Unit I

CIM: Introduction to CIM, CIM Wheel, Evolution, Benefits, Trends.

Computers in Manufacturing:
Factory tasks for Computer Integration
Needs of CIM, CIM Hardware and Software, Workstations
Fundamentals of Communication: Communications Matrix Types.
Representation of data, Coding, Transmission, Medium
Types of Communication Lines and Hardware.
Network Architectures: The seven layers
OSI Model , LAN, MAP and Network Topologies.

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(12 hours)

Introduction to Computer Integrated manufacturing

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) encompasses the entire range of
product development and manufacturing activities with all the functions being
carried out with the help of dedicated software packages. The data required for
various functions are passed from one application software to another in a
seamless manner. For example, the product data is created during design. This
data has to be transferred from the modeling software to

manufacturing

software without any loss of data. CIM uses a common database wherever
feasible and communication technologies to integrate design, manufacturing
and associated business functions that combine the automated segments of a
factory or a manufacturing facility. CIM reduces the human component of
manufacturing and thereby relieves the process of its slow, expensive and errorprone component. CIM stands for a holistic and methodological approach to the
activities of the manufacturing enterprise in order to achieve vast improvement
in its performance.

This methodological approach is applied to all activities from the design of

the product to
methods,

means

customer support in an integrated way, using various

and

techniques

in

order

to

achieve

production

improvement, cost reduction, fulfillment of scheduled delivery dates, quality

1

improvement and total flexibility in the manufacturing system. CIM requires all
those associated with a company to involve totally in the process of product
development and manufacture. In such a holistic approach, economic, social
and human aspects have the same importance as technical aspects. CIM also
encompasses the whole lot of enabling technologies including total quality
management, business process
workflow

automation,

reengineering, concurrent engineering,

enterprise

resource

planning

and

flexible

manufacturing.

The challenge before the manufacturing engineers

is illustrated in Fig. 1

Figure 1 - Challenges in manufacturing

Manufacturing industries strive to reduce the cost of the product continuously

to remain competitive in the face of global competition. In addition, there is the
need to improve the quality and performance levels on a continuing basis.
Another important requirement is on time delivery. In the context of global
outsourcing and

long

supply

chains

cutting

across several

international

borders, the task of continuously reducing delivery times is really an arduous

2

task. CIM has several software tools to address the above needs.

Manufacturing engineers are required to achieve the following objectives to be

competitive in a global context.

Reduction in inventory

Lower the cost of the product

Reduce waste

Improve quality

Increase flexibility in manufacturing to achieve immediate and

rapid response to:
Product changes
Production changes
Process change
Equipment change
Change of personnel

CIM technology is an enabling technology to meet the above challenges to

the manufacturing.
Definition of CIM
Joel Goldhar, Dean, Illinois Institute of Technology gives CIM as a computer
system in which the peripherals are robots, machine tools and other processing
equipment.
Dan Appleton, President, DACOM, Inc. defines CIM is a management philosophy,
not a turnkey product.
3

Jack Conaway, CIM Marketing manager, DEC, defines CIM is nothing but a data
management and networking problem.
The computer and automated systems association of the society of
Manufacturing Engineers (CASA/SEM) defines CIM is the integration of total
manufacturing

enterprise

by

using

integrated

systems

and

data

communication coupled with new managerial philosophies that improve

organizational and personnel efficiency.
CIM is recognized as Islands of Automation. They are
1. CAD/CAM/CAE/GT
2. Manufacturing Planning and Control.
3. Factory Automation
4. General Business Management

CIM wheel
CASA/SMEs CIM Wheel is as shown in figure 2

Figure 2- CASA/SMEs CIM Wheel

Conceptual model of manufacturing

`The computer has had and continues to have a dramatic impact on the
development of production automation technologies. Nearly all modern production
systems are implemented today using computer systems. The term computer
integrated manufacturing (CIM) has been coined to denote the pervasive use of
computers to design the products, plan the production, control the operations,
and perform the various business related functions needed in a manufacturing
firm. CAD/CAM (computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing) is
another term that is used almost synonymously with CIM.

Let us attempt to define the relationship between automation and CIM by

developing a conceptual model of manufacturing. In a manufacturing firm, the
physical activities related to production that take place in the factory can be
distinguished from the information-processing activities, such as product design
5

and production planning, that usually occur in an office environment. The

physical activities include all of the manufacturing processing, assembly, material
handling, and inspections that are performed on the product. These operations
come in direct contact with the product during manufacture. They touch the
product. The relationship between the physical activities and the informationprocessing activities in our model is depicted in Figure 5. Raw materials flow in
one end of the factory and finished products flow out the other end. The physical
activities

(processing,

handling,

etc.)

take

place

inside

the

factory.

The

information-processing functions form a ring that surrounds the factory, providing

the data and knowledge required to produce the product successfully. These
information-processing functions include (1) certain business activities (e.g.,
marketing and sales, order entry, customer billing, etc.), (2) product design, (3)
manufacturing planning, and (4) manufacturing control. These four functions
form a cycle of events that must accompany the physical production activities
but which do not directly touch the product.

Now consider the difference between automation and CIM. Automation is

concerned with the physical activities in manufacturing. Automated production
systems are designed to accomplish the processing, assembly, material handling,
and inspecting activities with little or no human participation.

In the above figure

Model of manufacturing, showing (a] the factory as a

processing pipeline where the physical manufacturing activities are performed,

and (b) the information-processing activities that support manufacturing as a
ring that surrounds the factory concerned more with the informationprocessing functions that are required to support the production operations.
CIM involves the use of computer systems to perform the four types of
information-processing functions. Just as automation deals with the physical
activities, CIM deals with automating the information-processing activities in
manufacturing.

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is considered a natural
evolution of the technology of CAD/CAM which by itself evolved by the
integration of CAD and CAM. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT,
USA) is credited with pioneering the development in both CAD and CAM. The
need to meet the design and manufacturing requirements of aerospace
industries after the Second World War necessitated the development these
technologies.
The manufacturing technology available during late 40's and early 50's
could not meet the design and manufacturing challenges arising out of the
need to develop sophisticated aircraft and satellite launch vehicles. This
prompted the US Air Force to approach MIT to develop suitable control
systems, drives and programming techniques for machine tools using
electronic control.

The first major innovation in machine control is the Numerical

7

Control (NC), demonstrated at MIT in 1952. Early Numerical Control Systems

were all basically hardwired systems, since these were built with discrete
systems or with later first generation integrated chips. Early NC machines
used paper tape as an input medium. Every NC machine was fitted with a
tape reader to read paper tape and transfer the program to the memory of the
machine tool block by block. Mainframe computers were used to control a
group of NC machines by mid 60's. This arrangement was then called Direct
Numerical Control (DNC) as the computer bypassed the tape reader to
transfer the

program data

to the

machine controller. By late 60's mini

computers were being commonly used to control NC machines.

At this stage NC became truly soft wired with the facilities of mass
program storage, offline editing and software logic control and processing. This
development is called Computer Numerical Control (CNC). Since 70's, numerical
controllers are being designed around microprocessors, resulting in compact
CNC systems. A further development to this technology is the distributed
numerical control (also called DNC) in which processing of NC program is
carried out in different computers operating at different hierarchical levels typically from

mainframe host computers to

plant

computers to

the

machine controller. Today the CNC systems are built around powerful 32 bit
and

64

bit

microprocessors.

PC based

systems

are

also

becoming

increasingly popular.

Manufacturing

engineers

also

started

using

computers

for

such

tasks like inventory control, demand forecasting, production planning and

control etc. CNC technology was adapted in the development of co-ordinate
measuring machine's (CMMs) which automated inspection.

Robots

were

introduced to automate several tasks like machine loading, materials

handling, welding, painting and assembly. All these developments led to the
evolution of flexible manufacturing cells and flexible manufacturing systems in
late 70's.
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Evolution of Computer Aided Design (CAD), on the other hand was

to

cater

to

the geometric modeling needs of automobile and aeronautical

industries. The developments in computers, design workstations, graphic

cards, display devices and graphic input and output devices during the last
ten years have been phenomenal. This coupled with the development of
operating system with graphic user interfaces and powerful interactive (user
friendly) software packages for modeling, drafting, analysis and optimization
provides the necessary tools to automate the design process.

CAD in fact owes its development to the APT language project at MIT
in early 50's. Several clones of APT were introduced in 80's to automatically
develop NC codes from the geometric model of the component. Now, one can
model, draft, analyze, simulate, modify, optimize and create the NC code to
manufacture a component and simulate the machining operation sitting at a
computer workstation.

If
we

we

will

review t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g s c e n a r i o d u r i n g 8 0 s
find t h a t t h e manufacturing is characterized by a few islands

of automation. In the case of design, the task is well automated. In the case
of manufacture, CNC machines, DNC systems, FMC, FMS etc provide tightly
controlled

automation

implemented

in

systems.

several

areas

Similarly
like

computer

manufacturing

control
resource

has

been

planning,

accounting, sales, marketing and purchase. Yet the full potential of

computerization could not be obtained.

COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING CONCEPT

There are three major challenges to development of a smoothly operating

computer-integrated manufacturing system:
Integration of components from different suppliers: When different
machines, such as CNC, conveyors and robots, are using different
communications protocols. In the case of AGVs, even differing lengths of
time for charging the batteries may cause problems.
Data integrity: The higher the degree of automation, the more critical is
the integrity of the data used to control the machines. While the CIM
system saves on labor of operating the machines, it requires extra human
labor in ensuring that there are proper safeguards for the data signals that
are used to control the machines.
Process control: Computers may be used to assist the human operators of
the manufacturing facility, but there must always be a competent engineer
on hand to handle circumstances which could not be foreseen by the
designers of the control software.

10

Computer_Integrated_Manufacturing_control_system
Subsystems in computer-integrated manufacturing
A computer-integrated manufacturing system is not the same as a "lights-out"
factory, which would run completely independent of human intervention,
although it is a big step in that direction.
Part of the system involves flexible manufacturing, where the factory can be
quickly modified to produce different products, or where the volume of products
can be changed quickly with the aid of computers. Some or all of the following
subsystems may be found in a CIM operation:
Computer-aided techniques:
CAD (computer-aided design)
CAE (computer-aided engineering)
CAM (computer-aided manufacturing)
CAPP (computer-aided process planning)
CAQ (computer-aided quality assurance)
PPC (production planning and control)
ERP (enterprise resource planning)
A business system integrated by a common database.
Devices and equipment required:
CNC, Computer numerical controlled machine tools
DNC, Direct numerical control machine tools
PLCs, Programmable logic controllers
Robotics
Computers
11

Software
Controllers
Networks
Interfacing
Monitoring equipment
Technologies:
FMS, (flexible manufacturing system)
ASRS, automated storage and retrieval system
AGV, automated guided vehicle
Robotics
Automated conveyance systems
Others:
Lean manufacturing
CIMOSA
CIMOSA (Computer Integrated Manufacturing Open System Architecture), is a
1990s European proposal for an open system architecture for CIM developed by
the AMICE Consortium as a series of ESPRIT projects.[4][5] The goal of CIMOSA
was "to help companies to manage change and integrate their facilities and
operations to face world wide competition. It provides a consistent architectural
framework for both enterprise modeling and enterprise integration as required in
CIM environments".[6]
CIMOSA provides a solution for business integration with four types of
products:[7]

12

The CIMOSA Enterprise Modeling Framework, which provides a reference

architecture for enterprise architecture
CIMOSA IIS, a standard for physical and application integration.
CIMOSA Systems Life Cycle, is a life cycle model for CIM development and
deployment.
Inputs to standardization, basics for international standard development.
CIMOSA according to Vernadat (1996), coined the term business process and
introduced the process-based approach for integrated enterprise modeling based
on a cross-boundaries approach, which opposed to traditional function or
activity-based approaches. With CIMOSA also the concept of an "Open System
Architecture" (OSA) for CIM was introduced, which was designed to be vendorindependent, and constructed with standardised CIM modules. Here to the OSA
is "described in terms of their function, information, resource, and organizational
aspects. This should be designed with structured engineering methods and made
operational in a modular and evolutionary architecture for operational use".[6]
Application
There are multiple areas of usage:
In mechanical engineering
In electronic design automation (printed circuit board (PCB) and integrated
circuit design data for manufacturing)

unless all the segments of manufacturing are integrated, permitting the

transfer of data across various functional modules. This realization led to the
concept of computer integrated manufacturing. Thus the implementation of
CIM required the development of whole lot of computer technologies related
to hardware and software.
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CIM HARDWARE AND CIM SOFTWARE

CIM Hardware comprises the following:

i. Manufacturing equipment such as CNC machines or computerized work

centers, robotic work cells, DNC/FMS systems, work handling and tool
handling devices, storage devices, sensors, shop floor data collection
devices, inspection machines etc.
ii. Computers, controllers, CAD/CAM systems, workstations / terminals,
data entry terminals, bar code readers, RFID tags, printers, plotters and
other peripheral devices, modems, cables, connectors etc.,

CIM software comprises computer programmes to carry out the

following functions:

Management Information System

Sales

Marketing

Finance

Database Management

Modeling and Design

Analysis

Simulation

Communications

Monitoring

Production Control
14

Manufacturing Area Control

Job Tracking

Inventory Control

Shop Floor Data Collection

Order Entry

Materials Handling

Device Drivers

Process Planning

Manufacturing Facilities Planning

Work Flow Automation

Business Process Engineering

Network Management

Quality Management

NATURE AND ROLE OF THE ELEMENTS OF CIM SYSTEM

Nine major elements of a CIM system are in Figure 2 they are,

Marketing

Product Design

Planning

Purchase

Manufacturing Engineering

Factory Automation Hardware

Warehousing
15

Logistics and Supply Chain Management

Finance

Information Management

Figure 2 Major elements of CIM systems

i. Marketing: The need for a product is identified by the marketing division.

The specifications of the product, the projection of manufacturing
quantities and the strategy for marketing the product are also decided by
the marketing department. Marketing also works out the manufacturing
costs to assess the economic viability of the product.

ii. Product Design: The design department of the company establishes the
initial database for production of a proposed product. In a CIM system
this is accomplished through activities such as geometric modeling and
computer aided design while considering the product requirements and
concepts generated by the creativity of the design engineer. Configuration
16

management is an important activity in many designs.

Complex designs are usually carried out by several teams working

simultaneously, located often in different parts of the world. The design
process is constrained by the costs that will be incurred

in

production

production

and

by

the

capabilities

of

the

available

actual

equipment and processes. The design process creates the database

required to manufacture the part.

iii. Planning: The planning department takes the database established by

the design department and enriches it with production data and
information to produce a plan for the production of the product.
Planning involves several subsystems dealing with materials, facility,
process, tools, manpower, capacity, scheduling, outsourcing, assembly,
inspection, logistics etc. In a CIM system, this planning process should
be constrained by the production costs and by the production
equipment and process capability, in order to generate an optimized
plan.

iv. Purchase: The purchase departments is responsible for placing the

purchase orders and follow up, ensure quality in the production
process of the vendor, receive the items, arrange for inspection and
supply the items to the stores or arrange timely delivery depending on the
production schedule for eventual supply to manufacture and assembly.

v. Manufacturing Engineering: Manufacturing Engineering is the activity of

carrying out the production of the product, involving further enrichment
of the database with performance data and information about the
production equipment and processes. In CIM, this requires activities like
17

CNC programming, simulation and computer aided scheduling of the

production activity. This should include online dynamic scheduling and
control based on the real time performance of the equipment and
processes to assure continuous production activity. Often, the need to
meet fluctuating market demand requires the manufacturing system
flexible and agile.

vi. Factory Automation Hardware: Factory automation equipment further

enriches the database with equipment and process data, resident either in
the operator or the equipment to carry out the production process. In
CIM

system

this

consists

of computer controlled process machinery

such as CNC machine tools, flexible manufacturing systems (FMS),

Computer controlled robots, material handling systems, computer controlled
assembly systems, flexibly automated inspection systems and so on.
vii.

Warehousing: Warehousing is

the

function

involving storage

and

retrieval of raw materials, components, finished goods as well as shipment

of items. In today's complex outsourcing s c e n a r i o
just-in-time

supply

of

components

and t h e

need

for

and subsystems, logistics and

supply chain management assume great importance.

viii. Finance: Finance deals with the resources pertaining to money.

Planning of investment, working capital, and cash flow control,
realization of receipts, accounting and allocation of funds are the major
tasks of the finance departments.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION LINES AND HARDWARE:

Power line communication or power line carrier (PLC), also known as power
line digital subscriber line (PDSL), mains communication, power line telecom
18

(PLT), power line networking (PLN), or broadband over power lines (BPL) are
systems for carrying data on a conductor also used for electric power
transmission. A wide range of power line communication technologies are needed
for different applications, ranging from home automation to Internet access.
Electrical

power

is

transmitted

over

long

distances

using

high

voltage

transmission lines, distributed over medium voltages, and used inside buildings
at lower voltages. Most PLC technologies limit themselves to one set of wires
(such as premises wiring within a single building), but some can cross between
two levels (for example, both the distribution network and premises wiring).
Typically transformers prevent propagating the signal, which requires multiple
technologies to form very large networks. Various data rates and frequencies are
used in different situations.
A number of difficult technical problems are common between wireless and
power line communication, notably those of spread spectrum radio signals
operating in a crowded environment. Potential interference, for example, has been
a long concern of amateur radio groups.
CIM IMPLEMENTATION AND DATA COMMUNICATION
CIM and company strategy
Does that mean the starting point for CIM is a network to link all the
existing islands of automation and software? Or is it the integration of the
existing departmental functions and activities as suggested by the CIM wheel?
The answer to both the questions just posed is no. the starting point for
CIM is not islands of automation or software, not is it the structure presented by
the CIM wheel, rather it is a companys business strategy.
CIM open system architecture (CIMOSA)
CIMOSA was produced as generic reference architecture for CIM integration
as part of an ESPRIT project. The architecture is designed to yield executable
models or parts of models leading to computerized implementations for managing
an enterprise.
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Manufacturing enterprise wheel

The new manufacturing enterprise wheels focus is now the customer at
level 1, and it identifies 15 key processes circumferentially at level 4. These are
grouped under the headings of customer support, product/process and
manufacturing.
CIM ARCHITECTURE
CIM Architecture Overview
To develop a comprehensive CIM strategy and solutions, an enterprise
must begin with .solid foundations such as CIM architecture. A CIM architecture
is an information systems structure that enables industrial enterprises integrate
information and business processes It accomplishes this first by establishing the
direction integration will take; and second, by defining the interfaces between the
users and the providers of this integration function.The chart (Figure 2.1)
illustrates how a CIM architecture answers the enterprises integration needs. As
you can see here, a CIM architecture provides a core of common services. These
services support every other area of the enterprisefrom its common support
functions to its highly specialized business processes.
Three key building blocks
The information environment of an industrial enterprise is subject to frequent
changes in systems configuration and technologies. A CIM architecture can offer
a flexible structure that enables it to react to these changes. This structure relies
on a number of modular elements that allow systems to change more easily to
grow along with enterprise needs. And as you can see from the chart on the
facing page, the modular elements that give a CIM architecture its flexible
structure are based on three key building blocks:
Communicationsthe communication and distribution of data.
Data managementthe definition, storage and use of data
20

 Presentationthe presentation of this data to people and devices throughout the

enterprise

Data dictionary

Data repository and store

A layered structure

Repository builder

Product data management (PDM): CIM implementation software

The four major modules typically contained within the PDM software are

Process models

Process project management

Data management

Data and information kitting

The PDM environment provides links to a number of software packages

used by a company. They are
21

A CAD package

A manufacturing/production management package

A word processing package

Databases for various applications

Life-cycle data

COMMUNICATION FUNDAMENTALS

A frequency

An amplitude

A phase which continuously changes

A bandwidth

An introduction to baseband and broadband

Telephone terminology

Digital communications

Local area networks

Signal transmission, baseband and broadband

Interconnection media

Topology

Star topology

Ring topology

Bus topology

Tree topology

LAN implementations

Client server architecture

22

Networks and distributed systems

Multi-tier and high speed LANs

Network management and installation

Security and administration

Performance

Flexibility

User interface

Installation

OPEN SYSTEM AND DATABASE FOR CIM

Open system interconnection (OSI) model

The physical layer

The data link layer

The network layer

The transport layer

The session layer

The presentation layer

The application layer

Manufacturing automation protocol and technical office protocol

Basic database terminology

Database management system

Database system
23

Data model

Transaction

Schema

Data definition language

Data manipulation language

Applications program

Host language

Database administrator

The architecture of a database system

Internal schema

External schema

Conceptual schema

Data modeling and data associations

Data modeling is carried out by using a data modeling method and one of a
number of graphic representations to depict data groupings and the relationship
between groupings.
Data associations

One-to-One

One-to-Many

Many-to-One

Many-to-Many

Relational databases
The terms illustrated are relation, tuple, attribute, domain, primary key
and foreign key.
24

Database operators

Union

Intersection

Difference

Product

Project

Select

Join

Divide

NETWORK ARCHITECTURES:
OSI model and its 7 layers
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a product of the
Open Systems Interconnection effort at the International Organization for
Standardization. It is a prescription of characterizing and standardizing the
functions of a communications system in terms of abstraction layers. Similar
communication functions are grouped into logical layers. An instance of a layer
provides services to its upper layer instances while receiving services from the
layer below.
For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a
network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next
lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of that path.
Two instances at one layer are connected by a horizontal connection on that
layer.
OSI 7 Layers Reference Model For Network Communication
25

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model developed

by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) in 1984, as a conceptual
framework of standards for communication in the network across different
equipment and applications by different vendors. It is now considered the
primary

architectural

model

for

inter-computing

and

internetworking

communications. Most of the network communication protocols used today have

a structure based on the OSI model. The OSI model defines the communications
process into 7 layers, which divides the tasks involved with moving information
between networked computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups.
A task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers.

Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each

layer can be implemented independently. This enables the solutions offered by
one layer to be updated without adversely affecting the other layers. The OSI 7
layers model has clear characteristics. Layers 7 through 4 deal with end to end
communications between data source and destinations. Layers 3 to 1 deal with
communications between network devices.
On the other hand, the seven layers of the OSI model can be divided into
two groups: upper layers (layers 7, 6 & 5) and lower layers (layers 4, 3, 2, 1). The
upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are
implemented only in software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest
to the end user. The lower layers of the OSI model handle data transport issues.
The physical layer and the data link layer are implemented in hardware and
software. The lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network
medium (the wires, for example) and is responsible for placing data on the
medium.
The specific description for each layer is as follows:

26

Layer 7:Application Layer

Defines interface to user processes for communication and data transfer in
network
Provides standardized services such as virtual terminal, file and job transfer and
operations
Layer 6:Presentation Layer
Masks the differences of data formats between dissimilar systems
Specifies architecture-independent data transfer format
Encodes and decodes data; Encrypts and decrypts data; Compresses and
decompresses data
Layer 5:Session Layer
Manages user sessions and dialogues
Controls establishment and termination of logic links between users
Reports upper layer errors
Layer 4:Transport Layer
Manages end-to-end message delivery in network
Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery through error recovery and flow
control mechanisms
Provides connectionless oriented packet delivery
Layer 3:Network Layer
27

Determines how data are transferred between network devices

Routes packets according to unique network device addresses
Provides flow and congestion control to prevent network resource depletion
Layer 2:Data Link Layer
Defines procedures for operating the communication links
Frames packets
Detects and corrects packets transmit errors
Layer 1:Physical Layer
Defines physical means of sending data over network devices
Interfaces between network medium and devices
Defines optical, electrical and mechanical characteristics
There are other network architecture models, such as IBM SNA (Systems Network
Architecture) model . Those models will be discussed in separate documents.
The OSI 7 layer model is defined by ISO in document 7498 and ITU X.200, X.207,
X.210, X.211, X.212, X.213, X.214, X.215, X.217 and X.800. The protocols defined
by ISO based on the OSI 7 layer mode are as follows:

Application

ACSE: Association Control Service Element

CMIP:

Common Management
28

Information Protocol
CMIS:

Common Management

Information Service
CMOT: CMIP over TCP/IP
FTAM: File Transfer Access and Management
ROSE: Remote Operation Service Element
RTSE: Reliable

Transfer Service Element

Protocol
VTP: ISO Virtual Terminal Protocol
X.400: Message Handling Service (ISO email
transmission service) Protocols
X.500:

Directory

Access

Service

Protocol

(DAP)
Presentation
Layer

ISO-PP: OSI Presentation Layer Protocol

ASN.1: Abstract Syntax Notation One

Session Layer

ISO-SP: OSI Session Layer Protocol

Transport

ISO-TP: OSI Transport Protocols: TP0, TP1,

Layer

TP2, TP3, TP4

Network Layer

ISO-IP:

CLNP:

Connectionless

Network

Protocol

29

CONP: Connection-Oriented Network Protocol

ES-IS: End System to Intermediate System
Routing Exchange protocol
IDRP: Inter-Domain Routing Protocol
IS-IS: Intermediate System to Intermediate
System
Data Link

HDLC: High Level Data Link Control protocol

LAPB: Link Access Procedure Balanced for
X.25

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects

computers in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or
office building. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area
networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller
geographic area, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines.
ARCNET, Token Ring and other technology standards have been used in the past,
but Ethernet over twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most common
technologies currently used to build LANs.
Definition: A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a
group of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building,
a school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers,
games or other applications. A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to
the Internet or other WAN.
Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware
such as Ethernet cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other
more advanced LAN hardware options also exist.
30

Specialized operating system software may be used to configure a local area

network. For example, most flavors of Microsoft Windows provide a software
package called Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) that supports controlled access
to LAN resources.
The term LAN party refers to a multiplayer gaming event where participants bring
their own computers and build a temporary LAN.

Examples:
The most common type of local area network is an Ethernet LAN. The smallest
home LAN can have exactly two computers; a large LAN can accommodate many
thousands of computers. Many LANs are divided into logical groups called
subnets. An Internet Protocol (IP) "Class A" LAN can in theory accommodate more
than 16 million devices organized into subnets.
Manufacturing automation protocol (MAP)
The launch of the MAP initiates the use of open systems and the movement
towards the integrated enterprise.
Product related activities of a company
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1. Marketing
Sales and customer order servicing
2. Engineering
Research and product development
Manufacturing development
Design
Engineering release and control
Manufacturing engineering
Facilities engineering
Industrial engineering
3. Production planning
Master production scheduling
Material planning and resource planning
Purchasing
Production control
4. Plant operations
Production management and control
Material receiving
Storage and inventory
Manufacturing processes
Test and inspection
Material transfer
Packing, dispatch and shipping
Plant site service and maintenance
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5. Physical distribution
Physical distribution planning
Physical distribution operations
Warranties, servicing and spares
6. Business and financial management
Company services
Payroll
Accounts payable, billing and accounts receivable
NETWORK TOPOLOGY:
Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various
elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer or biological network. Network
topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology refers to the physical
design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical
topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its
physical design. In general physical topology relates to a core network whereas
logical topology relates to basic network.
Topology can be understood as the shape or structure of a network. This
shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical design of the
devices on the computer network. The computers on a home network can be
arranged in a circle but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a ring
topology.
Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical
mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between
nodes. The study of network topology uses graph theory. Distances between
nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may
differ in two networks and yet their topologies may be identical.
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A local area network (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a
physical topology and a logical topology. Any given node in the LAN has one or
more links to one or more nodes in the network and the mapping of these links
and nodes in a graph results in a geometric shape that may be used to describe
the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the mapping of the data flow
between the nodes in the network determines the logical topology of the network.
The physical and logical topologies may or may not be identical in any particular
network.
Topology
There are two basic categories of network topologies:
Physical topologies
Logical topologies
The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical
topology of the network. This refers to the layout of cabling, the locations of
nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling. The physical
topology of a network is determined by the capabilities of the network access
devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance desired, and the cost
associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits.
The logical topology, in contrast, is the way that the signals act on the network
media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to
the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A
network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For
example, the original twisted pair Ethernet using repeater hubs was a logical bus
topology with a physical star topology layout. Token Ring is a logical ring
topology, but is wired a physical star from the Media Access Unit.
The logical classification of network topologies generally follows the same
classifications as those in the physical classifications of network topologies but
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describes the path that the data takes between nodes being used as opposed to
the actual physical connections between nodes. The logical topologies are
generally determined by network protocols as opposed to being determined by the
physical layout of cables, wires, and network devices or by the flow of the
electrical signals, although in many cases the paths that the electrical signals
take between nodes may closely match the logical flow of data, hence the
convention

of

using

the

terms

logical

topology

and

signal

topology

interchangeably.
Logical topologies are often closely associated with Media Access Control
methods and protocols. Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured
by special types of equipment such as routers and switches.
The study of network topology recognizes seven basic topologies:
Point-to-point
Bus
Star
Ring
Mesh
Tree
Hybrid
Daisy chain
Point-to-point
The simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints. Switched
point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony. The value
of a permanent point-to-point network is unimpeded communications between
the two endpoints. The value of an on-demand point-to-point connection is
proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers, and has been
expressed as Metcalfe's Law.
Permanent (dedicated)
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Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a

point-to-point communications channel that appears, to the user, to be
permanently associated with the two endpoints. A children's tin can telephone is
one

example

of

physical

dedicated

channel.

Within

many

switched

telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One

example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is
programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down" a
switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two
points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer
needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio.
Switched:
Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point
circuit can be set up dynamically, and dropped when no longer needed. This is
the basic mode of conventional telephony.
Bus

Bus network topology

In local area networks where bus topology is used, each node is connected
to a single cable. Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable. A
signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the
bus cable until it finds the intended recipient. If the machine address does not
match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data.
Alternatively, if the data matches the machine address, the data is
accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather inexpensive
to implement when compared to other topologies. However, the low cost of
36

implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of managing the network.
Additionally, since only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure. If
the network cable is terminated on both ends and when without termination data
transfer stop and when cable breaks, the entire network will be down.
Linear bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are
connected to a common transmission medium which has exactly two endpoints
(this is the 'bus', which is also commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk)
all data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted over this
common transmission medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the
network simultaneously.[1]
Note: The two endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally
terminated with a device called a terminator that exhibits the characteristic
impedance of the transmission medium and which dissipates or absorbs the
energy that remains in the signal to prevent the signal from being reflected or
propagated back onto the transmission medium in the opposite direction, which
would cause interference with and degradation of the signals on the transmission
medium.
Distributed bus
The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are
connected to a common transmission medium which has more than two
endpoints that are created by adding branches to the main section of the
transmission medium the physical distributed bus topology functions in exactly
the same fashion as the physical linear bus topology (i.e., all nodes share a
common transmission medium).
Notes:
1. All of the endpoints of the common transmission medium are
normally terminated using 50 ohm resistor.
37

2. The linear bus topology is sometimes considered to be a special case

of the distributed bus topology i.e., a distributed bus with no
branching segments.
3. The physical distributed bus topology is sometimes incorrectly
referred to as a physical tree topology however, although the
physical distributed bus topology resembles the physical tree
topology, it differs from the physical tree topology in that there is no
central node to which any other nodes are connected, since this
hierarchical functionality is replaced by the common bus.
Star

Star network topology

In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected
to a central hub with a point-to-point connection. The network does not
necessarily have to resemble a star to be classified as a star network, but all of
the nodes on the network must be connected to one central device. All traffic that
traverses the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal
repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and
implement. An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding
additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that the hub
represents a single point of failure.

38

1. A point-to-point link (described above) is sometimes categorized as a

special instance of the physical star topology therefore, the simplest
type of network that is based upon the physical star topology would
consist of one node with a single point-to-point link to a second node,
the choice of which node is the 'hub' and which node is the 'spoke'
being arbitrary.
2. After the special case of the point-to-point link, as in note (1) above,
the next simplest type of network that is based upon the physical
star topology would consist of one central node the 'hub' with two
separate point-to-point links to two peripheral nodes the 'spokes'.
3. Although most networks that are based upon the physical star
topology are commonly implemented using a special device such as a
hub or switch as the central node (i.e., the 'hub' of the star), it is also
possible to implement a network that is based upon the physical star
topology using a computer or even a simple common connection
point as the 'hub' or central node.
4. Star networks may also be described as either broadcast multiaccess or non broadcast multi-access (NBMA), depending on whether
the technology of the network either automatically propagates a
signal at the hub to all spokes, or only addresses individual spokes
with each communication.
Extended star
A type of network topology in which a network that is based upon the
physical star topology has one or more repeaters between the central node (the
'hub' of the star) and the peripheral or 'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being used to
extend the maximum transmission distance of the point-to-point links between
the central node and the peripheral nodes beyond that which is supported by the
transmitter power of the central node or beyond that which is supported by the
standard upon which the physical layer of the physical star network is based. If
the repeaters in a network that is based upon the physical extended star topology
39

are replaced with hubs or switches, then a hybrid network topology is created
that is referred to as a physical hierarchical star topology, although some texts
make no distinction between the two topologies.
Distributed Star
A type of network topology that is composed of individual networks that are
based upon the physical star topology connected together in a linear fashion
i.e., 'daisy-chained' with no central or top level connection point (e.g., two or
more 'stacked' hubs, along with their associated star connected nodes or
'spokes').
Ring

Ring network topology

A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels
around the ring in one direction and each device on the right acts as a repeater to
keep the signal strong as it travels. Each device incorporates a receiver for the
incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to the next device in the
ring. The network is dependent on the ability of the signal to travel around the
ring.

40

Mesh
The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the
number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two
endpoints, up to and including all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.
Fully connected

Fully connected mesh topology

The number of connections in a full mesh = n(n - 1) / 2.
Note: The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and
complex for practical networks, although the topology is used when there
are only a small number of nodes to be interconnected (see Combinatorial
explosion).
Partially connected

Partially connected mesh topology

41

The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are
connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link
this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is
provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense and
complexity required for a connection between every node in the network.
Note: In most practical networks that are based upon the partially connected
mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network
takes the shortest path between nodes,[ except in the case of a failure or break in
one of the links, in which case the data takes an alternative path to the
destination. This requires that the nodes of the network possess some type of
logical 'routing' algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular
time.
Tree

Tree network topology

The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of
the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in
the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the
second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second
level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have
one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third
level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root'
node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The
42

hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical.) Each node in the network having a specific
fixed number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the
number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.
This tree has individual peripheral nodes.
1. A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology must have at
least three levels in the hierarchy of the tree, since a network with a central 'root'
node and only one hierarchical level below it would exhibit the physical topology
of a star.
2. A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology and with a
branching factor of 1 would be classified as a physical linear topology.
3. The branching factor, f, is independent of the total number of nodes in the
network and, therefore, if the nodes in the network require ports for connection to
other nodes the total number of ports per node may be kept low even though the
total number of nodes is large this makes the effect of the cost of adding ports
to each node totally dependent upon the branching factor and may therefore be
kept as low as required without any effect upon the total number of nodes that
are possible.
4. The total number of point-to-point links in a network that is based upon the
physical hierarchical topology will be one less than the total number of nodes in
the network.
5. If the nodes in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology
are required to perform any processing upon the data that is transmitted between
nodes in the network, the nodes that are at higher levels in the hierarchy will be
required to perform more processing operations on behalf of other nodes than the
nodes that are lower in the hierarchy. Such a type of network topology is very
useful and highly recommended.
Definition: Tree topology is a combination of Bus and Star topology.

43

Hybrid
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a
way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies
(e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a tree network connected to a tree
network is still a tree network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced
when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two common
examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network
A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using
a multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using
a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).
While grid and torus networks have found popularity in high-performance
computing applications, some systems have used genetic algorithms to design
custom networks that have the fewest possible hops in between different nodes.
Some of the resulting layouts are nearly incomprehensible, although they
function quite well.
A Snowflake topology is really a "Star of Stars" network, so it exhibits
characteristics of a hybrid network topology but is not composed of two different
basic network topologies being connected together. Definition :Daisy chain Except
for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is
by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in series to the next. If a
message is intended for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces
it along in sequence until it reaches the destination. A daisy-chained network can
take two basic forms: linear and ring.
A linear topology puts a two-way link between one computer and the next.
However, this was expensive in the early days of computing, since each

44

computer (except for the ones at each end) required two receivers and two
transmitters.
By connecting the computers at each end, a ring topology can be
formed. An advantage of the ring is that the number of transmitters and
receivers can be cut in half, since a message will eventually loop all of the
way around. When a node sends a message, the message is processed by
each computer in the ring. If a computer is not the destination node, it will
pass the message to the next node, until the message arrives at its
destination.
If the message is not accepted by any node on the network, it will travel
around the entire ring and return to the sender. This potentially results in
a doubling of travel time for data.
This is similar in some ways to a grid network, where a linear or ring
topology is used to connect systems in multiple directions. A multi-dimensional
ring has a toroidal topology, for instance. A fully connected network, complete
topology or full mesh topology is a network topology in which there is a direct link
between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are
n(n-1)/2 direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very
expensive to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due to the multiple
paths for data that are provided by the large number of redundant links between
nodes. This topology is mostly seen in military applications

45