Lpic-1 LTlinux

StudyGuidefor
LinuxSystemAdministration1
LabworkforLPI101
version0.2
releasedundertheGFDLbyLinuxIT
LinuxITTechnicalTrainingCentre
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Copyright (c) 2005 LinuxIT.

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
with the Invariant Sections being History, Acknowledgements,Funding with
the Front-Cover Texts being released under the GFDL by LinuxIT.
seefulllicenseagreementonp.180
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Introduction:
Acknowledgments
TheoriginalmaterialwasmadeavailablebyLinuxIT'stechnicaltrainingcentrewww.linuxit.com.Many
thankstoAndrewMeredithforsuggestingtheideainthefirstplace.Aspecialthankstoallthestudentswho
havehelpeddilutethetechnicalaspectsofLinuxadministrationthroughtheirmanyquestions,thishasledto
theinclusionofmoreillustrationsattemptingtointroduceconceptsinauserfriendlyway.Finally,many
thankstoPaulMcEneryforthetechnicaladviceandforstartingoffsomeofthemostdifficultchapterssuch
astheonescoveringtheXserver(101),modems(102)andtheLinuxkernel(102).
Themanualisavailableonlineathttp://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/lpimanuals.Thankyoutothe
SavannahVolunteersforassessingtheprojectandprovidinguswiththeWebspace.
Funding
DevelopmentofthesematerialshavepartiallybeenfundedbyUNDPAPDIPInternationalOpenSource
NetworkandInternationalDevelopmentResearchCentreCanada.
Trademarks
LinuxistheregisteredtrademarkofLinusTorvaldsintheU.S.andothercountries.
RedHatLinuxandRedHatEnterpriseLinuxareregisteredtrademarksofRedHat,Inc.
MandrivaLinuxisaregisteredtrademarkofMandrivaInc.
SUSE(SUSEisatrademarkofSUSELINUXProductsGmbH,aNovellbusiness)
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UNIXisaregisteredtrademarkoftheOpenGroup.
History
Firstrelease(version0.0)October2003.ReviewedbyAdrianThomasset.
RevisedJanuary2004afterreviewbyAndrewMeredith.
November2004.Sectiononexpansioncardsaddedin'HardwareConfiguration'chapterbyAdrian
Thomasset
December2004.IndexandmappedobjectivesaddedbyAdrianThomasset.
January2005.Glossaryofterms,commandandfilereviewaddedatendofchaptersbyAdrianThomasset
June2005.AddednewentriesinlinewithrecommendationsfromSerNetfortheLATMprocess,byAndrew
MeredithwithadditionaltextsuppliedbyAndrewDMarshallandreviewbyAdrianThomasset.Sectionon
DebiantoolssuppliedbyDuncanThomson.
August2005."LinuxSystemAdministration1LabworkLPI101version0.2"hasbeenawardedtheLATM
statusbySerNet.
DramatisPersoni
AdrianThomasset
AndrewMeredith
AndrewDMarshall
DuncanThomson
<adriant@linuxit.com>
<andrew@anvil.org>
<admarshall@gmail.com>
<thomci0@paisley.ac.uk>
http://www.linuxit.com/
http://www.anvil.org/
http://h0lug.sourceforge.net/
http://www.paisley.ac.uk/
Goals
Thismanualsprimaryaimistoprovideexplanations,examplesandexercisesforthosepreparingforthe
LinuxProfessionalInstitute(LPI)CertificationProgramme1(LPIC1),Exam101.
Threecoresourcesofcriteriaguidethismanualtoitsprimarygoals:
TheLPI'sExam101"Objectives".
ItsLPIApprovedTrainingMaterials(LATM)criteria.
TheLinuxDocumentationProject(LDPorTLDP)AuthorGuide(AG).
TheLPI'sExam101ObjectivesandLATMcriteriaaresummarizedbelow.TheObjectivesarealsoonlineat:
http://www.lpi.org/en/obj_101.html
TheLDPAuthorGuide[http://www.tldp.org/LDP/LDPAuthorGuide/]providesaconsistent,comprehensive
setofguidelinesforthosewantingtopublishHOWTOs,TutorialsandManualsviatheworld'slargest
GNU/Linuxdocumentationsystem,theLDP.
Thismanualadoptsasitssecondprimeobjective,onequalfootingwithitsfirst,theLDPAuthorGuide's
challengetoprospectiveLDPauthors,"tomassagealloftherawdataintoareadable,entertainingand
understandablewhole."[LDPAG,4.1.WritingtheText]
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IntendedTrainingSchedules
ThecontenthereinisdesignedtoaccompanypracticalcoursespreparingfortheLPI101examoftheLPIC1
programme.Whilethismaterialwasgenerallystructuredtoworkwithacourseof2432hoursinconsecutive
8hoursessions,itismodularizedtoalsoworkforshorterorlongersessions,consecutiveorotherwise.
IntendedAudience&Prerequisites
Thismanual'smaterialassumesitsuserswillalreadyhave:
Extensiveexperience(severalyears)usingIntelx86computers,includingastrongknowledgeof
hardwarecomponentsandtheirinteractionwithbasicoperatingsystem(OS)components.
Ageneralknowledgeofcomputingandnetworkingbasicssuchasbinaryandhexadecimalmaths,
commonunitsofmeasure(bytes,KBvsKb,Mhz,etc),filesystemstructures,EthernetandInternet
networkingoperationsandhardware,etc.
MorethanthreecumulativemonthsofpracticalexperienceusingaGNU/Linux,BSDorUnixOS,loggedin
andworkingatthecommandline(inatextterminalorconsole)eitherlocallyorremotely.
Thosewithlessexperience,however,shouldnotbediscouragedfromusingthismanual,if(andonlyif)they
arewillingtospendextratimecatchingupontheprerequisitebackgroundskillsandknowledge;a
challengingtask,butnotanimpossibleone.
Furtherreferencesandexamplesareprovidedforthevarioususesofcommands,aswellasexercisesand
accompanyinganswersdemonstratingexamlikeproblemsolving.Allareoptionalwiththosemost
recommendedeitherdiscussedorreferencedinthemanual'sbody.
TheLPICertificationProgram
TherearecurrentlytwoLPIcertificationlevels.ThefirstlevelLPIC1isgrantedafterpassingbothexamsLPI
101andLPI102.SimilarlypassingtheLPI201andLPI202examswillgrantthesecondlevelcertification
LPIC2.
TherearenocertificationprerequisitesforLPI101and102.HowevertheexamsforLPIC2canonlybe
attemptedonceLPIC1hasbeenobtained.
InstructorNotice
Therearenoinstructornoteswiththismanual.Thefollowingissuesmustbeconsidered.
TheexercisesinthesectionsManagingDevicesandTheLinuxFilesystembothassumethatanew
partitioncanbecreated.Makesureduringtheinstallationthatalargeextendedpartitionwithatleast100MB
freespaceisavailableafterallthepartitionshavebeencreated.
ThefollowingRPMpackagesareneededfortheexercises:
rpmbuild
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sharutils
NoGuarantee
Themanualcomeswithnoguaranteeatall.
Resources
www.lpi.org
www.linuxpraxis.de
www.lpiforums.com
www.tldp.org
www.fsf.org
www.linuxit.com
Notations
Commandsandfilenameswillappearinthetextinbold.
The<>symbolsareusedtoindicateanonoptionalargument.
The[]symbolsareusedtoindicateanoptionalargument
Commandsthatcanbetypeddirectlyintheshellarehighlightedasbelow
command
or
command
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Contents
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INTRODUCTION:........................................................................................................................... III
Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................................... iii
Funding.................................................................................................................................................... iii
Trademarks............................................................................................................................................. iii
History..................................................................................................................................................... iv
DramatisPersoni..................................................................................................................................... iv
Goals....................................................................................................................................................... iv
IntendedTrainingSchedules.................................................................................................................. iv
IntendedAudience&Prerequisites........................................................................................................... v
TheLPICertificationProgram.................................................................................................................. v
InstructorNotice....................................................................................................................................... v
NoGuarantee........................................................................................................................................... v
Resources................................................................................................................................................ v
Notations................................................................................................................................................. vi
INSTALLATION............................................................................................................................... 1
1.TheInstallationCD.............................................................................................................................. 2
2.LocalInstallations................................................................................................................................. 3
3.NetworkInstallation.............................................................................................................................. 3
4.Rescuedisk.......................................................................................................................................... 4
5.PartitioningSchemes............................................................................................................................ 5
6.EasyDualBooting............................................................................................................................... 6
7.ExercisesandSummary....................................................................................................................... 8
HARDWARECONFIGURATION...................................................................................................10
1.ResourceAllocation............................................................................................................................ 11
2.PCExpansionCards.......................................................................................................................... 12
3.USBSupport...................................................................................................................................... 13
4.SCSIDevices..................................................................................................................................... 14
5.Networkcards.................................................................................................................................... 15
6.Settingupmodems............................................................................................................................. 16
7.PrinterConfiguration........................................................................................................................... 21
8.SoundCards...................................................................................................................................... 22
9.ExercisesandSummary..................................................................................................................... 24
MANAGINGDEVICES................................................................................................................... 27
1.DisksandPartitions............................................................................................................................ 28
2.PartitioningTools:............................................................................................................................... 30
3.Bootloaders........................................................................................................................................ 31
4.Manageddevices............................................................................................................................... 33
5.Quotas................................................................................................................................................ 35
THELINUXFILESYSTEM............................................................................................................. 39
1.TheFilesystemStructure.................................................................................................................... 40
2.FormattingandFileSystemConsistency...........................................................................................42
3.MonitoringDiskUsage....................................................................................................................... 45
4.FilePermissionsandAttributes.......................................................................................................... 46
THECOMMANDLINE................................................................................................................... 56
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Contents
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1.Theinteractiveshell............................................................................................................................ 57
2.Variables............................................................................................................................................ 58
3.Input,Output,Redirection................................................................................................................... 59
4.MetacharactersandQuotes............................................................................................................... 62
5.TheCommandHistory........................................................................................................................ 63
6.OtherCommands............................................................................................................................... 64
7.ExerciseandSummary...................................................................................................................... 67
FILEMANAGEMENT.................................................................................................................... 71
1.Movingaroundthefilesystem............................................................................................................. 72
2.FindingFilesandDirectories.............................................................................................................. 72
3.Handlingdirectories............................................................................................................................ 74
4.Usingcpandmv................................................................................................................................. 74
5.HardLinksandSymbolicLinks........................................................................................................... 75
7.Touchinganddding........................................................................................................................... 76
PROCESSMANAGEMENT........................................................................................................... 81
1.Viewingrunningprocesses................................................................................................................. 82
2.ModifyingProcesses.......................................................................................................................... 83
3.Processesandtheshell..................................................................................................................... 85
TEXTPROCESSING..................................................................................................................... 89
1.cattheSwissArmyKnife.................................................................................................................... 90
2.Simpletools........................................................................................................................................ 91
3.Manipulatingtext................................................................................................................................ 93
SOFTWAREINSTALLATION........................................................................................................98
1.Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 99
2.StaticandSharedLibraries............................................................................................................ 100
3.SourceDistributionInstallation......................................................................................................... 104
4.TheRedHatPackageManagerRPM..............................................................................................107
5.DebianPackageManagement......................................................................................................... 112
6.TheAlienTool.................................................................................................................................. 116
7.ExercisesandSummary................................................................................................................... 117
ADVANCEDTEXTMANIPULATION...........................................................................................120
1.RegularExpressions........................................................................................................................ 121
2.Thegrepfamily................................................................................................................................. 121
3.Workingwithgrep............................................................................................................................. 122
4.egrepandfgrep................................................................................................................................ 122
5.TheStreamEditorsed................................................................................................................... 123
USINGVI..................................................................................................................................... 127
1.viModes........................................................................................................................................... 128
2.TextItems......................................................................................................................................... 128
3.InsertingText.................................................................................................................................... 129
4.CutandPaste................................................................................................................................... 129
5.CopyPaste....................................................................................................................................... 130
6.SearchandReplace........................................................................................................................ 130
7.UndoandRedo................................................................................................................................ 130
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8.RunningaShellCommand............................................................................................................... 131
9.SaveandQuit................................................................................................................................... 131
10.ExercisesandSummary................................................................................................................. 132
THEXENVIRONMENT............................................................................................................... 134
1.Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 135
2.ConfiguringX11R6........................................................................................................................... 136
3.ControllingXclients.......................................................................................................................... 138
4.StartingX.......................................................................................................................................... 139
5.TheDisplayManager....................................................................................................................... 140
6.TroubleshootingXClients................................................................................................................. 144
7.ChoosingaWindowManager........................................................................................................... 144
ANSWERSTOREVISIONQUESTIONS.....................................................................................149
LPI101OBJECTIVES................................................................................................................. 151
Topic101:Hardware&Architecture..................................................................................................... 151
Topic102:LinuxInstallation&PackageManagement.........................................................................153
Topic103:GNU&UnixCommands..................................................................................................... 155
Topic104:Devices,LinuxFilesystems,FilesystemHierarchyStandard..............................................158
Topic110:TheXWindowSystem........................................................................................................ 161
GNUFREEDOCUMENTATIONLICENSE..................................................................................163
INDEX.......................................................................................................................................... 168
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Installation
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Installation
Prerequisites
None
Goals
UnderstandthelayoutofatypicalLinuxinstallationCD
Performdifferenttypesofinstallations
Createasimplepartitionscheme(seealsop.32)
Contents
INSTALLATION............................................................................................................................... 1
1.TheInstallationCD.............................................................................................................................. 2
2.LocalInstallations................................................................................................................................. 3
3.NetworkInstallation.............................................................................................................................. 3
4.Rescuedisk.......................................................................................................................................... 4
5.PartitioningSchemes............................................................................................................................ 5
6.EasyDualBooting............................................................................................................................... 6
7.ExercisesandSummary....................................................................................................................... 8
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1.TheInstallationCD
ThevariousLinuxdistributionshavedifferentnamesforthedirectoriesontheinstallationCD.Thegeneric
structureoftheCDROMisasfollows:
GenericInstallationCDlayout
cdrom
dosutils
packages
images
packages:Thisdirectorycontainstheprecompiledpackages.Herearetheassociatednamesforthemain
distrubutions:
debian:dist
mandrake:Mandrake
redhat:RedHat
suse:suse
Initiallyallthesoftwareinstalledonthesystemcomesfromthesepackagedfiles.Seethesectiononpackage
managersonp.120formoredetails.
images:Thisdirectorycontainsvariousimages.Thesearespecialflatfilesoftencontainingdirectory
structures.Aninitialramdisk(initrd)isanexampleofanimagefile.Therearedifferenttypesofimages
necessaryto:
boottheinstallationprocess
provideadditionalkernelmodules
rescuethesystem
Someofthesefilescanbecopiedtoafloppydiskwhentheinstallationisstartedusingfloppiesratherthan
theCDROM.TheLinuxtoolusedtodothisisdd.Thereisatoolcalledrawritewhichdoesthesameunder
DOS.
Theimageisaspecialfilewhichmaycontainsubdirectories(muchlikeanarchivefile).
Imagefilestructure
DIR1
Imagefile
DIR2
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Animagefilecanbemountedonaloopdevice.IftheimagefilenameiscalledImagethenthefollowing
commandwillallowonetoviewthecontentofthisfileinthe/mnt/floppydirectory:
mount -o loop /path/to/Image /mnt/floppy
dosutils:thisdirectorycontainsDOStoolswhichmaybeusedtoprepareaLinuxinstallationsuchasthe
rawrite.exetoolmentionedabove.AnothertoolisthefipsutilitywhichnondestructivelypartionsaC:\drive
intwoprovidedtheunderlyingfilesystemtypeisFATandnotNTFS.
2.LocalInstallations
Theeasiestandmostcommontypeofinstallationisalocalinstallation.MostdistributionsareaCDisoimage
withanautomaticinstallationscript.OnmachineswithnoCDROMhardwareitisstillpossibletostartan
installationfromafloppy.
CDROMinstallation
ChangethesettingsintheBIOSforthecomputertobootfromCD.Theinstallationismenudrivenandallows
foradvancedandbasicconfiguration.
FloppyInstallation
Ifforsomereasonyoudon'tbootusingtheCDROMyouwillneedtocreateafloppyinstallationimage.This
canhappeniftheCDisnotbootableoryouhavedownloadedanonisoimageofthedistribution.
Makingabootableinstallationdisk
ddif=/path/to/<image_name>of=/dev/fd0 onalinuxbox
rawrite.exe
underWindows(notNT)
ForRedHatdistributionstheinstallationimagesareintheimagesdirectory.Thebasicimageisboot.img.
Otherimagesaremorespecialisedlikebootnet.imgorpcmcia.img.
InaSusedistributionthefloppyimageisinthedisksdirectoryandtheimageiscalledbootdisk.
3.NetworkInstallation
ForaRedHatinstallationthisisonlyaspecialisedfloppyinstallation.Makeabootablefloppyusingthe
bootnet.imgimage:
dd/mnt/cdrom/images/bootnet.imgof=/dev/fd0
Thefirstpartoftheinstallationistextbasedandwillallowyoutosetupthekeyboardandthenetwork
parametersneeded.TherestoftheinstallationcanbedoneviaFTP,NFSorHTTP.Originallyprotocolsthat
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allowedafullmount(NFS)wouldalsoallowtheinstalltobedoneingraphicalmode,whilefileretrieval
protocols(FTPHTTP)wouldonlyallowtextmode.Withmostmoderndistributionsthisisnolongerthecase.
AlsonoticethatmostmoderndistributionsoffernetworkinstallationsdirectlyfromtheCD(e.gMandrakedisk
2willstartanetworktypeinstallationorFedoraCorecantaketheparameteraskmethodatboottime).
4.Rescuedisk
IfaLinuxsystemiscorruptitispossibletobootthecomputerusingarescuedisk.Thisisasmallversionof
Linuxthatwillmountaminimalvirtualfilesystemintomemory.
TheLinuxoperatingsystemrunsentirelyinRAM.TheaimistoaccesstherootfilesystemonthePChard
drive.Mostrescuediskscandeterminethisautomatically.Assumingtherootfilesystemwasfoundonthe
firstlogicalpartitionofthecomputer'sfirstIDEdisk(/dev/hda5),therescuediskscriptcanthenmountthis
resourceonasubdirectoryofthefilesysteminRAM,say/mnt/system.
Changingperspectives
Inthissituationwehavetworootfilesystemsasdepictedbelow.Tousetherootfilesystemonthehard
driveasourtopdirectoryweneedtochangeourperspective(changeroot).Thechroottooldoesjustthat:
chroot /mnt/sysimage
Rescuemode
RAMkernel
initrd
rootfilesysteminRAMrootfilesystemonPCharddrive
Gettingstarted
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OldMethod:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Makeabootablefloppyusingtheboot.imgimagefile:ddif=boot.imgof=/dev/fd0
Copytherescue.imgimagefiletoasecondfloppy:ddif=rescue.imgof=/dev/fd0
Bootthesystemusingwiththeboot.imgdiskette
AttheLILOprompttype"linuxrescue".Youshouldseesomethinglike
Insertrootfilesystemdisk:
5. Inserttherescue.imgdisketteandpressenter
6. Thebootprocesswillcontinueuntilyougetashellprompt
7. Youmaystillneedtodeterminewheretherootfilesystemisontheharddrive(notcovered)
NewMethod:
1.InserttheLinuxinstallationdisk(Suse,RedHat,Mandrake...)
2.Attheprompttypelinuxrescue
3.Followtheinstructions.
4.Theinstuctionshouldsaywheretherootfilesystemismounted
5.Iftherootfilesystemismountedon/mnt/sysimagethenenterthefollowingcommand
5.PartitioningSchemes
Toaccessresourcesonaharddrivetheoperatingsystemusesamechanismcalled'mounting'.ForUNIX
typeoperatingsystemsthisinvolvesattachingadisktoanydirectorywhichisthencalledamountpoint.
Thefigurebelowshowsapossiblepartitioningscheme.Heremanyresources(notonlylocaldisksand
partitions,butpossiblynetworkshares,CDROMs,etc)areattachedonvariousmountpoints
Totheuserthefilesystemlayoutissimplyatreeofdirectoriesandsubdirectories.
Formingatreelikefilesystemstructure
Therootofthetreestructureiscalledrootandisrepresentedbyaforwardslash/.Therootmountpointis
alsothefirstdirectoryonwhichtheoperatingsystemwillattachadiskorresource,alsocalledtheroot
device.
Oncetherootismountedthedirectoriesandsubdirectoriespresentontherootdevicecanbeusedasfurther
mountpointsforotherdevices,formingasuccessionofdirectoriesorderedlikeatree.
Theprocessismadepossibleasfollows:
1.Thebootloaderwillloadakerneltellingitwheretherootdeviceis(alsosee"BootingLinux"LPI
102)
2.Theotherdirectoriesaremountedfollowinginstructionsfromthe/etc/fstabfile(seep.37)
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Mountpointsonthefilesystem
CreatingtheDiskLayout
WheninstallingLinuxonehastocreateapartitionscheme.Thisisaparticularstageoftheinstallation
processandisdonemostoftenwithaGUItoolsuchasYastorDiskDruid.Thesetoolsallowonetodothree
things:
createpartitionsofagivensize
selectthefilesystemtype(seep.49)
assignamountpointforeachpartition.
Someinstallationshavean'expertmode'whereitispossibletousefdisk(seep.33)tocreatethepartitions
only.
Aminimalpartitionschemeinvolvesonerootdeviceandanotherpartitionforswapping.Therearenorules
whencreatingadisklayoutbutonegenerallytakesintoaccountthefunctionofthecomputer(desktop,mail
server,etc).
TheSWAPpartition
Whencreatingapartitionschemeonealsohastomakedecisionsabouttheamountofswapspaceneeded.
Onceagain,therearenorules.Theamountofswapspaceneededdependsofthetypeofapplicationsthat
willrunonthePC(desktop,server,3Drendering,etc.).Howeverasaruleofthumb,fora2.4kernelwithan
averageamountofRAM(e.glessthan256MB)onewillgenerallycreateaswapspacetwiceaslargeasthe
amountofRAM.Witholder2.2kernelsonewouldcreateaswappartitionofthesamesizeastheamountof
RAM.
Swappingisgenerallydoneusingapartition.Inthepartitiontablethehexadecimalvalueforaswappartition
is82.
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NOTICE
Unlikepartitionsusedforstoringdataaswappartitionisnevermounted.Onealsodoesn'tassignamount
pointforsuchpartitions.TocreateaSWAPspaceduringtheinstallationonsimplyselectsthe'filesystem
type'labelled'SWAP'.
OncethesystemisrunninginformationabouttheSWAPpartitionsisavailablein/proc/swaps
OnecanalsocreateSWAPspaceareasusingfilesratherthanpartitions(seeLPI201).Thisisoftenusedfor
emergenciesonceasystemisrunningandnotduringtheinstallation.
6.EasyDualBooting
(Thissectionisnotforexampurposesandcanbeleftoutcompletely).
IfWindows9x/2kisalreadyinstalledonthesystemtheinstallationsetupwillautomaticallyconfigureLILOfor
dualbooting.
Preinstallation:
Beforealteringthesystemyoushouldrunadefragmentationprogramoverthewholedisk.Thiswillmake
surethatalltheblocksusedbytheWindowsoperatingsystemarerearrangedatthebeginningofthedisk.
Next,usingPartitionMagicorfips,partitiontheC:\driveintwo.TheWindowsprogramsarelocatedatthe
beginningoftheharddiskinthefirstpartition.ThesecondpartitionmustbelargeenoughtoholdaLinux
installation.
Notice:TheaverageamountofspaceneededforaLinuxdistributionis4GB.
StartingtheinstallationfromDOS:
FornonNTsystemsrestartyourcomputerinDOScommandmode.IfyouareinstallingRedHatthenyou
canrunE:\DOSUTILS\AUTOBOOT.BAT.Thiswillstarttheinstallationprogram.Similarlyifyouare
installingSuseyoucanrunE:\setup.exeunderDOS.
TheharddrivefromaWindows'perspective:
WhenrunningWindowstheOSwillonlyseetheFATandNTFSfilesystems.Therestofthediskwhere
Linuxisinstalledwillbeinaccessible.
TheharddrivefromaLinuxpointofview:
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WhenrunningLinuxtheWindowspartitionshouldbecalled/dev/hda1(sinceit'sthefirstpartitiononthefirst
physicaldisk).Bydefaultthispartitionisnotmounted.Youcanmakeadirectory/dosor/mnt/dosand
mountthispartition.ThediskpartitioncorrespondingtoC:\isthenaccessible.
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7.ExercisesandSummary
ReviewQuestions(answersp.165)
YesorNo
1.TherawritetoolrunsunderLinuxandisusedtocopyanimagefileontoafloppydisk
_____
2.Whendevisinganewpartitionschemeonanemptydiskanydiskpartitioncanbechosenastheroot
device
_____
Glossary
Term
Description
virtualfilesystem
afilesystemisadatastructurethatallowsdataonadisktobeorganisedand
accessedbytheuser.Howevertotheuserdataissimplylocatedinaseriesof
directoriesandsubdirectories.Thesedirectoriesformatreestructurewithatop
directorycalledtherootandnoted"/".Thisstructureisalsocalledthe'virtual
filesystem'becauseonedoesn'tneedtoknowanythingaboutthedisklayoutor
partitioningschemeinordertouseit.Thisisdifferenttothesituationwhenusinga
DOSbasedsystem;thereifthediskhasfourpartitionsalltheuserswillneedtoknow
thatdatacanbeineitherC:\,D:\,E:\orF:\and,inthisexample,thatthefirstCDROM
istheG:\device
mountpoint
adirectorywhereapartitionisattachedinordertomakethedeviceavailabletothe
system
partitioningscheme actionperformedduringtheinstallationtofixthenumberofpartitionsandmountpoints
inordertocreateastandard'virtualfilesystem'onwhichsoftwareisinstalled.The
standardwhichdecideswheresoftwarecomponentsareinstalledorwhereuserhome
directoriesarekeptiscalledthefilesystemhierarchystandard(FHS)andshould
influenceourchoiceswheninstallingLinux(e.gmostsoftwareisinstalledinthe/usr
directory,thereforealwaysmakesurethatthisdirectoryisonafairlylargepartition,at
least2GBinmostcases)
rescuemode
actionofrunningaLinuxoperatingsystementirelyinRAMtogetherwithasmallroot
filesystemcontainingenoughtoolstoaccesstheharddrive.Thisisgenerallystarted
withaninstallationCD
root(/)
thetopdirectorywhereafirstpartitionisattached.Eitherallthedirectoriesand
subdirectoriesneededcanbefoundonthispartitionorcertainsubdirectoriesofroot
canbeusedasmountpointstoattachfurtherpartitions(thisdependsonthepartition
schemechosenduringtheinstallation!)
Commands
Command
Description
chroot
changeintoadirectoryandconsiderthatdirectoryastheroot(/).Bydefaultchroot
triestoruntheBashshell/bin/bash,butitispossibletospecifyanyothercommand
(see'chrootedservers'inLPI202)
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dd
toolusedtocopyfilesaswellasportionsofadevice(e.gharddrive,CDROMor
floppy).AninstallationCDcontainsfilescalled'imagefiles'whicharecopiesof
installationordriverdisksthatcanbecopiedbackontoafloppy
fips.exe
autilityfoundonmostLinuxdistributionCDsthatisusedtoresizeaFATpartitionin
ordertomakespaceforadualbootWindows/Linuxsystem
rawrite
aDOSequivalentofdd
Exercises
1.DoalocalCDinstallation.Thefollowingpointsoutlineasuggestedstrategy.TheOPTIONALpointsshould
beattemptedonlybyadvancedusersfamiliarwithpackagemanagementandthevieditor.
(i)InstallationType:chooseCustom
(ii)DiskPartitioningSetup:PartitionthediskmanuallywithDiskDruid:
Thisisasuggestionforapartitioningschemeusingabout3GBofharddiskspace.Ifyouhavemore
spaceavailablethenmake/usrlargerandconsiderinstallingmorepackagesthanthosesuggestedin
step(iv)
IMPORTANT:Leaveafreepartitionofatleast100MB.Wewillneedthislater!!
/boot
/ 250M
/usr
/home
/tmp
/var
SWAP
20M
2300M
50M
100M
150M
128MNoticethatSWAPisafilesystemtypeandthatnomountpointisdefinedseep.6
(iii)(OPTIONAL)InstallLILOon/dev/hda2ornotatall.Inallcasesdonotusethesuggested/dev/hda,
whichistheMBR.
Wedeliberatelydon'twanttheinstallationtobootproperly.Thebootloaderwillbefixedinstep2(i)
inrescuemode.
(iv)Packagestoinstall:(thenamesmayvaryfromonedistributiontoanother)
XWindowSystem+GNOMEdesktopenvironmentORKDEdesktopenvironment
Editors
GraphicalInternet
SoftwareDevelopment[Thisisimportant,wewillneedthistocompilepackageslater]
(v)Dontcreateabootablefloppy
2.(OPTIONAL)Rescuethesystem:
(i)RebootwiththeinstallationCDROM.Attheprompttype:
linuxrescue
(ii)Readalltheinstructionsuntilyougettoaprompt.Usethechrootcommandassuggested.
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(iii)Youfirstneedtoinstallthelilopackage.Edit/etc/lilo.conf(usevi).Youshouldhave
boot=/dev/fd0
prompt
linear
timeout=50
image=/boot/vmlinuz<kernelversion>
label=linux
readonly
root=/dev/<rootpartition>
(v)Run/sbin/lilo.Ifanerroroccursyoumayhavetoreplacelinearbylba32dependingonyourdisk.
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HardwareConfiguration
________________________________________________
Prerequisites
None
Goals
Understandhardwareresourceallocation(IRQs,I/OportsandDMA)
Overviewhardwaredevicessuchasexpansioncards,USBandSCSIdevices
Detectionofnetworkinterfacesandprinters(noconfiguration)
Understandbasicconfigurationstepsformodemsandsoundcards
Contents
HARDWARECONFIGURATION..............................................................................................10
1.ResourceAllocation...................................................................................................................... 11
2.PCExpansionCards..................................................................................................................... 12
3.USBSupport................................................................................................................................. 13
4.SCSIDevices................................................................................................................................ 14
5.Networkcards............................................................................................................................... 15
6.Settingupmodems........................................................................................................................ 16
7.PrinterConfiguration...................................................................................................................... 21
8.SoundCards................................................................................................................................. 22
9.ExercisesandSummary............................................................................................................... 24
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1.ResourceAllocation
ToallowperipheralsanddevicesonthePCtocommunicatedirectlywithsystemresources,inparticular
theCPU,thesystemallocatesresourcessuchaslinesandchannelsforeachdevice.Theseresources
areInterruptRequestLines(IRQ),Input/OutputaddressesandDirectMemoryAccesschannels(DMA).
IRQs:TheInterruptRequestLinesallowdevicestorequestCPUtime.TheCPUwillstopitscurrent
activityandprocesstheinstructionssentbythedevice.IRQsrangefrom0to15.
I/Oaddress:Theserepresentspecificaddressesinthesystemsmemorymap.TheCPUwillthen
communicatewiththedevicebyreadingandwritingtomemoryatthespecifiedaddress.
DMA:CertaindevicescanaccessthesystemsmemorythroughaDMAchannel,allowingthemtowrite
andprocessdatawithoutaccessingtheCPU.Thiscanenhanceperformance.
ListingAllocatedResources
Thekernelkeepsinformationrelatedtoallocatedresourcesinthe/procdirectory.Therelevantfilesare:
/proc/dma
/proc/interrupts
/proc/ioports
/proc/pci
Allocatedresourcescanalsobelistedusingtoolssuchaslspcianddmesg:
lspci:listschipsetinformationofallattachedPCIcomponents.ListsI/OandIRQsettingswiththevflag.
Alsonoticetheb(BUScentric)optionwhichshowsallocationsassignedbytheBIOSratherthanthe
kernel.
dmesg.Continuouslydisplayskernelmessages.Italsodisplaysthekernelmessagesloggedatboottime
duringthekernelstage.Atthisstagethekernelscansallthehardwareonthesystemandcan
automaticallyallocatemodules(drivers)forgivenchipsets.Thesemessagesarealsoavailablein
/var/log/dmesg.
TypicalResources
Device
/dev/ttyS0
/dev/ttyS1
/dev/lp0
I/Oport
0x03f8
0x02f8
0x378
IRQ
4
3
7
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/dev/lp1
soundcard
0x278
0x220
ManualResourseAllocation
NOTICE:
Thisisaverycommonexample,howeversincekernelmodulesareonlydiscussedinLPI102somemay
finditdifficult.Youmayskipthisexampleandgotosection2
Example:configuringtwoethernetcards
1.Forstaticallycompiledmodules,parameterscanbepassedtothekernelatboottime.Atypical
exampleiswhentwoethernetcardsarepresentandonlythefirstoneisdetected.Thefollowinglinetells
thekernelthat:
thereisanethernetcardusingIRQ10andI/O0x300
thereisanotherethernetcardusingIRQ9andI/O0x340
ether=10,0x300,eth0
ether=9,0x340,eth1
YoutypethislineattheLILO/GRUBboot:prompt,orelse,aswiththeRAMsettingsbefore,edit
/etc/lilo.conf(useanappend=statement)or/etc/grub.conf.
Noticethattheether=statementisagenerickernelcommandsimilartoroot=,mem=orinit=.
Alsonoticethatyouneednotspecifyanyinformationabouttheethernetcard(Intel,Netgear...)
2.Fordynamicallycompiledmodules,IRQandI/Oaddresssettingscanbedefinedusing
/etc/modules.conf(or/etc/conf.modules).Assumingthatintheaboveexamplebothcardswhereusing
thee100.okernelmodule,then/etc/modules.confwouldcontainthefollowing:
aliaseth0e100
aliaseth1e100
optionseth0io=0x300irq=10
optionseth1io=0x340irq=9
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2.PCExpansionCards
ISAandPCIarethemostcommontypesofexpansioncards.Withthelatest2.4kernelthereisverylittle
tobedoneinordertoconfigurethese.InthecaseofISAbuseshowever,andonlywithearlierkernels,it
wasnecessarytoscantheISAbusinordertodetectexistingexpansioncards(sound,ethernet,etc).
TheisapnptoolspackageprovidedthepnpdumptoolwhichscannedtheISAbusfor'PlugandPlay'(pnp)
devices.TheoutputwouldcontainthechipsetofthecardtogetherwithI/Oport,DMAandIRQsettings.
Thisoutputwouldberedirectedto/etc/isapnp.confwherechangescouldbemadeifneeded.Atboot
timetheisapnptoolwouldreadisapnp.confandwouldconfiguretheseISAPnPdevices.
Sincekernel2.4PnPinitialisationissupportedthroughakernelmodulecalledisapnp.o
3.USBSupport
TheUniversalSerialBus(USB)isacommunicationarchitecturedesignedtoconnectdevicestoaPC.
Thesedevicesaredividedintofourclasses:
DisplayDevices
CommunicationDevices
AudioDevices
MassStorageDevices
HumanInterfaceDevices(HID)
ThedevicesarepluggedintoaUSBportwhichisdrivenbyaUSBcontroller.SupportforUSBcontrollers
ispresentintheLinuxkernelsinceversion2.2.7(TheLinuxUSBsubsystemHOWTO)
HostControlers
Thereare3typesofUSBhostcontrollers:
HostControlerKernelModule
OHCI(Compaq)
usbohci.o
UHCI(Intel)
usbuhci.o
EHCI(USBv2.0)
ehcihdc.o
OnceaUSBdeviceispluggedintoaPCwecanlistthedeviceswithlsusb:
lsusb
Bus001Device001:ID0000:0000
Bus001Device002:ID04a9:1055Canon,Inc.
Hotplugging
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Hotplugisamechanismusedtokeepthestateoftheoperatingsystemupdatedwhenpluggable
hardwaredevicesareaddedorremoved.Inmostcasesthekernelsignalsaneventbypassing
parameterstothescript/sbin/hotplug.
Thishotplugscriptrunsallthescriptsin/etc/hotplug.d(thedefaultisdefault.hotplug)whichinturn
startstheappropriateagentlistedin/etc/hotplug.Thenamesoftheagentscorrespondtodifferent
attachmenttypessuchasieee1394,net,pci,scsiandusb.
ThefollowinglogdescribeswhathappenswhenaUSBcameraisinitialised:
Stage1:USBkernelmodulesidentifyUSBeventandvendor/productID:
13:26:19kernel:hub.c:newUSBdevice00:07.21,assignedaddress5
13:26:19kernel:usb.c:USBdevice5(vend/prod0x4a9/0x3058)isnotclaimedbyanyactivedriver.
Stage2:Theeventargumentsarepassedtodefault.hotplug
13:26:19default.hotplug[10507]:arguments(usb)env(DEVFS=/proc/bus/usbOLDPWD=/
PATH=/bin:/sbin:/usr/sbin:/usr/binACTION=addPWD=/etc/hotplugHOME=/SHLVL=2
DEVICE=/proc/bus/usb/001/005PRODUCT=4a9/3058/1TYPE=255/255/255DEBUG=yes_=/bin/env)
Stage3:Theusb.agentassociatestheproducttoausbcam(usingusb.usermap)
13:26:19default.hotplug[10507]:invoke/etc/hotplug/usb.agent()
13:26:23usb.agent[10507]:SetupusbcamforUSBproduct4a9/3058/1
13:26:23usb.agent[10507]:ModulesetupusbcamforUSBproduct4a9/3058/1
13:26:38devlabel:devlabelservicestarted/restarted
FromthiswecanseethatStep1involvesthekernelmodulesandStep23involvethehotplug
mechanism.OnecanalsoseethatthecorrectUSBmapmustbeavailableinordertofullyinitialisethe
device.
Theusbmgrtool
OnDebiansystemsanalternativetohotplugisprovidedwiththeusbmgrpackage.Themainfilesare:
/usr/sbin/usbmgr
ThedaemonthatlistensforUSBrelatedevents
/usr/sbin/dump_usbdev
TooltolistUSBdevices(similartolsusb)
/etc/usbmgr/usbmgr.conf Configurationfilecontainingvendor/productIDs
4.SCSIDevices
TypesofSCSIdevices
TherearetwotypesofSCSIinterfaces:
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an8bitinterfacewithabusthatsupports8devices,thisincludesthecontroller,sothereisonlyspace
for7blockdevices(tapes,disks,etc)
a16bitinterface(WIDE)withabusthatsupports16devicesincludingthecontroller,sotherecanonly
be15blockdevices.
SCSIdevicesareuniquelyidentifiedusingasetof3numberscalledtheSCSIID:
a.theSCSIchannel
b.thedeviceIDnumber
c.thelogicalunitnumberLUN
TheSCSIChannel
EachSCSIadaptersupportsonedatachannelonwhichtoattachSCSIdevices(disc,CDROM,etc)
Thesechannelsarenumberedfrom0onwards.
DeviceIDnumber
EachdeviceisassignedauniqueIDnumberthatcanbesetusingjumpersonthedisk.TheIDsrange
from0to7for8bitcontrollersandfrom0to15for16bitcontrollers.
LogicalUnits
TheLogicalUnitNumber(LUN)isusedtodifferentiatebetweendeviceswithinaSCSItargetnumber.This
isused,forexample,toindicateaparticularpartitionwithinadiskdriveoraparticulartapedrivewithina
multidrivetaperobot.Itisnotseensooftenthesedaysashostadaptersarenowlesscostlyandcan
accommodatemoretargetsperbus.
HardwareDetection
Alldetecteddevicesarelistedinthe/proc/scsi/scsifile.TheexamplebelowisfromtheSCSI2.4
HOWTO
/proc/scsi/scsi
Attacheddevices:
Host: scsi0 Channel: 00 Id: 02 Lun: 00
Vendor: PIONEER
Type:
Model: DVD-ROM DVD-303
CD-ROM
Rev: 1.10
ANSI SCSI revision: 02
Host: scsi1 Channel: 00 Id: 00 Lun: 00

Vendor: IBM
Type:
Model: DNES-309170W
Direct-Access
Rev: SA30
ANSI SCSI revision: 03
Thescsi_infotoolusestheinformationin/proc/scsi/scsitoprintouttheSCSI_IDandthemodelofa
specifieddevice.Fromthefileabovescsi_infowouldproducethefollowingoutput:
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scsi_info /dev/sda
SCSI_ID="0,0,0"
MODEL="IBM DNES-309170W"
FW_REV="SA30"
BootingfromSCSIdisks
ThesystemwillbootfromthedevicewithSCSIID0bydefault.ThiscanbechangedintheSCSIBIOS
whichcanbeconfiguredatboottime.
IfthePChasamixtureofSCSIandIDEdisks,thenthebootordermustbeselectedinthesystemsBIOS
first.
5.Networkcards
Thenetworkinterfacecard(NIC)mustbesupportedbythekernel.Youcangetinformationaboutyour
currentcardusingeitherofthefollowing:
dmesg,lspci,scanpci,/proc/interrupts,/sbin/lsmod.or/etc/modules.conf:
dmesg
Linux Tulip driver cersion 0.9.14 (February 20, 2001)
PCI: Enabled device 00:0f.0 (0004 ->0007)
PCI: Found IRQ 10 for device 00:0f.0
eth0: Lite-On 82cl68 PNIC rev 32 at 0xf800, 00:0A:CC:D3:6E:0F,
IRQ 10
eth0: MII transceiver #1 config 3000 status 7829 advertising
cat/proc/interrupts
0:8729602XTPICtimer
1:4XTPICkeyboard
2:0XTPICcascade
7:0XTPICparport0
8:1XTPICrtc
10:622417XTPICeth0
11:0XTPICusbuhci
14:143040XTPICide0
15:180XTPICide1
/sbin/lsmod
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ModuleSizeUsedby
tulip
37360
1 (autoclean)
FromtheexamplesaboveweseethattheEthernetcardschipsetisTulip,thei/oaddressis0xf800and
theIRQis10.Thisinformationcanbeusedeitherifthewrongmoduleisbeingusedoriftheresources
(i/oorIRQ)areconflicting.
Thisinformationcaneitherbeusedtoinsertamodulewithadifferenti/oaddress(usingthemodprobeor
insmodutilities)orcanbesavedin/etc/modules.conf(thiswillsavethesettingsforthenextbootup).
6.Settingupmodems
Wefirstneedtodetectthemodem.Ifthemodemisanexternalmodemalloneneedstoconsideristhe
serialportitisusing.HoweverwhendealingwithabuiltinPCImodemweneedinformationabouttheI/O
portandinterruptusedbythedeviceinordertodeterminewhichserialdeviceshouldbeconfigured.
TheModemdevice
Ifwehaveanexternalmodemwecangostraighttothenextsection'Theserialport'.
APCImodemsdevicecanbedetectedwithlspci.(thelistingbelowisfromPCIModemmicroHOWTO):
lspci -v
----- snip ----00:0c.0 Serial controller:US Robotics/3Com 56K FaxModem Model 5610 (rev
01)
(prog-if 02 [16550])
Subsystem: US Robotics/3Com USR 56k Internal FAX Modem (Model 2977)
Flags: medium devsel, IRQ 11
I/O ports at e800 [size=8]
Capabilities: <available only to root>
------ snip ----
NoticethattheI/Oportis0xe800andtheIRQis11
Wecannowusethisinformationandassigntheseresourcestoaserialportdevice.
Theserialport
Themodemusesaserialinterfaceforcommunications.Informationissentthroughthetelephonelineasa
sequenceofbits(serial)overtwowires(inandout).Incomingsequentialdataistranslatedintoparallel
dataforthePCbusandviceversaforbitsofdataleavingthecomputer.Thetranslationisdonebya
UARTchiplocatedontheserialportofthemotherboardorinsideaninternal(PCI)modem.
Toseewhichserialportsweredetectedatboottimeonthesystem,wedothefollowing:
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dmesg | grep ttyS
/dev/ttyS0, UART: 16550A, Port: 0x03f8, IRQ: 4

/dev/ttyS1, UART: 16550A, Port: 0x02f8, IRQ: 3
Sofar,thesearepreconfiguredserialportswithI/OportsandIRQsgenerallyusedbyahardwareserial
port.
NOTICE
WhenconfiguringanexternalmodemoneonlyhastoconsiderserialdeviceswithIRQ3orIRQ4.The
I/Oportsreportedabovearealsostandardaddressesusedbyhardwareserialports
ThefollowingtableshowstheequivalencebetweenDOSCOMportsandLinuxserialdevices.
SerialportequivalenceDOSLinux
Linux
/dev/ttyS0
/dev/ttyS1
/dev/ttyS2
DOS
COM1
COM2
COM3
Onecanalsousesetserialtoscantheserialdevices.Withthegoptionthisutilitywilltellyouwhich
serialdevicesareinuse:
setserialg/dev/ttyS[01]
/dev/ttyS0,UART:16550A,Port:0x03f8,IRQ:4
/dev/ttyS1,UART:16550A,Port:0x02f8,IRQ:3
NowifwehaveaPCImodemastheonedetectedusinglspcionp.19weneedtoremembertheI/Oport
andIRQsettingused:
HardwaresettingforthePCImodemonp.19
I/Oport
0xe800
IRQ
11
Thistimewewillusesetserialtoassignthesevaluestoaserialdevice(otherthanthehardwareserial
devices)asfollows:
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setserial/dev/ttyS4port0xe800irq11autoconfig
TheautoconfigoptionautomaticallysetsthecorrectUART.Thiscommandcanbesavedinashell
scriptcalledserial.rcandwillconfiguretheserialporteverytimeweboot.
Asymboliclinkcalled/dev/modempointingtotheusedserialportisoftenusedtoreferencethemodem.
Manuallylinkingthemodemdevice
lns/dev/ttyS1/dev/modem
Thesetserialtoolisalsousedtosetthespeedoftheserialport.
setserialspeedoption Description
spd_hi
use56kbinsteadof38.4kb
spd_vhi
spd_shi
spd_warp
spd_cust
usethecustomdivisortosetthespeedat38.4kb(baudrate=baud_base/
custom_divisor)
spd_normal
use38.4kbwhenabaudrateof38.4kbisselected
Forexamplesettingthespeedfortheserialport/dev/ttyS4to115kbisdoneasfollows:
setserial/dev/ttyS4spd_vhi
DialupConfiguration
Thewvdialcommandlinetoolhasasetupscriptcalledwvdialconfwhichwillscanthesystemfor
modems(allserialandUSBportsarescannedautomatically).Oncethescripthasrunaskeleton
configurationfileisgenerated:
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Sample/etc/wvdial.conffile:
[DialerDefaults]
Modem=/dev/ttyS1
Baud=115200
Init1=ATZ
Init2=ATQ0V1E1S0=0&C1&D2S11=55+FCLASS=0
;Phone=<TargetPhoneNumber>
;Username=<YourLoginName>
;Password=<YourPassword>
AquickwaytogetstartedistoreplaceDefaultswiththenameofyourprovidersayWorldISP,fillinthe
Usernam/Passwordentriesandtypethefollowing:
wvdialWorldISP
Onecanalsouseminicomtoconfigureaconnection.Thistoolsisfirstconfiguredwiththesswitch:
minicoms
[configuration]
Filenames and paths
File transfer protocols
Serial port setup
Modem and dialing
Screen and keyboard
Save setup as dfl
Save setup as..
Exit
Exit from Minicom
Alltheworkdoneonserialportswillbeusefulinthe'Serial port setup'section,whereasdialling

information(givenbytheISP)canbeenteredbyselectingthemenu'Modem and dialing'
Oncethemodemissetupandiscapableofdiallingtheoutsideworldthenitispossibletoestablisha
serialconnectiontoaremotehost.Togetafullynetworkedconnection(i.eassignanIPaddresstoa
networkinterface)westillneedtostartthepppdwhichwillcreateappp0networkinterfaceandusesthe
pointtopointprotocolPPPtoenableTCP/IPnetworking.Withtoolslikewvdialthisisdoneautomatically
whenneeded.
WinModems
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Ifalltheaboveconfigurationsfailsthenitlikelythatyouhaveamodemthatmayonlyworkwithsome
addeddrivers.Suchmodemsarecalledwinmodems(seethewinmodemHOWTOforsomecolourful
definitions!).
AwinmodemthatcanbemadetoworkunderLinuxisalsocalledalinmodem.(seethelinmodem
HOWTOformoredetails)
ISDN
ISDNisadigitalversionofthePlainOldTelephoneService(POTS).Itfunctionsinasimilarway,but
insteadofallowingasingledirectanaloguepath,offersanumberof64KBit/Strafficorbearerchannels
andalowbandwidthdatachannel.ISDN2,thebasicserviceofferedinmanycountries,isasocalled
2B+Dserviceasitofferstwobearerchannelsandadatachannel.
ThereareanumberofwaysofusingISDNwithaLinuxmachine.Thesimplestistoemployanexternal
ISDNdevicethatdoesthedialing,authenticationandsessionforyou,presentingtheconnectionoveran
Ethernetnetwork.
IftheLinuxmachineistobedirectlyinterfacedtotheISDNconnection,adevicecalledaTerminal
Adapter(TA)willberequired.ThedetailsofthevariousdifferentinterfacestoTAsareoutsidethescope
ofthiscourse,butfallmainlyintothefollowingcamps.
ModemStyleATcommandInterface
WithserialconnectedTAsandsomeUSBdevices,theLinuxmachineispresentedwithanAT
commandinterfaceexactlyasiftheTAwereamodem.TheTAcanthereforebesetupasifit
wereamodem.Thishastheadvantageofbeingsimpletodo,butislessefficientthansomeother
methodsasittreatsthedatapathasifitwereamodemaswell.Modemsrequirethatsome
charactersareescapedastheyhaveanactiveeffect.ISDNhasnosuchrestrictionandcanpass
anycharacter.
PCI/ISA/PCCARDISDNadaptercardsandisdn4linux
AfarmoreefficientwayofusingyourISDNlineistouseanadaptercardconnecteddirectlytoa
machinebus.Theisdn4linuxprojectseekstoencapsulatealotofthedetailsofmakinga
connectionoverISDNandpresentthefinishedconnectionasjustanothernetworkinterface.The
packageisdn4kutilscontainsallthenecessarysoftware.UnderRedHatrelatedLinux
distributionsthetoolsystemconfignetworkwillsetthisallup.
ADSL
AsynchronousDigitalSubscriberLine(ADSL)haslargelyreplacedISDNandprivateleasedlinesasthe
massmarkethigherbandwidthInternetconnectionmethodofchoice.AswithISDNtheLinuxuserhasa
numberofstrategychoices.Thesimplest,againaswithISDN,istoemployanyofanumberofdifferent
standaloneADSLRouterdevices.ThesepresenttheoutsidelinkviaanEthernetrouter.Nospecial
considerationsneedbetakenontheLinuxmachine.TheADSLrouteristreatedasanordinaryrouter.
ManyoftheseADSLrouterdevicesareactuallythemselvesembeddedLinuxmachines.IftheLinuxuser
requiresacloserconnectiontotheADSLservice,theywillprobablyneedtoacquireequipmentandan
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ISPaccountcapableofPointtoPointProtocoloverEthernet(PPPoE).ThereareADSLprojectsbased
aroundparticularchipsets,buttheyhavetheirownspecificrequirementsandconfigurationmethods.
PPPoE
ADSLisnotasingleprotocolbutratherabasketofrelatedandinterconnectedprotocolstopped
offwithPointtoPointProtocol(PPP).IftheequipmentandtheISPaccountarecompliant,the
LinuxusercanemployPPPoEtoformtheexternalconnection.TheLinuxmachinewouldinitiatea
PPPoEsessionandaimitattheMACaddressoftheADSLequipment.TheADSLequipment
wouldsetupthelayersbeneaththePPPsessionandpassthePPPframesacrossthoselayers.
Thepackagepppoecontainsallnecessarysoftwareandsetupinformation.
7.PrinterConfiguration
PrintingiscoveredindepthinLPI102.Fromahardwareperspective,theprintersaredetectedatboot
timeautomaticallyandcanbeseeninthedmesgoutput.
Linuxprintinghappensintwostages.Firsttherawdataisfilteredintoapostscriptformat,thentheprinting
itselfishandledbytheghostscript,orgsutility.
Usingprinttool
(notexamined)
Thisutilitycreatesanentryin/etc/printcap.Themainfeatureswhichneedtobespecifiedarethelocation
oftheinput_filter=if,thespool_directory=sdandtheprinter_device=lp.
Iftheprinttoolfailstodetectwhichparallelportcorrespondstotheprinterdeviceyoucanusethedmesg
utilitytorecallthekernel'sinitialparallelportscan.
Hereisanexampleofasystemwithalocalprinterpluggedintothefirstparallelport/dev/lp0
Parallelportscanattheendofdmesg
parport0:PCstyleat0x378(0x778)[SPP,ECP,ECPEPP,ECPPS2]
parport0:detectedirq7;useprocfstoenableinterruptdrivenoperation.
parport_probe:succeeded
parport0:Printer,HEWLETTPACKARDDESKJET610C
lp0:usingparport0(polling)
Sample/etc/printcapfile
#Thisfilecanbeeditedwiththeprinttoolinthecontrolpanel.
##PRINTTOOL3##LOCALcdj550300x300a4{}DeskJet5503{}
lp:\
:sd=/var/spool/lpd/lp:\
:mx#0:\
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:sh:\
:lp=/dev/lp0:\
:if=/var/spool/lpd/lp/filter:
Figure7:ThegtkbasedprinttoolGUI
Usingcups
Cupsisaneweradministrationandconfigurationtoolforprinters.It'smainconfigurationfilesarestoredin
/etc/cups.Theprintingprocessisthesameexceptthatcupsusesitsownfilterssituatedin
/usr/lib/cups.
TheconfigurationtoolforCUPSisaWebbasedGUIrunningonport631.
Whenusingcupslpdisreplacedbythecupsddaemon.
NOTICE
AlocalprinterisphysicallydetectedatboottimeforbothUSBandparallelconnections.
Informationonthebootprocessisdisplayedatanytimewithdmesg
8.SoundCards
TherearetwosoundsupportprojectsforLinux,namelytheopensoundsystem(OSS)andtheadvanced
Linuxsoundarchitecture(ALSA).InfacttheOSSisacommercialprojectwhichsupportssounddriverson
otherUNIXplatforms.TheoriginalmodifiedOSSdriverswhereintroducedaspartoftheLinux2.0kernel.
TheALSAprojectismorerecentandhasonlybeenintegratedintotheLinux2.6kernel.Forkernelsolder
than2.6,usingALSAdriversoftenmeansrecompilingthekernelexceptforsomeLinuxdistributionssuch
asSusewhichadoptedALSAatanearlystage.
Inmostcasesthecardisconfiguredwhenthesystemisinstalled.Graphicalsoundconfigurationtoolsare
alsoincludedwithallmainLinuxdistributions.
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Detectingthesoundcard
Asusualwewillusedmesgtoseeifthekernelhasdetectedthesoundcardasfollows:
dmesg|grepiaudio
NeoMagic256AV/256ZXaudiodriver,version1.1p
InitializedNeoMagic256ZXaudioinPCInativemode
NOTICE
Thecommandabovemayreturnnothing,inwhichcaseyoumustsearchtheoutputofdmesgagainand
trytodeterminewhichdevicecorrespondstothesoundcard
Usingthesndconfigtool(LPI101objectivep.167)
Theabovesoundcardwouldbefullyconfiguredifwecouldfindthecorrectkernelmoduleusingthe
informationfoundwithdmesg.IntheOSSframeworkthiskernelmoduleisthenassociatedtoadevice
nameusedbyapplicationscalledsoundslot0(forthefirstsounddevice).
Thisiswhatasoundconfigurationtoolwilldoautomaticallyforus.Wechoose(sinceitisanLPI101
objective)todiscusssndconfig.
ThisisaRedHattoolthatconfiguresaudiodevicesusingtheOSSmodules.Youmayneedtoinstall
sndconfigasitisnolongerinstalledonmostLinuxdistributions.Thenonesimplytypes:
sndconfig
Agraphicalmenuwillbestartedwithamessagesuggestingitwillnowprobeforaudiodevicesonyou
system.Select'OK'.
Onoursystemthefollowinghardwarewasdetected:
NeomagicCorporation|NM2360[MagicMedia256ZXAudio]
Ifnodeviceisdetectedyouwillbepresentedwithalistofmanufacturersandcardmodelssupportedby
OSSfromwhichtochoose.Ifthishappens,youmaywanttochecktheoutputoflspciagainandalsothe
followingsitewithsupportedmodels:http://www.opensound.com/osshw.html
Onceamodelhasbeenchosensndconfigwillattempttoloadtheassociatedkernelmoduleandplaya
sample(surprise!)sound.Ifthisworkedthenthe/etc/modules.conf(coveredinLPI102)isautomatically
modifiedforus.Toillustratehowourparticularcardhasbeenconfiguredhereisthesoundmoduleentry:
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/etc/modules.conf(entryforsoundcardusedinthissection)
alias sound-slot-0 nm256_audio
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YesorNo
1.TherootpartitionofaLinuxsystemmustalwaysbeonanIDEdisk
__________
2.ALinuxsystemcansupportanyUSBdeviceaslongasthekernelhas
beencompiledwithUSBsupport
__________
Glossary
Term
Definition
DMA
DirectMemoryAccessallowscertainhardwarecomponentstoaccessmemoryto
performreadwriteswithouthavingtointerrupttheCPU
I/Oaddress
apredefinedmemoryrangeusedbyhardwaredevicesandtheCPUtoperformread
andwriteoperations
IRQ
signalsenttotheCPUbyadeviceinordertointerruptthecurrentprocessandgetit
todosomethingelse
resourceallocation collectionofDMA,i/oportandIRQsettingsallocatedtoahardwaredevice
SCSI
interfaceusedtotransferdatabetweenadeviceandthecomputerbus.Forexample
thedevicecanbeaharddrive,atapedrive,aCDROM,aCDwriterorascanner
USB
UniversalSerialBusisastandardallowingexternalhardwaredevicestobeattached
toacomputerwithouthavingtoreboot.Thedesignconsistsofahostcontrollerto
whichisattachedaninitialhubdevice.ThishubcanthenaccommodateUSB
devicesormorehubdevicesallowingtoattachupto127devices(includinghubs)to
asinglehostcontroller
Resources
TheWinmodemsandLinuxHOWTO
TheSerialHOWTO
TheModemHOWTO
TheLinuxUSBsubsystem(http://www.linuxusb.org/)
SCSIterminology(http://www.scsita.org/terms/scsiterms.html)
TheLinux2.4SCSIsubsystemHOWTO
TheEthernetHOWTO
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________________________________________________
ThePrintingHOWTO
TheSoundHOWTO
Theisdn4linuxproject(http://www.isdn4linux.de/)
TheRoaringPenguinPPPoEproject(http://www.roaringpenguin.com/penguin/open_source_rp
pppoe.php)
Files
File
Description
/etc/isapnp.conf
aconfigurationfileforisapnpseeisapnp.conf(5)
/proc/dma
listofcurrentlyusedDMAchannels
/proc/interrupts
listofcurrentlyusedinterrupts
/proc/ioports
listofcurrentlyusedi/oports
/proc/pci
listcurrentinformationaboutthePCIbus
/etc/hotplug/usb.usermap listofrecognisedUSBdevices
/var/log/dmesg
logfileforcurrentandboottimekernelmessages
/proc/scsi/scsi
informationaboutallSCSIdevicesseescsi_info(8)
Commands
Command
Description
dmesg
printkernelmessagesinceboottime
hotplug
programusedbythekerneltohandlehardwarerelatedeventsseehotplug(8)
isapnp
toolusedtoinitialiseISAcardspriortokernel2.4seeisapnp(8)
lspci
listallPCIdevicesseelspci(8)
lsusb
listallUSBdevicesseelsusb(8)
pnpdump
pnpdump(8)dumpISAPlugAndPlaydevicesresourceinformation
scsi_info
scsi_info(8)SCSIdevicedescriptiontool
setserial
setserial(8)get/setLinuxserialportinformation
usbmgr
userspacedaemionwhichloadsorunloadsUSBmodules.Itisanalternativetohotplug
andgenerallyusedonDebianbasedsystems
usb.agent
ahotplugagentwhichhandlesUSBrelatedevents
usbmodules
usbmodules(8)listsdrivermodulesthatmaybeabletomanageinterfacesoncurrently
pluggedinUSBdevices.usbmodulesmaybeusedby/sbin/hotplugoroneofits
agents(normally/etc/hotplug/usb.agent)whenUSBdevicesare"hotplugged"intothe
system
wvdial
aPPPdialerseewvdial(1)
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Exercises
1.
Usethedmesgcommandtoviewthe/var/log/dmesgfile.SearchforkeywordssuchasUSB,tty
orETH0.
WhatarethenamesoftheUSBcontrollersused?
WhataretheIRQsforthefirsttwoserialports?
2.
Investigatethecontentsofthefollowingfiles:
/proc/ioports
/proc/interrupts
/proc/pci
/proc/dma
3.
ThePCIbus:
Investigatetheoutputoflspcivandscanpciv.Whattypeofethernetcardis
present?
Verifythatthereareasmanybusentrieslistedwithlspciand/proc/pci.
4.
USBtools:
Uselsmodandlsusbtodeterminewhichhostcontrollerisusedonyour
system,UHCI,OHCIorEHCI(forUSBv2.0).
Useusbmodulestolistthekernelmodulewhichcanhandlethepluggedininterface.
5.
SCSIdevices
Giventhefollowingcontentsofthefile/proc/scsi/scsideducetheoutputofthe command
scsi_info(seep.17):
Attacheddevices:
Host:scsi0Channel:00Id:00Lun:00
Vendor:PHILIPSModel:CDRW48ARev:P1.3
Type:CDROMANSISCSIrevision:02
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ManagingDevices
Prerequisites
ExperiencewiththeLinuxinstallationprocess(alsoseethesectionInstallationonp.1)
Goals
Understandthedifferencebetweenaprimary,anextendedandalogicalpartition
Usepartitioningtoolswhenappropriate(beforeorafteraninstallation)
InstallandcustomisethebootloadersLILOandGRUB
Understandmountpointsandtheroleofthe/etc/fstabfile
Contents
MANAGINGDEVICES.....................................................................................................27
1.DisksandPartitions............................................................................................................. 28
2.PartitioningTools:................................................................................................................ 30
3.Bootloaders......................................................................................................................... 31
4.Manageddevices................................................................................................................ 33
5.Quotas................................................................................................................................. 35
6.ExercisesandSummary...................................................................................................... 36
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1.DisksandPartitions
Physicaldisks:
OnarunningLinuxsystem,disksarerepresentedbyentriesinthe/devdirectory.Thekernel
communicateswithdevicesusingauniquemajor/minorpaircombination.Allmajornumbersare
listedin/proc/devices.ForexamplethefirstIDEcontrollersmajornumberis3:
Blockdevices:
1ramdisk
2fd
3ide0
Harddiskdescriptorsin/devbeginwithhd(IDE)orsd(SCSI),aSCSItapewouldbest,andso
on.Sinceasystemcanhavemorethanoneblockdevice,anadditionalletterisaddedtothe
descriptortoindicatewhichdeviceisconsidered.
Table1
Physicalblockdevices
hda
PrimaryMaster
hdb
PrimarySlave
hdc
SecondaryMaster
hdd
SecondarySlave
sda
FirstSCSIdisk
sdb
SecondSCSIdisk
NBInsertinganewSCSIharddrivewithatargetnumberbetweentwoexistingdriveswillbump
upthedeviceletterofthehighernumbereddrive.Thiscancausechaoswithinadisksystem.
DiskPartitions:
Diskscanfurtherbepartitioned.Tokeeptrackofthepartitionsanumberisaddedattheendof
eachphysicaldevice.
Table2
Partitions
hda1
Firstpartitiononfirstharddisk
hda2
Secondpartitiononfirstharddisk
sdc3
ThirdpartitiononthirdSCSIdisk
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IDEtypedisksallow4primarypartitions,oneofwhichcanbeextended.Theextended
partitioncanfurtherbedividedintologicalpartitions.Therecanbeamaximumof64partitionsonan
IDEdiskand16onaSCSIdisk.
Example1:Theprimarypartitions(1,2,3,4)and(1,2,5,6,7,8)
Typicaloutputoffdisk
l
DeviceBootStartEndBlocksIdSystem
/dev/hda1*17486297448+bWin95FAT32
/dev/hda27857883213083Linux
/dev/hda37892432132054305Extended
/dev/hda57891235359049683Linux
/dev/hda612361618307641683Linux
/dev/hda716191720819283+83Linux
/dev/hda817211784514048+83Linux
/dev/hda91785183540962683Linux
/dev/hda101836187431323683Linux
/dev/hda11187518837226182Linuxswap
Onthissystemthemainfeaturetonoticeisthatthereare3primarypartitions.Thethirdpartitionis
extended(/dev/hda3)andholds8logicalpartitions.Theprimarypartition/dev/hda3isnotused.In
fact/dev/hda3actsasa'container'andafilesystemexistsonlyontheenclosedlogicalpartitions.
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NOTICE
Makesuretodistinguishbetweenprimary,extendedandlogicalpartitions.Alsomakesure
youunderstandthenamingconventionfortheIDEdisksandcontrollers.
2.PartitioningTools:
1.Beforeinstallation:
(notforexampurpose)
PartitionMagic
fips
Noticethatfipsonlyhandlesfat16andfat32.Ontheotherhand,PartitionMagicismuchmore
versatileandcanhandlemostcommonUNIXformatsaswell.
NopartitioningisneededifforexampleC:\andD:\existandtheD:\driveisempty.
Partitioningbeforeinstallation:
2.Duringinstallation:
(notforexampurpose)
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WhileinstallingLinuxyouwillhavethechoiceofcreatingnewpartitionsandassociatingeach
partitiontoamountpoint(seep.5).
Foradvancedusersthisisdoneintwosteps:
1.Usethefdisktooltocreatenewpartitions
2.Associateamountpointtoeachpartition
Forintermediateusersmostdistributionsincludeauserfriendlytoolthatdoesboththesestepsat
once:
diskdrake(Mandrake)
DiskDruid(RedHat)
Finally,forbeginnersandbusysysadmins,thelatestLinuxdistributionswillautomaticallyassigna
partitionscheme.
3.OnaRunningSystem:
Oncetheoperatingsystemisinstalledyoucanusethefdiskutilitytoconfigurenewpartitions.
Wewillnextlookatthebasicsyntaxforfdisk
Example:
1)Startpartitioningthefirstharddrive:
fdisk/dev/hda
2)Typemforhelp.Thencreateanewpartitionwithn.
3)Towritethechangestodisktypew.
4)REBOOT.
Thesefourpointsoutlinethestepsyouwouldfollowtocreatenewpartitions.Thelastpoint
isoftenoverlooked.ThisforcesthepartitiontableinthemasterbootrecordMBRtobereread.
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NOTICE
Youneedtocreateafilesystemonanewpartitionwithmkfsormke2fsbeforeusingit
Thisendsthesurveyofavailablepartitioningtools.Wenexttakealookatbootloaders.
3.Bootloaders
TheMBRoccupiesthefirstsectorofthedisk(512bytes)andcontainsthepartitiontablestogether
withabootloader.Atboottimethebootloaderreadsthepartitiontableslookingforapartition
markedactiveandloadsthefirstsectorofthispartion.
LILOtheLinuxBootloader
Thereareroughly3partsinvolved:
1.LILO
Thisistheloaderitself.LILOisinstalledontheMBRandloadsthesecondstagebootloader,
generallysituatedin/boot/boot.b.
2./etc/lilo.conf
Themainoptionsarespecifiedhere
boot*
whereLILOshouldbeinstalled(/dev/hdaistheMBR)
install
whichsecondstagetoinstall(boot.bisthedefault)
prompt
givetheuserachancetochooseanOStoboot
default
nameoftheimagethatwillbebootedbydefault
timeout
usedwithprompt,causesLILOtopause(unitsare1/10ofasec)
image*
pathtothekerneltoboot(onecanuseothertochainload)
label*
nameoftheimage.Thisisthenameausercantypeatthebootprompt
root*
thenameofthediskdevicewhichcontainstherootfilesystem/
readonly*
mounttherootfilesystemreadonlyforfscktoworkproperly
append
givekernelparametersformodulesthatarestaticallycompiled.
linear/lba32 theseoptionsaremutuallyexclusive.BothaskLILOtoreadthediskusing
LinearBlockAddressing.linearistypicallyusedforverylargedisks.lba32isusedtoallow
boottimeaccesstodatabeyondthefirst1024cylinders(alsoseep.41)
3./sbin/lilo
Thisbinaryreadsitsconfigurationfile/etc/lilo.confandinstallstheLILObootloader.
/sbin/liloshouldberuneverytimeachangeismadeto/etc/lilo.conf
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GRUBtheGrandUnifiedBootloader
GRUBisalsoinstalledontheMBR.YoucaneitheralterthisMBRwiththe/sbin/grubshellorusea
configurationfilecalled/boot/grub/grub.confwhichwillbereadby/sbin/grubinstall
DetailedinformationaboutGRUBcanbefoundintheinfopages
Mainsectionsin/boot/grub/grub.conf:
1.General/Global
default
timeout
imagethatwillbootbydefault(thefirstentryis0)
prompttimeoutinseconds
2.Image
title
root
kernel
ro
root
initrd
nameoftheimage
wherethe2ndstagebootloaderandkernelaree.g(hd0,0)is/dev/hda
pathforthekernelstartingfromthepreviousroote.g/vmlinuz
readonly
thefilesystemroot
pathtotheinitialrootdisk
Example
grub.conf
default=0
timeout=10
splashimage=(hd0,0)/grub/splash.xpm.gz
titleLinux(2.4.1814)
root(hd0,0)
kernel/vmlinuz2.4.1814roroot=/dev/hda5
initrd/initrd2.4.1814.img
4.Manageddevices
Atboottimethe/etc/fstabfileassignsmountpointsforblockdevices.
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The/etc/fstabformat
devicemountpointfstypeoptionsdumpnumberfscknumber
Sample/etc/fstab
LABEL=/
/
ext2 defaults
11
LABEL=/boot/boot ext2 defaults
12
LABEL=/home
/home ext3 defaults
12
/dev/fd0
/mnt/floppyauto noauto,owner
00
LABEL=/usr
/usr
ext2 defaults
12
LABEL=/var
/var
ext3 defaults
12
none
/proc
proc defaults
00
none
/dev/shm
tmpfs defaults
00
none
/dev/pts
devptsgid=5,mode=620 00
/dev/hdc9
swap,pri=1 swap defaults
00
/dev/cdrom/mnt/cdromiso9660noauto,owner,kudzu,ro00
Themountcommandisusedtomakeaparticulardeviceavailableonaspecificdirectory(mount
point).Thesyntaxis:
mountt[FSTYPE]o[OPTIONS]DEVICEDIRECTORY
ForexamplewecanmountaCDROMonthemountpoint/mnt/cdromwith:
mounttiso9660/dev/cdrom/mnt/cdrom
Onarunningsystemthe/etc/fstabfilealsoactsasashortcutforassigningaresourcetoaspecific
directory.Forexample:
mount/dev/cdrom
Themountutilityreadsfstabanddeduceswheretomounttheresource.Noticethatsomeofthe
devicesareaccessedusingalabel.Labelsareassignedtodeviceswiththetune2fstool:
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tune2fsL/usr/local/dev/hdb12
Optionsummaryformount:
readwriteandreadonly
rw,ro
thedeviceisnotmountedatboottime
noauto
thedevicecanbereadandunmountedbyallusers
users
thedevicecanbeunmountedonlybytheuser
user
thedevicewillchangeit'spermissionandbelongtotheuserthatmountedit
owner
usrquota startuserquotasonthedevice
grpquota startgroupquotasonthedevice
NOTICE
Rememberthatmountawillmountallfilesytemsin/etc/fstabthathavenotbeen
mountedanddonothavetheoptionnoauto
Theumountcommandwillunmountadevice.Noticethatthecommandismisspelled!Thesyntax
is:
umountDEVICEorMOUNTPOINT
ForexamplethefollowingcommandswillbothunmounttheCDROMdevice:
umount/dev/cdrom
or
umount/mnt/cdrom
5.Quotas
Thequotatoolsallowadministratorstosetupquotaswithouthavingtoreboot.Herearethesteps.
1.Edit/etc/fstabandaddusrquotatotheoptions
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2.Remountthepartition:
mountoremount<device>
3.Startthequotastats:
quotacheckca
Thepreliminaryaquota.userdatabasefileisgeneratedatthetopofthedirectory.
4.Editquotasforeachuser:
edquotau<user>
Hereasoft/hardlimitmustbesetforboththenumberofblocksandinodesavailableforeachuser.
Thesystemwillallowtheusertoexceedthesoftlimitduringacertaingraceperiod.After
thegraceperiodhasexpiredthesoftlimitwillbeenforcedasahardlimit.
5.STARTenforcingquotas:
quotaona
Userscanquerythequotastatuswithquota.Thesystemadministratorcangeneratereportswith
repquotaorquotastats.
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YesorNo
1.WhenLILOisinstalledandfurtherchangesaremadetolilo.confitis
notnecessarytorerun/sbin/lilo
______
2.WhenGRUBisinstalledandfurtherchangesaremadetogrub.confitis
notnecessarytorerungrubinstall
______
3.If/rootisbeyondthe1024cylinderlimitthenaLinuxsystemmaynotboot
______
4.Quotasmayonlybeusedonanentirepartition
______
Glossary
Term
Description
partition
anindependentsectionofaharddrivewhichcaneitherbeusedtodirectly
storedataorcanbefurtherdividedinto(logical)partitions.Sinceallpartitions
mountedandmanipulatedbytheoperatingsystemhaveaseparate
filesystemandareconsideredasindependentdevices,apartitionisalso
sometimecalleda'device'orevena'filesystem'
primary(partition)
partitiondescribedbyoneoftheoriginalpartitionrecordkeptinthepartition
table.Onlyfoursuchrecordsareavailable,thereforediskscanonlyhavefour
primarypartitions
extended(partition) aprimarypartitionwhosepartitionrecordcontainsalinkedlistofpartition
recordsmakingitpossibletocreatefurtherpartitionscalled'logicalpartitions'
asopposedtoprimary
logical(partition)
apartitioncontainedinanextendedpartition
MBR
thefirstsector(512bytes)ofaharddrivewhichcontainsthebootloaderand
thediskspartitiontables
1024cylinderlimit
whenusingCHSaddressingoldBIOSsystemswoulduse10bitstoreadthe
numberofcylinders,8bitsfortheheadsand6bitsforthesectors.Thiswould
allowaccesstodiskswithamaximumsizeof(2^10)*(2^8)*(2^61)*512bytes
whichcorrespondsto8.5GB(metric).Whenrunning/sbin/liloaddressesare
giveninCHSform(unlesslba32orlinearisused)fortheBIOStoread.Ifthe
secondstagebootloader/boot/boot.bis'further'than1024cylindersaway
fromtheMBRthenthesystemwillnotboot
bootloader
codestoredinthefirst512bytesofadiskwhichisreadbytheBIOSand
usedtostartanoperatingsystem
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GRUB
GrandUnifiedBootloader
LILO
LinuxbootLoader
quotas
mechanismavailableperdevicetosetrestrictionsontheamountofinodes
anddatablocksperuserorgroup
grace
timelimitforfilesanddatathathaveexceededtheirsoftlimit
Files
File
Description
/boot/boot.b
TheLILOsecondstagebootloader
grub.conf
configurationfileforGRUB
/etc/fstab
fstab(5)Thefilefstabcontainsdescriptiveinformationaboutthevariousfile
systems.fstabisonlyreadbyprograms,andnotwritten;itisthedutyofthe
systemadministratortoproperlycreateandmaintainthisfile
/etc/lilo.conf
configurationfilereadbythebootloaderinstallationmapper/sbin/lilo
/proc/devices devicesfoundonthesystemandtheirassociatedmajornumber
aquota.user
databasefilestoredontherootofthedevicewhereuserquotasareinforced
Commands
Command
Descriptionorapropos
/sbin/lilo
lilo(8)installbootloader
edquota
edquota(8)edituserquotas
fdisk
fdisk(8)partitiontablemanipulatorforLinux
grubinstall
grubinstall(8)installGRUBonyourdrive
mount
mount(8)mountafilesystem
quotas
quota(1)displaydiskusageandlimits
quotacheck
quotacheck(8)scanafilesystemfordiskusage,create,checkandrepairquota
(database)files
quotaon
quotaon(8)/quotaoffturnfilesystemquotasonandoff
quotastats
quotastats(8)programtoqueryquotastatistics
repquota
repquota(8)summarizequotasforafilesystem
tune2fs
tune2fs(8)adjusttunablefilesystemparametersonsecondextendedfilesystems
usrquota,grp (notacommand)optionsetin/etc/fstabtoenablequotasonadevice
quota
umount
umount(8)unmountfilesystems
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Exercises
1.
Create1newpartitiononthe/dev/hdadeviceusingfdisk.
fdisk /dev/hda
HINT: Tocreateanewpartitiontypen.Thepartitiontypedefaultsto83(Linux)
Towritethenewpartitiontabletypew.
Thepartitiontableneedstoberead:REBOOTthecomputer!
2.
Makeanewfilesystem(format)ononeofthepartitions:
mkfs<device>
3.
(i)Makeadirectorycalleddataintherootdirectory.
mkdir /data
(ii)Edit/etc/fstabandallocatethemountpoint/datatothisnewresource
<device>
4.
/data ext2
defaults
0 2
Forcemounttoread/etc/fstab:
mounta
Ifthisdoesn'tworkcheckthateachentryiscorrectinthefstabandmakesurethatthe
directory/dataexists(2(i))
5.
Followthestepsinthischaptertoenforcequotasonthisdevice.
Afterstep(2)runthemountcommandandlookattheoutput.Whichoptionfrom
/etc/fstabcanbeseenshowingthatquotasareavailabeonthedevice?_________
Afterstep(3)whichfileiscreatedinthe/datadirectory?__________
Beforetestingquotasforwithnonrootusers,addreadwritepermissionson/data
chmod o+rw /data
Inextremecasesitmaybeeasiertorebootandlettheinitscriptsbuildtheaquota.user
(oraquota.group)file.Ifnothingisshowingwiththequotas,repquota,orquotastats
toolsmakesureyouhavereadwriteaccessforeveryoneon/data[chmoda+rw/data]
6.
(OPTIONAL)TheinstructorcomputerhasaNFSshare.Findoutwhichdirectoryis
sharedandedit/etc/fstabtomountthisshareon/mnt/nfs.Usethenoautooptionfotthe
sharenottomountatboottime.
7.SWAPPINGbootloaders
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a.UninstallLILOfromtheMBR(orthefloppy)
lilo u
b.Modifythegrub.confsampleonp.28toreflectyoursystem
c.InstallGRUBonthefloppywithgrubinstall/dev/fd0
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TheLinuxFilesystem
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TheLinuxFilesystem
Prerequisites
ExperiencewiththeLinuxinstallationprocess(alsoseethesectionInstallationonp.1)
Goals
IntroducethebasedirectoriesandconceptsfromtheFileSystemHierarchy(FHS)
Makeafilesystemofanytype(e.gEXT2orEXT3)onapartition
Monitorfreespaceperdeviceordirectory
UnderstandtheUNIXlikefileanddirectorypermissions
Contents
THELINUXFILESYSTEM............................................................................................................. 39
1.TheFilesystemStructure.................................................................................................................... 40
2.FormattingandFileSystemConsistency...........................................................................................42
3.MonitoringDiskUsage....................................................................................................................... 45
4.FilePermissionsandAttributes.......................................................................................................... 46
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1.TheFilesystemStructure
Afilesystemissimilartoatreestructure.Therootofthetreeisrepresentedatthetopandtheleavesbelow.
Asmentionedearlier,oncepartitionshavebeencreatedeachpartitionmustbegivenamountpoint.Thisis
typicallydoneatinstallationtime.Tohelpusunderstandwherethingsarekept,letuslookattheLinuxfile
systemhierarchy.
ThetopofaLinuxfilesystemhierarchystartsatroot(/).ThisissimilartoC:\underDOSexceptthatC:\is
alsothefirstdevice,whereastherootdirectorycanbemountedanywhere.
Figure1:Thebasedirectories
Thebasedirectoriesarethefirstsubdirectoriesundertherootdirectory.Theseareinstalledbyanrpm
packageusuallycalledfilesystem.
rpm -ql filesystem
Duringthebootingprocessthekernelfirstmountstheroot(/)partition.Inordertomountandcheckany
furtherpartitionsandfilesystemsacertainnumberofprogramssuchasfsck,insmodormountmustbe
available.
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Thedirectories/dev,/bin,/sbin,/etcand/libmustbesubdirectoriesofroot(/)andnotmountedon
separatepartitions.Addedtothis,theremustbeanemptydirectory/procontherootdeviceusedbythe
kerneltoreportinformationabouttheoperatingsystem(e.gprocesses,memorystatistics,etc...)
Basedirectories:
/binand/sbin
Containbinariesneededtobootupthesystemandessentialcommands.
/dev
Locationfordeviceorspecialfiles
/etc
Hostspecificconfigurationfiles
/lib
Sharedlibrariesforbinariesin/binand/sbin.Alsocontainskernelmodules
/mnt/or/media(Suse)
Mountpointforexternalfilesystems
/proc
Kernelinformation.Readonlyexceptfor/proc/sys/
/boot
ContainstheLinuxkernel,thesystemmapsandthesecondstagebootloaders.
/home(optional)
Thedirectoriesforusers.Initiallycontainsthecontentsfrom/etc/skel/
/root(optional)
Thedirectoryforuserroot
/tmp
Temporaryfiles
/usr
UserSpecificResource.Mainlystaticandshareablecontent
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/usr/localor/opt(optional)
Addonsoftwareapplications.Canalsocontainsharedlibrariesforaddonsoftware.
/var/www,/var/ftp/or/srv(Suse)
LocationforHTMLpagesandanonymousFTPdirectories.
/var
Variabledata,suchasspoolsandlogs.Containsbothshareable(eg./var/spool/mail)andnon
shareable(eg./var/log/)subdirectories.
2.FormattingandFileSystemConsistency
Inordertoorganisedataonadiskpartitiononeneedstocreateafilesystem.Atinstallationtimeyouwillbe
askedwhichtypeoffilesystemmustbeused.
Manyfilesystemtypesaresupported.Theext2filesystemtypeisthedefaultandisalsoknownasLinux
Native.Insomemorerecentinstallers,ext3isthedefault.Thisisreallyonlyanext2filesystemwithajournal
patchedontop.
AdifferentfilesystemtypemustbeusedforSWAP.ThefilesystemforSwapisoftypeswapandcannotbe
anythingelse.
TheSecondExtendedFileSystem
Letstakeacloserlookattheext2(secondextended)filesystem.Theext2consistsofblocksofsize1024
bytes=1KB(default).Withoutenteringintotoomuchdetail,therearethreetypesofblocks:
Superblocks:
Repeatedevery8193blocks.Containsinformationaboutblocksize,freeinodes,lastmountedtime,etc
Inodes:
Containspointerstodatablocks.Thefirst12blocksofdataaredirectlyaccessed.Ifthedataexceeds12KB,
thenindirectinodesactasrelays.
Eachinodeis256bytesandcontainstheuser,group,permissionsandtimestampoftheassociateddata.
DataBlocks:
Theseareeitherfilesordirectoriesandcontaintheactualdata.
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Formattingtools
Thefilesystemssupportedbythekernelallowonetoreadfromapreformatteddisk.Tocreatethesefile
systemswhilerunningaLinuxsystemonealsoneedstoinstalltheassociatedformattingtools.
Theformattingtoolforext2ismkfs.ext2ormke2fs.Similarlytheformattingtoolforthexfsfilesystemtype
fromSiliconGraphicswillbemkfs.xfsandmayhavetobeinstalledseparately.
Themkfstoolactsasafrontforallthesefilesystemtypes.Thesyntaxis:
mkfst<fstype><DEVICE>
Noticethattheext3isanext2filesystemtypeonwhichajournalingsystemhasbeenadded(seethe
exercisesfordetails).
Example1:Makingajfsfilesystem
mkfstjfs/dev/hda12
Example2:Makingaext2filesystem
mke2fs/dev/hda11[ormkfstext2/dev/hda11]
FileSystemConsistency
Ifthefilesystemisdamagedorcorrupt,thenthefsckutilityshouldberunagainstthepartition(theminimum
requirementisthatthefilesystembeunmountedormountedreadonly).
fsckactsasafrontthatautomaticallydetectsthefilesystemtypeofapartition.Thenaswithmkfs,thetools
fsck.ext2,fsck.ext3willbecalledaccordingly.SinceEXT2isthemainfilesystemtypeforLinuxthereisa
e2fsckcommandthatonlyhandlesthisfilesystemtype.
Youcanexplicitlyspecifyafilesystemtypewiththefollowingsyntax:
fsckt<fstype><device>
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Example:Checkingareiserfsfilesystemonthe/dev/sdb10device:
fscktreiserfs/dev/sdb10
fsck.reiserfs/dev/sdb10
FileSystemDebugCommands
Thedebugfsanddumpe2fsareseldomusedbutcanbeusefulinprovidinglowlevelinformationaboutan
ext2orext3filesystem.
debugfs[bblocksize][ssuperblock][fcmd_file][Rrequest][V][[w][c][i][device]]
Thedebugfsprogramisaninteractivefilesystemdebugger.Itcanbeusedtoexamineandchangethe
stateofanext2/3filesystem.
Onceinthedebugfsshell,internalcommandscanthenbeusedtochangedirectory,examineinodedata,
removefiles,createlinks,dumptheext3journallogsetc.Whilethisisaverypowerfulcommand,itshould
beusedwithcaution,generallyonlyafterthefsckcommandhasfailedtomakeanyheadway.
dumpe2fs[bfhixV][obsuperblock][oBblocksize]device
dumpe2fsprintsthesuperblockandblockgroupinformationforthefilesystempresentondevice.
dumpe2fs /dev/hda1
dumpe2fs 1.35 (28-Feb-2004)
Filesystem volume name:
/boot1
Last mounted on:
<not available>
Filesystem UUID:
d741042c-3eaf-49ee-94c1-7dd8c5459764
Filesystem magic number: 0xEF53
Filesystem revision #:
1 (dynamic)
Filesystem features:
has_journal ext_attr resize_inode dir_index
filetype needs_recovery sparse_super
Default mount options:
(none)
Filesystem state:
clean
Errors behavior:
Continue
Filesystem OS type:
Linux
Inode count:
25584
Block count:
102280
Reserved block count:
5114
Free blocks:
80564
Free inodes:
25537
First block:
1
Block size:
1024
Fragment size:
1024
Reserved GDT blocks:
256
Blocks per group:
8192
Fragments per group:
8192
Inodes per group:
1968
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TheLinuxFilesystem
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Inode blocks per group:
Filesystem created:
Last mount time:
Last write time:
Mount count:
Maximum mount count:
Last checked:
Check interval:
Reserved blocks uid:
Reserved blocks gid:
First inode:
Inode size:
Journal inode:
Default directory hash:
Directory Hash Seed:
Journal backup:
246
Sat May 7 10:40:51 2005
Sun May 29 04:08:01 2005
Sun May 29 04:08:01 2005
10
-1
Sat May 7 10:40:51 2005
0 (<none>)
0 (user root)
0 (group root)
11
128
8
tea
50108791-6a0a-41ff-9608-0485c993eaf9
inode blocks
Group 0: (Blocks 1-8192)

Primary superblock at 1, Group descriptors at 2-2
Block bitmap at 259 (+258), Inode bitmap at 260 (+259)
Inode table at 261-506 (+260)
0 free blocks, 1942 free inodes, 2 directories
Free blocks:
Free inodes: 27-1968
[....]
3.MonitoringDiskUsage
Usingmount
anddf:
Boththesetoolsworkonadevicelevel,asopposedtoadirectorylevel.Themountandumounttools
maintainthelistofmountedfilesystemsin/etc/mtab.
Typingmountwithnooptionswillshowallfilesystemscurrentlymounted.Theoutputissimilarto/etc/mtab.
Noticethatthekernelalsokeepstrackofmountedfilesystemsin/proc/mounts.
InadditiontoshowingallmounteddevicesthedftoolwillalsoshowUsedandAvailablediskspace.By
defaultthisisgiveninblocksof1K.
df -h
Filesystem
Size
Used Avail Use% Mounted on
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TheLinuxFilesystem
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/dev/hda9
289M
254M
20M
93% /
/dev/hda2
23M
7.5M
14M
35% /boot
none
62M
61M
/dev/hda5
1.4G
181M
1.1G
13% /share
/dev/hda7
787M
79M
669M
11% /tmp
/dev/hda3
4.3G
3.4G
813M
81% /usr
/dev/hda6
787M
121M
627M
17% /var
//192.168.123.2/share
12G
8.8G
3.7G
0% /dev/shm
71% /mnt/smb
Usingdu
:
Thistoolwilldisplaydiskusage.Thisisdoneonaperdirectorybasis.Noticethatducannotdisplayavailable
spacesincethisinformationisonlyavailableatadevicelevel.
Thefollowingcommandwilllistthecurrentusageofthe/etcdirectoryinhumanreadableunits(usingtheh
switch)andwillonlyprintthegrandtotal(usingthesswitch):
du -sh /etc
62M
/etc/
4.FilePermissionsandAttributes
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_________________________________________________
Changingpermissionsandowners
Fromthepreviousfigureweseethatpermissionscanbeacteduponwithchmod.Thereare3categoriesof
ownershipforeachfileanddirectory:
u:avaliduserwithanentryin/etc/passwd
g:avalidgroupwithanentryin/etc/group
o:other
Example:
rwrwr1jadesales24880Oct2517:28libcgic.a
ChangingPermissionswithchmod:
chmodg=r,orlibcgic.a
chmodg+wlibcgic.a
Changinguserandgroupwithchownandchgrp:
chownrootlibcgic.a
chgrpapachelibcgic.a
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NOTICE
Ausefuloptionforchmod,chownandchgrpisRwhichrecursivelychanges
ownershipandpermissionsthroughallfilesanddirectoriesindicated.
Symbolicandoctalnotation
Permissionscanberead=r,write=wandexecute=x.Theoctalvaluesofthesepermissionsarelistedinthe
nexttable.
Octalandsymbolicpermissions.
Symolic
read
write
execute
octal
4
2
1
binary
'100'
'010'
'001'
Permissionsapplytotheuser,thegroupandtoothers.Anitemhasasetof3groupedpermissionsforeach
ofthesecategories.
Howtoreada755orrwxrxrxpermission
user
rwx
4+2+1=7
group
r_x
4+1=5
other
r_x
4+1=5
Thestandardpermission
UNIXsystemcreatefilesanddirectorieswithstandardpermissionsasfollows:
Standardpermissionfor:
Files
Directories
666
777
rwrwrw
rwxrwxrwx
Umask
Everyuserhasadefinedumaskthataltersthestandardpermissions.Theumaskhasanoctalvalueandis
subtracted(*)fromtheoctalstandardpermissionstogivethefilespermission(thispermissiondoesn'thavea
nameandcouldbecalledthefile'seffectivepermission).
(*)Whilesubtractionworksinmostcases,itshouldbenotedthattechnicallythestandardpermissionsand
theumaskarecombinedasfollows:
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FinalPermissions=StandardPermissions(logicalAND)(NOT)Umask
Onsystemswhereusersbelongtoseparategroups,theumaskcanhaveavalueof002.
Forsystemswhichplaceallusersintheusersgroup,theumaskislikelytobe022.
SUIDpermissions
Anexecutablecanbeassignedaspecialpermissionwhichwillalwaysmakeitrunastheownerofthisfile.
ThispermissioniscalledSUIDmeaning'setuserID'.Ithasasymbolicvaluesoranumericalvalue4000.
AdministrativetoolsmayhavetheSUIDbitsetinordertoallownonrootuserstochangesystemfiles.
Forexamplethepasswdcommandcanberunbyanyuserandwillinteractivelychangehisorhercurrent
password.Thispasswordwillbesavedto/etc/passwdor/etc/shadow.Howeverboththesefilesbelongto
userrootwithtypicalpermissionsof644and600respectively.
ThisproblemhasbeensolvedbysettingtheSUIDbitonpasswdhenceforcingittorunasuserrootwiththe
correctpermissionstomodify/etc/passwdor/etc/shadow.
TheSUIDonpasswd
ls -l $(which passwd)
-r-s--x--x
1 root
root
18992 Jun
2003 /usr/bin/passwd
NOTICE
TheSUIDbitisshowninsymbolicforminthecommandabove.Itispossibletogetmoreinformationabout
afileusingstataswellasseeingtheoctalrepresentationofthepermissionsasfollows:
stat /usr/bin/passwd
File: `/usr/bin/passwd'
Size: 18992
Blocks: 40
Device: 305h/773d
IO Block: 4096
Inode: 356680
Access: (4511/-r-s--x--x)
regular file
Links: 1
Uid: ( 0/ root)
Gid: ( 0/ root)
WARNING!WARNING!WARNING!
TheSUIDpermissionisoftenassociatedwithsecurityissues.Hereisanexamplethatillustratesthis.
1.Auserwouldliketoreaduserroot'smail.Forthishechangestheenvironmentalvariableasfollows:
export MAIL=/var/spool/mail/root
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2.Theuserthenusesthecommandmail,hopingtoseesomething!
mail
/var/spool/mail/root: Permission denied
Sofaritdoesn'twork.Thiswouldbetooeasy!
ButifrootcanbeconvincedtosettheSUIDbitonmailthepreviouscommandswouldallowanyuserto
readanybody'smail(includingroot).
Thenextexamplesaredangerous.Why?
chmod4755/bin/cat
chmodu+s/bin/grep
SGIDpermissions
TheSGIDisapermissionsimilartoSUIDthatissetforgroupmembers.Thesymbolicvalueissandthe
octalvalueof2000.
SettingSGIDonadirectorychangesthegroupownershipusedforfilessubsequentlycreatedinthatdirectory
tothedirectoriesgroupownership.Noneedtousenewgrptochangetheeffectivegroupoftheprocess
priortofilecreation(seeexercisep.63).
Examples:
chmod2755/home/data
chmodg+s/bin/wc
Thestickybit
Thestickybitpermissionwithvalue1000hasthefollowingeffect:
Appliedtoadirectoryitpreventsusersfromdeletingfilesunlesstheyaretheowner(idealfor
directoriessharedbyagroup)
Appliedtoafilethisusedtocausethefileorexecutabletobeloadedintomemoryandcausedlater
accessorexecutiontobefaster.Thesymbolicvalueforanexecutablefileistwhileforanon
executablefilethisisT.Asfilesystemcachingismoregenericandfaster,filestickybitstendnotbe
supportedanymore.
Examples:
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chmod1666/data/store.txt
chmodo+t/bin/bash
FileAttributes
Alongsidethestandardpermissionsthereisanothersystemthatcanbeusedtochangethewayafilecanbe
used.FileAttributesdonotshowupinthe'ls'command.The'lsattr'commandmustbeusedinstead.The
'chattr'commandisusedtosetanddroptheseattributes.
Thefollowingattributesareavailable.Pleasenotethecase.
'A'WhenafilewiththeAattributesetisaccessed,itsatime(accesstime)recordisnotmodified.Thisavoids
acertainamountofdiskI/O,typicallyfortemporaryfiles.Dobeawarethatsometools,suchastmpwatch,
relyontheatimerecordtodetermineifthefilehasbeenusedrecently.Iftheatimerecordisnotbeing
updatedthefile'sstatusmightbemisinterpreted.
'a'Afilewiththeaattributesetcanonlybeopeninappendmodeforwriting.Onlythesuperuserora
processpossessingtheCAP_LINUX_IMMUTABLEcapabilitycansetorclearthisattribute.Thisisprobably
mosteffectivelyusedonsystemlogfiles,topreventintrudersremovingevidenceoftheirpassage.Dobe
awarethatinorderfortheintrudertohaveanychanceofeditingtheselogfiles,theyneedtohaveroot
access.Withrootaccesstheycouldremovethe'a'attribute,maketheeditsandthenreestablishthe'a'
attribute.
'c'Afilewiththecattributesetisautomaticallycompressedonthediskbythekernel.Areadfromthisfile
returnsuncompresseddata.Awritetothisfilecompressesdatabeforestoringthemonthedisk.NBSadly,
whiletheattributeissetonthefileandisdisplayedbythelsattrcommand,itisnotyethonouredbytheext2
orext3filesystemkerneldrivers.
'D'WhenadirectorywiththeDattributesetismodified,thechangesarewrittensynchronouslyonthedisk;
thisisequivalenttothedirsyncmountoptionappliedtoasubsetofthefiles.Whenthisattributeisin
operationagainstadirectory,thefollowingoperationsaresynchronouswithinthatdirectory:create,link,
unlink,symlink,mkdir,rmdir,mknodandrename.
'd'Afilewiththedattributesetisnotcandidateforbackupwhenthedump(8)programisrun.
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'i'Afilewiththei(immutable)attributecannotbemodified:itcannotbedeletedorrenamed,nolinkcanbe
createdtothisfileandnodatacanbewrittentothefile.Onlythesuperuseroraprocesspossessingthe
CAP_LINUX_IMMUTABLEcapabilitycansetorclearthisattribute.
'j'Afilewiththejattributehasallofitsdatawrittentotheext3journalbeforebeingwrittentothefileitself,if
thefilesystemismountedwiththe"data=ordered"or"data=writeback"options.Whenthefilesystemis
mountedwiththe"data=journal"optionallfiledataisalreadyjournalledandthisattributehasnoeffect.Only
thesuperuseroraprocesspossessingtheCAP_SYS_RESOURCEcapabilitycansetorclearthisattribute.
's'Whenafilewiththesattributesetisdeleted,itsblocksarezeroedandwrittenbacktothedisk.NBAs
withthe'c'attribute,thisattributeishonouredbyeverythingexceptthekernelfilesystemdriver.
'S'WhenafilewiththeSattributesetismodified,thechangesarewrittensynchronouslyonthedisk;thisis
equivalenttothesyncmountoptionappliedtoasubsetofthefiles.Itismostoftenusedforthe'cookedfiles'
usedbydatabaseprogramstoholdtheirdata.Whenusedinthiswaytheadditionoftwodifferentcaching
systemstogetherisavoided.Thecachingsystemofthedatabase,whichisoptimisedforthatsystemsuseof
data,isallowedtowritedirecttodisk.
'T'The'T'attributeisonlyusablewhenusingthe2.6.xkernel.The'T'attributeisdesignedtoindicatethetop
ofdirectoryhierarchies,thisisdesignedforusebytheOrlovblockallocator.Thenewerfileallocationpolicies
oftheext2andext3filesystemsplacesubdirectoriesclosertogetherallowingfasteruseofadirectorytreeif
thatdirectorytreewascreatedwitha2.6kernel.
't'Afilewiththetattributewillnothaveapartialblockfragmentattheendofthefilemergedwithotherfiles
(forthosefilesystemswhichsupporttailmerging).ThisisnecessaryforapplicationssuchasLILOwhichread
thefilesystemsdirectly,andwhichdontunderstandtailmergedfiles.Note:Asofthiswriting,theext2orext3
filesystemsdonot(yet,exceptinveryexperimentalpatches)supporttailmerging.
'u'Whenafilewiththeuattributesetisdeleted,itscontentsaresaved.Thisallowstheusertoaskforits
undeletion.Thisisanotherattributethatissupportedbyeverythingexceptthekernelitself.
Example:
#lsattrtestfile
testfile
#chattr+itestfile
#lsattrtestfile
itestfile
#rmftestfile
rm:cannotremove`testfile':Operationnotpermitted
#chattritestfile
#rmftestfile
#lstestfile
ls:testfile:Nosuchfileordirectory
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____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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YesorNo
1.The/usrdirectorymustalwaysbeontherootdevicesinceitcontains
essentialtoolsneededatboottime
_____
2.Ifauser'shomedirectoryisanywhereelsethaninthe/homedirectory
thensomeoperationsmaynotwork
_____
3.Makingafilesystemonapartitionalwaysdeletesallthedataonthatpartition
_____
Glossary
Term
Description
basedirectories
subdirectoriesthataredirectlyundertherootdirectory
datablock
blockusedtostoredataonafilesystem.Datablocksarereferencedbyinodes
essentialroot(/)
subdirectories
termusedinthismanualtoidentifydirectoriesthatmustbepresentatboottimeonce
therootfilesystemhasbeenmounted
ext2
thesecondextendedfilesytemtypewasadoptedasthegenericLinuxfilesystem
ext3
thethirdextendedfilesystemsupportsthesamefeaturesasext2withanadded
journallingsystem
filepermissions
attributesstoredinsideafile'sinodegivingsimpleread,writeandexecutepermissions
tothefileowner(u),thegroup(g)andanyother(o)useraswellasmoreadvanced
permissionssuchasSUID,SGIDandthe'stickybit'
filesystemhierarchy "Thisstandardconsistsofasetofrequirementsandguidelinesforfileanddirectory
standard(FHS)
placementunderUNIXlikeoperatingsystems.Theguidelinesareintendedtosupport
interoperabilityofapplications,systemadministrationtools,developmenttools,and
scriptsaswellasgreateruniformityofdocumentationforthesesystems"see
http://www.pathname.com/fhs/
inode
blockusedtostoreinformationaboutfiles,directoriesandsymboliclinks.Information
includesthelocationofthefile'sdatablock,filepermissions,timestampsandfiletype
(e.gdirectory,fileorsymlink)
Orlovblockallocator SchemethatincreasestheperformanceofanEXT2/EXT3filesystem.Itisonly
availablefor2.6kernels.ItwasportedfromBSDandimprovedbyAlexanderViro,
AndrewMorton,andTedTs'o.TheoriginalauthorisGrigoryOrlov.Thisschemecan
beswitchedonandofusingthechattrcommandunderLinux
superblock
isreadwhenthefilesystemismounted,containsinformationsuchastheblocksize
usedforthecurrentfilesystem(default1024),thenumberoffreeinodes,themount
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TheLinuxFilesystem
_________________________________________________
countandmaximummountcount(usedtodetermineifafullfilesystemcheckshould
beperformed)
Files
File
Description
/etc/mtab
fileusedbymounttokeeptrackofcurrentlymounteddevices
/proc/mounts
fileusedbythekerneltokeeptrackofcurrentlymounteddevices
Commands
Command
Description(apropos)
chattr
changesfileattributesonaext2/3filesystem
chgrp
chgrpchangethegroupownershipofafile
chmod
chmodchangefileaccesspermission
chown
chown(1)changetheuserandgroupownershipofafile
df
dfreportfilesystemdiskspaceusage
du
duestimatefilespaceusage
e2fsck
e2fsckcheckandrepairaLinuxsecondextendedfilesystem
fsck
checkandrepairanyfilesystem
lsattr
liststhefileattributesonaext2/3filesystem
mke2fs
mke2fscreateanext2/3filesystem
mkfs
mkfsbuildaLinuxfilesystem
mount
mount(1)AllfilesaccessibleinaUnixsystemarearrangedinonebigtree,thefile
hierarchy,rootedat/.Thesefilescanbespreadoutoverseveraldevices.Themount
commandservestoattachthefilesystemfoundonsomedevicetothebigfiletree.
Conversely,theumount(8)commandwilldetachitagain
umask
toolusedtosetthefilecreationmaskmodeseehelpumask
Filesystem
1.
Create2newpartitions(largerthan50M)onthe/dev/hdadeviceusingfdisk.
HINT:Tocreateanewpartitiontypen.Thepartitiontypedefaultsto83(Linux)
Towritethenewpartitiontabletypew.
Thepartitiontableneedstoberead:REBOOTthecomputer!
2.
Formatthefirstpartitionusingtheext2filesystemtypeandthesecondwithreiserfs.
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HINT:Themkfstoolisafrontformkfs.ext2ormkfs.reiserfs,etc.Thesyntaxis
mkfst<fstype><device>
3.
Makedirectoriesin/mntandmountthenewpartitions
mkdir /mnt/ext2
mkdir /mnt/reiserfs
4.
Checkthestatusofyoursystem:
Usemounttoverifywhichdevicesaremounted.Thepermissionssetinfstabarevisibletoo.
Usedftocheckthetotalnumberofblocksused.Thekoptionwillconvertthenumberofblocksin
kilobytes(thedefaultblocksizeforext2)
Runfsckononeofthenewlycreatedfilesystems.Thefsckutilityisafrontforfsck.ext2,fsck.ext3,
fsck.reiserfs,etc.Thesyntaxis:
fsck
5.
<device>
Goingfurther:Changingfromext2toext3:
Updatethedevicemountedon/mnt/ext2toext3withtune2fs.Thiswilladdajournaltotheexisting
filsystem.Makesuretomaketherelevantchangeforthefilesystemtypein/etc/fstab
tune2fsj/dev/hdaN
Atthisstagethesystemhasaddedajournaltothe/dev/hda10partition,makingitanext3formated
partition.Thisprocessisnondestructiveandreversible.Ifyoumountanext3asanext2filesystem,the
.journalfilewillbeerased.Youcanadditagainwithtune2fs
Filepermissions
1.
664.
Loginasauser(nonroot).Createafileusingtouchandverifythatithastheeffectivepermission
2.
Changetheumaskto027.Ifyoucreateanewfilewhatisitseffectivepermission?_________
Whereisthevalueofumaskset?Depeningthesystemsthiscanbe/etc/profileor/etc/bashrc
3.
Add2userstoyoursystem.
useradd user1
useradd user2
Addpassordswith passwd user1 and passwd user2

4.
Createagroupcalledsales.
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groupadd sales
5.
Addtheuserstothegroupsales
gpasswd -a user1 sales
gpasswd -a user2 sales
6.
Createadirectory/newsownedbythegroupsalesandreadwritableforthisgroup.
mkdir -m 770 /news ; chown .sales /news
7.
SettheGIDtothe/newsdirectory.
chmod g+s /news
Whatarethesymbolicpermissions(eg.rwxr_xr_x)on/news?[usels -ld /news]______
Verifythatagroupmemberdoesntneedtotypenewgrpsalesinordertocreatefileswiththeright
permissions.Canmembersofthegroupsalesmodifyanyfilesinthisdirectory?
8.
Addthestickybitpermissiononthe/newsdirectory.Verifythatonlyuserownerscanmodifythefiles
inthethatdirectory.Whatarethepermissionslikeon/news?______________
10.
AsrootsetSUIDrootxeyes.Loginasanonrootuser.CheckthatthisbinaryrunswithUIroot.
chmod u+s `which xeyes`
Loginasanotheruserandrunxeyes.Thendo:
ps aux | grep xeyes
(thebinaryshouldberunningasroot)
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TheCommandLine
_______________________________________________
TheCommandLine
Prerequisites
None
Goals
Introducethebashshellandbasicconceptssuchasinteractivelystartinganexecutable
Distinguishvariablesdefinedaslocalorglobal(exported)
Manipulatedatastreamsusingpipesandotherredirectionoperators
Understandmetacharactersusedfor"fileglobbing"
Contents
THECOMMANDLINE............................................................................................................. 56
1.Theinteractiveshell..................................................................................................................... 57
2.Variables...................................................................................................................................... 58
3.Input,Output,Redirection............................................................................................................ 59
4.MetacharactersandQuotes........................................................................................................ 62
5.TheCommandHistory................................................................................................................. 63
6.OtherCommands........................................................................................................................ 64
7.ExerciseandSummary................................................................................................................ 67
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TheCommandLine
_______________________________________________
Overview
Abasicwaytointeractwithacomputersystemistousethecommandline.Theshellinterprets
theinstructionstypedinatthekeyboard.Theshellprompt(endingwith$or#foruserroot)
indicatesthatitisreadyforuserinput.
Theshellisalsoaprogrammingenvironmentwhichcanbeusedtoperformautomatedtasks.
Shellprogramsarecalledscripts.
MostCommonshells
TheBourneshell
/bin/sh
TheBourneagain
shell
/bin/bash
TheKornshell
/bin/ksh
TheCshell
/bin/csh
Tom'sCshell
/bin/tcsh
SincethebashshellisoneofthemostwidelyusedshellsintheLinuxworldtheLPI
concentratesmainlyonthisshell.
1.Theinteractiveshell
Shellcommandsareoftenoftheform
command [options] {arguments}.
Printingtexttothescreen
Thethebashshellusestheechocommandtoprinttexttothescreen.
echothisisashortline
Full/Relativepath
Theshellinterpretsthefirstwordofanystringgivenonthecommandlineasacommand.Ifthestringis
afullorrelativepathtoanexecutablethentheexecutableisstarted.Ifthefirstwordhasno/
characters,thentheshellwillscandirectoriesdefinedinthePATHvariableandattempttorunthefirst
commandmatchingthestring.
ForexampleifthePATHvariableonlycontainsthedirectories/binand/usr/binthenthestringxeyes
won'tbefoundsinceitisstoredin/usr/X11R6/bin/xeyessothefullpathneedstoberun
/usr/X11R6/bin/xeyes
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Analternativetotypingthefullpathtoanexecutableistousearelativepath.Forexample,iftheuseris
inthedirectorywherethexeyesprogramisstoredthenonecantype
./xeyes
2.Variables
Shellvariablesaresimilartovariablesusedinanycomputinglanguage.Variablenamesarelimitedto
alphanumericcharacters.ForexampleCREDIT=300simplyassignsthevalue300tothevariablenamed
CREDIT.
1.initialiseavariable:
VariableName=value(nospaces!!)
2.referenceavariable:
$VariableName
CREDIT=300
echo$CREDIT
Thevalueofavariablecanberemovedwiththeunsetcommand.
Export,SetandEnv:
Therearetwotypesofvariable:localandexported.
Localvariableswillbeaccessibleonlytothecurrentshell.Ontheotherhand,exportedvariablesare
accessiblebyboththeshellandanychildprocessstartedfromthatshell.
Thecommandssetandenvareusedtolistdefinedvariables
Thesetandenvcommands
set
Listsallvariables
env
Listsallexportedvariables
Aglobalvariableisglobalinthesensethatanychildprocesscanreferenceit.
LOCAL
parent
EXPORTED
child
child
parent
VAR=??
VAR=val
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
exportVAR=val
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_______________________________________________
LOCAL
EXPORTED
VAR=val
Example:MaketheCREDITvariableaglobalvariable.Testwhetherit'slistedwithsetorenv.
exportCREDIT
env|grepCREDIT
Startanewshell(childprocess)andverifythatCREDITisaccessible.Canonestartanyshellandbe
surethatCREDITisstilldeclared?
Listofcommonpredefinedvariables
MEANING
PREDEFINEDVARIABLES
DISPLAY
UsedbyXtoidentifywheretorunaclientapplication
HISTFILE
Pathtotheusers.bash_historyfile
HOME
Thepathtotheuser'shome
LOGNAME
Thenameusedbytheusertologin
PATH
Listofdirectoriessearchedbytheshellforprogramstobe
executedwhenacommandisenteredwithoutapath.
PWD
Thecurrentworkingdirectory
SHELL
Theshellused(bashinmostLinuxdistributions)
TERM
Thecurrentterminalemulation
Specialvariables
Thenextfewvariablesarerelatedtoprocessmanagement.
$!
$$
$?
representsthePIDvalueofthelastchildprocess
representsthePIDoftherunningshell
is0ifthelastcommandwasexecutedsuccessfullyand1otherwise
3.Input,Output,Redirection
UNIXprocessesnormallyopenthreestandardfiledescriptorswhichenableittoprocessinputand
output.Thesestandarddescriptorscanberedefinedforanygivenprocess.Inmostcasesthestdin
descriptoristhekeyboard,andthetwooutputdescriptors,stdoutandstderr,isthescreen.
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Aprocessandits3descriptors
STDIN
<
STDOUT
>
>>
STDERR |
2>
Numericalvaluesforstdin,stderrandstdout
0
stdin
1
stdout
2
stderr
stdoutredirection
program>file
Thedataflowsfromlefttoright.
fdiskl>partions.txt
Thiswillrunthefdiskutilityandoutputtheresulttothepartitions.txtfile.Nooutputisvisible.Alsonotice
thattheshellwillreadthislinefromtheright.Asaresult,the
partitions.txtfilewillbecreatedfirstifitdoesntexistandoverwrittenifthe>operatorisused.
The>>operatorwillappendstandardoutputtoafile.
STDOUTRedirection
process
>
>>
FILE/
DEVICE
1>
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_______________________________________________
stdinredirection
program<file
Inthiscasedataflowsfromrighttoleft.The<operatorisonlyusedforstdinandcannotbeusedfor
stdout.
Ifthefileinstuctionscontainsoneachlinethelettersp,m,andqthenthenextexamplewouldcause
fdisktoprintthepartitiontableof/dev/hda,printtheutilityshelpscreenandfinallyquit:
fdisk/dev/hda<instructions
STDINRedirection
process
<
FILE/
DEVICE
0<
stderrredirection
program2>errorfile
stdin,stdoutandstderrarerepresentedby0,1and2respectively.Thisallowsonetoselectthestderr
stream:
find/2>/dev/null
STDERRRedirection
process
2>
FILE/
DEVICE
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pipedcommands
program1|program2
Pipesarerepresentedbythe|symbol.Thedatastreamgoesfromthelefttotheright.Thenextfigure
illustrateshowthestdoutforoneprocessisredirectedtothestdinforanotherprocess.
PipedCommands
process
process
cat/var/log/messages|less
NBMultipleoutputredirectsareparsedfromrighttoleft,sothefollowingcommandsarenotequivalent.
Docommand2>&1>logfile
Docommand>logfile2>&1
TheteeCommand
command|teeFILENAME
Thiscommandisusedafterapipeandtakesafilenameasanargument.Thestandardoutputfromthe
previouscommandisthensenttothefilegivenasanargumentbutteealsoletsthestreamthroughto
stdout.Thestdouthasbeenduplicatedinthisway.
4.MetacharactersandQuotes
Metacharactersarecharactersthathavespecialmeaningfortheshell.Theyaremainlyusedforfile
globbing,thatistomatchseveralfilesordirectorynamesusingaminimumofletters.
Theinput(<),output(>)andpipe(|)charactersarealsospecialcharactersaswellasthedollar($)sign
usedforvariables.Wewillnotlistthemherebutnotethatthesecharactersareseldomusedtoname
regularfiles.
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Wildcards
The*wildcardcanreplaceanynumberofcharacters.
ls/usr/bin/b*listsallprogramsstartingwitha'b'
The?wildcardreplacesanyonecharacter.
ls/usr/bin/?b*listsallprogramshavinga'b'asthesecondletter
[]isusedtodefinearangeofvalue.
lsa[09]listsallfilesstartingwithan'a'andhaveadigitinsecondposition.Also
ls[!Aa]*listsallfilesthatdon'tstartwithan'a'oran'A'
{string1,string2};althoughnotjustafilenamingwildcard,itcanbeusedtomatchthenamesof
existingfiles.
lsindex.{htm,html}
Quotesandescapecodes
Thespecialmeaningofmetacharacterscanbecancelledbyescapecharacters,whicharealso
metacharacters.
Thebackslash(\)iscalledtheescapecharacterandcancelsthemeaningofallmetacharactersforcing
theshelltointerpretthemliterally.
Thesinglequotes('')cancelthemeaningofallmetacharactersexceptthebackslash.
Thedoublequotes("")aretheweakestquotesbutcancelmostofthespecialmeaningoftheenclosed
charactersexceptthepipe(|),thebackslash(\)andavariable($var).
Thebacktick
Backquotes``willexecuteacommandenclosed.ThenextexampledefinesthevariableTIMEusingthe
datecommand.
TIME="Today'sdateis`date+%a:%d:%b`
echo$TIME
Today'sdateisSun:15:Jul
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Anotherwayofexecutingcommands(similartothebackticks)istouse$().Thiswillexecutethe
enclosedcommandandtreatitasavariable.
TIME=$(date)
5.TheCommandHistory
Toviewthelistofpreviouslytypedcommandsyoucanusethebashbuiltincommandhistory.
history
1
ls
2
grep500/etc/passwd
Thishaslistedallthecachedcommandsaswellasthecommandssavein~/.bash_history.Whena
userexitstheshellcachedcommandsaresavedto~/.bash_history.
YoucanrecallcommandsbyusingtheUparrowandDownarrowonyourkeyboard.Therearealso
emacskeybindingsthatenableyoutoexecuteandevenedittheselines.
EmacsKeyBindingsforEditingtheCommandHistory
Ctrl+P
Previousline(sameasUparrow)
Ctrl+n
Nextline(sameasDownarrow)
Ctrl+b
Gobackonecharacterontheline(sameasLeftArrow)
Ctrl+f
Goforwardonecharacterontheline(SameasRightArrow)
Ctrl+a
Gotothebeginningoftheline(Sameas<Home>)
Ctrl+e
Gototheendoftheline(Sameas<End>)
Thebang!keycanbeusedtorerunacommand.
Example
!xexecutesthelatestcommandinthehistoryliststartingwithan'x'
!2runscommandnumber2fromthehistoryoutput
!2runsthecommandbeforelast
!!runsthelastcommand
^string1^string2runpreviouscommandandreplacestring1bystring2
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6.OtherCommands
Aliases
Youcancreatealiasesforcommandsneedingmanyarguments.Theformattocreateanaliasis
alias myprog='command [options]{arguments}'
Bytypingaliasaloneatthecommandlineyouwillgetalistofcurrentlydefinedaliases.
Commandcompletion
BypressingTAB,theshellwillcompletethecommandsyouhavestartedtypingin.
<<isaredirectionforEOF
Forexample
cat << stop
willacceptstandardinputuntilthekeyword'stop'isentered.
Compoundcommands
command1;command2;command3
Thethreecommandsareruninsequenceregardlessof
thesuccessofthepreviouscommand
command1&&command2&&command3
Eachcommandwillexecuteonlyifthepreviousexit
codeis0(success)
command1||comand2||command3
Thenextcommandwillexecuteonlyifthepreviousexit
codeisnot0(failure)
The''exec'command
Thiscommandisnotabinarybutratherispartoftheshell.Itisusedtostartothercommands.Ordinarily
ifacommandisexecuted,asubprocessisstarted.Iftheexeccommandisusedtoinitiatethenew
program,itreoccupiestheprocessusedtostartit.Itreplacesthecurrentshell(inascriptorthe
interactiveshell).
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Whenthenewcommandterminates,controlisnotpassedbacktothecallingshell,butreturnstothe
processthatcalledtheshellusedtomaketheexeccall.
echo$$
414
$bash
$echo$$
455
$echohello
hello
$echo$$
455
$execechohello
hello
$echo$$
414
Theaboveshowscontrolfallingbacktothesecondshell(process455)afterastraightforwardechoand
thefirstshell(process414)usinganexec.
Manpagesandthewhatisdatabase
Themanpagesareorganisedinsections
NAME
thenameoftheitemfollowedbyashortonelinedescription.
SYNOPSYS
thesyntaxforthecommand
DESCRIPTION
alongerdescription
OPTIONS
areviewofallpossibleoptionsandtheirfunction
FILES
filesthatarerelatedtothecurrentitem(configurationfilesetc)
SEEALSO
othermanpagesrelatedtothecurrenttopic
Thesearethemainsectionsonecanexpecttofindinamanpage.
ThewhatisdatabasestorestheNAMEsectionofallthemanpagesonthesystem.Thisisdonethrough
adailycron.Thewhatisdatabasehasthefollowingtwoentries:
name(key)
one line description
Thesyntaxforwhatisis:
whatis <string>
TheoutputisthefullNAMEsectionofthemanpageswherestringmatchednamed(key)
Onecanalsousethemancommandtoquerythewhatisdatabase.Thesyntaxis
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_______________________________________________
man -k <string>
Thiscommandissimilartoapropos.Unlikewhatisthiswillqueryboththenameandtheoneline
descriptionentriesofthedatabase.Ifthestringmatchesawordinanyofthesefieldstheabovequery
willreturnthefullNAMEsection.
Example:(thematchingstringhasbeenhighlighted)
whatis lilo
lilo
(8)
- install boot loader
lilo.conf [lilo]
(5)
- configuration file for lilo
man -k
lilo
grubby
elilo
(8)
- command line tool for configuring grub, lilo, and
lilo
(8)
- install boot loader
lilo.conf [lilo]
(5)
- configuration file for lilo
TheFHSrecommendsmanpagestobekeptin/usr/share/man.Howeveradditionallocationscanbe
searchedusingtheMANPATHenvironmentvariablesetin/etc/man.config.Eachdirectoryisfurther
dividedintosubdirectoriescorrespondingtomanpagesections.
ManpageSections
Section1
Informationonexecutables
Section2
Systemcalls,e.gmkdir(2)
Section3
Librarycalls,e.gstdio(3)
Section4
Devices(filesin/dev)
Section5
Configurationfilesandformats
Section6
Games
Section7
Macropackages
Section8
Administrationcommands
Section9
Kernelroutines
ToaccessaspecificsectionNonehastoenter:
man N command
Examples:
man mkdir
man 2 mkdir
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man crontab
man 5 crontab
7.ExerciseandSummary
YesorNo
1.IfthePATHvariableisn'tproperlysetthenprogramscanbe
startedonlyifuserstypeintheexecutable'sfullorrelativepath
_____
2.TheSTDOUTfromaprocesscanbepipedintoafile
_____
3.Onceadatastreamhasgonethroughapipethatstreamis
generallynolongervisibleonSTDOUT
_____
4.Allthecommandsenteredattheshellarestoredinamysqldatabase
_____
Glossary
Term
Description
compoundcommands
severalcommandsgiveninasinglelineattheshellusingdelimiters.
Dependingonthedelimitertheshellwillexecutethecommandsdifferently
(p.73)
metacharacters
characterthatisnotinterpretedliterallybytheshellbuthasaddedmeaning
commandsubstitution
usetheoutputofacommandasavariable.Thisisdonebyenclosingthe
commandinbackticks``orroundbrackets$()
Forexamplels /home/$(whoami)willlistthecurrentuser'shome
directory
fileglobbing
termusedwhenhandlingmultiplefilenamesusingwildcards.Thename
comesfromtheglobsubprograminoldUNIXshellsusedtoexpandwild
cardsgivenonthecommandline
redirectionandpipes
operationsthatmanipulatedatastreamsandthefiledescriptorsofaprocess.
Aredirectioninvolvesaprocessandafile,whereasapipewillinvolveonly
processes
stderr,stdin,stdout
namesofthefiledescriptorsavailableforanyprocesstostreamerror
messages,readinputstreamsandwriteoutput(nonerror)streams
wildcards
thefollowing*,?,"{}"or"[ ]"metacharactersusedtomatchmorethan
onecharacterwhenworkingonthecommandline
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Commands
Command
Description(orapropos)
alias
setanaliasforasingleorasequenceofcommands(seemanbuiltinsorhelpalias)
echo
printtexttoSTDOUT
env
listvariablesthathavebeenexported(seemanbuiltinsorhelpenv)
exec
Shellbuiltinusedtoexecutenewprogramsbutinsteadofstartinganewsubprocessit
replacesthecallingprocess
export
exportthevalueofavariabletotheenvironmentofsubsequentlyexecutedcommands
(seemanbuiltinsorhelpexport)
history
displaythecommandhistorylistwithlinenumbers(seemanbuiltinsorhelphistory)
tee
tee(1)readfromstandardinputandwriteto(both)standardoutputandfiles
set
listallvariablesintheenvironmentofthecurrentprocess(seealsomanbuiltinsand
helpset)
Exercises
WARNING:Youwillneedtheuuencodeanduudecodecommandsintheexercises.Thesecommands
areprovidedbythesharutilspackage.
Stdinstdoutstderr
Typethenextcommandsandrepresentthesequenceofexecution(ifpossible)usingdiagramssimilarto
theonesusedinthischapter.
ls /etc ; df > /tmp/out.1
(ls /etc ; df) > /tmp/out.2
find /etc -type f
2> /dev/null | sort
tr [a-z] [A-Z] < /etc/passwd | sort > /tmp/passwd.tmp

cat /tmp/passwd.tmp | tr [A-Z] [a-z]
CommandLine
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1.Listallfilesin/usr/X11R6/binthatdon'tstartwithanx
ls /usr/X11R6/bin/[!x]*
2.Thecommandxtermhasthefollowingoptions:
bg<color>
setbackground
fg<color>
setforeground
e<command> executecommandinterminal
Setanewaliassuchthatthesucommandopensanewcolorxtermandpromptsforaroot
password.
alias su=xterm -bg orange -fg brown -e su - &
Wherewouldyoustorethisaliasonthesystem?___________
3.Youcanencodefilesusinguuencode.Theencodedfileisredirectedtostdout.
Forexample:uuencode/bin/bashsupershell>uufileencodes/bin/bashandwillproduceafilecalled
supershellwhenrunninguudecodeagainsttheuufile
Mailtheuuencoded/bin/bashtoalocaluser(forthisyoucaneitheruseuuencodeandapipe|,
orsavetheuuencodedoutputtoafileuufileanduseSTDINredirection<).
Splittheuuencodedfileinto5files:
uuencode/bin/bashsupershell>uufile
splitb150000uufilebasename.
Thiswillcreatefilescalledbasename.aa,basename.ab,etc
Togetauuencodedfilewithalltheoriginaldata(unsplit)do
catbasename.*>uufile.new
Finallyuudecodethefileandcheckitstillworks.
uudecodeuufile.new
Thisshouldcreateabinaryfilecalledsupershell
3.WhichtoolfindsthefullpathtoabinarybyscanningthePATHvariable?_____
Variables
1.Dothefollowing
AssignthevaluevirustothevariableALERT.
ALERT=virus
Verifythatitisdefinedusingthesetcommand:
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TheCommandLine
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set |grep ALERT
IsALERTlistedwhenusingenvinsteadofset?
Nexttypebash.CanyouaccesstheALERTvariable?
bash
echo $ALERT
NOTEthevalueofALERT:______(isitblank?)
Typeexit(or^D)toreturntoyouroriginalsession.
UsetheexportcommandtomakeALERTaglobalvariable.
export ALERT
Verifythatitisaglobal(env)variable
env | grep ALERT
(v) StartanewbashshellandmakesurethatALERTisdefinedinthenewshell:
bash
echo $ALERT
Inthisnewshell,redefinethevariableALERT
export ALERT=green
Exitthatshell.WhatisthevalueofALERTintheoriginalshell?________
2.Atthecommandprompttypethefollowinglines:
CREDIT01=300;CREDIT02=400
forVARinCREDIT01CREDIT02;doecho$VAR;done
NoticethatthevariableVARisreferencedwith$VAR.
(i)Rerunthiscommand.
(ii)RerunthiscommandreplacingCREDIT01by$CREDIT01
3.UsingappropriatequoteschangeyourPS1variabletoincludethefullpathtoyourworkingdirectory.
(Hint:thevalueofPS1is[\u@\W]\$,youonlyneedtoreplacethe\Wbya\w)
PS1='[\u@\h \w ]\$ '
WhatdoesPS2looklike?________
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FileManagement
_________________________________________________
FileManagement
Prerequisites
TheCommandLine(seep.64)
UnderstandtheEXT2filesystem(seep.48)
Goals
Effectivelymovearoundthefilesystemtocreate,deleteandfindfilesordirectories
Distinguishbetweenhardandsymboliclinks
Contents
FILEMANAGEMENT.................................................................................................................... 71
1.Movingaroundthefilesystem............................................................................................................. 72
2.FindingFilesandDirectories.............................................................................................................. 72
3.Handlingdirectories............................................................................................................................ 74
4.Usingcpandmv................................................................................................................................. 74
5.HardLinksandSymbolicLinks........................................................................................................... 75
7.Touchinganddding........................................................................................................................... 76
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1.Movingaroundthefilesystem
Absoluteandrelativepaths
Adirectoryorafilecanbeaccessedbygivingitsfullpathname,startingattheroot(/)oritsrelativepath,
startingfromthecurrentdirectory.
Absolutepath: independentoftheuser'scurrentdirectory
startswith/
Relativepath: dependsonwheretheuseris
doesn'tstartwith/
Asinanystructuredfilesystemthereareanumberofutilitiesthatcanhelpyounavigatethroughthesystem.
Thenexttwocommandsarebuiltincommands.
pwd:
cd:
Givesyouractualpositionasanabsolutepath.
The'changedirectory'command
2.FindingFilesandDirectories
Wewilldescribethefind,which,whereisandlocateutilities.
find
Syntax:
find <DIRECTORY> <CRITERIA> [-exec <COMMAND> {} \;]
TheDIRECTORYargumenttellsfindwheretostartsearchingandCRITERIAcanbethenameofafileor
directorywearelookingfor.
Examples:
find/usr/X11R6/binnamex*.
find/user502
Matchinglinesarelistedtostandardout.Thisoutputcanbeactedupon.Forexampledeletethefile,or
changethepermission.Thefindtoolhasthebuildinoptionexecwhichallowsyoutodothat.Forexample,
removeallfilesbelongingtouser502:
find/typefuser502execrmf{}\;
xargs
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Thistoolisoftenthoughtofasacompaniontooltofind.Infactxargswillprocesseachlineofstandard
outputasanargumentforanothertool.Wecouldusexargstodeleteallfilesbelongingtoauserwith:
find/typefuser502|xargsrmf
Certaincommandssuchasrmcannotdealwithtoolongarguments.Itissometimesnecessaryto
deleteallfilesinadirectorywith
ls|xargsrmf
Commoncriteriaswitchesforfind
type
specifythetypeoffile
name
nameofthefile
user
userowner
atime,ctime,mtime
access,creationandmodifiedtimes(multiplesof24hrs)
amin,cmin,mmin
access,creationandmodifiedtimes(multiplesof1min)
newerFILE
filesnewerthanFILE
locate
Syntax:
locate <STRING>
Whenusinglocateallfilesanddirectoriesthatmatchtheexpressionarelisted.
locateX11R
Thesearchismuchfaster.Infactlocatequeriesthe/var/lib/slocate/slocate.dbdatabase.Thisdatabaseis
keptuptodateviaadailycronjobwhichrunsupdatedb.
Whenrunningupdatedbfromthecommandlinethe/etc/updatedb.conffileisreadtodeterminepruned
filessystems(e.gNFS)anddirectories(e.g/tmp)
which
Syntax:
which string
Thistoolwillreturnthefullpathtothefilecalledstringbyscanningthedirectoriesdefinedintheuser's
PATHvariableonly.Asaresultwhichisonlyusedtofindcommands.
whereis
Syntax
whereisstring
Thistoolwillreturnthefullpathtosourceorbinariesaswellasdocumentationfilesmatchingstringby
scanningthePATHvariableaswellasanumberofwellknownlocations
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Gettingthemostfromls
Mostcommonoptionsforls
I
showinode
h
printhumanreadablesizes
n
listUIDsandGIDs
p
appenddescriptor(/=@)tolist
R
recursivelydisplaycontentofdirectories
S
sortbyfilesize
t
sortbymodificationtime(similartoc)
u
showlastaccesstime
3.Handlingdirectories
Makingadirectorywithmkdir:
Whenmakingadirectoryyoucansetthepermissionmodewiththemoption.Anotherusefuloptionisp
whichcreatesallsubdirectoriesautomaticallyasneeded.
Example:
mkdirpdocs/programs/versions
Removingdirectories:
Toremoveadirectoryuseeitherrmdirorrmr.Ifyouarerootyoumayhavetospecifyftoforcethe
deletionofallfiles.
Notice: rmrf/dir1/*removesallfilesandsubdirectoriesleavingdir1empty
rmrf/dir1/removesallfilesandsubdirectoriesincludingdir1
4.Usingcpandmv
cp
Syntax:
cp [options] file1 file2
cp [options] files directory
Itisimportanttonoticethatcpfile1file2makesanewcopyoffile1andleavesfile1unchanged.
Fig:file1withinode250iscopiedtofile2,duplicatingthedatatoanewdataareaandcreatinganewinode
6238forfile2
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FileManagement
_________________________________________________
ID
250
ID
6238
Youcanalsocopyseveralfilestoadirectory,usingalistorwildcards.Thefollowingtableliststhemostused
options.
Mostcommonoptionsforcp
d
donotfollowsymboliclink(whenusedwithR)
f
force
I
interactive,promptbeforeoverwrite
p
preservefileattributes
R
recursivelycopydirectories
Note: cpr/dir/*/dir2/willcopyallfilesandsubdirectoriesomittingmydir
cpr/mydir//dir2/willcopyallfilesandsubdirectoriesincludingmydir
mv
Syntax:
mv [options] oldname newname
mv [options] source destination
mv [options] source directory
Themvcommandcanbothmoveandrenamefilesanddirectories.Ifoldnameisafileandnewnameisa
directorythenthefileoldnameismovedtothatdirectory.
Ifthesourceanddestinationareonthesamefilesystem,thenthefileisn'tcopiedbuttheinodeinformationis
updatedtospecifythenewlocation.Mostcommonoptionsarefforceoverwriteandiqueryinteractively.
5.HardLinksandSymbolicLinks
Symboliclinks
Asoftlinktoafileoradirectorycreatesanewinodethatpointstothesamedataarea:
lnslilo.conflilo.sym
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Thisisthelistingforthesefiles.Noticethatthereferencecountis1forbothfiles.
rw1rootroot223Nov909:06lilo.conf
lrwxrwxrwx1rootroot9Nov909:06lilo.sym>lilo.conf
Fig2:Asoftlinktoafile
ID
lilo.conf
I
lilo.sym
Softlinkscanbecreatedacrossfilesystems.
HardLinks
Ahardlinkisanadditionalnameforthesameinodeandassuchthereferencecountofthefileincreasesby
oneforeverynewhardlink.
lnlilo.conflilo.link
Inthelistingnoticethatthereferencecountis2andthatbothfileshavethesamesize.Infacttheyare
identical.
rw2rootroot223Nov909:06lilo.conf
rw2rootroot223Nov909:06lilo.link
Hardlinkscanonlybecreatedwithinthesamefilesystem.
7.Touchinganddding
touch
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FileManagement
_________________________________________________
Anotherwayofcreatingormodifyingafileistousetouch.
Syntax:
touch{options}file(s)
Iffiledoesn'texistitiscreated.Youcanalsochangetheaccesstimeofafileusingtheaoption,mchanges
themodificationtimeandrisusedtoapplythetimeattributesofanotherfile.
Example:
touchfile1.txtfile2.txt
touchmyfiler/etc/lilo.conf
createsnewfiles
myfilegetsthetimeattributesoflilo.conf
Tocreateafilecallederrorsusetheoption:
toucherrors
dd
ThiscommandcopiesafilewithachangeableI/Oblocksize.Itcanalsobeusedtoperformconversions
(similartotr).Mainoptionsareif=(inputfile)of=(outputfile)conv=(conversion)
Theconversionswitchcanbe:lcaseucaseascii
Example:
ddif=/mnt/cdrom/images/boot.imgof=/dev/fd0
Noticethatunlikecptheddtoolwillcopyportionsofadeviceandpreservetheunderlyingfilesystem.Onthe
otherhandcponlydealswiththedataandwilltransferitfromonefilesystemtoanother:
SOURCE
TARGET
cp:
dd:inputfile=device
outputfile=device
dd:inputfile=file
outputfile=device
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FileManagement
_________________________________________________
dd:inputfile=device
outputfile=file
FilesystemA
FilesystemB
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_________________________________________________
Review Questions(answersp.165)
YesorNo
1.Thecdcommandwilltakeyoubacktoapreviousdirectory?
_____
2.Typingcd~(inthebashshell)istheshortestcommandthatwilltake
youtoyourhomedirectory?
_____
3.Onecanmaketwonewdirectories/dir1/dir2usingmkdirwithoutanyoptions
_____
4.Thecommandupdatedbwillupdatethelocatedatabase
_____
5.ThesyntaxtocreateasymboliclinkcalledFILELINKpointingtothefileFILEis
ln -s FILE-LINK
FILE
_____
6.Thecommandscd/etcandcd./etcarealwaysequivalent
_____
Files
File
Description
/etc/updatedb.conf
configurationfilefortheupdatedbtool
/
thelocate(orslocate'securelocate')database
var/lib/slocate/slocate.db
Commands
Command
cd
changecurrentdirectoryseehelp cd
cp
cp(1)copyfilesanddirectories
dd
copyandconvertfiles.Oftenusedtocopythecontentofadiskdevicetoanotherdeviceorfile
find
find(1)searchforfilesinadirectoryhierarchy
ln
ln(1)makelinksbetweenfiles
locate
commandusedtosearchfilesanddirectoriesinthelocatedatabase
ls
ls(1)listdirectorycontents
mkdir
mkdir(1)makedirectories
mv
mv(1)move(rename)files
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FileManagement
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pwd
pwd(1)printnameofcurrent/workingdirectory
rm
rm(1)removefilesordirectories
touch
createnewemptyfileorchangefiletimestamps
updatedb
commandusedtoupdatethelocatedatabase
whereis
whereis(1)locatethebinary,source,andmanualpagefilesforacommand
which
which(1)showsthefullpathof(shell)commands
Exercises
FileNavigation
1.Makeanewdirectoryin/tmpcalled/etc.
mkdir /tmp/etc
2.In/tmp/etc/createafilecallednewfile(usetouch,catorvi).
3.Gototherootdirectory(cd/).
4.Testwhichofthefollowingcommandswillshowthecontentofnewfile?
cat etc/newfile
cat /etc/newfile
cat tmp/etc/newfile
cat /tmp/etc/newfile
5.Removethe/tmp/etcdirectorywithrmdir.Dostep1againthenremove/tmp/etcwithrm
Makingspaceonthefilesystem
Inordertocreatemorespaceonthedevicecontainingthedirectory/usr/share/docweneedtofindaspare
devicewithenoughspaceandcopythecontentsof/usr/share/doctothatdevice.Thenwecreatespaceby
deletingthe/usr/share/docdirectoryandcreatingasymboliclinkfrom/usr/share/doctothenewlocation.
6.Makeadirectorycalled/spareonwhichwewillmountasparedevices(oneofthepartitionscreatedin
thepreviousexercisesshouldbesuitable)
mkdir /spare
mount <device> /spare
7.Testwithdfh/spareandduhs/usr/share/docthatthedeviceislargeenoughtocontainallofthe
existingdata.
8.Next,copythecontentsof/usr/share/docto/spare/
cp -a /usr/share/doc /spare
9.Makesurethedatahasallbeencopiedacrossthenedit/etc/fstabtomakethatdeviceavailableatboot
time.
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10.Delete/usr/share/docandcreateasymboliclinkpointingfrom/usr/share/docto/spare/doc
ln -s /spare/doc /usr/share/doc
11.(optional)Dothesamewith/home.Anyextraproblems?
FindingFilesontheSystem
12.Copythefile/etc/lilo.confto/etc/lilo.conf.bak
(i)Usefindtofindthisnewfile
(ii)Uselocatetofind/etc/lilo.conf.bak.
(iii)Updatethelocatedatabaseandretry(ii)
Backupstrategy(firststep)
Findallfilesinyourhomedirectorythathavebeenmodifiedinthepast24hours.
find/homemtime1|teelist1|wclines(1meanslessthanoneday)
WewillintroducearchivingtoolsinLPI102,buttheoutputofthefindcommandcanbepipeddirectlyinto
cpio.
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ProcessManagement
_________________________________________________
ProcessManagement
Prerequisites
TheCommandLine(p.64)
Goals
FindtheprocessID(orPID)ofarunningprocessusingdifferenttools
Usekillandkillalleffectivelywiththeappropriatesignal
Managejobsfromthecommandlineintheforegroundorthebackground
Contents
PROCESSMANAGEMENT........................................................................................................... 81
1.Viewingrunningprocesses................................................................................................................. 82
2.ModifyingProcesses.......................................................................................................................... 83
3.Processesandtheshell..................................................................................................................... 85
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1.Viewingrunningprocesses
ProcesseshaveauniqueProcessIDthePID.Thisnumbercanbeusedtomodifyaprocess'priorityorto
stopit.
Aprocessisanyrunningexecutable.Ifprocess_2hasbeenspawnedbyprocess_1,itiscalledachild
process.Thespawningprocess_1iscalledtheparentprocess.
Theprocessfamilytree
Thepstreecommandgivesagoodillustrationofparentandchildprocesshierarchy.
Figure1:Partofthepstreeoutput
bash(1046)xinit(1085)+X(1086)
`xfwm(1094)+xfce(1100)xterm(1111)bash(1113)+pstree(1180)
||soffice.bin(1139)soffice.bin(1152)+
soffice.bin(1153)
|||soffice.bin(1154)
||`soffice.bin(1157)
|`xclock(1138)
|xfgnome(1109)
|xfpager(1108)
|xfsound(1107)
`xscreensaver(1098)
Intheabovefigurealltheprocess'PIDsareshown;theseareclearlyincremental.Themostcommonused
optionsareptodisplayPIDsandhtohighlightausersprocessesonly.
Findingrunningprocesses
Amoredirectwaytodeterminewhichprocessesarerunningistouseps.Mostusershaveasetcombination
ofoptionswhichworkformostsituations.
Herearethreesuchoptions:
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psux
psT
psaux
allprocessesrunbytheuser
processesrununderthecurrentterminalbytheuser
allprocessesonthesystem
Itisrecommendedyoureadthepsmanpageandchooseyourownbestoptions!
psaccommodatesUNIXstyleandBSDstylearguments
usage:ps[Unix98options]
ps[BSDstyleoptions]
ps[GNUstylelongoptions]
pshelpforacommandsummary
Summaryofoptions
ashowallprocessesforthecurrentuserlinkedtoatty(exceptthesessionleader)
eorAshowallprocesses
fgivesthePPID(ParentProcessID)andtheSTIME(StartTime)
lissimilartofanddisplaysalonglist
ashowallprocesseslinkedtoatty,includingotherusers
xshowallprocesseswithoutacontrollingttyaswell
Continuouslyupdatingprocessinformation
Thetoputilitywillupdateinformationonprocessesatanadjustablerate.
Whiletopisrunningyoucantypehforalistofcommands.Thespacebarwillupdateinformationinstantly.
Youcanalsousetoptochangeaprocess'priorityasweshallseeinthenextsection.
2.ModifyingProcesses
Stoppingprocesses
Thekillcommandcanbeusedtosendsignalstoprocesses.Thereare63signalsavailable.Thedefault
signalterminatesaprocessandiscalledSIGTERMwithvalue15.
kill
Syntax
killSIGNALprocess_PID
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EveryprocesscanchoosewhetherornottocatchasignalexceptfortheSIGKILLwhichisdealtwithbythe
kernel.MostdaemonsredifinetheSIGHUPtomeanrereadconfigurationfile.
MostCommonSignals
1orSIGHUPhangupordisconnecttheprocess
2orSIGINTsameasCtrl+Cinterrupt
3orSIGQUITquit
9orSIGKILLkilltheprocessthroughakernelcall
15orSIGTERMterminateaprocess'nicely'.ThisistheDEFAULTsignal.
Onecanalsostopprocesseswithoutknowingtheprocess'PIDusingkillall.
killall
Syntax
killallSIGNALprocess_NAME
Fig1:Interprocesssignaling
Processpriorityandnicenumbers
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Nicenumbers(NI)altertheCPUpriorityandareusedtobalancetheCPUloadinamultiuserenvironment.
Eachprocessisstartedwithadefaultnicenumberof0.Nicenumbersrangefrom19[lowest]to20[highest].
Onlyrootcandecreasethenicenumberofaprocess.Sinceallprocessesstartwithadefaultnicenumberof
zeroasaconsequencenegativenicenumberscanonlybesetbyroot!
nicenumbersandCPUpriorities
19NI PRI
users
0(default)
root
20 Poolofprocesses 0
Tomodifyaprocess'prioritythatisalreadyrunninguserenice.Tosetaprocess'priorityusenice.
Syntax
nice<NI><process>
renice<+/NI>p<PID>
NoticethatreniceworkswithPIDsandhandleslistsofprocessesatatime.Ausefuloptiontoreniceisthe
uoptionwhichaffectsallprocessesrunbyauser.
Setnicenumber1forprocesses234and765:
renice+1p234765
Setnicenumber5forxclock:
nice5xclock
3.Processesandtheshell
backgroundandforgroundprocesses
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Afteryouhavestartedaprocessfromtheshellyouautomaticallyleavetheshellinterpreter.Youwillnotice
thatnocommandswillrespond.Thereasonforthisisthatitispossibletorunprogramsintheforegroundfg
orinthebackgroundbgofashell.
Whenaprogramisrunningintheforegrounditispossibletorecovertheshellpromptbutonlybyinterrupting
theprogramforwhile.TheinterruptionsignalisCtrlZ.
Stoppingandstartingjobs
Aprocessstartedfromashellisalsocalledajob.Oncethejobreceivesthe^Zsignalitisstoppedandthe
shellpromptisrecovered.Torestarttheprograminthebackgroundsimpletype:bg.
Example
[mikelocalhost/bin]$xclock
xclockrunninginforground,shellpromptlost
[1]+Stoppedxclockxclockreceived^Zsignal
[mikelocalhost/bin]$bgshellpromptrecovered,issuethebgcommand
[1]+xclock&xclockisrunninginthebackground
[mikelocalhost/bin]$
Noticethe[1]+symbolabove.Theintegeristheprocess'jobnumber,whichitcanbereferredtoas.
The'+'signindicatesthelastmodifiedprocess.A''signwouldindicatethesecondlastmodifiedprocess.
Onecanstartaprocessinthebackgroundbyappendinga&tothecommand.
xclock&
[1]6213
Listingjobs
Thejobsutilitylistsallrunningprocessesstartedfromthecurrentshell.Thejobnumber,thejob'sstate
(running/stopped),aswellasthetwolastmodifiedprocesses,willbelisted.
Outputforjobs
[1]Stoppedxclock
[2]Runningxman&
[3]+Stoppedxload
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Thejobnumber
Onecanconvenientlystopandstartaselectionofjobsusingthejobnumber.Thisisachievedwiththefg
command.
Callingjob2totheforegroundandkillingjob1
fg2or
kill9%1
fg%2or
fg%?xma
AvoidingHUPwithnohup
Finallythereisaprogramcallednohupwhichactsasaparentprocessindependentlyfromtheusers
session.Whenauserlogsoff,thesystemsendsaHUPtoallprocessesownedbythatprocessgroup.For
example,toavoidthisHUPsignalascriptcalledbigbangwhichattemptstocalculatetheageoftheUniverse
shouldbestartedlikethis:
nohupbigbang&
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YesorNo
1.Runningkillagainstaprocesswillalwaysattempttokillthegivenprocess
_____
2.Thecommands'kill $(pidof xeyes 'and'killall xeyes'areequivalent
_____
3.Aprogramstartedwithapending'&'willruninthebackground
_____
4.Aprocess'snicenumberisthesameasitsCPUpriority
_____
Glossary
Term
Description
background aprocessstartedontheshellwith
process
$command &
Unlikeaforegroundprocesstheshelldoesn'tneedtowaitfortheprocesstoterminatebefore
runninganothercommand
foreground aprocessstartedontheshellwith
process
$command
Oncetheprocessisstartedtheshellhastowaitforittoterminatebeforeitcanrunanother
command
orphaned
process
aprocesswhoseparentprocesshasterminated.Anorphanedprocessisthen'adopted'by
init
PID
anumberassociatedwithaprocess
zombie
process
aprocessthathasexitedbutisstillconsideredbytheparentprocessaspresentuntilthenext
wait()systemcall.Thewait()systemcallperformedbytheparentprocessshouldrefresh
thestatusofthechildprocessasterminatediftheprocesshasexited.Azombieprocess
usuallydoesn'tlastforlong.Howeverduetobugssomezombieprocessescanlastlonger
takingupsystemresourceseventhoughtheprocessitselfhasphysicallyexited!
Commands
Command
bg
resumeasuspendedjobinthebackground
Ctrl+Z
keyboardcombinationusedtosuspendthecurrentforegroundprocess
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fg
sendajobintheforeground(makingitthecurrentprocess)
jobs
listofprocessesstartedfromthecurrentshell
kill
sendaspecifiedsignaltoaprocessusingPIDs
killall
sendaspecifiedsignaltoaprocessusingprocessnames
nice
startsaprocesswithamodifiedschedulingpriority
nohup
nohup(1)runacommandimmunetohangups,withoutputtoanontty
ps
ps(1)givesasnapshotofthecurrentprocesses.Ifyouwantarepetitiveupdateofthis
status,usetop
pstree
printscurrentprocessesinahierarchicaltreerooted(bydefault)atinit
renice
modifiedschedulingpriorityofarunningprocess
top
top(1)displaytopCPUprocesses
Exercises
1.Checkthecurrentnicevalueofyourrunningxterminal.Changethisvalueusingtoporrenice.
2.Whatistheequivalentsignalofa^Zsenttoaprocess?(Listallsignalswithkilll)
3.Whichsignalisredefinedformostdaemonsandforcestheconfigurationfiletobereread?
4.Whatisthedefaultsignalsenttoaprocess,usingkillorkillall?
5.Whichsignalisdirectlyhandledbythekernelandcannotberedefined?
6.Makesureyoulogintoavirtualterminal(tty1totty6)beforedoingthis.Wewanttorunascriptthatwill
continuetorunoncewelogoutusingthenohupparentprocess.
Inthe/tmpdirectorycreateafilecalledprintoutwiththefollowingcontent:
count=0
while (true) do
echo this is iteration number $count
let count+=1
done
Wefirstdothefollowing(withoutusingnohup):
cd /tmp
./print-out &
exit
Youmaynotseethecommandlinewhentypingexitbutthisshouldlogyouout.Whenyoulogback
incheckthatprintoutisnolongerrunning
ps ux |
grep
print-out
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Nextstartthecommandwith
nohup /tmp/print-out &
exit
Logbackinandtestthesecommands
ps ux |grep print-out
tail -f ~/nohup.out
Ctrl+C
killall print-out
ps ux|grep print-out
tail -f ~/nohup.out
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TextProcessing
Prerequisites
Goals
Effectivelymanipulatefilesanddatastreamstoalterthecontentasrequired(e.gsortorformat)
Improvecommandlineskillsbymemorisingandunderstandingsimpletexttools
Contents
TEXTPROCESSING..................................................................................................................... 89
1.cattheSwissArmyKnife.................................................................................................................... 90
2.Simpletools........................................................................................................................................ 91
3.Manipulatingtext................................................................................................................................ 93
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1.cattheSwissArmyKnife
cattheeditor
Thecatutilitycanbeusedasarudimentarytexteditor.
cat>shortmessage
wearecurious
tomeet
penguinsinPrague
Crtl+D
NoticetheuseofCtrl+D.Thiscommandisusedforendinginteractiveinput.
catthereader
Morecommonlycatisusedonlytoflushtexttostdout.Mostcommonoptionsare
nnumbereachlineofoutput
bnumberonlynonblankoutputlines
Ashowcarriagereturn
Example
cat/etc/resolv.conf
searchmydomain.org
nameserver127.0.0.1
tacreadsbacktofront
Thiscommandisthesameascatexceptthatthetextisreadfromthelastlinetothefirst.
tacshortmessage
penguinsinPrague
tomeet
wearecurious
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2.Simpletools
using
head
or
tail
Theutilitiesheadandtailareoftenusedtoanalyselogfiles.Bydefaulttheyoutput10linesoftext.Hereare
themainusages.
List20firstlinesof/var/log/messages:
headn20/var/log/messages
head20/var/log/messages
List20lastlinesof/etc/aliases:
tail20/etc/aliases
Thetailutilityhasanaddedoptionthatallowsonetolisttheendofatextstartingatagivenline.
Listtextstartingatline25in/var/log/messages:
tail+25/etc/log/messages
Exercise:Ifatexthas90lines,howwouldyouusetailandheadtolistlines50to65?Isthereonlyoneway
todothis?
Finallytailcancontinuouslyreadafileusingthefoption.Thisismostusefulwhenyouareexpectingafile
tobemodifiedinrealtime.
countinglines,wordsandbytes
Thewcutilitycountsthenumberofbytes,words,andlinesinfiles.Severaloptionsallowyoutocontrolwc's
output.
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Optionsforwc
countnumberoflines
l
countnumberofwords
w
countnumberofbytesorcharacters
corm
Remarks:
Withnoargumentwcwillcountwhatistypedinstdin.
numberinglines
Thenlutilityhasthesameoutputascatb.
Numberalllinesincludingblanks
nlba/etc/lilo.conf
Numberonlylineswithtext
nlbt/etc/lilo.conf
replacingtabswithspaces
TheexpandcommandisusedtoreplaceTABswithspaces.Onecanalsouseunexpandforthereverse
operations.
viewingbinaryfiles
Thereareanumberoftoolsavailableforthis.Themostcommononesareod(octaldump)andhexdump.
splittingfiles
Thesplittoolcansplitafileintosmallerfilesusingcriteriasuchassizeornumberoflines.Forexamplewe
canspilt/etc/passwdintosmallerfilescontaining5lineseach
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splitl5/etc/passwd
Thiswillcreatefilescalledxaa,xab,xac,xad...eachfilecontainsatleast5lines.Itispossibletogiveamore
meaningfulprefixnameforthefiles(otherthan'x')suchas'pass5.'onthecommandline
splitl5/etc/passwdpasswd5
Thishascreatedfilesidenticaltotheonesabove(aa,xab,xac,xad...)butthenamesarenowpasswd5aa,
passwd5ab,passwd5ac,passwd5ad...
Erasingconsecutiveduplicatelines
TheuniqtoolwillsendtoSTDOUTonlyoneversionofconsecutiveidenticallines.Considerthefollowing
example:
uniq>/tmp/UNIQUE
line1
line2
line2
line3
line3
line3
line1
^D
Thefile/tmp/UNIQUEhasthefollowingcontent:
cat/tmp/UNIQUE
line1
line2
line3
line1
NOTICE
Fromtheexampleaboveweseethatwhenusinguniqnonconsecutiveidenticallinesarestillprintedto
STDOUT.Whatisthecontentof/tmp/UNIQUEifwefirstsendtheSTDINthroughsort(seep.107)as
follows:
sort | uniq > /tmp/UNIQUE
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3.Manipulatingtext
Thefollowingtoolsmodifytextlayouts.
choosingfieldsandcharacterswithcut
Thecututililitycanextractarangeofcharactersorfieldsfromeachlineofatext.
Thecoptionisusedtomanipulatecharacters.
Syntax:
cutc{range1,range2}
Example
cutc510,15/etc/password
Theexampleaboveoutputscharacters5to10and15toendoflineforeachlinein/etc/password.
Onecanspecifythefielddelimiter(aspace,acommasetc...)ofafileaswellasthefieldstooutput.These
optionsaresetwiththedandfflagsrespectively.
Syntax:
cutd{delimiter}f{fields}
Example
cutd:f1,7outputdelimiter=""/etc/passwd
st
th
Thisoutputsfields1 and7 of/etc/passwddelimitedwithaspace.Thedefaultoutputdelimiteristhesame
astheoriginalinputdelimiter.Theoutputdelimiteroptionallowsyoutochangethis.
joiningandpastingtext
Theeasiestutilityispaste,whichconcatenatestwofilesnexttoeachother.
Syntax:
pastetext1text2
Withjoinyoucanfurtherspecifywhichfieldsyouareconsidering.
Syntax:
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joinj1{field_num}j2{field_num}text1text2or
join1{field_num}2{field_num}text1text2
Textissenttostdoutonlyifthespecifiedfieldsmatch.Comparisonisdoneonelineatatimeandassoonas
nomatchismadetheprocessisstoppedevenifmorematchesexistattheendofthefile.
sortingoutput
Bydefault,sortwillarrangeatextinalphabeticalorder.Toperformanumericalsortusethenoption.
formattingoutputwithfmtandpr
Youcanmodifythenumberofcharactersperlineofoutputusingfmt.Bydefaultfmtwillconcatenatelines
andoutput75characterlines.
fmtoptions
wnumberofcharactersperline
ssplitlonglinesbutdonotrefill
uplaceonespacebetweeneachwordandtwospacesattheendofasentence
Longfilescanbepaginatedtofitagivensizeofpaperwiththeprutility.Onecancontrolthepagelength
(defaultis66lines)andpagewidth(default72characters)aswellasthenumberofcolumns.
Whenoutputtingtexttomultiplecolumnseachcolumnwillbeevenlytruncatedacrossthedefinedpagewidth.
Thismeansthatcharactersaredroppedunlesstheoriginaltextiseditedtoavoidthis.
translatingcharacters
Thetrutilitytranslatesonesetofcharactersintoanother.
Examplechanginguppercaselettersintolowercase
tr'AB''ab'<file.txt
Replacingdelimitersin/etc/passwd:
tr':'''</etc/passwd
Notice:trhasonlytwoarguments!Thefileisnotanargument.
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YesorNo
1.Thecommands'cat FILE'and'cat < FILE'willbothdisplaythecontentsofFILE
_____
2.Thecommand'last FILE'willdisplaythe10lastlinesofFILE
_____
3.WhenalteringlinesfromafileusingcutthosechangesaremadeontheSTDOUTonly
_____
4.Whenrunninguniqagainstafileconsecutiveidenticallinesaredeletedinthefile
_____
Commands
Command
cat
cat(1)concatenatefilesandprintonthestandardoutput
cut
cut(1)removesectionsfromeachlineoffiles
expand
expand(1)converttabstospaces
fmt
fmt(1)simpleoptimaltextformatter
head
head(1)outputthefirstpartoffiles
join
join(1)joinlinesoftwofilesonacommonfield
nl
nl(1)numberlinesoffiles
od
od(1)dumpfilesinoctalandotherformats
paste
paste(1)mergelinesoffiles
sort
sort(1)sortlinesoftextfiles
split
split(1)splitafileintopieces
tac
tac(1)concatenateandprintfilesinreverse
tail
tail(1)outputthelastpartoffiles
tr
tr(1)translateordeletecharacters
unexpand
unexpand(1)convertspacestotabs
uniq
uniq(1)removeduplicatelinesfromasortedfile
wc
wc(1)printthenumberofbytes,words,andlinesinfiles
Exercises
1.Usecattoentertextintoafilecalledmessage.
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cat >> message
line 1
^D
DothesamebutusethekeywordSTOPinsteadofthepredefinedeofcontrol(^D).
cat >> message << STOP

line 2
STOP
Next,appendtexttomessageusingecho.
echo line 3 >> message
2.CreateafilecalledindexwithtwofieldsREFERENCEandTITLEseparatedbyaspace.
e.g
001
Using_Linux
CreateasecondfilepricingwithtwofieldsREFERENCEandPRICEseparatedbyaspace
e.g
001
9.99
Usejointodisplaythereference,titleandpricesfields.
3.Usingtrreplaceallcolonsbysemicolonsin/etc/passwd.
Dothesameusingcut.
4.Useheadandtailtolistlines70to85of/var/log/messages.
5.UsethecututilitytogetherwithgrepandifconfigtoprintoutonlytheIPaddressofthefirst
networkinterfaceeth0.
6.In/tmpmakeadirectorycalledfiles
mkdir /tmp/files
Create50filesinthatdirectory:
#!/bin/bash
count=0
while [ $count -lt 50 ]; do
touch /tmp/files/$count.txt
let count+=1
done
Wewanttochangeallthetxtextensionstodatextentions.Forthisweneedtotypethefollowingonthe
commandline:
for FILES in $(ls *.txt)
do
FILENAME=$(echo $FILES| cut -d. -f1)
mv
$FILES $FILENAME.dat
done
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SoftwareInstallation
_________________________________________________
Prerequisites
Goals
UnderstandtheuseofaMakefilewhencompilinglargeprojectsfromsource
Manipulatesourcearchiveseffectivelyandruntheappropriatebuildcommands
Fixproblemsrelatedtoshared(ordynamic)libraries
UsetheRPMpackagemanagertoquery,add,remove,updateorverifysoftware
Contents
SOFTWAREINSTALLATION........................................................................................................98
1.Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 99
2.StaticandSharedLibraries............................................................................................................ 100
3.SourceDistributionInstallation......................................................................................................... 104
4.TheRedHatPackageManagerRPM..............................................................................................107
5.DebianPackageManagement......................................................................................................... 112
6.TheAlienTool.................................................................................................................................. 116
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1.Introduction
Webeginwithashortcodeexample.AlthoughwedontneedanadvancedunderstandingoftheClanguage,
theseexamplescanhelptroubleshootcommonsituations.
Themain.cfile:
#include<stdlib.h>
intmain(){
Hello();
}
TheHello.cfile:
#include<stdio.h>
voidHello(){
printf(Hi!\n);
}
Noticethatthemain.cisincompleteinthesensethattheHello()functionisundefined.Inthesameway
Hello.cdoesnthaveamaindeclaration.Sothesefilesareinterdependent.Onecanhowevercompile
objectfiles(.o)whicharelikenonexecutablebinaryfileswhichcanbeusedtobuildanapplication.
Compilingtheobjectfiles:
gcccmain.c
gcccHello.c
Thiswillgeneratetwofilesmain.oandHello.owhichcannowbeusedtobuildtheapplicationapp.
Compilingapp:
gccoappmain.oHello.o
Theooptionsimplyspecifiesanameforthecompiledcode.Ifnonameisspecifiedthecompiledoutputis
calleda.outbydefault.
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AllthesestepscanbeautomatedusingaMakefile.HereisaminimalMakefilewhichwouldcompiletheapp
executable.
Makefile
SHELL=/bin/sh
CC=/usr/bin/gcc
app:main.oHello.o
$(CC)oappmain.oHello.o
main.o:main.c
$(CC)cmain.c
Hello.o:Hello.c
$(CC)cHello.c
2.StaticandSharedLibraries
Functionsthatwilloftenbeusedarearchivedaslibraries.Duringcompilationtheselibrariescanbelinkedto
thecodewhichusesthelibraryfunctioncalls.Thelibrarycaneitherbestaticallyordynamicallylinkedtothe
code.
Thegcccompilercanlinklibrariesinavarietyaways(manyoptions).Howeverbydefaultitwilllinkfilesthat
aregivenonthecommandlinethatdonthavea.cextention(onlythe.cfilesaretreatedascode).
Listing1:Linkingbydefault
gccmain.cHello.o
Thiswillproduceana.outexecutablewiththeHello.oobjectstaticallylinkedtoit.
Illustrationofastaticallylinkedapplication(a.out):
Hello.o
a.out
Staticlibraries
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Staticlibrariesarearchived.ofiles.Thesearchivesarecreatedwiththeartoolandhavea.aextention.
Listing2:addinganobjectfiletoanarchive:
arrcslibfoo.afile1.ofile2.o
Dynamic/SharedLibraries
Asharedlibraryisalibrarythatwillbeloadedbytheprogramwhenitisexecuted.Onealsosaysthatthe
libraryisdynamicallyloaded.
Listing3:Creatingasharedlibrary:
gcccfPICHello.ccreatestheobjectfile
gccsharedW1,soname,libfoo.so.1olibfoo.so.1.0Hello.o
ThefPICflagenablesthePositionIndependentCodegeneration.
Listing4:Compilingwithasharedlibrary:
gccmain.clibfoo.so.1.0
Thiswillproduceana.outexecutable.Howeverifyoutrytorunthisitwillcomplainwiththeerrormessage
listedbelow.
Illustrationofadynamicallylinkedapplication(a.out):
libfoo.so
a.out
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Theprocessofattachingadynamiclibraryatruntimeiscalledlinkingandishandledbytheld.solibrary.
Howdoesthelinkerknowwheretofindlibfoo.so?
Sharedlibrarynotfounderror:
./a.out:errorwhileloadingsharedlibraries:libfoo.so.1.0:cannotopen
sharedobjectfile:Nosuchfileordirectory
Thiserrorillustratesthecasewherethelinkercouldnotfindthedynamiclibrarylibfoo.so.1.0.Inthenext
sectionwewillseewhatcanbedonetofixthisproblem.
SharedLibrarynaminganddynamicloading
WewillusetheaboveexampletounderstandhowLinuxlibrariesaremaintained.
Figure1:TheSharedLibraryNames
Tofindoutwhichsharedlibrariesanexecutableneedsatexecutiontimethelddtoolisused.
Example:
ldda.out
libfoo.so.1.0=>notfound
libc.so.6=>/lib/libc.so.6(0x40028000)
/lib/ldlinux.so.2=>/lib/ldlinux.so.2(0x40000000)
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Noticethatlibfoo.so.1.0isnotfound.Thisisbecausethea.outneedstodynamicallyloadthislibrary
andthedynamiclinkerld.soisnotawareofthisnewlibrary.
Infactthelinkerusesadatabasecalledtheldcachecontainingentriesoftheform:
soname=>/path/to/library
Thecontentoftheldcachecanbeviewedwiththefollowingcommand:
ldconfigp
libaudiofile.so.0 (libc6) => /usr/lib/libaudiofile.so.0

libaudiofile.so (libc6) => /usr/lib/libaudiofile.so
libaudio.so.2 (libc6) => /usr/X11R6/lib/libaudio.so.2
libattr.so (libc6) => /usr/lib/libattr.so
..........
Theldcacheisgeneratedatboottimebythesameldconfigtool.Bydefaultldconfigwillscanthe
directories/liband/usr/libtobuildtheldcache.
Iflibrariesareinstalledindifferentlocations(e.g/usr/local/lib,/opt/libor/usr/X11R6/lib)thesedirectories
needtobelistedin/etc/ld.so.confallowingldconfigtotakethesedirectoriesintoconsiderationwhen
buildingthecache.
Whathappenswhenanapplicationisstarted?
Theapplicationwillaskthelinkerforthedynamiclibrariesitneedsusingasoname,thelinkerwillthenquery
theldcacheandassociatethisnamewiththefullpathtotheactuallibrary.Oncethefullpathisknownthe
linkercanlinkthelibrarytotheapplication.
Whathappensiftheldcachedoesn'tcontainthefullpathtothelibrary?
Ingeneraltheapplicationwillfailtostartandwillprintanerrormessagesayingcannotopenshared
objectfile:Nosuchfileordirectory.Butonecanalsodefineaglobalvariablecalled
LD_LIBRARY_PATHandassigntothisvariablethenameofthedirectorycontainingthelibrary.
Knowingthiswecannowfixtheproblemwithourapplicationaboveusingoneofthetw0methodsbelow:
1.IfthebinaryneedstobetemporarytesteddefinetheLD_LIBRARY_PATHvariableasfollows:
export LD_LIBRARY_PATH=$(pwd)
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2.Ifyouarerootandwouldlikethelibrarytobeavailableforallthencopythelibfoo.so.1.0fileto
/usr/local/lib/andrunldconfigtoupdatetheldcache.
TheGNUspecificationadviseslibrariestobestoredin/usr/local/lib.Theseguidelinesare
followedbydevelopersandmosttarballedcodewillinstalllibrariesinthatdirectoryandthebinaries
in/usr/local/bin.Installingandremovingthiscodefromthesystemwouldbedonebymake
installandmakeuninstall.
TheFHS(FilesystemHierarchyStandard)recommendslibrariesbekeptin/usr/lib/and
associatedbinariesin/usr/bin/.ThisconventionstandardisadheredtobyLinuxdistributions.
Ineffectmatureandstablecodeisstoredin/usr/ratherthan/usr/local/andthetwo
standardsdonotleadtoanycontradictions.Installingandremovingthiscodecodewouldbedone
usingtherpmcommand.
NOTICE
Withcertaindistributionsthe/usr/local/lib/directoryisnotscannedbyldconfig.Itissimplya
matterofaddingthisdirectoryto/etc/ld.so.confand...reboot?
3.SourceDistributionInstallation
Opensourceprojectsareoftendistributedastarballs(i.ecompressedtarredarchives).Manydevelopment
environments(glade,kdevelop)generatethefilesthathelpfacilitatecompilingandinstallationofaproject.
UncompressedArchives
Uncompressedarchiveshavea.tarextension.Forexampleifaprojecthasbeendevelopedinadirectory
calledmyprojetcv.1/thenthefollowingcommandwouldarchivethisdirectorywithallitsfilesand
subdirectories:
tar c my-project-v.1/ > my-project-v.1.tar

or
tar cf
my-project-v.1.tar my-project-v.1/
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SincemostprojectsareverylargeandareavailablefordownloadfromtheInternettheyarerarely
uncompressed.
Compression
Thethreecompressiontoolscommonlyusedarecompress(old),gzipandbzip2.Unlikethewindowszip
thesecompressionscanonlybeappliedtofiles.Butsinceanarchiveisafilethatcontainsallthedata
neededtorecoverdirectories,thesecompressionsaresuitableforarchives.Acompressedarchiveisthen
calledatarball.
compressiontool
decompressiontool
catdecompression
fileextension
compress
uncompress
zcat
.Z
gzip
gunzip
zcat
.gz
bzip2
bunzip2
bzcat
.bz2
Examples
compress -v FILE1
FILE1:
-- replaced with FILE1.Z Compression: 40.29%
gzip
FILE2:
-v FILE2
53.4% -- replaced with FILE2.gz
bzip2 -v FILE3
FILE3:
2.326:1,
3.439 bits/byte, 57.01% saved, 605504 in, 260320 out.
NOTICE
1.Whencompressingafile,theoriginalfilenameisappendeda.Z,.gzor.bz2
2.Compressiontoolslistedaboveonlyworkonfilesandnotondirectories
3.Onlyonefileatatimecanbecompressed(nowildcards!)
Thezcatandbzcattoolscanbeusedtodecompressfiles,howeverthedecompressedfilewillbesentto
STDOUTsoitisnecessarytouseafileredirection:
zcat FILE1.Z > FILE1
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ArchivesandCompression
compressiontool
tarswitch
archiveextension
compress
.tar.Zor.tgZ
gzip
.tar.gzor.tgz
bzip2
.tar.bz2
ThetableaboveintroducesthetaroptionsZ,zandjwhichcalltheappropriatecompressiontoolswhen
needed.
Thenexttwoexamplesareequivalent:
tar cf
bzip2
my-project-v.1.tar my-project-v.1/
my-project-v.1.tar
tar cjf
my-project-v.1.tar.bz2 my-project-v.1/
Workingwithtarballs
Weknowhowtocreatearchives.Allweneedisanoverviewofthemaintarswitches.
taroperations
Create
Extract
Test
minimalswitches
corcf
xf
tf
optionalswitches
v,Z,z,j
v,Z,z,j
v,Z,z,j
Examples(extractions)
tar xvjf myproject-v.1.tar.bz2

tar xzf some-other-project-v.2.0.tar.gz
Examples(tests)
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tar tjf myproject-v.1.tar.bz2
tar tzf some-other-project-v.2.0.tar.gz
AlternativeExamples(usingzcatandbzcat)
bzcat myproject-v.1.tar.bz2 | tar xf zcat some-other-project-v.2.0.tar.gz | tar tf -
CommonFiles
Onceaprojecthasbeenextractedyoucanexpecttofindthefollowingfiles:
configure:Thisisascriptwhichdetermineswhatarchitectureisbeingused.Italsochecksthattherequired
compiler,librariesanheadersarepresent.ThisinformationisthenstoredinfilescalledMakefile
Thesafestwaytorunthescriptistouse./configure.
Youcanalsodecidewheretheprojectwillbeinstalledusingthe-prefixoption.Thedefaultinstallation
directoryformostprojectsis/usr/local.Ifyouwanttoinstallthecompiledprojectinyourhomedirectoryyou
shouldtype:
./configure prefix=$HOME
Makefile:Thisactslikeaconfigurationfileforthemakeutility.Themaininformationprovidedis:
Thenameofthecompilerandcompilingoptions
Thepathtothesharedlibrariesandheaderfiles
Mappingbetweencodefiles(.c)andobjectfiles(.o)
Compilingtheproject
Ifthefilesabovearepresentthenthereisagoodchancethatyouwillsuccessfullyporttheprogramtoyour
computer.Herearetheroutinesteps:
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./configure
make
makeinstall
Itisstronglyrecommendedtorun./configureandmakeasanonrootuser.
makeinstallmustberunasrootonlyiftheinstallationdirectoriesarewriteprotected(/usr/or/usr/local).
Therearemanyoptionstothe./configurescript.Tocustomiseyourinstallationyoucouldtype
./configure -help
4.TheRedHatPackageManagerRPM
MostLinuxdistributionsmanagesoftwareusingsomeformofpackagemanagementtoperformtaskssuch
asinstallations,updatesandqueries.ThemostpopularpackagetypesareDebianandRPM.Weonlycover
RPMinthismanual.
TheFunctionsofaPackageManager
Packagenaming
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Thereisnostrictconventionbutmostrpmpackagenamesareformedasfollows:
nameversionrelease.architecture.rpm
Thearchitecturenamecaneitherindicatewhichcomputerarchitecturetheenclosedbinariesaremadefor
(e.gi386,ppc,ia64,noarch)oritcanindicatethatthepackagecontainsthesourcecode(src).
Majorandminormodes
Someshortnameoptionsaresimilarbutperformdifferentactionsdependingontheirpositiononthe
commandline.Adistinctionismadebetweenthefirstoptionandotheroptions.
Thefirstoptiongiventorpmisinmajormode.Forexampleinrpm -iv A.rpmtheoption'i'isamajor

optionandwillcausepackageAtobeinstalled.
Similarlyanoptionthatisnotinfirstpositionisinminormode.Forexampleinrpm -qpi A.rpmtheoption'i'
isaminormodeandwillgetinformationfromthepackageAsuchastheauthorandthelicencetype.
Thesearethemajormodeoptionsforrpm.
Short
i
U
F
V
q
e
Long
install
update
freshen
verify
query
erase
Description
Installsthepackage
Updatesorinstallsapackage
Updatesonlyinstalledpackage
filesize,MD5,permissions,type...
Queriesinstalled/uninstalledpackages,andfiles
Uninstallpackage
Thesearetheminormodeoptionsforrpm.
Short
a
c
d
f
h
i
l
p
v
Description
appliestoallinstalledpackages
togetherwithqlistsconfigurationfiles
togetherwithqlistsdocumentationfiles
togetherwithqquerieswhichpackageinstalledagivenfile
addshasheswhileprocessing
togetherwithqlistsinformationaboutapackage
togetherwithqlistsallfilesanddirectoriesinapackage
togetherwithqspecifiesthatthequeryisperformedonthepackagefile
verbose
Querymodes
Threequerytypes:uninstalledpackages,installedpackagesandfiles
QueryType
Option
Packagefile
qp
Installedpackage
q
File
qf
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Anextraoptionwillallowyoutogetinformationonallinstalledfilesl,documentationdconfigurationfiles
c,etc...
Weconsiderforexamplethepackagerouted0.17.i386.rpm.Wecanquerythispackageandlistitscontents
beforeinstallationwiththeloptionasfollows:
rpmqplrouted0.17.i386.rpm
Oncethispackageisinstallwecanquerytheinstalledpackagewith:
rpmqlrouted0.17
rpmqlrouted
or
Finallyifwewanttofindoutwhichpackageinstalledthefile/usr/sbin/routedtherpmdatabasecanbe
queriedwith:
rpmqf/usr/sbin/routed
SpecialOptions
nodeps
force
test
requiresPACKAGE
whatrequires CAPABILITY
installapackageregardlessofdependencies
forceanupgrade
doesntactuallyinstallorupgrade,justprintstostdout
togetherwithqlistscapabilitiesrequiredbyapackage
togetherwithqlistspackageswhichrequirethecapability
PackageSignatures
Youcancheckthesignatureofeachpackagethatisdistributedaspartofaproject.Forexampletoloadthe
keysofallthedevelopersinvolvedwiththeFedoraprojectdothefollowing(justonce):
rpmimport/usr/share/rhn/RPMGPGKEYfedora
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YoucannowdownloadanypackagefromanFTPsitewhichmirrorstheproject'sRPMs.Forexamplewe
downloadedzlib1.2.1.12.1.i386.rpmfromftp.mirror.ac.ukintheFedorasubdirectory.Wenextcheckthe
authenticityofthefile:
rpmchecksig/home/adrian/zlib1.2.1.12.1.i386.rpm
/home/adrian/zlib1.2.1.12.1.i386.rpm:(sha1)dsasha1md5gpgOK
PackageIntegrity
Thenextcommandcheckstheintegrityofthepackagebash:
rpmVbash
Thisreturnsnothing.Wenextdothefollowingasuserroot:
chownbin/bin/bash
chmod775/bin/bash
Ifwechecktheintegrityofbashagainthistimeweget:
rpmVbash
.M...U../bin/bash
Thepackagemanagerhascomparedthecurrentstatusofallfileswhicharepartofthebashpackagewith
theknownoriginalstateofthesefilesstoredinadatabase.Thechangesmadeto/bin/bashhavebeen
identified.
Itispossibletoverifytheintegrityofallpackagesinstalledonthesystembyaddingthe'a'(all)option
after'V'(verify)
Theverifyoptionperformsanumberoftestsoneachfile;whenatestispositiveanumberofcharacters
(listedbelow)areusedtoidentifytheerrors:
Returnedcharacter
Errordescription
thetestwassuccessful
thetestcouldn'tbeperformed
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S
filesizehaschanged
permissionmodeorfiletypehaschanged
thefile'sMD5sumhaschanged
devicemajor/minornumbermissmatch
brokensymboliclink
theuserownerofthefilehaschanged
thegroupownerofthefilehaschanged
themtime(modifiedtime)haschanged
GoingFurther:BuildingRPMpackages(notforLPIexampurpose)
NOTICE:
Thisisadditionalinformation,thisparagraphisnotanLPI101objective.Whendoingthissectionyoumay
encounterproblemswiththerebuildoption,thisisduetothefactthatthenewversionsofRPMuse
rpmbuildinsteadofrpmwhenrebuildingpackages.
ThesourcecodeformanyRPMpackagesisalsoavailableasanRPMpackageandwillbeusedtobuilda
binarypackage.Thenamingconventionis:
nameversionrelease.src.rpm
Thesepackagescontainatleasttwofiles,thetarballwiththecodeandaspecfile.Thespecfilecontains
instructionstopatch,compileandbuildtheRPMpackage.Ifthecodeneedstobepatchedbeforecompilation
thenthepatchesareincludedinthesourcepackage.
TherearethreedifferentwaystobuildaRPMpackage.Wewillassumethatwehaveapackagecalled
nameversionrelease.src.rpm.
Forthesemethodstoworkyoufirstneedtoinstalltherpmbuildpackage
Method1:
InstalltheRPMsourcepackagewith:
rpmivhnameversionrelease.src.rpm
Thiswillcopyfilestothefollowingdirectories:
/usr/src/redhat/SPECS
/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES
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Inthe/usr/src/redhat/SPECSdirectorythereisnowafilecalledname.spec(wherenameisthename
ofthepackage).Tostartbuildingthecompiledpackage,thatisnameversionrelease.i386.rpm,wetypein
thefollowingcommand:
rpmbaname.spec
Thiswillstartaseriesofscripts.Thetarballin/usr/src/redhat/SOURCESwillbeunpackedin
/usr/src/redhat/BUILD.
Ifthecompilationsucceedsthenthebuiltbinarypackagewillbesavedin/usr/src/redhat/RPMS/.
TherearedifferentsubdirectoriescorrespondingtovariousCPUmodels/generations.Ifthecompilationdidnt
involvespecificfeaturesfromthesechipsthenthepackagewillbesavedinthenoarchdirectory.
Method2:
Thismethodtriggersthesamechainofeventsasthepreviousonebutisstartedwiththefollowingsingle
command:
rpmrebuildnameversionrelease.src.rpm
Method3:
Insomecasesdeveloperswilldistributeatarballtogetherwithaspecfile.Ifthetarballiscalledname
versionrelease.tar.gzyoucansearchfora.specfilewiththefollowing:
tartzvfnameversionrelease.tar.gz|grep.spec
IfthetarballhasaspecfilethenyoucanbuildanRPMpackagebytyping:
rpmbtnameversionrelease.tar.gz
5.DebianPackageManagement
SystemsusingDebianbasedvariantsofLinuxdon'tusetherpmpackagemanagementsystem,butrather
theDebianPackageManagementsystem.TheDebiansystemismorerigorousandconfigurablethanthe
rpmsystem,butforhistoricalreasonsislesswidelyused.
TheapproachusedbythetheDebiansystemisverysimilartothatusedbytherpmsystem.Theequivalent
commandto'rpm'inaDebiansystemis'dpkg'.
PackageNaming
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SimilarlytoRPMbasedsystem,Debianpackagescomeinfileswhosenamesareformedasfollows:
name_versionrelease_architecture.deb
ThereleasenumberindicateswhichDebianreleaseoftheversionofthesoftwarethepackagecontains,
whilethearchitecturenamespecifiesthecomputerarchitecture(i386,sparc,all).
dpkg
dpkgisamediumleveltooltoinstall,build,removeandmanageDebianpackages.Otherfrontendpackages
aremorecommonlyusedtocontoldpkg,includingtheapttoolsandotherssuchasdselect.dpkgitselfis
controlledviacommandlineparameters,whichconsistofanactionandzeroormoreoptions.Theaction
parametertellsdpkgwhattodoandoptionscontrolthebehaviouroftheactioninsomeway.
dpkgmaintainssomeusableinformationaboutavailablepackages.Theinformationisdividedinthree
classes:states,selectionstatesandflags.
PackageStates
State
Description
installed
ThepackageisunpackedandconfiguredOK.
halfinstalled
Theinstallationofthepackagehasbeenstarted,butnotcompletedforsomereason.
notinstalled
Thepackageisnotinstalledonyoursystem.
unpacked
Thepackageisunpacked,butnotconfigured.
halfconfigured
Thepackageisunpackedandconfigurationhasbeenstarted,butnotyetcompletedfor
somereason.
configfiles
Onlytheconfigurationfilesofthepackageexistonthesystem.
PackageFlags
Flag
Description
hold
Apackagemarkedtobeonholdisnothandledbydpkg,unlessforcedtodothatwith
optionforcehold.
reinstrequired
Apackagemarkedreinstrequiredisbrokenandrequiresreinstallation.These
packagescannotberemoved,unlessforcedwithoptionforcereinstreq.
Actions
Theheartofdpkgoperationisthecommandlineparametersspecifyingtheactionwhichshouldbe
performed.Whiletherearealargenumberofthese,thefollowingtablesummarisesthemainactionsyouare
likelytorequireonanyregularbasis.
Action
Description
Printsalistofthepackagesinstalledonthesystem,ormatchingapatternifanyisgiven.
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Thefirstthreecharactersoneachlineshowthestate,selectionstate,andflagsofthe
package
s
Showsthestatusandinformationaboutparticularinstalledpackage(s)
Showinformationaboutapackageina.debfile
Listthefilesincludedinapackage
Showthepackagewhichincludesthefilespecified
Install(orupgrade)andconfigureapackagefroma.debfile
unpack
Unpack(only)apackageina.debfile
configure
Configureanunpackedpackage.Witha(orpending)configuresallpackages
requiringconfiguration
Removeapackage(butleaveitsconfigurationfiles)
Purgeremoveapackagealongwithitsconfigurationfiles
getselections
Getalistofpackageselectionsfromasystem(tostdout)
setselections
Setthelistofpackageselectionsforasystem(fromstdin)
Options
Alloptionscanbespecifiedbothonthecommandlineandinthedpkgconfigurationfile/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.
Eachlineintheconfigurationfileiseitheranoption(exactlythesameasthecommandlineoptionbutwithout
leadingdashes)oracomment(ifitstartswitha#).
Option
Description
forcething
Forcesdpkgtoperformanactionwhichitwouldnormallynottake(forexample,to
ignoredependencyinformationforcedepends,ortodowngradeapackagewith
forcedowngrade)
refusething
Refusetodosomethingwhichdpkgwouldnormallyautomaticallydo
ignoredepends Ignoredependencycheckingforapackage
noact
Showwhatdpkgwoulddo,butdon'tdoit(also:simulate)
Recursethroughdirectories(usingwithiorunpack)
Files
dpkgusesanumberoffilesinitsoperation,including/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfgwhichcontainsdefault
configurationsettings.
Listsofavailablepackagesalongwiththeirstatusesareheldinthefiles
/var/lib/dpkg/availableand/var/lib/dpkg/status.
A.debfile,alongwiththefilesmakingupapackagesprograms,librariesandconfiguration,willalsoincludea
numberofcontrolfileswhichallowtheexecutionofscriptsbeforeandafterinstallationandremoval,along
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withlistsoffilesandconfigurationfiles.Thesecanbefoundinthe/var/lib/dpkg/infodirectoryoncethe
packagesareinstalled.
Useofdpkg
Toinstallapackagefroma.debfile,youcouldusedpkgasfollows:
dpkgihello_2.1.14_i386.deb
OR
dpkgunpackhello_2.1.14_i386.deb
dpkgconfigurehello
Toremovethehellopackagealongwithitsconfiguration,youcoulduse:
dpkgPhello
While:
dpkgrhello
wouldremoveonlythepackage,leavingitsconfigurationfilesinstalled.
Thegetalistofallthepackagesinstalledonthesystem,usethecommand:
dpkgl
Notethatwhendealingwithapackagefile,thefilenameisgiven,whilewhendealingwithaninstalled
package,thepackagenameonlyisgiven.
APT
Thedpkgtoolisfineforinstallingindividualpackageswithnodependencies,butwheninstallinganumberof
packageswhichmayhavedependencies,theAPTtoolisgenerallyusedinstead.
APTisoneofthestrengthsofdpkg,andprovidesaneasywayofinstallingandupdatingasystem.Itis
controlledbytwofiles:
File
Description
/etc/apt/apt.conf
ContainsgeneralconfigurationoptionsforAPT,suchaswhichreleaseofDebianto
install,whether/whichproxysettingstouse,etc
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/etc/apt/sources
ListssourcesofDebianfiles,whichmaybeonCDs,oronthenetwork
Ingeneral,touseAPTyoumustfirstconfigurethesourcesitistoused.Thiscanbedone(ifyouareusing
CDs)byusingthecommand:
aptsetup
whichaskstheusertochoosewhichmirrortodownloadfrom,andtestsit,orifyouareusingCDs,using:
aptcdrom
whichallowsindividualCDROMstobescannedforpackages.
OnceAPTknowswheretheDebianpackagesarelocated,twocommandlinetoolsareusedforpackage
management:aptcacheandaptget.
aptcache
aptcacheallowsmanipulationoftheAPTpackagecache(whichisstoredinfilesin/var/cache/apt).An
actionnormallyfollowsaptcacheonthecommandline,andcommonoptionsinclude:
Action
Description
search
Searchalltheavailablepackagedescriptionsforthestringgiven,andprintashort
descriptionofthematchingpackage
show
Showsafulldescriptionofthepackagespecified
aptget
Whileaptcacheisusefulforfindingoutinformationaboutavailablepackages,aptgetallowsupdatingof
packageinformation,retrieval,installationandremovalofpackages,andevenupgradingofanentireDebian
distribution.aptgetexpectsanactiontobeprovidedonthecommandline,andthemostcommonarelisted
below:
Action
Description
update
Updatethelistofpackagesfromthesourcesin/etc/apt/sources.list
installpackage
Installthepackage(s)specified,alongwithanydependencies
upgrade
Upgradeanypackageswhichhavenewerversionsavailable
distupgrade
Upgradeentiredistributiontothelatestrelease(besttoreadthereleasenotesfirst!)
remove
Removethepackage(s)specified
UseofAPT
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ThetwomainusesofAPTareforupdatingthesystem(forexampleifsecurityrelatedupdateshavebecome
available).Thisisnormallydoneusingthetwocommands:
aptgetupdate
aptgetupgrade
TheothermainuseofAPTistoinstallrequiredpackages.Thisnormallyinvolvesthefollowingcommands:
aptgetupdate#updatelistofpackages
aptcachesearchfrob#findpackagesrelatingtofrobbing
aptcacheshowfrobnicate#showinformationregardingaparticular
package
aptgetinstallfrobnicate#installfrobnicatepackageandits
dependencies
6.TheAlienTool
ThealientoolwillchangeDebianpackagesintoRedHatonesandviceversa.Onecandownloaditat:
http://kitenet.net/programs/
Convertadebianpackagetoanrpm:
alien to-rpm
package.deb
Convertanrpmpackagetodebian:
alien to-debian package.rpm
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YesorNo
1.Whenbuildingaprojectfromsourceonehastocompilesectionsofthecodeinthe
correctorderusinggcconthecommandline
_____
2.Theprogrammakewillonlybuildaprojectifitisstartedinadirectorycontaining
theappropriateMakefile
_____
3.PrecompiledbinarypackagesandsourcecodepackagesaretwotypesofRPM
packages
_____
4.Oncesharedlibrarieshavebeeninstalledfromsourceitisrecommendedtorunldconfig
_____
5.Theldconfigtoolisusedtoupdatetheldcache
_____
6.Programinstalledfromsourcecanbequeriedusingapackagemanager
_____
7.TheAPTtoolscaninstallpackagesandresolvealldependencies
_____
Glossary
Term
Description
build
termusedwhencompilingaprojectfromsource,usuallystartedbytypingmake
compile
translateprogramminginstructionswritteninahighlevellanguageintomachinereadable
code.Theoutputofacompilationiscalledtheobjectcode
dynamiclibrary
alibrarythatcanbeloadedatthesametimeastheexecutionofaprogram
sharedlibrary
alibraryintendedtobeusedbymorethanoneexecutable.Sharedlibrariesareoften
dynamiclibrariesandhavea.soextension(sharedobject)
staticlibrary
alibrarythatiscopiedintotheexecutableduringthecompilation.Staticlibrarieshave.a
extensions(archive)
highlevel
language
aprogramminglanguagereadablebyhumansusedtowritesourcecode
linker
1.programusedduringthecompilationprocesstoassembleobjectsgeneratedbythe
compilerintoanexecutableseeld(1)
2.programthatdynamicallyloadssharedlibrariesneededbyanexecutableatruntime
seeld.so(8)
objectcode
theoutputofacompilation.Objectcodeiseitheranexecutableormaybelinkedto
anotherobjectcodetoformanexecutable
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sourcecode
programminginstructionswritteninahighlevellanguagethatneedtobecompiledwitha
compilerorinterpretedwithaninterpreter
tarball
acompressedtararchive
Files
File
Description
/etc/ld.so.conf
configurationfileforldconfig
Makefile
filereadbythemakeutilitywhenbuildingaproject
/etc/rpmrc
usedbyrpmandrpmbuild(seeLPI201),thisfilecontainsinformationsuchasthe
system'sarchitectureorthepathtomacrosandutilitiesusedwhenhandlingpackages.
Thisfileisoftenlocatedinthe/usr/lib/rpm/directory
/usr/lib/rpm/
directorycontainingallthemacrosneededwhenhandlingpackages
/var/lib/rpm/
directorywheredatabasesforthepackagemanager(RPM)arekept
Commands
Command
Description
alien
alien(1)Convertorinstallanalienbinarypackage.ItconvertsbetweenRedHatrpm,
Debiandeb,Stampedeslp,Slackwaretgz,andSolarispkgfileformats.Ifyouwanttousea
packagefromanotherLinuxdistributionthantheoneinstalledonyoursystemyoucanuse
alientoconvertittoyourpreferredpackageformatandinstallit
APTtools
ToolsusedtoperformadvancedoperationsonDebianpackageslocatedonaCDora
server
configure
scriptoftenincludedwithaprojectsourcecodeusedtocreatemakefiles.Itattemptsto
determineinformationsuchasthesystem'sCPUtypeorinstalledcomponentsneededto
buildtheproject(compiler,headerfilesorlibraries).
dpkg
toolusedtomanipulatepackagesintheDEBIANformat
LD_LIBRARY_ environmentvariablecontainingthesearchpathtosharedlibrariesusedbythelinker
PATH
(ld.so)
ldconfig
programthatbuildsthe'ldcache'usedbythelinkertofindsharedlibraries,withthepflagit
willprintthecurrentcontentofthecache
ldd
ldd(1)printsthesharedlibrariesrequiredbyeachprogramorsharedlibraryspecified
onthecommandline
make
infomakeThe`make'utilityautomaticallydetermineswhichpiecesofalargeprogram
needtoberecompiled,andissuescommandstorecompilethem.
rpm
toolusedtomanipulatepackagesintheRPMformat
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Exercises
InthefollowingexamplesdownloadasourceRPMfile(e.g.bash2.058.src.rpmforRedHat7.2)from
www.rpmfind.net.
1.Installingasatarball.
ExtractthecontentsoftheRPMpackagewithoutcompilinganythingwith:
rpmivhbash2.058.src.rpm
Inthe/usr/src/redhat/SOURCESdirectory,unpackthetarballwith:
tarxvzfbash2.058.tar.gz
Optional(recommended!):Thepatchescanbeapplied.Dependingonwhichdirectoryyouarein
thesyntaxwillvary.
From/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES:
patchp0b<file.patch
From/usr/src/redhat/SOURCES/bash2.058
patchp1b<file.patch
Wewillchoosetoinstallthefilesinatemporaryrootdirectory,forexample/tmp/projecttest/.Ona
productionsystemtheusuallocationshouldbe /usr/local.Wecreatethisdirectory:
mkdir /tmp/project-test
Finallyfollowtheusualcompilationsteps.
./configureprefix=/tmp/projecttest
make
makeinstall
Youcannowlistthecontenton/tmp/projecttest.
2.(GoingfurthernotrequiredforLPI101)WenextrebuildtheprojectintoanRPMpackage.
rpmrebuildpackage.src.rpm
Thecompiledbinarypackageshouldbein/usr/src/redhat/RPMS
Checkthepackagescontentswiththeqploption
Installthepackage(s),andrunqueriesontheinstalledpackage
Uninstallthepackage
3.Configure/etc/apt/sourcesusingaptsetup.UsetheAPTtoolsanddpkgtoquery/install/updateavailable
packages.
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AdvancedTextManipulation
______________________________________________
Prerequisites
TextProcessing(p.102)
Goals
Distinguishexpressionsusedforfileglobbing(metacharacters)andregularexpressions
Usethegreptoolseffectively
Understandsimplesedcommands
Contents
ADVANCEDTEXTMANIPULATION.....................................................................................120
1.RegularExpressions.................................................................................................................. 121
2.Thegrepfamily.......................................................................................................................... 121
3.Workingwithgrep...................................................................................................................... 122
4.egrepandfgrep......................................................................................................................... 122
5.TheStreamEditorsed............................................................................................................. 123
6.ExercisesandSummary............................................................................................................ 125
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Overview
Findingawordormultiplewordsinatextisachievedusinggrep,fgreporegrep.Thekeywordsused
duringasearchareacombinationofletterscalledregularexpressions.Regularexpressionsare
recognisedbymanyotherapplicationssuchassed,andvi.
1.RegularExpressions
TraditionalRegularExpressions(regex)
Aregularexpressionisasequenceofcharacters(oratoms)usedtomatchapattern.Charactersare
eitherconstants(treatedliterally)ormetacharacters.
Table1:Mainmetacharacters
Characters
\<KEY
WORD\>
^
$
[Range]
[^c]
\[
ca*t
.
SearchMatch
WordsbeginningwithKEY
WordsendingwithWORD
Beginningofaline
Endofaline
RangeofASCIIcharactersenclosed
Notthecharacterc
Interpretcharacter[literally
Stringscontainingcfollowedbyno'a'orany
numberoftheletter'a'followedbya't'
Matchanysinglecharacter
Extendedregex:Themaineregexsare:+,?,()and|
Table2:Listofmaineregex
Characters
SearchMatch
"A1|A2|A3"
StringscontainingA1orA2orA3
"ca+t"
Stringscontaininga'ca'followedbyanynumber
oftheletter'a'followedbya't'
Stringscontainingcfollowedbyno'a'orexactly
one'a'followedbya't'
Stringscontainingcfollowedbyno'a'orany
numberoftheletter'a'followedbya't'
"ca?t"
"ca*t"
2.Thegrepfamily
basicgrep
ThegreputilitysupportsregularexpressionsregexsuchasthoselistedinTable1.
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egrep
TheegreptoolsupportsextendedregularexpressionseregexsuchasthoselistedinTable2.
fgrep
Fgrepstandsforfastgrepandfgrepinterpretsstringsliterally(noregexoreregexsupport)
3.Workingwithgrep
Syntaxforgrep:
grepPATTERNFILE
grep
c
f
i
n
v
w
MainOptions
countthenumberoflinesmatchingPATTERN
obtainPATTERNfromafile
ignorecasesensitivity
indicatetheinputfile'slinenumber
outputalllineexceptthosecontainingPATTERN
matchexactPATTERN
Forexamplelistallnonblanklinesin/etc/lilo.conf:
grepv^$/etc/lilo.conf
4.egrepandfgrep
Thefgreputilitydoesnotrecognisethespecialmeaningoftheregularexpressions.Forexample
fgrepcat*FILE
willonlymatchwordscontainingcat*.Themainimprovementcamefromfgrepsabilitytosearchfroma
listofkeywordsenteredlinebylineinafile,sayLIST.Thesyntaxwouldbe
fgrepfLISTFILE
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______________________________________________
Theegreputilitywillhandleanymodernregularexpressions.Itcanalsosearchforseveralkeywordsif
theyareenteredatthecommandline,separatedbypipes.Forexample;
egreplinux|^image/etc/lilo.conf
5.TheStreamEditorsed
Atthispointthestreameditormakesitsappearance!Itisanoldtypeoftoolandoriginallytheonlyone
availableunderUNIXtomanipulatetext.
Thesedutilityismostoftenusedtosearchandreplacepatternsintext.Itsupportsmostregular
expressions.
5.1Beginningsed
Syntaxforsed
sed[options]command[INPUTFILE]
Theinputfileisoptionalsincesedalsoworksonfileredirectionsandpipes.
HereareafewexamplesassumingweareworkingonafilecalledMODIF.
Deleteallcommentedlines:
sed/^#/dMODIF
Noticethatthesearchpatternisbetweenthedoubleslashs//.
Substitute/dev/hda1by/dev/sdb3:
seds/\/dev\/hda1/\/dev\/sdb3/gMODIF
Thesinthecommandstandsforsubstitute.Thegstandsforgloballyandforcesthesubstitutionto
takeplacethroughouteachline.
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______________________________________________
IfthelinecontainsthekeywordKEYthensubstitute:with;globally:
sed/KEY/s/:/;/gMODIF
5.2MoreAdvancedsed
Youcanissueseveralcommandseachstartingwitheatthecommandline.Forexample,(1)deleteall
blanksthen(2)substituteOLDbyNEWinthefileMODIF
sede/^$/des/OLD/NEW/gMODIF
Thesecommandscanalsobewrittentoafile,sayCOMMANDS.Theneachlineisinterpretedasanew
commandtoexecute(noquotesareneeded).
AnexampleCOMMANDSfile
1s/old/new/
/keyword/s/old/new/g
23,25d
ThesyntaxtousethisCOMMANDSfileis:
sedfCOMMANDSMODIF
Thisismuchmorecompactthanaverylongcommandline!
Summaryofoptionsforsed
Commandlineflags
eExecutethefollowingcommand
fReadcommandsfromafile
nDonotprintoutuneditedlines
sedcommands
dDeleteanentireline
rReadafileandappendtooutput
sSubstitute
wWriteoutputtoafile
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______________________________________________
YesorNo
1.Theextendedregularexpression'nucle?ar'willmatchnuclearandnuclar
____
2.Theregularexpression'baza*r'willmatchbazaarandbazarbutnotbazor
____
3.Theextendedregularexpression'nucle+ar'willonlymatchnuclear
____
4.Theregularexpression'baza*'willmatchbazaar,bazarandbazor
____
Commands
Command
Descriptionorapropos
egrep
printlinescontainingmatchingpatternsusingextendedregularexpressions
fgrep
printlinescontainingmatchingpatternsusingliteralstings
grep
printlinescontainingmatchingpatternsusingregularexpressions
sed
sed(1)streameditorisusedtoperformbasictexttransformationsonaninputstream
(afileorinputfromapipeline)
Exercises
1.CreateanewfilecalledFILEcontainingthelines:
Usinggrep,
fgrepand
egrep
togrepfor99%ofthecats
%thesearetwo
%commentedlines
Usegreptooutputonlyuncommentedlines.
Findalllinescontaininggrepexactly.(Notegrepnorfgrep.Usewtomatchtheword)
Findlinescontainingwordsstartingwithana
2.Regularexpressions.Appendthefollowinglinestothepreviousfile:
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______________________________________________
ct
cat
caats
caaatss
ca+t
ca*t
ca?t
crate
carts
Investigatetheoutcomeofthefollowingusinggrep,egrepandfgrep:
grep'ca+t'FILE
grep'ca?t'FILE
grep'ca.t'FILE
grep'caa*t'FILE
grep'ca*r.'FILE
3.UsesedtodothefollowingchangesinFILE
(useaCOMMANDfile,thendoeverythingonthecommandline)
inthefirstlinesubstitutegrep,withsoap
deletefgrepinthesecondline
substituteegrepwithwater
inthefourthlinereplacegrep forwith'wash'
Savetheresulttoafileusingthewoption
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Usingvi
______________________________________________
Usingvi
Prerequisites
none
Goals
Understandthethreeoperatingmodesofvi
Introducemostcommoneditingcommands
Recognisetheuseofregularexpressionsandsedlikecommands
Contents
USINGVI............................................................................................................................... 127
1.viModes.................................................................................................................................... 128
2.TextItems.................................................................................................................................. 128
3.InsertingText............................................................................................................................. 129
4.CutandPaste............................................................................................................................ 129
5.CopyPaste................................................................................................................................ 130
6.SearchandReplace................................................................................................................. 130
7.UndoandRedo.......................................................................................................................... 130
8.RunningaShellCommand........................................................................................................ 131
9.SaveandQuit............................................................................................................................ 131
10.ExercisesandSummary.......................................................................................................... 132
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Usingvi
______________________________________________
InmostLinuxdistributionsviisthetexteditorofchoice.Itisconsideredanessentialadmintoolsuchas
greporcatandisfoundthereforeinthe/bindirectory.
1.viModes
Inordertoperformcomplexoperationssuchascopy/pastevicanoperateindifferentmodes.
Commandmode
Thisistheeditingandnavigationmode.Commandsareoftenjustaletter.Forexampleusejtojumpto
thenextline.
Asaruleofthumbifyouwanttoperformanoperationseveraltimesyoucanprecedethecommandbya
number.Forexample10jwilljump10lines.
Insomesituationsthearrowkeysonthekeyboardarenotmappedproperly,itisstillpossibletonavigate
usingthecommandshjklwiththefollowingeffect:
LastLine(orcolumn)Mode
Youenterthismodefromthecommandmodebytypingacolon.Thecolumnwillappearatthebottom
leftcornerofthescreen.Inthismodeyoucanperformasimplesearchoperation,save,quitorruna
shellcommand.
InsertMode
Theeasiestwaytoenterthismodewhileincommandmodeistouseiora.Thismodeisthemost
intuitiveandismainlyusedtointeractivelyentertextintoadocument.
TheEsckeywillexittheinsertmodeandreturntocommandmode
2.TextItems
Itemssuchaswordsandparagraphsaredefinedincommandmodetoalloweditingcommandstobe
appliedtotextdocumentswithoutusingamouse.
Word,sentencesandparagraphs
eresp.b
Movetotheend/beginingofthecurrentword
Movetothebegining/endofthecurrentsentence
(resp.)
Movetothebegining/endofthecurrentparagraph
{resp.)
w
Similartoebutincludesthespaceaftertheword
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Usingvi
______________________________________________
BeginningandEnd
^
$
1G
G
Beginningofline
Endofline
Beginningoffile
Endoffile
Allthesetextitemscanbeusedtonavigatethroughthetextoneword(w)orparagraph(})atatime,go
tothebeginningofaline(^)theendofthefile(G)etc.Onecanalsousethesetextitemstoexecute
commandssuchasdeletingandcopying.
3.InsertingText
Whenincommandmodetypingiwillallowyoutoentertextinthedocumentinteractively.Aswithall
otherfeaturesinvitherearemanyotherwaysofdoingthis.Thetablebelowlistsallpossibleinserting
modes.
Insertcommands
a
Appendtextwithcursoronthelastletteroftheline
A
Appendtextwithcursorafterlastletterattheendoftheline
i
Inserttextatthecurrentposition
o
Inserttextonanewlinebelow
O
Inserttextonanewlineabove
s
Deletethecurrentletterandinsert
S
Deletecurrentlineandinsert
Averyusefuloptionwhenmodifyingadocumentistodeleteasectionoftextyouwishtoreplacejust
beforeenteringinsertmode.Thisisdonebythechangeccommand.Astheothercommandsinthis
sectioncwillputyouintoINSERTmodebutyoucanspecifywhichportionofthetextneedstobe
deletedbefore.Forexample:
c$
willdeleteallthetextfromthecurrentcursorpositiontotheendoftheline.
Anothercommandusedtoreplaceasinglecharacter(nothingelse!)isr.Firstchoosewhichcharacter
needstobereplacedandputthecursoronthischaracter.Nextpressrfollowedbyanewcharacter.The
newcharacterwillreplacetheoldone.ThiscommandwillleavetheeditorinCOMMANDandnot
INSERTmode!
4.CutandPaste
Ifyouwanttodeleteasinglecharacterwhileincommandmodeyouwouldusexandddwoulddelete
thecurrentline.Onecanthenpastethedeleteditemwiththecommandp.
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Usingvi
______________________________________________
Remark:Nearlyallvicommandscanberepeatedbyspecifyinganumberinfrontofthecommand.You
canalsoapplythecommandtoatextitem(suchasword.,sentence,paragraph...)byplacingtheentity
afterthecommand.
Examples:
Deleteaword:
dw
Deletetextfromheretotheendofthecurrentline
d$
Deletetextfromheretotheendofthecurrentparagraph
d}
Onecansimultaneouslydeleteanitemandswitchtoinsertmodewiththeccommand.Asusualyoucan
usethiscommandtogetherwithatextitemsuchaswor{.
5.CopyPaste
Thecopyactioninviisthecommandy(foryank,thelettercwasalreadytakenforchange),andthe
pasteactionisstillp.
Ifanentirelineisyankedthepastedtextwillbeinsertedonthenextlinebelowthecursor.
Thetextselectionismadewiththefamiliartextitemsw,l,},$etc...Thereareafewexceptionssuchas
thelastexample.
Examples:
Copythetextfromheretotheendofthecurrentline
y$
Copytheentirecurrentline
yy
Copy3lines
3yy
Thelatestdeleteditemisalwaysbufferedandcanbepastedwiththepcommand.Thisisequivalent
to
acutandpasteoperation.
6.SearchandReplace
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Usingvi
______________________________________________
Sincesearchinginvolvespatternmatchingwefindourselvesonceagaindealingwithregularexpressions
(regex).AsmanyUNIXtextmanipulationtoolssuchasgreporsed,virecognisesregularexpressions
too.
ToperformasearchonemustbeinCOMMANDmode.The/(forwardslash)commandsearches
forwardandthe?commandsearchesbackwards.
Onecanalsoperformsearchandreplaceoperations.Thesyntaxissimilartosed.
Example:
Downwardsearchforwordsbeginningwithcompinallthetext
/\<comp
Upwardsearchforlinesstartingwiththeletterz
?^z
SearchinthewholetextforthekeywordVARandreplaceitbyvar
:%s/VAR/var
7.UndoandRedo
Atthisstageisisworthmentioningthatonecanalwaysundochanges!ThismustbedoneinCOMMAND
modewiththeucommand(worksaslongasonehasntyetsavedthefile).Theredocommandis^R.
8.RunningaShellCommand
WhileinLASTLINEmodeeverythingfollowinganexclamationmark!isinterpretedasashellcommand.
Forexamplewhileeditinglilo.conforgrub.confyoumayneedtofindoutthenameoftherootdevice.
Thiscanbedonewith:
:!df/
9.SaveandQuit
Thecommandforsavingis:w.Bydefaultthecompletedocumentissaved.Insomecaseviwillrefuseto
savechangesmadetoadocumentbecauseofinsufficientrights.Insuchcasesionecanattempttoforce
awritewith:w!
Onecanalsospecifyanalternativenameforthefile.Portionsofthetextcanbesavedtoanotherfile
whileotherfilescanbereadandpastedinthecurrentdocument.Herearetheexampleswhichillustrate
this.
Examples:
Savethecurrentdocumentasnewfile
:wnewfile
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Usingvi
______________________________________________
Savelines15to24inafilecalledextract
:w15,24extract
Readfromfileextract.Thetextwillbepastedatthecursor
:rextract
Warning:Inthecolumnmodecontextwehavethefollowing
.
isthecurrentline
$
istheendofthedocument
Thefollowingaredifferentwaysavailabletoquitvi:
:wq
saveandquit
:q!
quitbutdonotsavechanges
:x
exitandsavewhenchangesexist
:quit
sameas:q
:exitor:e
sameas:x
ZZ
sameas:x
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Usingvi
______________________________________________
YesorNo
1.Thecommand'l'(lowercaseL)willplacethecursoronepositiontotheleft
_____
2.Thecommand3ddwilldeletethreelines
_____
3.Thecommand3wdwilldeletethreewords
_____
4.Thecommand:qwwillwriteandexit
_____
Commands
viaction
Description
^,$
beginningandendofline
1G,G
beginningandendofdocument
b,e
beginningandendofword
(,)
beginningandendofsentence
{,}
beginningandendofparagraph
w,W
wordandwordincludinghyphensandpunctuations
h,j,k,l
left,up,down,rightnavigationcommands
:!
callashellcommand
:quit,:q
quit
:quit!,:q!
forcequit,discardchanges
:wq
writeandquit
:exit,:x,:e,ZZ
exit(saveschangesifneeded)
/,?
searchforwardsorbackwards
a,A,i,o,O,s,S
startinsertmode
startinsertmodewhilechanginganitem
replaceasinglecharacterincommandmode
d,dd
deleteanitemordeleteentireline
deleteasinglecharacter
y,yy
yankitemorentireline
pastecontentofbuffer
u,^R
undo,redo
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Usingvi
______________________________________________
Exercises
Asrootcp/var/log/messagesto/tmp.Usingvissearchandreplaceutilitymakeeachlinebeginwith
printandendwith;
Typeutoundoallthechanges
Copy/etc/lilo.confto/tmp,editthisfileandtrytocopy/pasteyy/pandcut/pastewithdd/p
Investigatetheoutcomeof:x,ZZ,:quit,:wq,and:q!(whichonessaveandwhichonedon't?)
Investigatetheoutcomeforthevariousinsertingmodes:A,a,O,o,Sands
Optional:Ifyouhavetimethevimenhancedpackageinstallsaprogramcalledvimtutorwhichtakes
youthroughmostcommonvioptions.
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TheXEnvironment
______________________________________________
TheXEnvironment
Prerequisites
None
Goals
Understandthedifferentcomponentsofthe"Xwindows"environment
Recognisethefunctionofeachconfigurationfile(noeditingisexpected)
Runapplicationsonanydisplay
UnderstandthefunctionofadisplaymanagerincludingXDMCP
Contents
THEXENVIRONMENT.........................................................................................................134
1.Introduction................................................................................................................................ 135
2.ConfiguringX11R6.................................................................................................................... 136
3.ControllingXclients................................................................................................................... 138
4.StartingX................................................................................................................................... 139
5.TheDisplayManager................................................................................................................. 140
6.TroubleshootingXClients.......................................................................................................... 144
7.ChoosingaWindowManager.................................................................................................... 144
9.ExercisesandSummary............................................................................................................ 145
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TheXEnvironment
______________________________________________
1.Introduction
TheXWindowssystemwasdevelopedasthedisplaycomponentofProjectAthenaatthe
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.ItisthegraphicalenvironmentforUNIX.TheXWindowsystem
forLinuxisbasedonthefreelydistributableportofXWindowversion11release6(Commonlyreferred
toasX11R6).
Thisfreelydistributableportiscommonlyknownasxfree86forthe80386/80486andPentiumprocessor
families.Sinceitsinitialport,Xfree86hasbeenportedtoothercomputingplatforms,includingSystem
V/386and386BSD.
X11R6ComponentsandConfigurationSections
clientA
clientB
wm
monitor
xfs
X11R6
SectionFiles SectionMonitor
mouse
keyboard
video
SectionInputDeviceSectionInputDeviceSectionDevice
SectionPointer(old)Section"Keyboard"(old)
TheabovediagramshowsthecomponentsoftheX11R6server.TheSectionnamesreferto
configurationsectionsintheXF86Configconfigurationfile(coveredinthenextsection).
Thetwoclientsdepictedontopoftheserveraresocalledxapplications(e.gxclockorxterm).The
windowmanagerisalsoaclient.Windowmanagersaddwindowingfacilitiesaroundtheotherx
applicationclients,allowingfunctionalitiessuchaswindowdragging,focus,iconification,etc.
NOTICE:
TheX11R6serverisindependentfromtheclientsthatrunontop.Clientsareconfiguredusingspecific
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TheXEnvironment
______________________________________________
configurationfilesorglobalfilesusuallycalledXdefaultsorXresources.TheXserverconfiguration
filewillonlyconfigurecomponentssuchasthefontserverandfontdirectories,mouse,keyboard,
monitorresolutionandcolordepth.
2.ConfiguringX11R6
TwooftheconfigurationutilitiesprovidedwiththeXfree86softwarearetheXF86Setupandxf86config
scripts.Othervendorshavespecificutilitiessuchas:
Xconfigurator,redhatconfigxfree86(RedHat)
XFdrake(Mandrake)
sax(Suse)
Oncetheserverhasbeenconfiguredonecanchangethehorizontalandverticalsettingsforthemonitor
withxvidtune.
AlltheabovementionedconfigurationutilitieswillcreateandedittheXF86Configconfigurationfile.This
fileisreadatstartupbytheXServeranddeterminesitsbehaviour.Thisfileistypicallyfoundinthe
/etc/X11directory,andthisisitsfullpath:/etc/X11/XF86Config.
Thereare11configurationsectionsintheconfigfile,theyarelistedbelow:
ServerFlags
Module
InputDevice
Device
VideoAdapter
Monitor
Modes
Screen
ServerLayout
DRI
Vendor
NOTICE:
TheobsoletesectionnamesKeyboardandPointerarestillrecognisedforcompatabilityreasons,the
newsectionnameisnowInputDevice
OneofthefirstsectionsistheSectionFiles.TheFontPathkeywordtellswhethertogetfontsfroma
localdirectoryorfromafontserver.TheRgbPathkeywordisusedtoindicatethefullpathtorgbtextfile
usedtomapcolornamestoRGBnotation:
Section Files
FontPath /path/to/fonts/dir/
FontPath trans/hostname:port
RgbPath
"/path/to/rgb"
EndSection
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TheXEnvironment
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Wheretransisthetransporttypeunix,hostnameisthefullyqualifieddomainnameofthefontserver,
andportistheporttoconnectto,usuallyport7100.
Example:
FontPathunix/:7100
#LocalFontServer
FontPathunix/myfontserver.mydomain.com:7100
BelowisasampleXF86Config
file:
Section"Files"
RgbPath"/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/rgb"
FontPath
"/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/misc:unscaled,/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/75dpi:unsc
aled,/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/100dpi:unscaled,/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/misc
/"
EndSection
Section"InputDevice"
Identifier"Keyboard0"
Driver"keyboard"
EndSection
Section"InputDevice"
Identifier"Mouse0"
Driver"mouse"
Option"Protocol""IMPS/2"
Option"Device""/dev/psaux"
Option"ZAxisMapping""45"
EndSection
Section"Monitor"
Identifier"PrimaryMonitor"
VendorName"Unknown"
ModelName"Unknown"
HorizSync31.537.9
VertRefresh5590
Modeline"800x600"40.008008409681056600601605628+hsync
+vsync
EndSection
Section"Device"
Identifier"PrimaryCard"
VendorName"Unknown"
BoardName"None"
VideoRam2048
EndSection
Section"Screen"
Driver"Accel"
Device"PrimaryCard"
Monitor"PrimaryMonitor"
DefaultColorDepth24
BlankTime0
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TheXEnvironment
______________________________________________
SuspendTime0
OffTime0
SubSection"Display"
Depth24
Modes"800x600"
EndSubSection
SubSection"Display"
Depth32
Modes"800x600"
3.ControllingXclients
SettingFontsandColours
Xclientsareconfiguredusingthe.Xresourcesor.Xdefaultsfile.Thesefilearekeptintheusershome
directory.Itisnotautomaticallycreatedbydefault,assystemwidedefaultsarealsoavailableforeach
program.
Belowisanextractfroma.Xresources:
xterm_color*background: Black
xterm_color*foreground: Wheat
xterm_color*cursorColor: Orchid
xterm_color*reverseVideo: false
xterm_color*scrollBar: true
xterm_color*saveLines: 5000
xterm_color*reverseWrap: true
xterm_color*font: fixed
xterm_color.geometry: 80x25+20+20
xterm_color*fullCursor: true
xterm_color*scrollTtyOutput: off
xterm_color*scrollKey: on
term_color*VT100.Translations: #override\n\
<KeyPress>Prior : scroll-back(1,page)\n\
<KeyPress>Next : scroll-forw(1,page)
xterm_color*titleBar: false
Eachofthesedirectivesisasystemdefaultdirectivethatdescribeshowaclientwillbedisplayed.Each
lineconsistsoftheclientnamefollowedbyanasteriskandtheXWindowparameter.Throughacarefully
configured.Xresourcesfiletheusercandefinethewayaclientwilllookeachtimeitisstarted.
TheDISPLAYVariable
Whenanxapplication(orXclient)isstarteditneedstoknowwhichXservertorunon.AnXserveris
referredtoasadisplay.ForexamplethefirstXserveryoustart(usingstartxforexample)iscalled:0
thesecondwouldbecalled:1andsoon.ThefirstXserver(ordisplay)runningonthehost192.168.1.99
iscalled192.168.1.99:0
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TheXEnvironment
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MostnativeXclientssuchasxtermorxclockhavea-displayswitchwhichcanbeusedtosetthe
display.ButtheeasiestmethodistosettheenvironmentvariablecalledDISPLAY!
Thenexttwocommandsareequivalent:
xclock -display 192.168.1.99:0
DISPLAY=192.168.1.99:0 xclock
HowevertheXserveronthehost192.168.1.99willnotallowthisxapplicationtorun.Theuserthat
startedtheXserverontheremotehost(192.168.1.99)needstorunthexhostcommand.Thistoolcan
selectivelyaddorremovehoststoanaccesscontrollist.
Example:Allowremotexapplicationsfromhost192.168.1.7torunonlocalserver
xhost + 192.168.1.7
192.168.1.7 being added to access control list
NOTICE
Thexhostmechanismmustbeusedinconjunctionwithxauth(notpartoftheLPIobjectives).Fora
remotexclientfrom192.168.1.7torunonourlocalserverwestillneedtorunthefollowingonthelocal
host:
xauth extract - $DISPLAY | ssh 192.168.1.7
xauth merge -
(Assumingthattheusernamesarethesameandthatthehostnamecontainedin$DISPLAYcanbe
resolved)
4.StartingX
AnXsessioncanbestartedusing2methods:
Method1:Fromthecommandline,afterlogginginontoavirtualterminaltheuserlaunchestheXServer
usingascriptcalledstartx
Method2:ADisplayManagerisrunningpromptingtheuserwithagraphicallogin,thisisavailablefora
specificrunlevel(onRedHattypedistributionsthisisrunlevel5).
1.FromtheCommandLine
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TheXEnvironment
______________________________________________
Thestartxscriptstartsxinit.Thexinitscripthastwomainarguments(a)theXserverand(b)the
xinitrcscript.Thexinitrcscriptwillsource(read)thefilesXresourses(controllingthexapplications)
andtheXclients(choosingawindowmanager).Sowecantracethestartupsequenceasfollows:
startx>xinit>X>xinitrc>Xclients
2.UsingaDisplayManager
Adisplaymanagerwillautomaticallybestartedifthesystemisrunninginagivenrunlevel(e.grunlevel
5).Wefirstdescribetheloginprocess,thenextsectioncoversmoreadvancedfunctionalitiesofa
DisplayManager.Theloginprocessfollowsthefollowingsteps:.
xdm>xlogin>Xsession>(optionally)Xclientsor~/.Xclients
DifferentversionsofdisplaymanagersaswellasdifferentLinuxdistributionsmayuseslightlydifferent
steps.Ingeneralhowever,notethatstartxusesxinitwhereasxdmusesXsession.
CUSTOMISING
Eachusercanfurthercustomisetheirenvironmentbyusinga.xinitrcfile.Thisfilewillbemergedinto
thesystemxinitrc.
Theswitdesktoolallowsuserstodefineacustom.Xclientsfile
5.TheDisplayManager
Therearethreemaindisplaymanagers,xdm(generic),gdm(GNOME)andkdm(KDE).Accordingtothe
LPIobjectivestheconfigurationfilesareinthefollowingdirectories:
/etc/X11/xdm/
/etc/X11/gdm/
/etc/X11/kdm/(seeLPIobjectivesattheendofthismanualp.179)
However,mostoftentheconfigurationfilesforkdmarein/usr/share/config/kdm(alsoseebelow).
KDM
ThisdisplaymanagerisinstalledwiththeKDEdesktopenvironment.Itisbasedonthegenericxdm
displaymanagerandsharesmanycommonconfigurationfiles.Theseconfigurationfilesforarein
/usr/share/config/kdm.Thefilethatcontrolsmostfunctionalitiesiskdmrc.
Thepathtothekdmbinaryis/usr/bin/kdm
KDMConfigurationfiles:
kdmrcXaccess(sameasxdm)Xservers(sameasxdm)Xsession(sameasxdm)Xsetup
Xstartup
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TheXEnvironment
______________________________________________
GDM
ThisdisplaymanagerisdistributedwiththeGNOMEdesktopenvironment.Themainconfigurationfileis
gdm.conf
Thepathtothegdmbinaryis/usr/bin/gdm
GDMConfigurationFiles(/etc/X11/gdm):
Sessions/gdm.conf
XDM
ThexdmdisplaymanagerispartoftheXfree86application.Themainconfigurationfileisxdmconfig
Thepathtothexdmbinaryis/usr/bin/xdm
XDMConfigurationFiles:
XaccessXresourcesXsessionxdmconfigXservers_
Wewilllookatthexdmconfigurationfilesinmoredetaillaterinthissection.
DisplayManagersareusedmainlyinrunlevel5:
Setdefaultrunlevelin/etc/inittab
id:5:initdefault:
Displaymanagersallowlocaluserstologontothesystemusingthegraphicalinterface.Theycanalso
beusedtoprovideagraphicallogininterfaceoverthenetwork.Forthistheyuseaprotocolcalled
XDMCPorXDisplayManagerControlProtocol.BydefaultXDMCPisdisabled(wewillenableXDMCP
asanexercise).
XserverandDisplayManager
Welcome!!
DisplayManager
(xapplication)
xlogin
login
password
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TheXEnvironment
______________________________________________
XserverandDisplayManager
X11R6
ConfigurationFiles
/etc/X11/xdm/Xrescources
SincetheDisplayManagerisalsoanxapplication,thefonts,thebackgroundcolorsandxlogin
canbeconfiguredwiththeXresoursesfilein/etc/X11/xdm/.Whenusinggdm,the
/etc/X11/gdm/Init/DefaultscriptwillsourceXresources.
/etc/X11/xdm/Xservers
ThisfilesimplymapsthenameofadisplaywithanXserver.Forexampledisplay:0is
understood
tobethelocalXserver.RememberthatXalwaysrunsonthefirstfree/dev/tty.
/etc/X11/xdm/xdmconfig
Thisisthemainconfigurationfileforxdm.ItisalsousedtoenableXDMCP(seeexercises)
/etc/X11/xdm/Xaccess
ThisfileisusedtoenableXDMCP,allowingremotehoststodirectlyconnecttothelocalserver
(usingquery)orqueryaboutotherdisplay
TheXaccessfile
#$XConsortium:Xaccess,v1.591/08/2611:52:51rwsExp$
#
#AccesscontrolfileforXDMCPconnections
#TocontrolDirectandBroadcastaccess:
#
#
pattern
#
#TocontrolIndirectqueries:
#
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TheXEnvironment
______________________________________________
#
pattern
listofhostnamesand/ormacros...
#
#Tousethechooser:
#
#
pattern
CHOOSERBROADCAST
#
#or
#
#
pattern
CHOOSERlistofhostnamesand/ormacros...
#
#Todefinemacros:
#
#%name
listofhosts...
#
#Thefirstformtellsxdmwhichdisplaystorespondtoitself.
#Thesecondformtellsxdmtoforwardindirectqueriesfromhostsmatching
#thespecifiedpatterntotheindicatedlistofhosts.
#Thethirdformtellsxdmtohandleindirectqueriesusingthechooser;
#thechooserisdirectedtosenditsownqueriesoutviathebroadcast
#addressanddisplaytheresultsontheterminal.
#Thefourthformissimilartothethird,exceptinsteadofusingthe
#broadcastaddress,itsendsDirectQuerystoeachofthehostsinthelist
#
#Inallcases,xdmusesthefirstentrywhichmatchestheterminal;
#forIndirectQuerymessagesonlyentrieswithrighthandsidescan
#match,forDirectandBroadcastQuerymessages,onlyentrieswithout
#righthandsidescanmatch.
#
*
#anyhostcangetaloginwindow
#
#Tohardwireaspecificterminaltoaspecifichost,youcan
#leavetheterminalsendingindirectqueriestothishost,and
#useanentryoftheform:
#
#terminala
hosta
#Thenicestwaytorunthechooseristojustaskittobroadcast
#requeststothenetworkthatwaynewhostsshowupautomatically.
#Sometimes,however,thechoosercan'tfigureouthowtobroadcast,
#sothismaynotworkinallenvironments.
#
*
CHOOSERBROADCAST
#anyindirecthostcangetachooser
#Ifyou'dprefertoconfigurethesetofhostseachterminalsees,
#thenjustuncommenttheselines(andcommenttheCHOOSERlineabove)
#andeditthe%hostlistlineasappropriate
#
#%hostlist
hostahostb
#*
CHOOSER%hostlist
#
TheXserversfile
#$XConsortium:Xserv.ws.cpp,v1.393/09/2814:30:30gildeaExp$
#
#
#$XFree86:xc/programs/xdm/config/Xserv.ws.cpp,v1.1.1.1.12.21998/10/0415:23:14hohndelExp$
#
#Xserversfile,workstationprototype
#
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#Thisfileshouldcontainanentrytostarttheserveronthe
#localdisplay;ifyouhavemorethanonedisplay(notscreen),
#youcanaddentriestothelist(oneperline).Ifyoualso
#havesomeXterminalsconnectedwhichdonotsupportXDMCP,
#youcanaddthemhereaswell.EachXterminallineshould
#looklike:
#
XTerminalName:0foreign
#
:0local/usr/X11R6/bin/X
SincetheDisplayManagerisalsoanxapplicationtheXrescourcesfileissimilartothe.Xrescources
fileexceptthatitcontrolshowtheloginscreenisdisplayed.
SampleXrescourcesfile
! $XConsortium: Xresources /main/8 1996/11/11 09:24:46 swick $
xlogin*borderWidth: 3
xlogin*greeting: CLIENTHOST
xlogin*namePrompt: login:\040
xlogin*fail: Login incorrect
#ifdef COLOR
xlogin*greetColor: CadetBlue
xlogin*failColor: red
*Foreground: black
*Background: #fffff0
#else
xlogin*Foreground: black
xlogin*Background: white
#endif
XConsole.text.geometry:
XConsole.verbose:
true
XConsole*iconic:
true
XConsole*font:
fixed
480x130
Samplexdmconfigfile
!$XFree86:xc/programs/xdm/config/xdmconf.cpp,v1.1.1.2.4.21999/10/1218:33:29hohndelExp$
!
DisplayManager.servers:
/etc/X11/xdm/Xservers
DisplayManager.accessFile:
/etc/X11/xdm/Xaccess
!Alldisplaysshoulduseauthorization,butwecannotbesure
!Xterminalswillbeconfiguredthatway,sobydefault
!useauthorizationonlyforlocaldisplays:0,:1,etc.
DisplayManager._0.authorize: true
DisplayManager._1.authorize: true
!
DisplayManager*resources:
/etc/X11/xdm/Xresources
DisplayManager*session:
/etc/X11/xdm/Xsession
DisplayManager*authComplain: false
!SECURITY:donotlistenforXDMCPorChooserrequests
!CommentoutthislineifyouwanttomanageXterminalswithxdm
DisplayManager.requestPort:
0
6.TroubleshootingXClients
OccasionallyXClientswontterminateproperlyleavingzombieprocesses.Azombieprocessinone
whoseparentprocesseshasterminated,andcannotclearreferencestothechildprocess.Whenachild
processparentexitsleavingthechildprocessstillrunning,thisisusuallyvisiblebyrunningpswhichwill
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TheXEnvironment
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revealthechildprocessbeingownedbyPID1(init).Theseprocessesshouldbekilledbecausethey
maybeusingCPUresources.Killingsuchaprocessrequirestheusertobetheuserwhoownsthe
process,orroot.Itmightbenecessarytousethe9optiontoactuallykilltheseprocesses.
7.ChoosingaWindowManager
TheareathatiscommonlyreferredtoasthedesktopisalsoknownintheXWindowworldasthescreen.
Itcoverstheentireareaofyourmonitordisplay.Therootwindowisthebackgroundofyourscreen,
typicallyusedtodisplayacolourorpicture.Thewindowmanagerprovidesaninterfacebetweentheuser
andtheXserver.ItisvirtuallyimpossibletouseXwithoutawindowmanager,becauseitprovidesthe
titlebarandthefamiliarbuttonswithwhichyoumanipulatethedisplay.
InformationonavailablewindowmanagersisavailablefromtheWindowManagerswebsiteat
http://www.PliG.org/xwinman.ManyoftheLinuxversionsofthesewindowmanagersareavailableat
ftp://metalab.unc.edu
/pub/Linux/X11/windowmanagers.
Inadditiontothedifferentwindowmanagerstherearealsovariousdesktopenvironments,amongwhich
themostcommonareKDE,GNOMEandXFCE.
Belowisabrieflistofintegratedwindowmanagers:
Enlightenment
fvwm
icewm
amiWM
mlvwm
dfm
olwm
olvwm
mwm
WindowMaker
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YesorNo
1.TheconfigurationfileforawindowmanagerisXF86Config
____
2.AnxclientcanbeconfiguredtorunonanyXserveraccessibleonanetwork
____
3.Adisplaymanagerisaprogramthatmanagespixelswhenusinga
windowingenvironment
____
4.AuserrunninganXservercandisableaccesscontrolusingxhost
____
5.TheXDMCPprotocolisusedbydisplaymanagerstodisplayagraphicallogin
onremotecomputers
____
6.Ifasystemisnotrunningadisplaymanageroneusuallystartsawindowing
environmentwiththexinittool
____
Glossary
Term
Definition
DISPLAY
Shellenvironmentalvariableusedtonotifyxapplicationswhichdisplay(inthis
case,whichXserver)torunon
XDMCP
aprotocolthatprovidesauniformmechanismforanautonomous
displaytorequestloginservicefromaremotehost
runlevel
asoftwareconfigurationofthesystemwhichallowsonlyaselectedgroupof
processestoexistseeinit(8)
xclientorxapplication Inthismanualthetermsareusedtodescribeapplicationssuchasxtermor
xclockthatrunonanXserver
desktopenvironment
asuiteofapplications(includingawindowmanager)originallydesignedtouse
theentiresurfaceofthescreenasa'desktop'.Integratedapplicationsoften
includefeaturessuchasshortcutsforcopypasting,draganddrop,etc.
ExampledesktopsareXFCE,GNOMEandKDE
displaymanager
anxapplicationwhichrunsataspecificrunlevel(oftenrunlevel5)displaying
agraphicallogininterface.DisplaymanagersalsohandletheXDMCP
protocol.Mostcommondisplaymanagersarexdm(genericX11R6),gdm
(partoftheGNOMEdesktopsuite)andkdm(partoftheKDEdesktopsuite)
windowmanager
aspecialxapplicationwhichcanmove,resizeoriconifywindows.Insome
caseswindowmanagersalsoprovideataskbaraswellasdropdownmenus
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forquicklaunch.Examplesaretwm,fluxbox,icewmetc...
sessionmanager
providesawaytosaveawindowsessiononcetheuserlogsout
X11ConfigurationFile
File
Description
XF86Config
mainconfigurationfilefortheX11R6server
DisplayManagerConfigurationFiles
SystemFile
Description
gdm.conf
mainconfigurationfileforgdm
kdmrc
mainconfigurationfileforkdm
Xaccess
oneofthefilesusedtoallow/disallowXDMCPaccess
xdmconfig
mainconfigurationfileforxdm
Xrescources
customisationfileusedbydisplaymanagers
Xservers
configureshowmanydisplaymanagerstostartonasystem.Thefileassociatesa
display(default:0)toaserver(usuallyX11R6)
Xsession
scriptusedbydisplaymanagerstostartaspecificwindowingenvironment
Xclients
scriptusedbyXsessionaswellasxdmtostartasystemwidewindowingenvironment
UserCustomisations
File
Description
~/.Xresources
~/.Xdefaults
filesusedtocontrolthewayxapplicationsstart(e.gposition,fontsize,colours,etc)
~/.xinitrc
whenusingstartxuserscanspecifywhichwindowmanagerordesktopenvironment
tostart
~/.Xclients
whenusingadisplaymanageruserscanspecifywhichwindowmanagerordesktop
environmenttostart
Commands
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Command
Description
gdmp.156
gdm(1)GDMisareplacementforXDM,theXDisplayManager.Unlikeits
competitors(X3DM,KDM,WDM)GDMwaswrittenfromscratchanddoesnotcontain
anyoriginalXDM/XConsortiumcode.GDMrunsandmanagestheXserversforboth
localandremotelogins(usingXDMCP)
kdmp.155
adisplaymanagerprovidedbytheKDEdesktop,ithasmanyconfigurationfilesin
commonwithxdm
startxp.155 ascriptthatcallsxinitandstartstheXWindowSystem,thatisanXservertogetherwith
awindowmanageroradesktop
xauthp.154 (notanLPIobjective)xauth(1)Thexauthprogramisusedtoeditanddisplaythe
authorizationinformationusedinconnectingtotheXserver.Normallyxauthisnotused
tocreatetheauthorityfileentryinthefirstplace;xdmdoesthatseealsopam_xauth(8)
forfurtherreading
xdmp.156
theXDisplayManagermadeavailableaspartoftheXserver
xf86config
p.151
programthatinteractivelycreatesaXF86Configfile
XF86Setup graphicalprogramthatinteractivelycreatesormodifiesanXF86Configfile
p.151
xhostp.154 xhost(1)Thexhostprogramisusedtoaddanddeletehostnamesorusernamestothe
listallowedtomakeconnectionstotheXserver.Inthecaseofhosts,thisprovidesa
rudimentaryformofprivacycontrolandsecurity.Itisonlysufficientforaworkstation
(singleuser)environment,
xinitp.155
xinit(1)ThexinitprogramisusedtostarttheXWindowSystemserverandafirstclient
program(usuallyawindowmanager)onsystemsthatcannotstartXdirectlyfrom/etc/init
orinenvironmentsthatusemultiplewindowsystems.Whenthisfirstclientexits,xinitwill
killtheXserverandthenterminate
xinitrcp.155 scriptlaunchedbyxinitcontainingalistofclientstobestarted.Additionalclients(suchas
terminals,clocks,etc)shouldbestartedinthebackground.Thefirstclienthowever
(usuallythewindowmanager)shouldbestartedintheforgroundinordertoprevent
xinitrcfromexitingseexinit(1)
xvidtune
p.151
xvidtune(1)Withoutanyoptionsitpresentstheuserwithvariousbuttonsandsliders
thatcanbeusedtointeractivelyadjustexistingvideomodes.Itwillalsoprintthe
settingsinaformatsuitableforinclusioninanXF86Configfile
Exercises
Beforestartingmakesureyouarerunninginrunlevel3.
init 3
1.Logintoavirtualterminal(e.gAlt+F1)
2.Asrootsavetheexistingconfigurationfile/etc/X11/XF86Configandtryoutthevariousconfiguration
tools:
Redhat:Xconfigurator,redhatconfigxfree86(8.0)
Mandrake:XFdrake
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Suse:sax
XF86Setup
xf86config
X(thisistheX11serveritself,usetheconfigureflag)
3.StarttheXserverbytypingX.ThiswillstartX11R6alonewithnowindowmanagers.Returntoa
virtualterminal(e.gCtrl+Alt+F2)andgetthecommandlineback.Thendothefollowing:
exportDISPLAY=localhost:0
xterm&
GobackintoXbytypingCtrl+Alt+F7(ifyouhaventchangedthedefaultsin/etc/inittab...).Youshould
haveanxterminalrunning.Nexttypeinthisterminal:
twm&
Whathashappened?CanyoukilltwmwithoutkillingX?Gobacktoa
virtualterminal(e.gCtrl+Alt+F2)andtype:
X:1
Logintoanothervirtualterminal(e.gtty3)andtype:
exportDISPLAY=:1;xterm&
YounowhavetwoXserversrunningonscreen0and1.Howdoyouswitchfromonetoanother?
4.SettingupXDMCP
Forthistoworkmakesurethelinecontainingan*isuncommentedin/etc/X11/xdm/Xaccess.
Ifyouareusingxdmorkdmcommentoutthelineinxdmconfigasfollows
!DisplayManager.requestPort:0
Thislineisoriginallyuncommentedandallowsonlylocalloginrequestsonscreen0(moresecure).
Ifyouareusinggdmthenyouwillalsoneedtoeditgdm.confandput
enable=true
Thiswillturnoffthedefaultsecuritysettingsforgdm.
IfyourIPis1.2.3.4thenusersonyournetworkcanstartanXsessionwith:
Xquery1.2.3.4:1
or
Xindirect1.2.3.4:1
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AnswerstoReviewQuestions
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AnswerstoRevisionQuestions
Installation(p.9)
1.NotherawritetoolrunsunderDOS.Thetoolusedtocopyimagefilesontoablockdeviceisdd
2.Yesanydevicethatcanholddata(i.enotanextendedpartition)canbeusedastherootdevice
HardwareSuppport(p.28)
1.Notherootfilesystemcanbeonanydisktype
2.NothekernelmoduleonlyhandlestheUSBcontroller.ThekernelwillnotifyeventstoaUSBuser
agentwhichthenusesusermapstoconfiguretheparticulardevice
ManagingDevices(p.41)
1.Noyouneedtorerun/sbin/liloeverytimeyouchangesomethingin/etc/lilo.conf
2.YesGRUBonlyneedtobeinstalledonce
3.Nothe1024cylinderlimitaffectsthesecondstagebootloader
4.Yesonecannotsetquotasonadirectory
TheLinuxFilesystem(p.60)
1.Noprogramsstoredin/usr/arenotessentialforbootingupthesystem
2.Noauser'shomedirectorycanbeanywhereonthesystem
3.Yes
1.Yes
2.NoSTDOUTcanberedirectedtoafile
3.Yes
4.Nocommandsaregenerallystoredinafilecalled.bash_historyintheuser'shomedirectory
FileManagement(p.88)
1.Yes
2.Nocdwithnoargumentwillalsogototheuser'shomedirectory
3.Noyoumustuse'mkdirp'tomakedirectorieswhichcontainsubdirectories
4.Yes
5.Nothecorrectcommandis'ln -s FILE FILE-LINK'
6.Nopathsbeginningwithaforwardslashareabsolutepaths
ProcessManagement(p.98)
1.Nokillwillsendasignal,somesignalsmaysimplypauseaprocess,othersforcedaemonstore
readtheirconfigurationfile.Howeverthedefaultsignal(15orSIGTERM)willattempttoterminatea
process.
2.Yes
3.Yes
4.No
TextProcessing(p.108)
1.Yes
2.Nousetail
3.Yesthisisthecasewithallthetexttools
4.NoallthetexttoolsprintthealtereddatatoSTDOUTanddon'taltertheoriginalfile
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SoftwareInstallation(p.131)
1.Nooneusesmake
2.Yesamakefileisuniqueforeachproject.Themaketoolwillonlyreadamakefileinthecurrent
directory(i.ethedirectorythemakecommandisstartedfrom)
3.Yes
4.Yes
5.Yes
6.No
7.Yes
AdvancedTextManipulation(p.139)
1.Yesthe"e?"expressionreads'match0or1e'
2.Yesthe"a*"expressionreads'match0oranya'
3.Yesthe"e+"expressiomreads'matchatleast1oranye'
4.Yesnoticethatthe"a*"isattheendoftheexpression.Thismeansthat'baz'followedbyanything
willalsobematched
Usingvi(p.147)
1.Nolookatthepositionofhjklonthekeyboard.Thelkeyisontherightandwillcausethecursorto
movetotheright
2.Yes
3.No3wwillmovethecursorthreewordsforward,thendisanincompletecommand.Deletingthree
wordscanbedonewithd3w
4.Nothecommands:qwwillbereadfromlefttoright.Soquit(q)mustalwaysbelast
TheXEnvironment(p.161)
1.NotheXF86ConfigfileonlyconfigurestheXserver.Windowmanagersoftenusedirectoriesstored
inuser'shomedirectories
2.YesthisistruealthoughfirewallscanpreventxapplicationstoconnecttoremoteXservers
3.Noadisplaymanagerhandlesloginaccessonadisplay(localXserverorremoteXserverusing
XDMCP)
4.YesnotethatonmostoftherecentLinuxdistributionsxhostmustbeusedinconjunctionwithxauth
5.Yes
6.Nooneusuallyusesstartx
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LPI101Objectives
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LPI101Objectives
ThuNov404:45:582004
Exam101:DetailedObjectives
ThisisarequiredexamforLPIcertificationLevel1.Itcoversbasicsystemadministrationskillsthatarecommon
acrossalldistributionsofLinux.
Eachobjectiveisassignedaweightingvalue.Theweightsrangeroughlyfrom1to10,andindicatetherelative
importanceofeachobjective.Objectiveswithhigherweightswillbecoveredintheexamwithmorequestions.
Topic101:Hardware&Architecture
*1.101.1ConfigureFundamentalBIOSSettings
Modified:2003March17
Maintainer:KaraPritchard
Weight:1
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletoconfigurefundamentalsystemhardwarebymakingthecorrect
settingsinthesystemBIOS.ThisobjectiveincludesaproperunderstandingofBIOSconfigurationissuessuchas
theuseofLBAonIDEharddiskslargerthan1024cylinders,enablingordisablingintegratedperipherals,aswellas
configuringsystemswith(orwithout)externalperipheralssuchaskeyboards.Italsoincludesthecorrectsettingfor
IRQ,DMAandI/OaddressesforallBIOSadministratedportsandsettingsforerrorhandling(p.13).
Keyfiles,terms,andutilitiesinclude:
/proc/ioports(p.13)
/proc/interrupts(p.13)
/proc/dma(p.13)
/proc/pci(p.13)
*1.101.3ConfigureModemandSoundcards
Weight:1
Description:Ensuredevicesmeetcompatibilityrequirements(particularlythatthemodemisNOTawinmodem),
verifythatboththemodemandsoundcardareusinguniqueandcorrectIRQ's,I/O,andDMAaddresses,ifthe
soundcardisPnPinstallandrunsndconfig(p.26)andisapnp(p.15),configuremodemforoutbounddialup,
configuremodemforoutboundPPP|SLIP|CSLIPconnection,setserialportfor115.2Kbps(p.21)
*1.101.4SetupSCSIDevices
Weight:1
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LPI101Objectives
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Description:CandidatesshouldbeabletoconfigureSCSIdevicesusingtheSCSIBIOSaswellasthe
necessaryLinuxtools.TheyalsoshouldbeabletodifferentiatebetweenthevarioustypesofSCSI.Thisobjective
includesmanipulatingtheSCSIBIOStodetectusedandavailableSCSIIDsandsettingthecorrectIDnumberfor
differentdevicesespeciallythebootdevice.Italsoincludesmanagingthesettingsinthecomputer'sBIOSto
determinethedesiredbootsequenceifbothSCSIandIDEdrivesareused.
SCSIID(p.17)
/proc/scsi/(p.17)
scsi_info(p.17)
*1.101.5SetupdifferentPCexpansioncards
Weight:3
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletoconfigurevariouscardsforthevariousexpansionslots.Theyshould
knowthedifferencesbetweenISAandPCIcardswithrespecttoconfigurationissues.Thisobjectiveincludesthe
correctsettingsofIRQs,DMAsandI/OPortsofthecards,especiallytoavoidconflictsbetweendevices.Italso
includesusingisapnpifthecardisanISAPnPdevice.
/proc/dma
/proc/interrupts
/proc/ioports
/proc/pci
pnpdump(8)(p.15)
isapnp(8)(p.15)
lspci(8)(p.13)
*1.101.6ConfigureCommunicationDevices
Weight:1
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletoinstallandconfiguredifferentinternalandexternalcommunication
deviceslikemodems,ISDNadapters(p.23),andDSLswitches(p.23).Thisobjectiveincludesverificationof
compatibilityrequirements(especiallyimportantifthatmodemisawinmodem[p.22]),necessaryhardwaresettings
forinternaldevices(IRQs,DMAs,I/Oports),andloadingandconfiguringsuitabledevicedrivers.Italsoincludes
communicationdeviceandinterfaceconfigurationrequirements,suchastherightserialportfor115.2Kbps(p.21),
andthecorrectmodemsettingsforoutboundPPPconnection(s)(p.21).
/proc/dma
/proc/interrupts
/proc/ioports
setserial(8)
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*1.101.7ConfigureUSBdevices
Weight:1
Description:CandidatesshouldbeabletoactivateUSBsupport,useandconfiguredifferentUSBdevices.This
objectiveincludesthecorrectselectionoftheUSBchipsetandthecorrespondingmodule.Italsoincludesthe
knowledgeofthebasicarchitectureofthelayermodelofUSBaswellasthedifferentmodulesusedinthedifferent
layers.
lspci(8)
usbuhci.o(p.15)
usbohci.o(p.15)
/etc/usbmgr/(p.Error:Referencesourcenotfound16
usbmodules
/etc/hotplug(p.16)
Topic102:LinuxInstallation&PackageManagement
*1.102.1Designharddisklayout
Weight:5
Description:CandidatesshouldbeabletodesignadiskpartitioningschemeforaLinuxsystem.Thisobjective
includesallocatingfilesystemsorswapspacetoseparatepartitionsordisks,andtailoringthedesigntotheintended
useofthesystem.Italsoincludesplacing/bootonapartitionthatconformswiththeBIOS'requirementsforbooting.
/(root)filesystem(p.5andp.46)
/varfilesystem(p.48)
/homefilesystem(p.47)
swapspace(p.6)
mountpoints(p.5)
partitions(p.5,p.32)
cylinder1024(p.36andp.41)
*1.102.2Installabootmanager
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LPI101Objectives
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Weight:1
Description:Candidateshouldbeabletoselect,install,andconfigureabootmanager.Thisobjectiveincludes
providingalternativebootlocationsandbackupbootoptions(forexample,usingabootfloppy).
/etc/lilo.conf(p.36)
/boot/grub/grub.conf(p.37)
lilo(p.36)
grubinstall(p.37)
MBR(p.36)
superblock(p.48)
firststagebootloader(p.36)
*1.102.3Makeandinstallprogramsfromsource
Weight:5
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletobuildandinstallanexecutableprogramfromsource.Thisobjective
includesbeingabletounpackafileofsources.Candidatesshouldbeabletomakesimplecustomizationstothe
Makefile,forexamplechangingpathsoraddingextraincludedirectories.
gunzip
gzip(p.117)
bzip2(p.117)
tar(p.118)
configure(p.119)
make(p.119)
*1.102.4Managesharedlibraries
Weight:3
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletodeterminethesharedlibrariesthatexecutableprogramsdependon
andinstallthemwhennecessary.Candidatesshouldbeabletostatewheresystemlibrariesarekept.
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LPI101Objectives
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ldd(p.114)
ldconfig(p.115)
/etc/ld.so.conf(p.115)
LD_LIBRARY_PATH(p.115)
*1.102.5UseDebianpackagemanagement
Weight:8
Description:CandidatesshouldbeabletoperformpackagemanagementskillsusingtheDebianpackage
manager.Thisobjectiveincludesbeingabletousecommandlineandinteractivetoolstoinstall,upgrade,or
uninstallpackages,aswellasfindpackagescontainingspecificfilesorsoftware(suchpackagesmightormightnot
beinstalled).Thisobjectivealsoincludesbeingabletoobtainpackageinformationlikeversion,content,
dependencies,packageintegrityandinstallationstatus(whetherornotthepackageisinstalled).
unpack(p.127,p.127,p.128)
configure(p.127,p.128)
/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg(p.127)
/var/lib/dpkg/*(p.127)
/etc/apt/apt.conf(p.128)
/etc/apt/sources.list(p.129)
dpkg(p.125,.128)
dselect(p.126)
dpkgreconfigure
aptget(p.129)
alien(p.130,p.132)
*1.102.6UseRedHatPackageManager(RPM)
Weight:8
Description:CandidatesshouldbeabletoperformpackagemanagementunderLinuxdistributionsthatuse
RPMsforpackagedistribution.Thisobjectiveincludesbeingabletoinstall,reinstall,upgrade,andremove
packages,aswellasobtainstatusandversioninformationonpackages.Thisobjectivealsoincludesobtaining
packageinformationsuchasversion,status,dependencies,integrity,andsignatures.Candidatesshouldbeableto
determinewhatfilesapackageprovides,aswellasfindwhichpackageaspecificfilecomesfrom.
/etc/rpmrc(p.132)
/usr/lib/rpm/*(p.132)
rpm(p.120,p.132)
grep
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Topic103:GNU&UnixCommands
*1.103.1Workonthecommandline
Weight:5
Description:CandidatesshouldbeabletoInteractwithshellsandcommandsusingthecommandline.This
includestypingvalidcommandsandcommandsequences,defining,referencingandexportingenvironment
variables,usingcommandhistoryandeditingfacilities,invokingcommandsinthepathandoutsidethepath,using
commandsubstitution,applyingcommandsrecursivelythroughadirectorytreeandusingmantofindoutabout
commands.
.
bash
echo(p.65)
env(p.66)
exec(p.73)
export(p.66)
man(p.75,p.74)
pwd(p.81)
set(p.66)
unset(p.66)
~/.bash_history(p.72)
~/.profile
*1.103.2Processtextstreamsusingfilters
Weight:6
Description:Candidatesshouldshouldbeabletoapplyfilterstotextstreams.Tasksincludesendingtextfiles
andoutputstreamsthroughtextutilityfilterstomodifytheoutput,andusingstandardUNIXcommandsfoundinthe
GNUtextutilspackage.
cat(p.102)
cut(p.106)
expand(p.104)
fmt(p.107)
head(p.103)
join(p.106)
nl(p.104)
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od(p.104)
paste(p.106)
pr(p.107)
sed(p.137)
sort(p.107)
split(p.105)
tac(p.102)
tail(p.103)
tr(p.107)
unexpand(p.104)
uniq(p.105)
wc(p.103)
*1.103.3Performbasicfilemanagement
Weight:3
Description:CandidatesshouldbeabletousethebasicUNIXcommandstocopy,move,andremovefilesand
directories.Tasksincludeadvancedfilemanagementoperationssuchascopyingmultiplefilesrecursively,removing
directoriesrecursively,andmovingfilesthatmeetawildcardpattern.Thisincludesusingsimpleandadvanced
wildcardspecificationstorefertofiles,aswellasusingfindtolocateandactonfilesbasedontype,size,ortime.
cp(p.83)
find(p.81)
mkdir(p.83)
mv(p.84)
ls(p.83)
rm(p.83)
rmdir(p.83)
touch(p.85)
fileglobbing(p.76)
*1.103.4Usestreams,pipes,andredirects
Weight:5
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletoredirectstreamsandconnecttheminordertoefficientlyprocess
textualdata.Tasksincluderedirectingstandardinput,standardoutput,andstandarderror,pipingtheoutputofone
commandtotheinputofanothercommand,usingtheoutputofonecommandasargumentstoanothercommand
andsendingoutputtobothstdoutandafile.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
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LPI101Objectives
____________________________________________________________________
tee(p.70)
xargs(p.81)
<(p.69)
<<(p.73)
>(p.68)
>>(p.68)
|(p.70)
``(p.71)
*1.103.5Create,monitor,andkillprocesses
Weight:5
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletomanageprocesses.Thisincludesknowinghowtorunjobsinthe
foregroundandbackground,bringajobfromthebackgroundtotheforegroundandviceversa,startaprocessthat
willrunwithoutbeingconnectedtoaterminalandsignalaprogramtocontinuerunningafterlogout.Tasksalso
includemonitoringactiveprocesses,selectingandsortingprocessesfordisplay,sendingsignalstoprocesses,
killingprocessesandidentifyingandkillingXapplicationsthatdidnotterminateaftertheXsessionclosed.
&(p.96)
bg(p.96)
fg(p.96)
jobs(p.96)
kill(p.93)
nohup(p.97)
ps(p.92)
top(p.93)
*1.103.6Modifyprocessexecutionpriorities
Weight:3
Description:Candidatesshouldshouldbeabletomanageprocessexecutionpriorities.Tasksincluderunninga
programwithhigherorlowerpriority,determiningthepriorityofaprocessandchangingthepriorityofarunning
process.
nice(p.94)
ps(p.92)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
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LPI101Objectives
____________________________________________________________________
renice(p.95)
top(p.93)
*1.103.7Searchtextfilesusingregularexpressions
Weight:3
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletomanipulatefilesandtextdatausingregularexpressions.This
objectiveincludescreatingsimpleregularexpressionscontainingseveralnotationalelements.Italsoincludesusing
regularexpressiontoolstoperformsearchesthroughafilesystemorfilecontent.
grep(p.135)
regexp()
sed(p.137)
*1.103.8Performbasicfileeditingoperationsusingvi
Weight:1
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletoedittextfilesusingvi.Thisobjectiveincludesvinavigation,basicvi
nodes,inserting,editing,deleting,copying,andfindingtext.
vi(p.142)
/(p.145),?(p.Error:Referencesourcenotfound145)
h,j,k,l(p.142)
G,H,L
i(p.143),c(p143Error:Referencesourcenotfound),d,dd(p.143),p(p.Error:Referencesourcenotfound143),
o(p.Error:Referencesourcenotfound143),a(p.143)
ZZ(p.146),:w!(p.145),:q!(p.146),:e!(p.146)
:!(p.145)
Topic104:Devices,LinuxFilesystems,FilesystemHierarchyStandard
*1.104.1Createpartitionsandfilesystems
Weight:3
______________________________________________________________________________________________
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LPI101Objectives
____________________________________________________________________
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletoconfigurediskpartitionsandthencreatefilesystemsonmediasuchas
harddisks.Thisobjectiveincludesusingvariousmkfscommandstosetuppartitionstovariousfilesystems,
includingext2,ext3,reiserfs,vfat,andxfs.
fdisk(p.33)
mkfs(p.49)
*1.104.2Maintaintheintegrityoffilesystems
Weight:3
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletoverifytheintegrityoffilesystems,monitorfreespaceandinodes,and
repairsimplefilesystemproblems.Thisobjectiveincludesthecommandsrequiredtomaintainastandardfilesystem,
aswellastheextradataassociatedwithajournalingfilesystem.
du(p.52)
df(p.51)
fsck(p.49)
e2fsck(p.49)
mke2fs(p.49)
debugfs(p.50)
dumpe2fs(p.50)
tune2fs(p.38)
*1.104.3Controlmountingandunmountingfilesystems
Weight:3
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletoconfigurethemountingofafilesystem.Thisobjectiveincludesthe
abilitytomanuallymountandunmountfilesystems,configurefilesystemmountingonbootup,andconfigureuser
mountableremoveablefilesystemssuchastapedrives,floppies,andCDs.
/etc/fstab(p.37)
mount(p.38)
umount(p.39)
*1.104.4Managingdiskquota
Weight:3
______________________________________________________________________________________________
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LPI101Objectives
____________________________________________________________________
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletomanagediskquotasforusers.Thisobjectiveincludessettingupa
diskquotaforafilesystem,editing,checking,andgeneratinguserquotareports.
quota(p.40)
edquota(p.40)
repquota(p.40)
quotaon(p.40)
*1.104.5Usefilepermissionstocontrolaccesstofiles
Weight:5
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletocontrolfileaccessthroughpermissions.Thisobjectiveincludes
accesspermissionsonregularandspecialfilesaswellasdirectories.Alsoincludedareaccessmodessuchassuid,
sgid,andthestickybit,theuseofthegroupfieldtograntfileaccesstoworkgroups,theimmutableflag,andthe
defaultfilecreationmode.
chmod(p.53)
umask(p.54)
chattr(p.57)
*1.104.6Managefileownership
Weight:1
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletocontroluserandgroupownershipoffiles.Thisobjectiveincludesthe
abilitytochangetheuserandgroupownerofafileaswellasthedefaultgroupownerfornewfiles.
chmod(p.53)
chown(p.53)
chgrp(p.53)
*1.104.7Createandchangehardandsymboliclinks
Weight:1
Description:Candidatesshouldbeabletocreateandmanagehardandsymboliclinkstoafile.Thisobjective
includestheabilitytocreateandidentifylinks,copyfilesthroughlinks,anduselinkedfilestosupportsystem
administrationtasks.
ln(p.84)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
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LPI101Objectives
____________________________________________________________________
*1.104.8Findsystemfilesandplacefilesinthecorrectlocation
Weight:5
Description:CandidatesshouldbethouroughlyfamiliarwiththeFilesystemHierarchyStandard,includingtypical
filelocationsanddirectoryclassifications.ThisobjectiveincludestheabilitytofindfilesandcommandsonaLinux
system.
find(p.81)
locate(p.82)
slocate(p.82)
updatedb(p.82)
whereis(p.82)
which(p.82)
/etc/updatedb.conf(p.82)
Topic110:TheXWindowSystem
*1.110.1Install&ConfigureXFree86
Weight:5
Description:CandidateshouldbeabletoconfigureandinstallXandanXfontserver.Thisobjectiveincludes
verifyingthatthevideocardandmonitoraresupportedbyanXserver,aswellascustomizingandtuningXforthe
videocardandmonitor.ItalsoincludesinstallinganXfontserver,installingfonts,andconfiguringXtousethefont
server(mayrequireamanualeditof/etc/X11/XF86Configinthe"Files"section).
XF86Setup(p.151)
xf86config(p.151)
xvidtune(p.151)
/etc/X11/XF86Config(p.Error:Referencesourcenotfound)
.Xresources(p.153)
*1.110.2Setupadisplaymanager
Weight:3
______________________________________________________________________________________________
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LPI101Objectives
____________________________________________________________________
Description:CandidateshouldbeablesetupandcustomizeaDisplaymanager.Thisobjectiveincludesturning
thedisplaymanageronoroffandchangingthedisplaymanagergreeting.Thisobjectiveincludeschangingdefault
bitplanesforthedisplaymanager.ItalsoincludesconfiguringdisplaymanagersforusebyXstations.Thisobjective
coversthedisplaymanagersXDM(XDisplayManger),GDM(GnomeDisplayManager)andKDM(KDEDisplay
Manager).
/etc/inittab
/etc/X11/xdm/*(p.156)
/etc/X11/kdm/*(p.155)
/etc/X11/gdm/*(p.156)
*1.110.4Install&CustomizeaWindowManagerEnvironment
Weight:5
Description:Candidateshouldbeabletocustomizeasystemwidedesktopenvironmentand/orwindow
manager,todemonstrateanunderstandingofcustomizationproceduresforwindowmanagermenusand/ordesktop
panelmenus.Thisobjectiveincludesselectingandconfiguringthedesiredxterminal(xterm,rxvt,atermetc.),
verifyingandresolvinglibrarydependencyissuesforXapplications,exportingXdisplaytoaclientworkstation.
.xinitrc(p.155)
.Xdefaults(p.153)
xhost(p.154)
DISPLAYenvironmentvariable(p.154)
Copyright1999,2000,2001,2002,2003LinuxProfessionalInstitute.Allrightsreserved.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Page179
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________________________________________________________________________
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GNUFreeDocumentationLicense
Version1.2,November2002
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____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Page184
Index
______________________________________________________
INDEX
A
ADSL 20
alias 64
append50
atime 50
B
bg
85
bootloaders
1024cylinderlimit
36
1024cylinders32
bootloader
31
GRUB 32
grubshell
32
grubinstall
32
grub.conf
32
LILO 31
/boot/boot.b 31
/etc/lilo.conf 32
/sbin/lilo
32
C
cat
90
cd
72
chattr 49
chgrp 46
chmod 46
chown 46
chroot 4
compoundcommands
command1&&command2
command1||command2
command1;command2
compress
50
configure
106p.
cp
74
CtrlZ 85
cut
93
D
dd
2,76
Debian 112
debugfs
43
df
45
dirsync50
DISPLAY
138
displaymanager
139
displaymanagers
gdm.conf
140
kdmrc 140
Xaccess
141
64
64
64
xdmconfig
140,141
Xrescources 141
Xservers
141
DMA 11
dmesg 11
dpkg 112
du
45
dump 50
dumpe2fs
43
E
e2fsck 43
echo 57
egrep 121,122
env
58
eregex
?
121
+
121
|
121
exec
65
expand
92
export 58
ext3
50
F
fdisk 31
fg
85
fgrep 122
FileAttributes 49
fileglobbing 67
files
isapnp.conf
12
/dev/ttyS0
17
/dev/ttyS1
17
/dev/ttyS2
17
/etc/isapnp.conf
12
/etc/ld.so.conf
103
/etc/mtab
45
/etc/updatedb.conf 73
/proc/dma
11
/proc/interrupts
11
/proc/ioports 11
/proc/mounts 45
/proc/pci
11
/var/log/dmesg
11
filesystem
absolutepath 72
datablocks
42
ext2
42
ext3
42
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Page185
Index
______________________________________________________
inodes 42
permissions 46
relativepath 72
superblock
42
filesystemhierarchy(FHS)
basedirectories
41
essentialroot(/)subdirectories
40
find
72
fips
3
fmt
94
fsck
43
fsck.ext2
43
fstab 33
fstaboptions
grpquota
34
noauto 34
owner 34
rw,ro 34
user 34
users 34
usrquota
34
G
gdm
140
grep 121,122
H
head 91
hexdump
92
history 63
hotplug
13
I
I/Oaddress 11
immutable
50
IRQs 11
isapnp 12
isapnptools
12
ISDN 20
isdn4kutils 20
J
jobs
86
join
94
K
kdm 140
kill
83
killsignals
SIGHUP,SIGINT,SIGKILL.SIGTERM 83
killall 84
L
LD_LIBRARY_PATH 103
ldconfig
102
ldd
102
ln
75
locate 73
ls
73
lsattr 49
lspci 11
lsusb 13
M
make 107
Makefile
100,106
man 66
Manpages
65
MANPATH
66
MBR 31
Metacharacters
commandsubstitions
`command`
63
$(command)
63
fileglobbing, 62
quotes
``
63
''
63
""
63
range
[]
62
{string1,string2} 62
wildcards
?
62
*
62
mkdir 74
mke2fs42
mkfs 42
mkfs.ext2
42
modem17,92,164
mount 33,45
mv
75
N
networkcards 15
nice
84
nl
92
nohup 86
O
od
92
Orlovblockallocator 50,52
P
partitioningscheme 5
Partitions
extended
28
logical 28
mounting
33
namingconvention 28
primarypartition
28
root(/) 40
unmounting 34
paste 94
PID
82
pnpdump
12
PPPoE 20
pr
95
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Page186
Index
______________________________________________________
ps
82
pstree 82
pwd
72
Q
quotas
aquota.user 35
edquota
35
grace 35
quota 35
quotacheck
35
quotaon
35
quotastats
35
repquota
35
usrquota
35
/etc/fstab
35
R
rawrite 2
redirectionandpipes
2>
61
2>&1 62
tee
62
<
60
<<
64
>
60
>>
60
|
61
regex
^
121
.
121
*t
121
\<
121
$
121
renice 85
rescuemode 4
resourceallocation
11
rm
74
root(/) 5
rpm
majormode 108
minormode 108
packageintegrity
110
packagenames
108
packagesignatures 109
querymodes 108p.
S
SCSI
booting
15
Channel
14
DeviceID
14
LUN 14
SCSIID
14
scsi_info
15,26
/proc/devices 28
/proc/scsi/scsi
15
sed
123
set
58
settingupmodems
16
COM1 17
COM2 17
COM3 17
setserial
17
wvdial 18
/dev/modem 18
SGID 49
sndconfig
22
sort
94
split 92
startx 139
stderr 59
stdin 59
stdout 59
stickybit
49
SUID 48
sync 50
synchronous 50
systemconfignetwork
20
T
tac
90
tail
91
tailmerging 51
tee
62
top
83
touch 76
tr
95
tune2fs
34
U
umask 47
umount
34
undeletion
51
unexpand
92
uniq 93
updatedb
73
USB
EHCIehcihdc.o
13
OHCIusbohci.o
13
UHCIusbuhci.o
13
usb.agent
14
usb.usermap 14
usbmgr
14
usbmodules 26
/etc/hotplug 13
/etc/usbmgr/ 14
USBSupport 13
V
vi
a,A,i,o,O,s,S 129
b,e,),},w
128
c,r
129
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Page187
Index
______________________________________________________
d,dd,x,p
129
h,j,k,l 128
u,^R(undo,redo)
130
y
130
^,$,1G,G
128
:!
131
:quit,:q!,:wq,:exit,:x,:e,ZZ
/,?
130
W
wc
91
whatis 65
whereis
which 73
winmodems
X
xauth 139
73
19
131
Xclients
Xdefaults
Xdefaults
xdm 140
xdm 139
xf86config
XF86Config
XF86Setup
xhost 138
xinit 139
xinitrc 139
Xresources
Xsession
xvidtune
Z
zombie 144
139
135
138
136
135p.,137
136
135,138
139
136
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Page188

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StudyGuidefor

Copyright (c) 2005 LinuxIT.

Model: DVD-ROM DVD-303

ANSI SCSI revision: 02

Host: scsi1 Channel: 00 Id: 00 Lun: 00

ANSI SCSI revision: 03

/dev/ttyS0, UART: 16550A, Port: 0x03f8, IRQ: 4

Alltheworkdoneonserialportswillbeusefulinthe'Serial port setup'section,whereasdialling

rpm -ql filesystem

Group 0: (Blocks 1-8192)

Used Avail Use% Mounted on

Addpassordswith passwd user1 and passwd user2

alias myprog='command [options]{arguments}'

one line description

- install boot loader

- configuration file for lilo

- command line tool for configuring grub, lilo, and

- install boot loader

- configuration file for lilo

2> /dev/null | sort

tr [a-z] [A-Z] < /etc/passwd | sort > /tmp/passwd.tmp

2.Thecommands'kill $(pidof xeyes 'and'killall xeyes'areequivalent

cat >> message << STOP

libaudiofile.so.0 (libc6) => /usr/lib/libaudiofile.so.0

tar c my-project-v.1/ > my-project-v.1.tar

-- replaced with FILE1.Z Compression: 40.29%

53.4% -- replaced with FILE2.gz

3.439 bits/byte, 57.01% saved, 605504 in, 260320 out.

zcat FILE1.Z > FILE1

tar xvjf myproject-v.1.tar.bz2

bzcat myproject-v.1.tar.bz2 | tar xf zcat some-other-project-v.2.0.tar.gz | tar tf -

Thefirstoptiongiventorpmisinmajormode.Forexampleinrpm -iv A.rpmtheoption'i'isamajor

alien to-debian package.rpm

xclock -display 192.168.1.99:0

xauth extract - $DISPLAY | ssh 192.168.1.7

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