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Potentiometer (measuring instrument)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A potentiometer is an instrument for measuring the potential (voltage) in a circuit. Before the
introduction of the moving coil and digital volt meters, potentiometers were used in
measuring voltage, hence the '-meter' part of their name. The method was described by Johann
Christian Poggendorff around 1841 and became a standard laboratory measuring technique.[1]
In this arrangement, a fraction of a known voltage from a resistive slide wire is compared with an
unknown voltage by means of a galvanometer. The sliding contact or wiper of the potentiometer is
adjusted and the galvanometer briefly connected between the sliding contact and the unknown
voltage. The deflection of the galvanometer is observed and the sliding tap adjusted until the
galvanometer no longer deflects from zero. At that point the galvanometer draws no current from the
unknown source, and the magnitude of voltage can be calculated from the position of the sliding
contact.
This null balance measuring method is still important in electrical metrology and standards work and
is also used in other areas of electronics.
Measurement potentiometers are divided into four main classes listed below.
Contents

Constant current potentiometer[edit]

A potentiometer being calibrated and then measuring an unknown voltage.


R1 is the resistance of the entire resistance wire. The arrow head represents the moving wiper.

In this circuit, the ends of a uniform resistance wire R1 are connected to a regulated DC supply VS for
use as a voltage divider. The potentiometer is first calibrated by positioning the wiper (arrow) at the
spot on the R1 wire that corresponds to the voltage of a standard cell so
that
A standard electrochemical cell is used whose emf is known (e.g. 1.0183 volts for a Weston
standard cell).[2][3]
The supply voltage VS is then adjusted until the galvanometer shows zero, indicating the voltage on
R2 is equal to the standard cell voltage.
An unknown DC voltage, in series with the galvanometer, is then connected to the sliding wiper,
across a variable-length section R3 of the resistance wire. The wiper is moved until no current flows

into or out of the source of unknown voltage, as indicated by the galvanometer in series with the
unknown voltage. The voltage across the selected R3 section of wire is then equal to the unknown
voltage. The final step is to calculate the unknown voltage from the fraction of the length of the
resistance wire that was connected to the unknown voltage.
The galvanometer does not need to be calibrated, as its only function is to read zero or not zero.
When measuring an unknown voltage and the galvanometer reads zero, no current is drawn from
the unknown voltage and so the reading is independent of the source's internal resistance, as if by
a voltmeter of infinite resistance.
Because the resistance wire can be made very uniform in cross-section and resistivity, and the
position of the wiper can be measured easily, this method can be used to measure unknown DC
voltages greater than or less than a calibration voltage produced by a standard cell without drawing
any current from the standard cell.
If the potentiometer is attached to a constant voltage DC supply such as a leadacid battery, then a
second variable resistor (not shown) can be used to calibrate the potentiometer by varying the
current through the R1 resistance wire.
If the length of the R1 resistance wire is AB, where A is the (-) end and B is the (+) end, and the
movable wiper is at point X at a distance AX on the R3 portion of the resistance wire when the
galvanometer gives a zero reading for an unknown voltage, the distance AX is measured or read
from a preprinted scale next to the resistance wire. The unknown voltage can then be
calculated:

THE POTENTIOMETER:
Internal Resistance of a Test Cell
OBJECT
To calibrate a one meter slide wire potentiometer using a standard cell and then to use
this potentiometer to measure the emf of a test cell. The terminal voltage of the same
test cell is then measured as different load resistors are connected across the test cell
and these data are used to determine the internal resistance of the test cell.
THEORY
The electromotive force (emf) of a cell is its terminal voltage when no current is
flowing through it. The terminal voltage of a cell is the potential difference between
its electrodes. A voltmeter cannot be used to measure the emf of a cell because a
voltmeter draws some current from the cell. To measure a cell's emf a potentiometer is
used since in a potentiometer measurement no current is flowing. It employs a null
method of measuring potential difference, so that when a balance is reached and the
reading is being taken, no current is drawn from the source to be measured.

Figure 1.
This is the basic circuit diagram for a potentiometer. Point C is the sliding contact
which can be adjusted for zero current deflection through the galvanometer.
In this method (refer to Figure 1) a uniform, bare slide wire AB is connected across
the power supply. If you were to connect a voltmeter between the + power supply
terminal and point A you would measure essentially zero volts. If you were to now
connect the voltmeter between the + power supply and point B you would measure a
voltage equal to the terminal voltage of the power supply which is approximately 2.5
volts. The potential relative to point A then varies from zero at A to approximately 2.5
volts at B.
The cell whose emf is to be determined is then connected so that its emf opposes the
potential along the wire. At some point C the potential difference between A and C is
exactly equal to the emf of the cell so that if the other terminal of the cell is connected
to the point C, no current will flow. The calibration procedure is to locate this point C
using a standard cell whose emf is accurately known (emf = 1.0186 volts). You then
know that at this point C the potential difference relative to point A is exactly 1.0186
volts.
Since the wire is uniform, the length of wire spanned is proportional to the potential
drop and the wire can now be calibrated in volts per cm. The emf of an unknown cell
is then found by finding a new point C whose potential is exactly equal to the emf of
the unknown cell and multiplying this new distance AC times the calibration factor
determined using the standard cell.
It is crucial in this experiment that the
current flowing through wire AB
remain constant throughout the
experiment. If the current varies then
the potential at all points along the wire
will vary and you cannot trust your
calibration. An ammeter is included in
series with wire AB so that you can
monitor this current. (See Figure 2.)
The circuits used in this experiment are
shown below in Figures 2 and 3.

Figure 2.
This circuit diagram shows the location of the standard cell for calibrating the
potentiometer.
Figure 3.
In this circuit diagram, the location of the test cell is shown for measuring the voltage
across the load resistor R.
Here s is the standard cell (emf = 1.0186 volts), and x is the unknown cell whose
emf is to be measured. G is the
galvanometer which has an internal
resistor R1 in series with the meter to
decrease its sensitivity. Once the
potentiometer is balanced by
adjusting point C until there is no
deflection of G, switch K1 (a
pushbutton on top of the
galvanometer) is closed to increase
the sensitivity of G by shorting
out R1. Point C is then further
adjusted with K1 closed until there is
no deflection of G.
Since the electromotive force of the standard cell is equal to the potential drop in the
length of wire spanned (measured from A) for a condition of balance and the same is
true for the unknown cell, the emf of each cell is proportional to the lengths of wire
spanned. Thus

and the unknown emf is given by

where x is the unknown emf and, s is the emf of the standard cell, Lx is the length
of wire (AC) used for balancing the unknown cell, and Ls is the length of wire used
for balancing with the standard cell.
If we have a test cell of emf, and internal resistance r supplying current to a variable
load resistor R (see figure 4), then we will measure a terminal voltage V which is a
function of the load resistance R.
Figure 4.
The load resistance is not external to the test
cell, but it is shown in this circuit diagram for
the purpose of determing the voltage across
the load resistor R and finding the internal
resistance r.
Since V = - Ir, if you plot V versus I the
negative of the slope of the graph will be the
internal resistance of the cell r.
PROCEDURE

Calibration
Use the experimental arrangement shown in Figure 2 for the calibration of the
potentiometer wire, using the standard cell s. Start with your sliding contact
C near the center of the bridge. Press the contact C. The galvanometer will
probably deflect. Find a point C where there is no deflection. Now close switch
K1 and again adjust C for no deflection. Pushbutton switch K1 (Figure 2) shorts
out the protective resistance R1 and gives the galvanometer maximum
sensitivity. Record the final setting of the contact point C and known value of
the emf of the standard cell. Compute the calibration factor f in volts/cm.

Electromotive force (emf) of a test cell


Connect the test cell x into the circuit as shown in Figure 3. Determine the
emf of this cell by again locating a point C where no galvanometer deflection
occurs when contact C is pressed. Remember to close switch K1 for a finer

adjustment of C. When no galvanometer deflection occurs with the switch K1


closed the potential drop along the wire from A to C exactly equals the emf of
the test cell. Record the final balance position of the contact C and the emf of
the test cell.

Terminal Voltage of the test cell in use


Now adjust the load resistor R to 150 ohms. You must hold switch K2 down in
order for the circuit connecting R across the test cell to be complete. While
holding K2 down again balance the bridge as described above. When
balanced, again record the distance AC and compute the terminal voltage of
the test cell. Repeat this procedure for R = 100, 60, 30, 15, 10, 8, 6, and 4
ohms. Using your measured value for the terminal voltage V and the
resistance R, compute the current I being supplied by the test cell for each
value of R used.
Plot a graph with terminal voltage V on the vertical axis and current on the
horizontal axis. Draw the best straight line through your data
points. Determine the value of the internal resistance of the test cell from this
graph.

AN EXAMPLE USING THE PROGRAM: p23best1.m


THE ASSIGNMENT FOR PHYSICS 2322
Use the program p23best1.m to determine the best fit line among three sets of data.
For load resistors of 150, 100, 60, 30, 15, 10, 8, 6, and 4 ohm, find the best fit
parameters and the internal resistance of each cell. In the first set, the measured
voltages were: 1.467, 1.466, 1.465, 1.457, 1.442, 1.428, 1.416, 1.401, and 1.369 V. In
the second set of data, the voltages were: 1.261, 1.273, 1.255, 1.251, 1.228, 1.203,
1.183, 1.150, and 1.105. In the third set of data, the measured voltages were: 1.525,
1.523, 1.517, 1.498, 1.466, 1.446, 1.418, 1.403, and 1.340. For which set of data does
one find the best fit to the measured values? Why? Explain and justify your answer.
Examples of best fit and least squares analysis have been given by Etters (1996) and
Pratap (1999).
REFERENCES
Etters, D.M.

Introduction to MATLAB for Scientists and Engineers Prentice-Hall, 1996.


Fishbane, P.M., Gasiorowicz, S., and S.T. Thornton
Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 2d ed., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, 1996. Chapter 28: Direct-Current Circuits.
Pratap, R.
Getting Started with MATLAB 5: A Quick Introduction for Engineers and
Scientists Oxford University Press, 1999.

Readings for factors affecting emf and internal resistance


of the cell?
1) Internal resistance of the cell depends upon the type of Cell.You are not mention what type of cell ?Is it
Primary cells (not chargeable) or Secondary cells (Chargeable) If it is Dry cell, Chargeable cells.If it is
new Internal resistance will be Normal.if it is used or old Internal resistance will increase considerably.
2) Say for Lead acid Battery If it is fully charged condition the Internal rresistancedepends up on the
Ampere Hour capacity of the Battery.(If the Plated size of +Ve & --Ve).It will be Low in charged condition.
3) Discharge condition Internal resistance IIncreasethe terminal voltage decrease.the
eelectrolytesSpecific gravity Increase.
4) If Distilled water added more the Internal resistance will increase.
5) The specific gravity always Maintain by SG 1.22 -1.25 for Lead acid Battery cells.
6) The terminal voltage per cell is 2.2/per cell 7) a 12Volt Lead acid battery in fully charged condition it will
show 13.2Volts.
7) Cell Internal temperature also a factor for Internal resistance
many more ponits are there to write add more & present.

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