NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING HANDBOOK Edited for the American Society for Nondestructive Testing by Rosert C. McMaster PROFESSOR OF WELDING ENGLNEERING THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY PAST PRESIDENT. AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING In Two Volumes I COLUMBUS, OHIO THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING, INC.WV TPL PT e@otciviOw ov Liaw | AQOQOAGKVAH eeSECTION BASIC TEST METHODS CONTENTS Pact Motion-of-Matter Tests Motion-of-matter probing media Sourees of probing media» Sources of motion of solid’ probes Sources of motion of liquid probes Sources of motion of gaseous probes Detectors tised in motionsof-matter tesla Deteetars for motion of silt probes Detectors for motion of laud’ probes Detectors for motion of gases | Industrial applications Solid probes srs Liquid probes 222222222 Gaseous probes Transmission-of-Energy Tests ‘Transinission-of-energy probing media Hlectromagnetic and gravitational fields". The electromagnetic frequency spectrum Vibration and radiation frequency ranges ag) ‘Transinission-of-energy teat’ methods Soureos of probing media : trating radiation sources Magnetie-field sources Blectrieal-feld sources | Electromagnetie field sources Gravitational-field sources sy... Characteristics of energy” fields steotors use in ranemain-of ena tsa Taminous energy detectors. +. Penetrating radiation detectors Manetie-field detectors Electrical-field_ detectors Gravitational-field detectors.» Need for development.» Industrial applications ‘Luminous ‘energy tests Penetrating radiation texts Magnetie-field. tests Bleetricat-field_tonts Gravitational-feld test Matter-and-Energy Tests Insoparable combinations of matter energy Sensitivity range of probing media. Complexity of probing media reactions Characteristies of probing media. 2 8 1% mn rn it ut Page High-energy particles... mn Waves # 5 ‘Transmission ‘ahd attenuation characteris: 1s 15 18 Sources of neutrons 16 Sourees of electrons | 16 Sourees of ions 16 Sources of electric curr 6 “Triboelecirie. rources 16 ‘Thermoelectric. sources 16 Electrochemiesl “sources rig ‘Sources in chemical reactions 7 Sonirees of heat 7 Sourees of vibration 7 Applications of uncharged-patiicle beams 10. 18 Neutron beams. 18 Noutral atoms and imolecuies , 18 Applications of charged-partiele beat 18 lectron microseops" 18 Bleetron radiography. 1s Rein-ray thickness gaging 19 Cathodic etching 19 Mass. spectroscopy’ 19 Other applications. 19 Applications of ions-in-sohution tests ~ 9 Chemieal-spot tests 19 lectrochernical tests 19 lectroplating tests 19 Electrophoresis. analy: 20 Galvanoelecirie tests 20 Applications of ‘eleetrio-eurrent esis wesc.) 20 Direct-current tests of wall thickness and ‘seks 20 Blectrie-curveai iests of railvoad rails 20 Applications of electromagnetic induction tests 20) Analysis of semi-conductor materials 2 ‘Tests of electrical insulation and capacitance 21 Applications of charges moving across solid hhoundaries : 22 ‘Triboelectsie sorting 2 ‘Thormoelectrie sorting. 2 Electrochemical tests 2 Applications of heat-flow tasis 2 ‘Tomperature-gensitive coatings 2.02. Pn ‘Thermal proof tests of rotor forgings so. 3M Applications of mochanieal-vibration tests |. 24 Ronie teats ss Fr Ultrasonie resonance tests", ID ae Ultrasonic contact. pulse-refiection tests s.. 28 Immersion ultrasonie testing FSsection 5 BASIC TEST METHODS Motion-of-Matter Tests MOTION-OF-MATTER PROBING MEDIA. Nondestructive test methods are designed to measure and evaluate the properties of the material of the test object. Consequently the specific test material is a controlling factor in all nondestructive tests. It frequently determines the scope and suitability of the test method. In most cases the material of the test object is at rest during the application of the nondestructive test. Motion of the test-object material is not essential to the operation of the test method. Many nondestructive test methods depend upon motion of another material used as a probing medium to explore the test object. In their method of sensing the properties of the test object, these test. methods are analogous to the actions of the human sense of touch. They usually require that the probing matter be brought into contact with accessible surfaces of the test object. ‘The fact that the test object and the probing medium cannot simultancously occupy identically the same space determines the scope and limitations of most nondestructive test methods involving motion of matter as a probing medium. For the most part, motion-of-matter types of nondestructive tests are useful only for examination of accessible surfaces and channels or interstices open to the exposed surfaces of test objects. SOURCES OF PROBING MEDIA. Relatively simple means are used to provide motion of probing matter in nondestructive tests. Sources of Motion of Solid Probes. In many simple devices the motive power which causes transport of solid matter for probing test objects is supplied manu- ally, either directly or through simple positioning devices. For example, in mechanieal calipering of dimensions, the inspector usually adjusts a micrometer or slips on a Go-No Go gage by hand. In automatic gaging devices the mechanical probes may be advanced pneumatically or hydraulically. In the electrie-contact micrometer, contact probes may be advanced manually or by electric motors whose advaneo is stopped when electrical contact is achieved. Gravity or mechanical springs provide the motive power for other forms of solid contacting probes. In addition the sensitivity of the skilled inspector’s fingers in gaging surface roughness should not be discounted. Sources of Motion of Liquid Probes. A variety of sources or effects may be employed to provide movements of matter when liquids are used as probing media. Hydrostatic proof tests often use liquids such as water or oil under Pressure provided by hydraulic pump, gravitational head, or eity water mains, Liquid penetrants, such as the oil-and-whiting or modern fluorescent or dye pene. trants, usually depend on surface tension and capillarity to move the liquids 5-15-2 BASIC TEST METHODS through narrow interstices. ‘The same forces are used in filtered-particle tests of porous test objects. Here, capillarity moves the liquid carrier into cracks so nar- row that the solid particles are filtered out at the exposed opening of the channels. Similar phenomena are involved in the selective filtering or migration effects utilized in chromatography. Sources of Motion of Gaseous Probes. Various sources of motion come into action when air or gaseous materials are used as probing media. Air pumps and pressure tanks often provide high-pressure air or gas [or proof tests of closed pipes or containers. Since gases are highly compressible as compared with liquids considerable stored energy may be eatastrophieally released when containers fail under high gas pressure. Consequently water or other relatively incompressible liquids are often preferred for safe static-pressure proof testing. In addition to pressure or vacuum, gaseous convection and diffusion effects often serve to move gaseous probing media. Examples are found in leak detection with helium or halogen vapors. DETECTORS USED IN MOTION-OF-MATTER TESTS. Detectors of the motion of matter range from vision to complex electromechanical trans- ducers and instrumentation. Detectors for Motion of Solid Probes. When solid probes are used, a num- ber of means of detecting small displacements sensitively find application in non- destructive tests. Most of these devices serve as motion transducers and serve to amplify or change a mechanical displacement or velocity into a more suitable form, such as an electrical signal. Often these transducers are themselves appli- cations of the basie principles of various nondestructive tests. Some common forms of mechanical transducers include: 1. Lever systems which actuate indicating needles or recording pens. » 2. Hydraulic systems which amplify small displacements and actuate indicating or recording instruments 3. Electric contact-making micrometers, which sense contact electrically and reposition themselves and their indicating or recording mechanisms accord- ingly. 4. Linear differential transformers which produce a.-c. voltages in response to dis- placements of their movable iron cores within detector coils. 5. Capacitance micrometers, which sense displacement of the probe from test- object surfaces as a variation in capacitance. Sueh variance usually changes the frequency of an electronic oscillator. 6. Piezoelectric transducers, such as quartz crystal or barium. titanate, which respond to applied stress by production of electric voltages. 7. Reluctance transducers, which detect small displacements of their coils by changes in magnetic coupling or mutual induetance. ‘These changes may be detected by bridge or oscillator circuits. 8, Wire-resistance strain gages, which vary their resistance in response to applied strain or elongation. Changes in resistance are usually detected by bridge circuits, 9. Pneumatic-orifice gages, in which a jet of ait from a small probing orifice is restricted by its close proximity to the surface of a test object. This results ir a measurable back pressure which ean be indicated by flow or pressure gages. 10, Movable-clectrode vacuum tubes, whose output current or voltage changes in response to movements of plate or grid electrodes. The control electrode may be coupled to the external mechanical probe contacting the test object. Detectors for Motion of Liquid Probes. Motions of liquid matter used in probing test objects often provide their own indications in visible or detectibleMOTION-OF-MATTER TESTS 5-3 forms. For example, when the surface of a test object has been wetted with licuid penetrants, capillary action causes the fluids to flow into interstices and cracks which are open to exposed surfaces. A period of time is required to permit, the penetrant to migrate into very fine cracks. Some penetrants have solvent additives, whose action in dissolving surface and interstitial contaminants also requires time. When penetration is complete, the surface is quickly washed clean of the pene- trating fluid, without greatly disturbing the penetrant which is deep in the dis- continuities. To develop clear surface indications, the exposed areas..are next coated with a suitably porous material. This hides any penetrant, remaining on the surface and provides a contrasting surface against which the indications ‘are clearly revealed. Such surface coatings act as blotters by supplying eapillary channels through which the penetrating fluid previously trapped within defects can flow outward. After a period of time, the penetrants flow to the visible surface of the coatings, where they (1) are evident as wet spots, (2) dye the coating with brilliant color, or (3) fluoresce brilliantly when irradiated with ultraviolet. (black) light In the ease of filtered-particle tests ‘of porous test objects such as unfired ceramic materials, the penetrant consists-of a suitable carrier with solid par in suspension. As the liquid penetrant flows into surface openings, the isolid particles are filtered out at the narrow opening of the cavity. These solid:particles, dyed with suitable brilliant colors or fluoreseing pigments, are then clearly:visible under appropriate illumination, © The indications of both liquid-penetrant and filtered-particle nondestructive tests are usually examined visually and evaluated in terms of the inspector's judgment and experience. In some cases, the indications may be suitably detected by devices such as photoelectric cells which can actuate recorders or rejection mechanisms. Proposals to use radioactive indicator materials have been con- sidered, but to date these do not’offer advantages commensurate with their added cost or potential hazards. Where liquids are employed as probing media” in pressure and leak tests, the indications are often detected in the same nianner as in penetrant tests i Detectors for Motion of Gases. Whpre gascous probing media are used to reveal leaks, several means of detection may be considered. ‘The plumber’s old trick of coating pipe joints with soap solutions and watching for the formation of bubbles still finds wide application in industry. Automobile inner tubes are often inflated and immersed in water, with the hope that even slow leaks will reveal themselves through bubbles. Sealed metallic containers of many types are commonly checked for leaks at seams and welds by similar procedures. Tn special eases the usual properties of specific gases make feasible the use of novel and extremely sensitive leak detectors, Helium, for example, is widely used for detection of leaks in vacuum systems of scientific and industrial apparatus as well as in hollow test objects. Special mass spectrometers have been developed which can detect extremely small quantities of helium passing through leaks. In such tests the mass spectrometer may be connected to a vacuum-pump system, and a source of helium passed over the exposed outer surfaces of the test object. Alternatively, under some conditions, helium may be admitted to the interior of the test object and air samples taken from various areas of its exposed surface. Mereury vapor, which is toxic, can be sensitively detected by its resonance excitation characteristics. In the mereury-vapor detector, the gas which may contain mereury vapor is passed through a quartz tube which is irradiated with54 BASIC TEST METHODS short-wavelength ultraviolet light. The mercury molecules in the unknown gas are excited and emit characteristic spectral lines. These ean be detected by photo- electric means or by ionization measurements. Halogen vapors, such as are present in Freon-filled refrigerator systems, are most sensitively detected by means of the positive-ion probe. With this device the halogen vapor leaking from closed pressurized systems is picked up with a simple pumping system and passed over a probe emitting positive ions. The halogen vapors temporarily poison the positive-ion discharge, producing detectible changes in the associated circuit. Halogen vapors may also be detected with the halogen torch, whose flame appears green when. halogens are present. Oxygen, being a paramagnetic gas, is often detectible by virtue of its selective migration in the presence of a suitable magnetic field. ‘This indueed flow may be detected by means of a hot-wire anemometer or other gas-flow detector. If radioactive gases are used, various sensitive detectors are available to pick up the radioactive emanations where leaks occur. The detector must be suitably shielded from emanations from other sources, including the source of the radioactive gas. Biological detectors of poisonous gases have not yet completely lost their significance in industry. Some natural-gas distribution system operators pur- posely introduce foul-smelling mercaptans into the gas they distribute so that small leaks can be quickly detected by their objectionable odors. Canary birds have been used to detect odorless poisonous gases in mines, Chemical detectors of various gases are quite important in some applications, particularly in certain chemical industries. The number of chemical reactions which can be used for such purposes is so great that it is not feasible to list such methods in detail. The literature of chemistry contains many examples, INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. Despite their relative simplicity, motion- of-matter tests find wide application. Solid Probes. ‘The use of solid probes in measurements and industrial non- destructive tests is so widespread that it is impossible to list every representative application. The major industrial use of solid probes is in connection with mechanical gaging or calipering operations. Simple snap gages, micrometers, calipers, thread gages, surface-roughness measuring apparatus, limit switches, extensometers, dilatometers, and the many forms of pneumatic and electronic automatic gages are typical examples. Nearly all these solid-probe methods are used primarily for gaging dimensions, shape, contour, or surface roughness, or (in special cases) strain, distortion, dilation, or other characteristics of materials in the test objects. They may be applied to accessible surfaces of practically all solid engincering materials and industrial test objects. Liquid Probes. Liquid probing media are widely used in industrial nondestruc. tive testing. The old oil-and-whiting method has been used by craftsmen and machinists since the beginning of the industrial revolution. It is still used in many machine shops, even though those who apply this time-honored test may not identify it as a nondestructive test but may consider it a normal production step. The more recent additions of potent red dyes or of fluorescing properties to the penetrating oils have contributed greatly to the sensitivity of the method and the contrast and clarity of its indications. Among the present widespread uses of the liquid-penetrant method of testing are: 1. ‘The examination of nonferromagnetic materials for surface cracks and diseon- tinuities. Defects detected at exposed surfaces include: (a) heat treating, grinding, and fatigue cracks; (b) casting defects such as porosity, shrink cracks,TRANSMISSION.OF-ENERGY TESTS 55 and cold shuts; (c) forging defects such as seams, laps, or hot tears; (d) lamina tions and bond failures; and (e) weld defects. 2. The leak testing of welded seams and other areas of closed vessels and pipes, which otherwiso might require hydrostatic pressure and leak tests. 3. The surface examination of ferromagnetic parts stich as ball bearings which cannot be subjected to magnetization because of the deleterious effects of residual magnetism on their service performance. Liquid penetrants are also employed in an auxiliary way in the electrified- Particle method of testing glass or ceramies. Test objects are wetted with a Penetrating liquid which tends to seep into cracks. This provides a source of electrons to attract the charged particles used in clectrified-particle inspection. The filtered-particle method of testing finds extensive application in industries Producing electrical porcelain (insulators) and large or critieal ceramic products such as bathroom fixtures and ceramic vessels for industry. Examination of the “green ware” before firing saves the time and costs of firing the products which might be rejected after firing. The test makes the cracks quite visible and permits the unfired clay to be returned to the mills and re-used. ‘The use of liquids to provide hydrostatic pressure for proof tests (without the hazards attendant upon the use of air or gases under. pressure) is standard Practice in testing most types of pressure vessels and pipes for high-pressure service. Extensive hydrostatic proof tests are made on new high-pressure natu. ral-gas transmission lines before they are placed in serviee, City water mains are similarly tested when new materials or methods of construction are being tried, Gaseous Probes. Gaseous probing media find their natural applications on test objects commonly subjected to service pressures other than atmospheric. Domestic and industrial refrigeration systems in which Freon is circulated are normally tested with the positive-ion probe or by pressurizing and immersing in water. Similar tests are made of other pressurized items, such as “bug bombs” and other pressurized spray containers. Leak testing of séientifie and industrial vacuum systems by helium and other gaseous probing media is standard practice in many applications. Transmission-of-Energy Tests TRANSMISSION-OF-ENERGY PROBING MEDIA. All nondestruc- tive testing methods involve transfer or transmission of enerjty. This is necessary because information must be transmitted to an observer or detector at some point in the process. Often this signal must produce a record or actuate an nuto~ matic selection device. This signal-energy transfer is incidental to the none destructive test, even though it is essential to the test indication. However, some of the most useful nondestruetive test methods depend primarily upon transmission of energy for probing the material or test object. The probing medium to a considerable extent determines the nature and limitations of the test method. As a criterion for selection of test methods based upon energy transmission, it may be sufficient to note that such transmission of probing energy can take place independently of the presence or motion of matter, Electro, magnetic fields and gravitational ficlds fall into this category. Each is capable of transmitting force through a vacuum, in the complete absence of matter in the intervening space. Electromagnetic and, Gravitational Fields. Static electrical, magnetic, and gravitational fields form the basis for many useful tests. Dynamic electromag- netic fields provide a far more extensive base for nondestructive test methods,5-6 BASIC TEST METHODS Such dynamic electromagnetic fields are propagated in empty space at the velocity of light. Tn their steady-state forms they consist of waves or oscillations which may be analyzed into one or more frequencies of sinusoidal oscillations. Fre- quency (the number of waves or oscillations per second) and wavelength (the distance from peak to peak of adjacent oscillations) are inversely related to cach other; thus, velocity of lig! “wavelength The product of frequency (cycles per second, ¢.p.s.) and wavelength (em.) is equal to the velocity of light (3 X 10! cm./sec.). Thus, very high frequen clectromagnetie waves such as gamma rays have exceedingly short wavelengths. As a general guiding principle, the wavelengths of oscillatory probing media (such as electromagnetic waves) should be comparable to (within a few orders of magnitude), or smaller than, the effective critical ensions of discontinuities which they are to detect. For example, visible light, even with a powerful micr scope, will fail to reveal tightly closed cracks whose width or opening is appreei- ably less than the wavelength of the probing light. Yet X rays, whose wave- lengths are comparable to, or less than, the spacing between the atom centers in solid materials, may be used to measure the distance between atom centers in crystalline materials. In other words the frequencies of electromagnetic waves to be used as probing media must be chosen correctly for each inspection problem. The Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum. The frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum varies from zero to an indefinitely large number of eycles per second. Parts of this frequency range have found extensive use in modern industry. Fig. 1 presents an arbitrary nomenclature that may be used as a crude description of the frequency ranges of general interest. From this table and the general principle stated previously, it is obvious why only waves of microwave and higher frequency characteristics find most application as electro- magnetie-field probing media Of course there are many nondestructive tests, such as electromagnetic-indue- tion types, where lower frequency electromagnetic excitation is employed. However, in these cases the ultimate probing medium is not the applied electro- magnetic field itself but is rather the electrie currents or states of magnetization induced within the test object. In these cases the effective probing medium in- volves a motion of matter in response to the applied electrical or magnetic field. In eddy current tests the movement of electrons constitutes the motion of mat- ter within the conducting material of the test object. Where alternating-current magnetization is used in magnetic-partiele tests, magnetic domains are polarized in the test material and move in response to the applied field. In dielectric tests the material is polarized by the applied electrical field, and local movements of “bound” electric charge centers occur. All these tests must be considered to involve inseparably combined motion of matter and transfer of energy as their effective probing media. Frequency = ‘Transmission-of-Energy Test Methods. Vive general fields of nondestructive testing are baséd upon the use of energy transmission for probing the test objects. ‘These are: Optical or visual inspection and other luminous energy nondestructive tests. X-ray and other penetrating radiation nondestructive tests. Magnetie-particle ‘and other magnetic-field nondestructive tests Electrified-particle and other electrical-field nondestructive tests. 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Sources of probing media that involve transmnission of energy are of many types and vary extensively within each type for different applications and nondestructive test methods. Luminous Energy Sources. Light or luminous energy, used in visual and optical forms of nondestructive tests, may be available in light from the sun or the north sky. Such natural light is sometimes preferred for critical color match- ing or inspection. Many artificial light sources, such as ineandescent, fluores- cent, carbon-are, mereury-vapor, infrared, or ultraviolet lamps offer forms of illumination with special advantages for some inspection problems. Mercury-vapor lamps have been found helpful in borescopic inspection of scaled or rusted steel tubes such as oil-well drill pipe, or for examination of cotton-insulation layers on copper conductors of electrical machinery. Monochromatic light, as provided by sodium-vapor lamps or by mercury-vapor lamps with suitable filters or mono- chromators, is often essential when inspecting or gaging by the use of interference fringes. Near-ultraviolet, or black light, is used extensively to excite fluorescent indications in nondestructive tests. Penetrating Radiation Sources. X rays are electromagnetic waves similar light but of much shorter wavelengths. In electronic sources of X rays, a high-voltage electron tube, induction accelerator, or wave guide is used to bring a beam of electrons to a very high velocity, near that of light. X rays are pro- duced when these high speed electrons impinge upon heavy-metal targets. ‘The short wavelengths of X rays permit them to pass through the glass or beryllium windows of such sources with only moderate attenuation. Gamma are produced by the disintegration of radioactive materials. Radioactive sources of gamma rays inelude both naturally radioactive materials, such as radium and the gas radon, and artificial radioisotopes produced by neutron bombardment in nuclear reactors. These radioactive sources emit radiation and/or high-energy particles of various intensities and penetrating power. Radioisotope sources are finding increasing use in industrial X-ray inspection, particularly where portable sources are used in the field. Magnetic-Field Sources. Magnetic fields may be established in test objects by placing them near the poles of permanent magnets, by passing eleetrie currents through them, or by plicing them in the fields established by coils of wire through which electric current flows. Direct or alternating currents (including half- or full-wave reetified currents) provide advantages in certain eases. Electrical-Field Sources. Electrical fields may be established by charging arrays of conductors to high potential differences with high-voltage power sup- plies. High potential differences may also be established by frictional means, as in electrostatic generators, or by blowing solid particles through rubber nozzles, as in the electrified-particle inspection method (see the scetion on Eleetrified-Par- ticle Test Indications). Electromagnetic-Field Sources. Lower-frequency electromagnetic fields are commonly established by passing alternating or oscillating electric currents through coils or other arrangements of conductors. Radio waves and microwaves, of short wavelength compared with ordinary electrie power frequencies, are most frequently produced with oscillating electronic circuits or electron tubes. They can be propagated from antennas or through suitable wave guides but are usually attenuated severely, close beneath the irradiated surfaces of electrically conduct- ing or magnetically permeable materials,