aim of the operation is
to produce as much meat, eggs, or milk at the lowest possible cost and with the greatest level of food safety.
Food and water is supplied in place, and artificial methods are often employed to maintain animal health and improve
production, such as therapeutic use of antimicrobial agents, vitamin supplements and growth hormones. Growth
hormones are not used in chicken meat production nor are they used in the European Union for any animal. In meat
production, methods are also sometimes employed to control undesirable behaviours often related to stresses of
being confined in restricted areas with other animals. More docile breeds are sought (with natural dominant
behaviours bred out for example), physical restraints to stop interaction, such as individual cages for chickens, or
animals physically modified, such as the de-beaking of chickens to reduce the harm of fighting. Weight gain is
encouraged by the provision of plentiful supplies of food to animals breed for weight gain.
The designation "confined animal feeding operation" in the U.S. resulted from that country's 1972 Federal Clean
Water Act, which was enacted to protect and restore lakes and rivers to a "fishable, swimmable" quality. The United
States Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) identified certain animal feeding operations, along with many other

79

types of industry, as point source polluters of groundwater. These operations were designated as CAFOs and subject
to special anti-pollution regulation.

[16]

In 24 states in the U.S., isolated cases of groundwater contamination has been linked to CAFOs.
example, the ten million hogs in North Carolina generate 19 million tons of waste per year.

[citation needed]

[citation needed]

For

The U.S.

federal government acknowledges thewaste disposal issue and requires that animal waste be stored in lagoons.
2

These lagoons can be as large as 7.5 acres (30,000 m ). Lagoons not protected with an impermeable liner can leak
waste into groundwater under some conditions, as can runoff from manure spread back onto fields as fertilizer in the
case of an unforeseen heavy rainfall. A lagoon that burst in 1995 released 25 million gallons of nitrous sludge in
North Carolina's New River. The spill allegedly killed eight to ten million fish.

[17]

The large concentration of animals, animal waste, and dead animals in a small space poses ethical issues to some
consumers. Animal rights and animal welfare activists have charged that intensive animal rearing is cruel to animals.
As they become more common, so do concerns about air pollution and ground water contamination, and the effects
on human health of the pollution and the use of antibiotics and growth hormones.
Some of the major benefits that are often overlooked by consumers and animal activists alike, are the overall benefits
to the animals, such as controlled, comfortable climate, unlimited amounts of fresh food and clean water, and safety
from predators. Animals raised in a modern setting also benefit from greater veterinary care, decreased levels of
stress, and a more sanitary environment.
According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), farms on which animals are intensively
reared can cause adverse health reactions in farm workers. Workers may develop acute and chronic lung disease,
musculoskeletal injuries, and may catch infections that transmit from animals to human beings. These type of
transmissions, however, and extremely rare, as zoonotic diseases are uncommon.
[edit]Crops
Main article: Industrial agriculture (crops)
The projects within the Green Revolution spread technologies that had already existed, but had not been widely used
outside of industrialized nations. These technologies included pesticides, irrigation projects, and synthetic
nitrogen fertilizer.
The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of what some referred to as
miracle seeds.

[18]

Scientists created strains of maize, wheat, and rice that are generally referred to as HYVs or

high-yielding varieties. HYVs have an increased nitrogen-absorbing potential compared to other varieties. Since
cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred
into their genomes. Norin 10 wheat, a variety developed by Orville Vogel from Japanese dwarf wheat varieties, was
instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be
developed by the International Rice Research Institute, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety
named Peta and a Chinese variety named Dee Geo Woo Gen.

80

[19]

The Facility was built in collaboration with the Centre of Excellence for Biocatalysis, Biotransformations and
Biomanufacturing (CoEBIO3), three regional development agencies One NorthEast, Yorkshire
Forward and Northwest Development Agency via The Northern Way and Thermal Transfer with support
from other companies and institutions.

An extension of the facility is currently underway, expected for completion by the end of 2010. The
Innovation and Growth Team in Industrial Biotechnology recommended creation of an Industrial
Biotechnology Demonstrator working up to ten-tonne scale and that it should be built at CPI as an open
access demonstrator facility.

The demonstrator is for fermentation up to 10 tonne capacity, with associated upstream and downstream
facilities. The demonstrator will stimulate the use of Industrial Biotechnology to develop and demonstrate
processes delivering viable products. The Facility will be tailored to the production of fuels, high volume
platform chemicals, and low volume specialty and higher value chemicals using renewable feed stocks such
as biomass and waste. It will also integrate chemical processing together with bioprocessing.

Biotechnology
Last Updated: June 2010
Market Size and the Key Opportunity Segments
The Indian biotechnology sector is one of the fastest growing knowledge-based sectors in India
and is expected to play a key role in shaping India's rapidly developing economy. With
numerous comparative advantages in terms of research and development (R&D) facilities,
knowledge, skills, and cost effectiveness, the biotechnology industry in India has immense
potential to emerge as a global key player.
The Indian biotech industry grew threefold in just five years to report revenues of US$ 3 billion
in 2009-10, a rise of 17 per cent over the previous year, according to the eighth annual survey
conducted by the Association of Biotechnology-Led Enterprises (ABLE) and a monthly journal,
BioSpectrum, based on inputs from over 150 biotech companies.
The biopharma sector contributed nearly three-fifth to the industry's revenues at US$ 1.9 billion,
a rise of 12 per cent, followed by bioservices at US$ 573 million and bioagri at US$ 420.4
million. The remaining revenue came from the bioindustrials US$ 122.5 million and
bioinformatics US$ 50.2 million segments.
Biopharma and bioservices sectors contributed 63 per cent and 33 per cent, respectively, to the
total biotech exports. The bioagriculture, bioindustrials and bioinformatics sectors remained
focussed on domestic operations, bringing in nearly 90 per cent of their revenues from India.
While the industry, spanning bio-pharma and agri-biotech, accounted for US$ 3 billion, the
equipment and ancillary segment contributed around US$ 1 billion.
Moreover, as per Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw who is also the chairman and managing director of
Biocon, which has topped the list of biotech companies in India in the ABLE survey, India is

81

looking forward to achieve US$ 5 billion in revenue this fiscal (2010-11).

India is also gaining importance as a clinical trial destination. According to a joint study by an
industry body and Ernst and Young (E&Y) released in August 2009, the industry-sponsored
Phase II, Phase III clinical trial sites in India have grown by 116 per cent during June 2008 and
August 2009, with the country moving from rank 18 to 12 across the 60 most active countries.
India participates in 7 per cent of the global Phase III trials and 3.2 per cent in the Phase II trials
with industry-sponsored trials having grown by 39 per cent CAGR during 2004-08.
Major investments
Investments, along with outsourcing activities and exports, are key drivers for growth in the
biotech sector.
According to data released by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP), the
drugs and pharmaceuticals sector has attracted foreign direct investment (FDI) worth US$ 1.67
billion between April 2000 and March 2010.
Some of the major investments in the sector are as follows:

Panacea Biotec Ltd has bagged a three-year contract worth over US$ 222.37
million from UNICEF to provide the agency with EasyFive vaccine, a protection
against a set of pediatric diseases for 2010, 2011 and 2012.
Alexandria Real Estate, the US$ 5.2 billion US-based company which provides
solutions to life science industry, has decided to set up a biotech research and
development (R&D) and incubation facility in Gujarat. It plans to spend around
US$ 107 million for the project.
The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), which caters
primarily to the armed forces, plans to spend US$ 63.5 million to upgrade and
custom-make its existing line of biotech products for civilian use.
Biotechnology major Biocon has fully acquired the joint venture Biocon
Biopharmaceuticals from its Cuban partner CIMAB. Under the business
restructuring plan, Biocon will pick up CIMAB's 49 per cent stake and will make
Biocon Biopharmaceuticals (BBPL) a wholly owned subsidiary of Biocon.

Biotechnology
Last Updated: June 2010
Tie- ups
Avesthagen, a Bengaluru-based life sciences firm, has announced the formation of a JV
with Limagrain, a French international cooperative group. Limagrain will hold the
majority 51 per cent in the JV, Atash Seeds Pvt Ltd, to build an agri-biotech business
model for field crops.
Bayer CropScience AG, a subsidiary of Germany-based global crop sciences major Bayer
AG, and GVK Biosciences Private Limited (GVK Bio) of Hyderabad have entered into a

82

research cooperation agreement in the area of early discovery chemistry.

Moreover, GVK Biosciences, has also partnered with ResearchPoint Global, the US-based
clinical organisation. Together, the two companies which are full-service contract research
organisations (CROs) will offer access to medical writing, clinical data management and
biostatistics, as well as quicker patient recruitment.
Biocon Limited, the country's second largest biotechnology firm has signed a
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Malaysia's Biotechnology Corporation
(BiotechCorp) to explore collaboration and potential investment in Malaysia's
biotechnology industry.
Moreover, Syngene International, the custom research subsidiary of Biocon Ltd, has
entered into a discovery and development collaboration with Endo Pharmaceuticals of the
United States to develop biological therapeutic molecules against cancer.
Government Initiatives
In recognition of the need of training and education for generating interdisciplinary human
resource relevant to biotechnology, the Government of India and UNESCO, have taken a
joint decision to establish the Regional Centre for research, training and education in
biotechnology under the auspices of UNESCO. The UNESCO Regional Centre for
Biotechnology is scheduled to come up in Faridabad, Haryana by the end of 2010.
Further, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India, has also decided to
set up a unique Health Biotech Science Cluster (HBSC) at Faridabad.
Moreover, the government will fast forward the process of setting up a National
Biotechnology Regulatory Authority, to stimulate public and private investment in
biotechnology.
Besides the central government initiatives, individual states are also doing their bit to
promote the biotechnology industry. Karnataka takes the lead and the state's revised
biotech policy offers many fiscal incentives and concession to prospective investors in the
industry.
According to the Mr B S Yeddurappa, Chief Minister of Karnataka, a bio-venture fund
with a seed capital of US$ 10 million will be set up to incubate start-ups by young
entrepreneurs.
Moreover, the state government is setting up 10 biotech finishing schools in association
with the industry and academia to create a steady talent pool. Sector specific biotech parks
are expected to be set up at Mysore, Mangalore, Dharwad and Bidar in north Karnataka.
Similarly, a bio-cluster will be set up in the Bangalore Biotech Park on a public-private
partnership mode.
Looking ahead
India is already being globally recognised as a manufacturer of economical, high-quality
83

bulk drugs and formulations. With a huge base of talented, skilled and cost-competitive
manpower, and a well-developed scientific infrastructure, India has great potential to
become a leading global player in biotechnology.
According to Kiran Mazumdar Shaw, CEO of biotechnology company, Biocon, and
Chairman of the Karnataka Vision Group on Biotechnology, the next goalpost that the
domestic biotechnology sector has set for itself, is to reach a turnover of US$ 10 billion by
2015.
Exchange rate used: 1 USD = 46.06 INR (as on June 2010)

Biotechnology : Introduction
Bio-Technology is a research oriented science, a combination of Biology and Technology. It
Biotechnology

covers a wide variety of subjects like Genetics, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Immunology,

Introduction

Virology, Chemistry and Engineering and is also concerned with many other subjects like
Health and Medicine, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Cropping system and Crop

Eligibility

Management, Ecology, Cell Biology, Soil science and Soil Conservation, Bio-statistics,
Job Prospects

Plant Physiology, Seed Technology etc. Bio-Technology is the use of living things,

Remuneration

especially cells and bacteria in industrial process.

Institutes
There is a great scope in this field as the demand for biotechnologist are growing in India
Useful Contacts

as well as abroad.

There are many applications of biotechnology such as developing various medicines, vaccines and diagnostics, increasing
productivity, improving energy production and conservation. Biotechnology's intervention in the area of animal husbandry has
improved animal breeding. It also helps to improve the quality of seeds, insecticides and fertilizers. Environmental biotechnology
helps for pollution control and waste management.

Most of the information that has led to the emergence of biotechnology in the present form
Related Career Options

has been generated during the last five decades. The setting up of a separate Department
of Biotechnology (DBT) (www.dbtindia.nic.in ) under the Ministry of Science and

Botany

Technology in 1986 gave a new impetus to the development of the field of modern biology
Economics

and biotechnology in India. More than 6000 biotechnologists of higher skill are required in

Agricultural Science
More...

India as per the report from the Human Resource Development Ministry. To overcome this
vast requirement the department of Biotechnology (DBT) has highlighted the need to set up
a regulatory body for the maintenance of standard education under the name of 'All- India
Board of Biotechnology Education and Training' under the AICTE .

Related Links
Courses in Biotechnology
Biotechnology Institutes Abroad
Distance Education Colleges in Biotechnology
View Articles
Biotechnology Colleges in India

84

What is Biotechnology?
Pamela Peters, from Biotechnology: A Guide To Genetic Engineering. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Inc., 1993.

Biotechnology in one form or another has flourished since

prehistoric times. When the first human beings realized that
they could plant their own crops and breed their own
animals, they learned to use biotechnology. The discovery
that fruit juices fermented into wine, or that milk could be
converted into cheese or yogurt, or that beer could be made
by fermenting solutions of malt and hops began the study of
biotechnology. When the first bakers found that they could
make a soft, spongy bread rather than a firm, thin cracker,
they were acting as fledgling biotechnologists. The first
animal breeders, realizing that different physical traits could
be either magnified or lost by mating appropriate pairs of
animals, engaged in the manipulations of biotechnology.
What then is biotechnology? The term brings to mind many different things. Some
think of developing new types of animals. Others dream of almost unlimited sources
of human therapeutic drugs. Still others envision the possibility of growing crops that
are more nutritious and naturally pest-resistant to feed a rapidly growing world
population. This question elicits almost as many first-thought responses as there are
people to whom the question can be posed.
In its purest form, the term "biotechnology" refers to the use of living organisms or
their products to modify human health and the human environment. Prehistoric
biotechnologists did this as they used yeast cells to raise bread dough and to ferment
alcoholic beverages, and bacterial cells to make cheeses and yogurts and as they bred
their strong, productive animals to make even stronger and
more productive offspring.
Throughout human history, we have learned a great deal
about the different organisms that our ancestors used so
effectively. The marked increase in our understanding of
these organisms and their cell products gains us the ability to
control the many functions of various cells and organisms.
Using the techniques of gene splicing and recombinant
DNA technology, we can now actually combine the genetic elements of two or more
living cells. Functioning lengths of DNA can be taken from one organism and placed
into the cells of another organism. As a result, for example, we can cause bacterial
cells to produce human molecules. Cows can produce more milk for the same amount
of feed. And we can synthesize therapeutic molecules that have never before existed.
85

Where Did Biotechnology Begin?

"Biotechnology At Work" and "Biotechnology in Perspective," Washington, D.C.: Biotechnology Industry
Organization, 1989, 1990.

With the Basics

Certain practices that we would now classify as applications of biotechnology have
been in use since man's earliest days. Nearly 10,000 years ago, our ancestors were
producing wine, beer, and bread by using fermentation, a natural process in which the
biological activity of one-celled organisms plays a critical role.
In fermentation, microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, and
molds are mixed with ingredients that provide them with food.
As they digest this food, the organisms produce two critical
by-products, carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.
In beer making, yeast cells break down starch and sugar (present in cereal grains) to
form alcohol; the froth, or head, of the beer results from the carbon dioxide gas that
the cells produce. In simple terms, the living cells rearrange chemical elements to
form new products that they need to live and reproduce. By happy coincidence, in the
process of doing so they help make a popular beverage.
Bread baking is also dependent on the action of yeast cells. The bread dough contains
nutrients that these cells digest for their own sustenance. The digestion process
generates alcohol (which contributes to that wonderful aroma of baking bread) and
carbon dioxide gas (which makes the dough rise and forms the honeycomb texture of
the baked loaf).
Discovery of the fermentation process allowed early peoples to produce foods by
allowing live organisms to act on other ingredients. But our ancestors also found that,
by manipulating the conditions under which the fermentation took place, they could
improve both the quality and the yield of the ingredients themselves.

Crop Improvement
Although plant science is a relatively modern discipline, its fundamental techniques
have been applied throughout human history. When early man went through the
crucial transition from nomadic hunter to settled farmer, cultivated crops became vital
for survival. These primitive farmers, although ignorant of the natural principles at
work, found that they could increase the yield and improve the taste of crops by
selecting seeds from particularly desirable plants.
86

Farmers long ago noted that they could improve each succeeding year's harvest by
using seed from only the best plants of the current crop. Plants that, for example, gave
the highest yield, stayed the healthiest during periods of drought or disease, or were
easiest to harvest tended to produce future generations with these same characteristics.
Through several years of careful seed selection, farmers could maintain and
strengthen such desirable traits.
The possibilities for improving plants expanded as a result of Gregor
Mendel's investigations in the mid-1860s of hereditary traits in peas. Once the genetic
basis of heredity was understood, the benefits of cross-breeding, or hybridization,
became apparent: plants with different desirable traits could be used to cultivate a
later generation that combined these characteristics.
An understanding of the scientific principles behind fermentation and crop
improvement practices has come only in the last hundred years. But the early, crude
techniques, even without the benefit of sophisticated laboratories and automated
equipment, were a true practice of biotechnology guiding natural processes to improve
man's physical and economic well-being.

Harnessing Microbes for Health

Every student of chemistry knows the shape of a Buchner funnel, but they may be
unaware that the distinguished German scientist it was named after made the vital
discovery (in 1897) that enzymes extracted from yeast are effective in converting
sugar into alcohol. Major outbreaks of disease in overcrowded industrial cities led
eventually to the introduction, in the early years of the present century, of large-scale
sewage purification systems based on microbial activity. By this time it had proved
possible to generate certain key industrial chemicals (glycerol, acetone, and butanol)
using bacteria.
Another major beneficial legacy of early 20th century biotechnology was the
discovery by Alexander Fleming (in 1928) of penicillin, an antibiotic derived from the
mold Penicillium. Large-scale production of penicillin was achieved in the 1940s.
However, the revolution in understanding the chemical basis of cell function that
stemmed from the post-war emergence of molecular biology was still to come. It was
this exciting phase of bioscience that led to the recent explosive development of
biotechnology.

Issues and Bioethics

Issues focuses on scientific breakthroughs that have propelled biotechnololgy at a
dizzying pace into the 21st century. Evolving in tandem with biotech

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innovations, ethics looks at complex decisions that affect a few individuals or an

entire social group or society.
Table of Contents
Bioethics

Issues
Overview
Animal Genome
Projects
Plant Genome
Projects

Environmental
Management

Social Practices &

Policies

Gene Therapy

Bioethics & You

Issues
Overview

Biotechnology Industry Review - overview of the biotechnology industry from

dairy farming to waste management
The Future Of Genetic Research - 1991 report looks at the perils and problems
of gene manipulation

Animal Genome Projects

Introduction - The Human Genome Project - the "why's" of identifying our

genetic instructions
Ethical Issues of the Human Genome Project - high costs limit sequencing
efforts to non-coding regions with complete sequencing to follow
Research Update - Animals and Animal Health - efforts to determine the
genetic makeup of domestic animals
A Short History of Mapping - the grand plan to map the human genome
What Can We Expect from the Human Genome Project? - the "what's to be
gained" from sequencing human genes
Whose Genome is It, Anyway?
A Worldwide Effort - sequencing human genetic code involves many countries

Plant Genome Projects

Are Bioengineered Foods Safe? from the FDA Consumer Magazine, JanuaryFebruary 2000
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Who Controls and Who Will Benefit from Plant Genomics? "The 2000
Genome Seminar: Genomic Revolution in the Fields: Facing the Needs of the
New Millennium" AAAS Annual Meeting

Environmental Management

Why It Matters - Humans are superconsumers of the environment and there are
economic, aesthetic and ethical reasons for concern
Helping Mother Nature Heal with Her Own Remedies Rio Declaration On Environment and Development - 27 principles directing an
equitable global partnership for managing the environment

Gene Therapy

Gene Therapy - An Overview - dealing with genetic diseases amenable to

treatment in the future

Bioethics
Social Practices and Policies: Connecting You to Society

An Approach to Teaching Ethical Decision Making in Medicine and Life

Sciences - a conversation with Ernle Young, Ph.D. about how clinicians and
others make complex decisions when people are ill
Biotechnology's Impact on Society - the risks of biotechnology to society: costbenefit ratios
Challenges to Public Policy - talk given by Donald Kennedy, Ph.D about
regulating biotechnology.
Culture Clash - Most collaborations between industry and academia are
positive: companies get research done, and academics get funding. But when
results are unexpectedly negative, things can get messy.
Democratizing Technology - government efforts to "politicize" technology
through competiveness
DNA on the Witness Stand Eric S. Lander, DPhil. The issues concerning the
use of genetic evidence in civil and criminal court cases from Winding Your
Way Through DNA Symposium
Epistemology of Science - ways of knowing the truth: role of science in
decision making
The Genetic Revolution: Ethical Issues - Ernle Young, Ph.D. comments on
gene testing, genetic therapies, eugenics and enhancement
Genetic Testing - Health Care Issues - an interview with Neil Holzman, Ph.D.
regarding genetic testing and Constitutional issues
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Musings On Cattle Cloning - Tom Zinnen, Ph.D. comments on the promise and
problems of cloning domestic animals
NIH Publishes Revised Guidelines for Research Involving Recombinant DNA
Molecules - 1994 guidelines and brief historical perspective for development
Scientist Returns Research Grant to Show Concern about Dangers of
Genetically Engineered Organisms - 1994 John Fagan, Ph.D. returns grant
money to NIH because of concerns about genetic manipulation of plants and
animals
Talking and Teaching Biotech - Tom Zinnen, Ph.D comments on how to
educate the general public about biotechnology
To Regulate or Not to Regulate - Henry Miller, Ph.D. says that regulatory red
tape is strangling progress in biotechnology and calls for a government
overhaul of relevant agency policies
Risky Business: Issues in Teaching about Safety and Regulation - Tom Zinnen,
Ph.D. argues for improving public understanding of biotechnology products to
correct misconceptions
Some Questions and Answers about BGH/BST - bovine growth hormone: safe
and sane?
Wholesome, Holistic and Holy: Controversies over Biotechnology and Food overview of the controversies around food consumption and genetic
manipulation of food sources

Bioethics and You: Issues of Individual Decision Making

Genetic Testing in a Clinical Setting - perspectives of a genetic counselor

dealing with real cases in a clinical setting
Promise and Perils of Biotechnology: Genetic Testing (teacher resources &
student activities)
Teaching Bioethics - incorporating bioethics information into biology curricula
Why Teach Bioethics in the Classroom - theoretical discussion of ethical
principles and practical suggestions for classroom use

The Gene Connection Second Annual Bioethics Symposium and

Workshop presented by the San Mateo County Biotechnology Education Partnership,
features discussions and case studies on ethical and social issues arising from genetic
testing, gene therapy, genetic enhancement, cloning, and genetic counseling.

Issues and Ethics Index

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About Biotech Index

Biotech Applied
Biotech Applied looks at the practical applications of biotechnology - including drug
development, the use of bacteria in industry, biotechnology on the farm and at the
dinner table (the issue of genetically modified foods), the use of DNA forensics, and
strategies for introducing biotechnology into the classroom.
Table of Contents
Forensics - Sleuthing with
Biotech
Bacteria Going to Work
Strategies for the Classroom
Winding Your Way Through
From Farms to Your Table
DNA
Biotechnolgy -It's in Your
Biotech Resources
Food
Revolutions in Medicine

Revolutions in Medicine

DNA Primer: An Introduction to Nucleic Acids and Their Application to

Infectious Disease Detection
The Biopharmaceuticals - FDA - approved biopharmaceutical drugs and
vaccines
The Chips Are Coming - Implanted biochips - is it Big Brother or bionic man?
Genes and disease
o Blazing a Genetic Trail in Medicine - To decipher diseases and discover
cures, start with DNA.
o Case Studies - Hereditary Colon Cancer - A genetic test result yields
more questions than answers.
o Inheritance of an Illness - For many diseases, a back-up copy of a gene
can keep you well.
o The Ras Gene and Cancer - Rats and viruses lead to the discovery of a
key cancer-causing gene.
More targets, more chemicals, faster testing: the three revolutions in drug
making

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Genomics: Selling DNA - Incyte doesn't need to make drugs. It already

makes millions of dollars selling a bunch of As, Cs, Gs and Ts.
o Combinational Chemistry: Making More Drugs - Combinatorial
chemistry promises better drugs, new superconductors and an artificial
nose, all with a one-thousand-fold increase in productivity.
o Drug Testers Think Small - Hunting for drugs using worms, single cells
and glass chips.
Take One Snail And Call Me In The Morning - Replacing morphine and other
opiates with pain drugs from a sea snail and a tree frog.
o

Bacteria Going to Work

Biomining - Using bacteria to extract minerals from ores.

Cleaning Up Wastes - Using bacteria to digest away pollutants.
Future Fuel - Ideas for using bacteria-based energy abound, but their
application lags.
Prospecting for Extremophiles - Bacteria living on marine worms or in boiling
pools of mud could provide the next ingredient in your detergent.
The Smell of Wealth - The ultimate in high-temperature composting.

From Farms to Your Table

Agriculture - An Overview - The logic of using biotechnology in agriculture.

Ag-Biotech Forecast - A review of the economic impact of adopting genetically
engineered crops in the U.S. - preliminary results.
Animal Health Care - An Overview - The farm animals are sick, and
biotechnology is coming to the rescue.
Animal Health - Research Update - Highlights of animal health and how
biotechnology is used to develop new medicines for farm and companion
animals.
Barnyard 101: An Introduction to Transgenic Farm Animals - How to get genes
into animals, and why you would want to.
Biotechnology in Agriculture: Review - A brief discussion of the government
efforts to regulate biotechnology's role in agriculture.
Cloning and Transgenic Animals: The Influence of Technical Confluence Dolly and Polly are here; homologous recombination is next.
Genetically Engineered Virus-Resistant Squash Approved For Sale - It has
been named Freedom II, but not everyone is happy about its commercialization.
Gene Gun Speeds Search for New Orchid Colors - Firing DNA into orchid
flower petals allows a quick test for color changes.
Green Genes - The history, methods and promise of plant biotechnology. An
overview byGerald R. Fink, Ph.D. from the Winding Your Way Through
DNA Symposium

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Herman the Bull - He's transgenic, so his daughters will make extra-special
milk.
Rhizobium Meliloti Field Tests - Report on whether alfalfa yields are increased
with legume inoculation with rhizobium.
Sugar from Tobacco? - Bacterial gene + tobacco host = a new low-calorie
sweetener.
Transforming Plants - Basic Genetic Engineering Techniques - How to get new
genes into plants.

Biotechnology - It's In Your Food

Agricultural Biotechnology, a Virtual Tour: "Look Ma, No Seeds in my

Watermelon" - Building the perfect watermelon - a case-study from research to
market.
The Development and Introduction of Genetically Modified Potatoes in the
Netherlands - Why Holland needs genetically modified potatoes, and the issues
surrounding their introduction.
European Attitudes - Agricultural Biotech - Even in 1994, Europe was nervous
about genetically modified foods. A view of the calm before the more recent
storm.
Feed the World -- But How? - Before biotechnology helps improve food
production in developing countries, there are bureaucratic and ethical issues to
face.
The Flavr Savr Arrives - A genetically modified tomato is approved by the
FDA.
Two Views of the Flavr Savr - How the brave new tomato was approved, and
an assessment of the tastiness factor.

Forensics - Sleuthing with Biotech

DNA Fingerprinting in Human Health and Society - How to read and interpret
a DNA fingerprint.
An Interview with DNA Forensics Authority Dr. Bruce Weir - Just how
accurate are DNA fingerprints?
Use of DNA in Identification - A simple explanation of DNA identification
technology, and an unusual use for it in Argentina.

Strategies for Introducing Biotechnology in the Classroom

Biotechnology Education and the Internet - A 1996 review of biotechnology
information resources available on the Internet and current links to "Ask an
Expert"

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Dining on DNA -- An Exploration of Food Biotechnology - A lesson plan

about food biotechnology.
"No Trick More Enlightening: Make Every Demonstration an Experiment" How to integrate the fundamentals of science into the simplest classroom
demonstration.
A Student's Experiment - A lesson plan on oil-eating bacteria, based on a ninthgrader's experiment.
Terminators: Wordplays for Ideas and Insights - The derivations of some
scientific words gives insight into their true meaning.

Biotech Resources for Educators and Scientists

Bio-Link "enhances and expands biotechnology education programs by

providing cutting edge professional development for instructors, by improving
curriculum, by making use of technologies and by creating a system that
promotes the sharing of information."
Bio-Tech is an Internet-based biology/chemistry educational resource and
research tool. It is both a learning tool to enrich the public's knowledge of
biology issues and a research tool for those already involved in the broad
subject of biology.
National Center for Biotechnology Information creates public databases,
conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for
analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information related to the
molecular processes affecting human health and disease.
Information Systems for Biotechnology (ISB) provides information documents
and searchable databases pertaining to the development, testing and regulatory
review of genetically modified plants, animals and microorganisms.

Winding Your Way Through DNA

Excerpts from UCSF's 1992 symposium on biotechnology.
Three of the many topics presented at this important and informative symposium are
available in About Biotech. The Bioethics section includes DNA on the Witness
Stand, a discussion of DNA identification technologies. Biotech Applied (this page)
links to Green Genes, a discussion of genetically modified food, and Biotech
Chronicles includes From Corned Beef to Cloning, an account of the beginnings of
recombinant DNA technology.

Biotech Applied Index

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About Biotech Index

Biotech Chronicles
Biotech Chronicles is a brief history of biotech discoveries which continue to
influence the field today. We have included essays on genetics and DNA research,
profiles of some of the influential individuals who have helped build the
biotechnology industry, and an integrated series of time lines which provide an
overview of biotechnology from a historical perspective.
Table of Contents
Biotech Thru the
Ages

Pioneer Profiles Biotech Briefs

Time Lines

Biotech
Processes

Classic Biotech
Stories

Biotech Through the Ages

Overview and Brief History - biotechnology from a teacher's perspective

What is Biotechnology? - the meaning of the word "biotechnology" from a
historical perspective
Where Did Biotechnology Begin? - reviews the origins of biotechnology
including crop improvement and microbes for health

Time Lines

6000 BC - 1700 AD: Early Applications and Speculation

1750 - 1900: The Miracle of Life and Death Appears Smaller . . . and Smaller
1900 - 1953 - Converging on DNA
1953 - 1976: Expanding the Boundaries of DNA Research
1977 - 1999: The Dawn of Biotech

Pioneer Profiles
Paul Berg
J. Michael Bishop

Gregor Mendel
Cesar Milstein

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Herbert Boyer
Rosalind Franklin
Walter Gilbert
William Harvey
Arthur Kornberg
Barbara McClintock

Kary B. Mullis
Louis Pasteur
Linus Pauling
Robert Swanson
Harold Elliot Varmus
James Dewey Watson

Biotech Processes

Bioprocess Technology - reviews the development of useful products from

biological activities
Biotechnology: Tools for Genetic Ingenuity - Definitions of the tools of
biotechnology, and examples of where and how they are used.
New Microscopy Technique - discussion of Scanning Force Microscopy
The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses - 1890 discusses creative
thinking and imitative study
The Scientific Method - Elegant Experiments - brief review of the scientific
method

Biotech Briefs

The Beauty of Mutations - errors in the genetic code and what they might mean
Crossing-over: Genetic Recombination - why no two people look alike
Dogma, DNA, and Enzymes - reviews that DNA makes RNA makes protein,
the central dogma of molecular biology
DNA Bends to Bind - using scanning force microscopy to study protein
synthesis
How RFLPs Can Help Find a Faulty Gene - the role of restriction enzymes in
determining genetic diseases
Into the Looking Glass - hereditary material is bound on chromosomes
Monoclonal Antibody Technology - The Basics - concise description of the
immune response and the uses of antibody production in treating disease
Polymerase Chain Reaction - From Simple Ideas - a method for analyzing and
characterizing minute amounts of DNA
Polymerase Chain Reaction - Xeroxing DNA - a bacterium from Yellowstone
Park provides a molecule that helps scientists produce millions of copies of
DNA in a matter of hours
Reading the Messages in Genes - brief review of genetic code to protein
synthesis
Recombination Up Close - story of genetic engineering: technology and
techniques

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The Search for DNA - review of the key events leading to the structure of the
DNA molecule
Speaking the Language of Recombinant DNA - an analogy between the
function of the DNA molecule and the rules of grammar for a language
The YACs are Here! - yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) enable scientists to
borrow the DNA duplication machinery of cells, including human cells

Classic Biotech Stories

Bacterial Mutations - 1943 Luria and Delbruck hit the jackpot in studying
bacteria for viral resistance
Birds Do It, Bees Do It - 1946 Lederberg and Tatum discover bacterial mating
and phage recombinations
Experiments that Inspire - 1952 Hershey and Chase conduct experiments
showing DNA was the hereditary material
Legacies - Transformation and DNA - 1920 Griffith discovers that bacteria can
change from one form to another
Lwoff's Pathways - Viral Replication - 1950 Lwoff studies viral lysogenic viral
replication patterns
The March of Heredity - 1943 Hammerling searches for the part of the cell
directing physical appearances
Of Mice and Men - 1980 discovery of severe combined immunodeficient mice
- mutant mice
Mutant Gene Predicts Heart Disease - 1994 Japanese researchers identify the
gene the encodes for angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
The One Gene/One Enzyme Hypothesis - 1941 Beadle and Tatum set out to
prove the connection between genes and enzymes
Rhizobium Meliloti Field Tests - 1994 reports on a test to increase crop
production by the addition of extra copies of a nitrogen fixation gene and a
gene involved in energy transport
The Slow Death of Spontaneous Generation (1668-1859) - story of how
spontaneous generation was finally laid to rest
Stories from the Scientists (teacher resources & student activities).
J.D. Watson and F.H.C. Crick: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
From Corned Beef to Cloning Stanley N. Cohen, M.D. and Herbert W. Boyer,
Ph.D.tell how a late-night talk about the possibility of cloning DNA became a
moment of personal discovery and sparked the revolution in DNA technology,
from the Winding Your Way Through DNA Symposium

Return to About Biotech directory

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Biotech Chronicles Index

About Biotech Index

issues in biotechnology
agricultural biotechnology
Is Large-Scale Production of Biofuel Possible? by Mariam Sticklen
Biofuel, Economics, and Society an interview with Daniel De La Torre Ugarte
Can Agricultural Biotechnology be Green? an interview with Fred Gould
Biotechnology and the Green Revolution an interview with Norman Borlaug
The Ecological Impacts of Agricultural Biotechnology by Miguel Altieri
Biotechnology in Crops: Issues for the Developing World by Laura Spinney
NEW!
NEW!

cloning

Mammoths: Resurrecting Extinct Megafauna by Larry D. Agenbroad

Primer on Ethics and Human Cloning by Glenn McGee
Animal Cloning: ...Old MacDonald's Farm Is Not What It Used To Be by Lauren Pecorino

genetically modified organisms

Designer Babies: Ethical Considerations by Nicholas Agar

Designing Insects by Thomas A. Miller
Genetically Modified Foods: Are They a Risk to Human/Animal Health? by Arpad Pusztai

medical biotechnology

Ethical Issues in Genetic Engineering and Transgenics by Linda MacDonald Glenn

Stem Cells for Cell-Based Therapies by Lauren Pecorino
The Role of Bioethics in Medical Education: A Crucial Profession Under Threat by S. Van McCrary
Genetic Engineering & Xenotransplantation by Shane T. Grey

technology and ethics

Primer on Ethics and Crossing Species Boundaries by Franoise Baylis and Jason Scott Robert
Microbes in Court: The Emerging Field of Microbial Forensics by Abigail A. Salyers
Biotechnology Topics in the Biology Curriculum by Patrick Guilfoile
Agricultural Bioterrorism by Radford G. Davis
Ethical Issues in Pharmacogenetics by Carol Isaacson Barash
Evolutionary Biology: Technology for the 21st Century by Jim J. Bull
Does Genetic Research Threaten Our Civil Liberties? by Philip Bereano

students speak out

Balancing Benefits and Risks of Synthetic Biology by Heather Lowrie

Strategies for Building Community Trust in Nanotechnology by Andrea F. Biondo
The Ethics of Biowarfare by Daniel Reyes
Transgenic Animals: Their Benefits To Human Welfare by Endang Tri Margawati
The Debate Over Genetically Modified Foods by Kerryn Sakko
The Ethics of Nanotechnology by Andrew Chen
NEW!

archives

Fetal Stem Cells in Modern-Day Science by Caitlin Chapman

Bioterrorism: Are We Prepared? an interview with Joseph M. Henderson
Cooking Up a Molecular Ruler by Jayanta Fowler Mohanty
Nanotechnology: It's a Small, Small, Small, Small World by Ralph C. Merkle
The Dangerous Promise of Gene Therapy by Sophia M. Kolehmainen

If you want to join a course in biotechnology you must have a background in science, that is Physics or agriculture,
chemistry and biology at the intermediate level can join for B.Tech. In India, some universities offer the B.Sc

98

biotechnology which one can join after class 12 or equivalent examination, with physics, chemistry and mathematics.
Graduates in all sciences/engineering technology/medicine are eligible for the postgraduate (M.Sc.) course in
biotechnology. Programme in Biotechnology. P.G. courses available are M.Sc. Biotechnology, M.Sc. (Agriculture)
Biotechnology, M.V.Sc. (Animal) Biotechnology, M.Tech. Biotechnology,M.Sc./M.V.Sc.in Veterinary Biotechnology,
M.Sc.(Marine) Biotechnology,Medical Biotechnology, M.Tech.in Biomedical Engineering/Biotechnology.Depending
upon the aptitude and necessity, more advanced courses such PH.D.and Post-Doctoral Research in Biotechnology
can also be pursued.
The answer lies in what you like the best and can see yourself doing for the next 30+ years. All 4 fields can be
challenging to different degrees and interesting to different people. Don't just go where you might earn the most
money to start with but then wind up hating your job and being miserable.
Start your degree with what interests you the most and do everything possible to secure either a summer intern or
yearly intern position within that industry. That will provide you with some insight into the types of work you might be
doing after graduation. If you don't like that choice, then consider changing your degree. If you major in Engineering,
there is not a lot of difference in Engineering degrees during the first 2 years. You might only be behind a couple of
classes to change majors in Engineering.
Petroleum Engineers earn the highest starting salary for all BS (4-year) and Masters degree programs of any type
and have so for the past 30+ years. Petroleum Engineering can be extremely interesting and challenging but not all
people feel the same way. Also, the demand for Petroleum Engineers is very high world wide and will only increase
as many of us retire in the next 5 to 10 years.
Source(s):
32 years of Petroleum Engineering

Which one i choose to earn a large salary,biotech engineering or

biomedical engineering.?
can u pls give me some website where i can enquire about the salary.i want to earn a large some of money.where my
friends want me to go,biotech engineering or biomedical engineering.may i expect some help from my yahoo friends.i
belongs to a poor family so i want to drive away our sorrows.ur answer means more to me.

4 years ago
Report Abuse

Best Answer - Chosen by Asker

i think both have equal scope..but please take note that when you first get a job in these fields you will be given only a
small salary..then you will get an increase after some months based on your performance,,,but ultimately when you
perform well then you may end up getting the salary of your dreams...but never compare the salary you get here with
the salary some get in IT companies as each field is unique

4 years ago
Report Abuse

Asker's Rating:

Asker's Comment:
u r very good.thanks for ur suggestion.

B.Tech Biotech Engineering

About the Course :

Biotechnological engineering or biological engineering is a branch of engineering that focuses on biotechnologies and
biological science. It includes different disciplines such as biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, bioprocess engineering, biosystem engineering and so on. However, in general it is an integrated approach of

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fundamental biological sciences and traditional engineering principles.

Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine.
United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as:
Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or
modify products or processes for specific use.
Biotechnology is often used to refer to genetic engineering technology of the 21st century, however the term
encompasses a wider range and history of procedures for modifying biological organisms according to the needs of
humanity, going back to the initial modifications of native plants into improved food crops through artificial selection
and hybridization.
Bioengineering is the science upon which all biotechnological applications are based.
With the development of new approaches and modern techniques, traditional biotechnology industries are also
acquiring new horizons enabling them to improve the quality of their products and increase the productivity of their
systems.
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and
agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil,
biofuels), and environmental uses

BIOTECHNOLOGY & GENETIC ENGINEERING - Other Courses And Institutes

List of Institutions in India:

1. All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari Marg, New Delhi-110 029.
2. Amravati Uaniversity, Amravati-44 602
3. Banasthali Vidyapeeth, Rajasthan-304 022
4. Bharathiar University, Coimbatore-641 046, TN
5. Bose Institute, P-1/12, CIT Scheme, VII Kankurgachi, Calcutta-700 054.
6. Calicut University, Kozhikode-673 635, Kerala
7. Centre for Biotechnology, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu-25.
8. Centre for Biotechnology, Pondicherry University, Pondichery-605 014.
9. Centre for Plant Molecular Biology, Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641 003
10. Consortium India Ltd,. G-6, (3rd Floor), NDSE Part 1, New Delhi.
11. Department of Biotechnology, Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore-452 001, Madhya Pradesh.
12. Department of Biotechnology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143 005.
13. Department of Biotechnology, Jadavpur University, Calcutta-700 032.
14. Department of Biotechnology, Punjab University, Goa-5.
15. Department of Marine Sciences, Goa University, Goa-5.
16. Department of Microbiology, M.S. University, Vadodara-390 002, Gujarat.
17. Department of Zoology, Poona University, Pune-411 007, Maharashtra.
18. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad-431 004.
19. Faculty of Applied Science, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam-686 560, Kerala.
20. Faculty of Science, G.B, Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pant Nagar-263 145, Nainital Dist.
Uttar Pradesh.
21. Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar, Haryana.
22. Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla-171 005.
23. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110 012.
24. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-560 012.
25. Indian Institute of Technology, Haus Khas, New, Delhi-6.
26. Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-723 102.
27. Indian Institute of Technology, Powai, Mumbai-400 076.
28. Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122, Uttar Pradesh.
29. Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Masab Tank, Mahaveer Marg, Hyderabad-Anadhra Pradesh.
30. Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi-110 067.

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31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.

Jiwaji University, Gwalior-474 011.

Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-136 119.
North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon-425 002.
Osmania University, Administrative Building, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh-500 007.
Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur-492 010, Chhattisgarh.
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab.
Punjab University, Patiala-147 002.
Rajendra Agricultural University, PO Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar.
School of Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai-625 021.
School of Biotechnology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005.
School of Life Sciences, Central University, Hyderabad-500 134.
Swami Ramanad Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded-431 603.
Tezpur University, Tezpur-784 001.
University of Delhi. Delhi-110 007.
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad-500 046.
University of Kerala, Thiruvananthaouram-34, Kerala.
University of Madras, Centenary Building Chepauk, Triplicane PO, Chennai-600 005, Tamil Nadu.
University of Mysore, Mysore-570 005.
University of Roorkee, Roorkee-247 667.

Further study in this field would involve a doctoral research. A success in the CSIR-UGC JRF examination
would be ideal for this. Some of the centres where Biotechnology labs are equipped with advanced facilities
are:
1. National Facility for Microbial Type Culture Collection (MTCC) at Institute of Microbial Technology,
Chandigarh.
2. National Facility for Collection of Blue Green Algae (BGA) Collection at IARI, New Delhi.
3. National Facility for Marine Cyanobacteria at Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli.
4. National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository at NBPGR, Pusa, New Delhi.
5. National Laboratory Animal House Facilities at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Lucknow.
6. National Institute of Nutrition (NIN), Hyderabad.
Genetic Engineering labs with latest infrastructure facilities are :
1. BHU, Varanasi
2. Biochemical Engineering Research and Process Development Centre at IMTECH, Chandigarh.
3. Centre for DNA Finger Printing and Diagnostics (CDFD), Hyderabad.
4. JNU, New Delhi
5. Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu.
6. National Facility for Animal Cell and Tissue Culture, Pune
. 7. National Institute of Immunology (NII), New Delhi.
8. The Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

Biotech engineering is set to grow significantly

Thursday, November 24, 2005 08:00 IST

Nandita Vijay

Dr. Anil Paul Kariath, chief operating officer, Sartorius India Pvt. Ltd. is of the opinion
that the biotech engineering sector is expected to register phenomenal growth in the next
five years. He has also expressed hope that knowledge process outsourcing (KPO) in biopharma engineering will witness significant business orders from US because of shortage
of manpower and spiralling cost of personnel per hour. In an interview with Nandita
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Vijay, Dr. Kariath points out that training in KPO should be the prime focus to keep pace
with the outsourcing business boom. Excerpts:
What are the key trends in biotech engineering scenario in India and globally?
Biotech engineering is set to grow significantly. A major development is the demand for
outsourcing in the KPO sector in the engineering field related to biopharmaceuticals. The
reason is that the cost of technical manpower in the US and Europe at approximately $ 70
to $80 per hour is exorbitant. India will stand to gain since adequate experienced
professionals are available at a much lower cost. So there is a visible shift of a large
number of contract jobs coming into India. Companies like Biozeen, a Bangalore-based
research, training and consultancy major is gearing up to train people for KPOs at its 600seat centre within the next two years. Trainees at Biozeen will be exclusively for KPO
operations. These manpower resources at Biozeen would be cheaper than hiring people
directly from the market. Several other companies like Aker Kvrner and Jacobs
Engineering Group Inc. are also coming to India to start these operations and will
definitely look for building up teams in India. It is also crucial to ensure that the
engineers' knowledge is updated on par with the US regulatory markets.
Biozeen will also conduct courses on ASME BPE (Bio Process Engineering), to work for
these markets. The training will include GMP compliance and regulatory standards
applicable in the US and Europe. In the next 2 to 3 years, 2,000 to 3,000 bio-process
engineers will be engaged productively in this country.
What is the kind of qualifications you are looking at?
A mandatory requirement is an engineering graduation in branches of chemical,
mechanical, electrical and automation with exposure to biopharma industry or someone
who is adequately trained. However, candidates with B Tech in Biotechnology or BE
(Biotechnology) will also stand to gain.
What is the present market size of this segment?
Last year, investments in the biotechnology sector was Rs. 400 crore and this trend is
expected to continue for the next five years. Around 10 per cent of the investments worth
Rs. 40 crore come from engineering .
What are the problems encountered in this sector?
Lack of adequately trained manpower is a major concern and this needs to be seriously
addressed both by academia and the industry. There is a need to disseminate specific
training programmes for the scores of Biotech engineering graduates in the country who
are prepared to take on challenges but lack the guidance. This is a serious impediment for
the appropriate deployment of these people.
What are the challenges for the sector?
In the backdrop of developments in the biotech-engineering field, there are several
challenges being thrown up for the industry in India. The offices of US Pharmacopoeia
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and USFDA are coming up in New Delhi and US Pharmacopoeia at Hyderabad. Out of
the total applications for approval for USFDA, India ranks the highest after US and
represents 14 per cent of the applicants. This number is expected to increase. The offices
of US Pharmacopoeia and USFDA will provide the much-needed fillip to the industry.
This has set the trend for leading global makers to explore possibilities to open a facility
in India. Global majors are sceptical and apprehensive about China on the free market
access and whether units there would adhere to total compliance. India stands to be
recognised for quality production and its highest number of USFDA units in the Asian
region.
In the wake of all these developments, what would be Sartorius' action plan?
Sartorius is gearing up to meet the challenges before it in terms of supplying equipment
to the standards of regulated markets. Our certification of ASME makes us a qualified
vendor. Biotech manufacturing units can save on capital costs and need not import
compliant equipment
What about competition globally?
There is no problem about competition because we have successfully completed the
Kitech project in Korea. We have already bagged an order from JBF for the core plant
and have three or four enquires from this country. Korea is now becoming the hub of
biotech and stem cell research The government is adequately supporting future
investments here. The region will be recognised as a leading contract manufacturing base
for US markets. It already has around 15 plants exclusively for US contract
manufacturing jobs. In the next one-year, there will be around six new USFDA compliant
plants. Sartorius India has aggressive strategies to grab a significant market share.

Biotechnology Institutes in Delhi

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This section provides complete information aboutBiotechnology

colleges in Delhi. It also provides the contact
details of each and every Biotechnology institute in Delhi. The best Biotechnology institutes in Delhi are covered
here. If any Biotechnology institute in Delhi is missing in this list, kindly inform us using our Contact Form.
Students studying in Biotechnology colleges in Delhi can also write to us to give their reviews and feedback.
We have made the best efforts to provide accurate information on Delhi Biotechnology colleges. This list of
Biotechnology colleges in Delhi is compiled from various authentic sources and hence can be relied upon. Still if
there are any errors, please do let us know. Remember, www.Delhieducation.net is your best source for all
educational information in Delhi.

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Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs)

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Biotechnology is one of the most revolutionary and beneficial scientific advances of the last quarter century. It is
an interdisciplinary science including not only biology
but also subjects like
mathematics
, physics,
chemistry, engineering and many more.Biotechnology combines disciplines like genetics, molecular biology,
biochemistry, embryology and cell biology, which are in turn linked to practical disciplines
like chemical
engineering,information technology, and robotics.
An individual aspiring for career
in Biotechnology should have a scientificaptitude
and a keen interest in the
biological sciences. Some other aspects like problem solving skills,information technology skill, analyzing and
interpreting skills are also essential for a successful career in this field. Thecandidate
should be methodical and
patient by nature, able to work neatly and accurately and have a flair for laboratory work. The ability to work
independently is another important aspect. The knowledge of computers
in work is a must.
To know more details about Biotechnology as a career destination, please Click Here.

Delhi is home to some of the finest biotech colleges of the country. Here is a list:
1. All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS)
New Delhi
Website: www.aiims.edu
Course:
M Biotech (Master of Biotechnology)
Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, New Delhi
2. Centre of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi
Phones: +91-11-26717676, 26717557. Fax: 26717601
Website: www.jnu.ac.in
Course: M.Sc (Biotechnology)
No. of seats: 20
3. Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University
Kashmere Gate, Delhi-110006
Phone: 23869801, 23869802,
Fax: 23865941
Website: www.ggsipu.nic.in
Courses: B.Tech/M.Tech(Dual Degree) (BT) Bachelor of Technology / Master of Technology (Biotechnology)
4. Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)
Hauz Khas, New Delhi - 110 016.
Fax: (91) 011-2658 2037, (91) 011-2658 2277
Website: IIT Delhi
Courses:
M.Tech. in Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology
M.S. (Research) in Biomedical
Engineering and Biotechnology
Pre Ph.D. Courses
For more Details, Please Click Here
5. Jamia Hamdard University
Hamdard Nagar, New Delhi
Vice Chancellor: Dr. S. Ahmad (91-11) 26059662
Fax. (91-11) 26059663.
Officiating Registrar: Prof. Akhtar Majeed
Phone: (91-11) 26059664
Course:

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M.Sc (Biotechnology); No. of seats: 20

PhD (Biotechnology)
For more details Please Click Here
6. Faculty of Natural Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia
Jamia Nagar, New Delhi-110025, India
M.Sc. Biotechnology (Self-financing)
Phone: +91(11) 26985177, 26981717 Ext. 3200
For more details Please Click Here
7. University of Delhi (North Campus)
New Delhi 110007
EPABX: 23922480, 27667725
Fax: 27667126
Course:
M.Phil. (Biotechnology)
PhD (Biotechnology)
8. Institute of Public Health & Hygiene
RZ-A-44, Mahipalpur, New Delhi 110037
Phone: 26782850, 26781075
Email: iphh@iphhparamedic.org
Website: www.iphhparamedic.org
Course: BSc. in Biotechnology
9. Delhi Technological University (DTU) or DelTech
New Campu, Bawana Road, New Delhi
Pin Code: 110042
Phone: 91-11-27871018
Fax: 91-11-27871023
Email: dce@dce.edu
Website: www.dce.edu
Course: Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) - Biotechnology
10. Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology
Azad Hing Fauj Marg
Sector - 3, Dwarka (Pappankalan)
New Delhi - 110 045
Phone: 91-11-25099050
Fax: 91-11-25099022
Website: www.nsit.ac.in
Course: Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) - Biotechnology
11. National Institute of Immunology
Aruna Asaf Ali Marg
New Delhi - 110067, India
EPABX: 26717121 to 26717145
Fax: 91-11-26162125 & 91-11-26177626
Website: www.nii.res.in
Course: Research training leading to a Ph.D degree by JNU

Other Biotechnology Institutes in India

Delhi

Haryana

Himachal Pradesh

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Jammu Kashmir

Punjab

Rajasthan

Uttaranchal

Andhra Pradesh

Hyderabad

Tamilnadu

Chennai

Karnataka

Bangalore

Kerala

Pondicherry

Bihar

Orissa

Kolkata

West Bengal

Ahmedabad

Gujarat

Mumbai

Maharashtra

Pune

Assam

Meghalaya

Manipur

Sikkim

Chhattisgarh

Jharkhand

Madhya Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh

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