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ABSTRACT
Foundryindustriesindevelopingcountriessufferfrompoorqualityand
productivityduetoinvolvementofnumberofprocessparameter.Evenin
completelycontrolledprocess,defectincastingareobservedandhencecasting
processisalsoknownasprocessofuncertaintywhichchallengesexplanation
aboutthecauseofcastingdefects.Inordertoidentifythecastingdefectand
problemrelatedtocasting,thestudyisaimedintheresearchwork.Thiswillbe
beneficialinenhancingtheyieldofcasting.Besidethis,standardization
(optimization)ofprocessparameterforentirecycleofmanufacturingofthe
criticalpartisintendedintheproposedwork.Thisstudyaimstofindingdifferent
defectsincasting,analysisofdefectandprovidingtheirremedieswiththeir
causes.Inthispaperanattempthasbeenmadetolistdifferenttypesofcasting
defectsandtheirrootcausesofoccurrence.Thispaperalsoaimstoprovide
correctguidelinetoqualitycontroldepartmenttofindcastingdefectsandwill
helpthemtoanalyzedefectswhicharenotdesired.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENT
Contents
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................ii
LISTOFFIGURESANDTABLES..................................................................................v
ListofFigures........................................................................................................v
ListofTables...........................................................Error!Bookmarknotdefined.
1 INTRODUCTION[2]..............................................................................................1
2 TERMINOLOGY[1]...............................................................................................2
3 CASTINGDEFECTSCLASSIFICATION...................................................................2
4 Defects[3,4,5]......................................................................................................2
4.1 Fillingrelated...............................................................................................2
4.1.1 Blowholes..............................................................................................2
4.1.2 Sandburning.........................................................................................4
4.1.3 Sandinclusion........................................................................................6
4.1.4 Coldlap(shut).......................................................................................9
4.1.5 Misrun.................................................................................................10
4.1.6 Gasporosity........................................................................................11
4.2 Shapedefects............................................................................................13
4.2.1 Mismatch.............................................................................................13
4.2.2 Distortion............................................................................................13
4.2.3 FlashDefect.........................................................................................14
4.3 Thermaldefects.........................................................................................16
4.3.1 CracksandTears..................................................................................16
4.3.2 Shrinkage.............................................................................................17
4.3.3 Sinkmark.............................................................................................19
4.4 AppearanceDefects..................................................................................21
iii
4.4.1 MetallicProjection..............................................................................21
4.4.2 Cavities................................................................................................22
4.4.3 Discontinuities.....................................................................................22
4.4.4 Incompletecasting..............................................................................23
4.4.5 Incorrectdimensionorshape.............................................................24
4.4.6 Defectivesurface.................................................................................25
4.4.7 RatTailandBuckles.............................................................................26
5 CONCLUSION...................................................................................................27
REFERNCES..........................................................................................................28
iv
1 INTRODUCTION [2]
Castingisaprocesswhichcarriesriskoffailureoccurrenceduringalltheprocess
ofaccomplishmentofthefinishedproduct.Hencenecessaryactionshouldbe
takenwhilemanufacturingofcastproductsothatdefectfreepartsareobtained.
Mostlycastingdefectsareconcernedwithprocessparameters.Henceonehasto
controltheprocessparametertoachievezerodefectparts.Forcontrolling
processparameteronemusthaveknowledgeabouteffectofprocessparameter
oncastingandtheirinfluenceondefect.
Toobtainthisallknowledgeaboutcastingdefect,theircauses,anddefect
remediesonehastobeanalyzecastingdefects.Castingdefectanalysisisthe
processoffindingrootcausesofoccurrenceofdefectsintherejectionofcasting
andtakingnecessarysteptoreducethedefectsandtoimprovethecastingyield.
Inthisreviewpaperanattempthasbeenmadetoprovideallcastingrelated
defectwiththeircausesandremedies.
Duringtheprocessofcasting,thereisalwaysachancewheredefectwilloccur.
Minordefectcanbeadjustedeasilybuthighrejectedratescouldleadto
significantchangeathighcost.Thereforeitisessentialfordiecastertohave
knowledgeonthetypeofdefectandbeabletoidentifytheexactrootcause,and
theirremedies.
2 TERMINOLOGY [1]
Theterms"defect"and"discontinuity"refertotwospecificandseparatethingsin
castings.Defectsaredefinedasconditionsinacastingthatmustbecorrectedor
removed,orthecastingmustberejected.Discontinuities,alsoknownas
"imperfections",aredefinedas"interruptionsinthephysicalcontinuityofthe
casting".Therefore,ifthecastingislessthanperfect,butstillusefulandin
tolerance,theimperfectionsshouldbedeemed"discontinuities".
Filingrelateddefects.
Shaperelateddefects.
Thermaldefects.
Defectsbyappearance.
4 Defects [3, 4, 5]
4.1 Filling related
4.1.1 Blowholes
Blowholeisakindofcavitiesdefect,whichisalsodividedintopinholeand
subsurfaceblowhole.Pinholeisverytinyhole.Subsurfaceblowholeonlycanbe
seenaftermachining.Gasesentrappedbysolidifyingmetalonthesurfaceofthe
casting,whichresultsinaroundedorovalblowholeasacavity.Frequently
associatedwithslagsoroxides.Thedefectsarenearlyalwayslocatedinthecope
partofthemouldinpoorlyventedpocketsandundercuts.
2
Figure1Blowhole[2]
4.1.1.1Causes
Resinbondedsand
Inadequatecoreventing.
Excessivereleaseofgasfromcore.
Excessivemoistureabsorptionbythecores.
Lowgaspermeabilityofthecoresand.
Claybondedsand
Moisturecontentofsandtoohigh,orwaterreleasedtooquickly.
Gaspermeabilityofthesandtoolow.
Sandtemperaturetoohigh.
Bentonitecontenttoohigh.
Toomuchgasreleasedfromlustrouscarbonproducer.
4.1.1.2Remedies
Resinbondedsand
Improvecoreventing,provideventingchannels,andensurecoreprintsarefree
ofdressing
Reduceamountsofgas.Useslowreactingbinder.
Reducequantityofbinder.Useacoarsersandifnecessary.
Applydressingtocores,thusslowingdowntherateofheatingandreducinggas
pressure.
Dryoutcoresandstoredry,thusreducingabsorptionofwaterandreducinggas
pressure.
Claybondedsand
Reducemoisturecontentofsand.Improveconditioningofthesand.
Reduceinertdustcontent.
Improvegaspermeability.Endeavourtousecoarsersand.Reduce
bentoniteandcarboncarriercontent.
Reducesandtemperature.Installasandcoolerifnecessary.Increasesand
quantity.
Reducebentonitecontent.Usebentonitewithahighmontmorillonitecontent,
highspecificbindingcapacityandgoodthermalstability.
Useslowreactinglustrouscarbonproducersorcarboncarrierswithhigher
capacityforproducinglustrouscarbon.Inthelastinstance,thecontentofcarbon
carriersinthemouldingsandcanbereduced.
Figure2Sandburning[2]
4.1.2.1 Causes
Claybondedsand
Lustrouscarboncontenttoolow.
Proportionoflowmeltingpointsubstancestoohigh.
Mouldingplant
Unevenmouldcompaction
Gatingandpouringpractice
Unevendistributionofinflowingmetalwithresultantoverheating.
Temperatureofliquidmetaltoohigh.
4.1.2.2 Remedies
Claybondedsand
Increaseproportionoflustrouscarbonproducer.Thisincreasesthe
amountofcokeaswellastheamountoflustrouscarbon,whichthenresultsin
positiveseparationbetweenmouldandmetal.
5
Usepurersilicasandsor,ifnecessary,addnewsand.Reducedustcontent.If
necessary,reducetheamountofbentonite.
Mouldingplant
Ensureuniformcompaction.Ifnecessary,increaseheatremovalfromthe
moulds.
Gatingandpouringpractice
Evenoutincomingmetalflow.
Reducepouringrate.
4.1.3 Sand inclusion
Sandinclusionandslaginclusionarealsocalledasscaborblackingscab.Theyare
inclusiondefects.Lookslikethereareslaginsideofmetalcastings.
Irregularlyformedsandinclusions,closetothecastingsurface,combinedwith
metallicprotuberancesatotherpoints.Sandinclusionisoneofthemostfrequent
causesofcastingrejection.Itisoftendifficulttodiagnose,asthesedefects
generallyoccuratwidelyvaryingpositionsandarethereforeverydifficultto
attributetoalocalcause.Areasofsandareoftentornawaybythemetalstream
andthenfloattothesurfaceofthecastingbecausetheycannotbewettedbythe
moltenmetal.SandinclusionsfrequentlyappearinassociationwithCOblowholes
andslagparticles.Sandinclusionscanalsobetrappedunderthecastingsurfacein
combinationwithmetaloxidesandslags,andonlybecomevisibleduring
machining.Ifaloosesectionofsandiswashedawayfromonepartofthemould,
metallicprotuberanceswilloccurhereandhavetoberemoved.
Figure3Sandinclusion[2]
4.1.3.1 Causes
Mouldingplant
Breakupofmouldsectionsduringstrippingofpatterns,coresettingor
assemblingofmouldingflasks
Unevencompactionofmoulds,compactiontoohighinplaces.
Claybondedsand
Lowcompatibility.
Bentonitecontenttoolow,orpoorlydevelopedbentonite.
Inertmaterialcontenttoohigh.
Lumpcontenttoohigh.
Highcontentoflustrouscarbonproducer.
Resinbondedsand
Lowcorestrength.
Excessivecoremismatching.
7
Gatingandpouringpractice
Pouringratetoohigh,withheavyimpactagainstmouldwallsurfaceresultingin
erosion.
Ladletoofarabovepouringbasin.
Pouringtimetoolong.
4.1.3.2 Remedies
Mouldingplant
Checkmouldsforpressuremarksand,ifnecessary,insertpressurepads
Carefullyblowoutmouldcavities.
Improvepatternplates,increasepatterntapersandradii.Heatpatternplates
and,ifnecessary,usereleaseagent.
Checkthemouldingplantforuniformflaskstrippingandoverhaulmoulding
plantasnecessary.
Automatecoresetting.Checkand,ifnecessary,modifycoreprintsbeforestart
ofproduction.
Ensureuniformmouldcompaction,avoidovercompactedsections.
Claybondedsand
Raisecompactibilityandthusplasticityofthesand.
Increasebentonitecontent.Usebentonitewithhighspecificbindingcapacity.
Improvebentonitedevelopmentbyextendingmixingtimeorbyprewetting
usedsand.
Reduceinertdustcontent.Decreasingthedustcontentreduceslumpsinthe
sand.
Reducecontentoflustrouscarbonproducer.
8
Resinbondedsand
Increasethestrengthofthecores.Usegreaterproportionofbinder.
Compactcoresmoreevenlyandeffectivelyand,ifnecessary,injectgasmore
evenly.
Avoidcoremismatching.
Gatingandpouringpractice
Avoidhighpouringratesandimpactofmetalstreamagainstmouldwalls.
Shortenpouringtimes,improvedistributionofgates.
Coldlaporalsocalledascoldshut.Itisacrackwithroundedges.Coldlapis
becauseoflowmeltingtemperatureorpoorgatingsystem.
Whenthemetalisunabletofillthemouldcavitycompletelyandthusleaving
unfilledportioncalledmisrun.Acoldshuntiscalledwhentwometalstreamsdo
notfusetogetherproperly.
Figure4Coldshut[2]
4.1.4.1 Causes
Lackoffluidityinmoltenmetal.
Faultydesign.
Faultygating.
4.1.4.2 Remedies
Adjustproperpouringtemperature.
Modifydesign.
Modifygatingsystem.
4.1.5 Misrun
Misrundefectisakindofincompletecastingdefect,whichcausesthecasting
uncompleted.Theedgeofdefectisroundandsmooth.
Whenthemetalisunabletofillthemouldcavitycompletelyandthusleaving
unfilledportioncalledmisrun.Acoldshuntiscalledwhentwometalstreamsdo
notfusetogetherproperly.
Figure5Misrun[2]
10
4.1.5.1 Causes
Lackoffluidityinmoltenmetal.
Faultydesign.
Faultygating.
4.1.5.2 Remedies
Adjustproperpouringtemperature.
Modifydesign.
Modifygatingsystem.
Thegascanbefromtrappedair,hydrogendissolvedinaluminumalloys,moisture
fromwaterbaseddielubricantsorsteamfromcrackedcoolinglines.
Airispresentinthecavitybeforetheshot.Itcaneasilybetrappedasthemetal
startstofillthecavity.Theairisthencompressedasmoreandmoremetal
streamsintothecavityandthepressurerises.Whenthecavityisfullitbecomes
dispersedassmallspheresofhighpressureair.Theswirlingflowcancausethem
tobecomeelongated.
Figure6Gasporosity[2]
11
4.1.6.1 Causes
Metalpouringtemperaturetoolow.
Insufficientmetalfluiditye.g.carbonequivalenttoolow.
Pouringtooslow.
Slagonthemetalsurface.
Interruptiontopouringduringfillingofthemould.
Highgaspressureinthemouldarisingfrommoldingmaterialhavinghigh
moistureand/orvolatilecontentand/orlowpermeability.
Lustrouscarbonfromthemoldingprocess.
Metalsectiontoothin.
Inadequatelypreheatedmetallicmoulds.
4.1.6.2 Remedies
Increasemetalpouringtemperature.
Modifymetalcompositiontoimprovefluidity.
Pourmetalasrapidlyaspossiblewithoutinterruption.Improvemouldfillingby
modificationtorunningandgatingsystem.
Removeslagfrommetalsurface.
Reducegaspressureinthemouldbyappropriateadjustmenttomoulding
materialpropertiesandensuring
Adequateventingofmouldsandcores.
Eliminatelustrouscarbonwhereapplicable.
Ifpossible,modifycastingdesigntoavoidthinsections.
Ensuremetalmouldsareadequatelypreheatedanduseinsulatingcoatings.
12
4.2.1 Mismatch
Mismatchinmolddefectisbecauseoftheshiftingmoldingflashes.Itwillcause
thedislocationatthepartingline.
Figure7Mismatch[2]
4.2.1.1 Causes
Amismatchiscausedbythecopeanddragpartsofthemouldnotremainingin
theirproperposition.
Thisiscausedbylooseboxpins,inaccuratepatterndowelpinsorcarelessnessin
placingthecopeonthedrag.
4.2.1.2 Remedies
CheckpatternmountingonmatchplateandRectify,correctdowels.
Usepropermoldingboxandclosingpins.
4.2.2 Distortion
WarpedCastingDistortionduetowarpageisknownaswarpdefect.
13
Figure8Distortion[2]
4.2.2.1 Causes
Distortionduetowarpagecanoccurovertimeinacastingthatpartiallyor
completelyliberatesresidualstresses.
4.2.2.2 Remedies
Commonpracticeinironcastingisnormalizingheattreatmenttoremoveresidual
stress.Inaluminumcasting,astraighteningbetweenquenchandagingmightbe
required.
Flashcanbedescribedasanyunwanted,excessmetalwhichcomesoutofthedie
attachedtothecavityorrunner.
Typicallyitformsathinsheetofmetalatthepartingfaces.
Thereareanumberofdifferentcausesofflashandtheamountandseveritycan
varyfromaminorinconveniencetoamajorqualityissue.
Attheveryleast,flashiswastematerial,whichmainlyturnsintodrosswhenre
melted,andthereforeisahiddencosttothebusiness.
14
Figure9Flash[2]
4.2.3.1 Causes
Damagetodiefacesanddiecomponents.
Partsofthediehaveinsufficientstrength.
Bending,crowningofstretchingofdies.
Cavitiesoffsetfromcentreofplaten.
Insufficientmachineclampup.
Pressurespikesattheendofcavityfill.
Excessiveintensificationpressure.
Incorrectintensificationtiming.
Damage,orwear,intogglemechanisms.
Machinehydraulicmalfunction.
Hydraulicvalveorsealleaks.
15
4.2.3.2 Remedies
Ifyoursprueisverytallandthecastingcoversawideareaofthemoldface,it's
verypossibleforthemoldtoactuallybeforcedupbythehydrostaticpressureof
themetal.Theseriousnessofthisdependsdensityofthemetal(aluminumisvery
light,butbecarefulwithabronzepour!)andtheweightofthemoldfightingit.
Thesolutionhereisverysimple:weightdownthemould.
Crackscanappearindiecastingsfromanumberofcauses.Somecracksarevery
obviousandcaneasilybeseenwiththenakedeye.Othercracksareverydifficult
toseewithoutmagnification.
Figure10Crack[2]
4.3.1.1 Causes
Shrinkageofthecastingwithinthedie.
Undercutsordamageindiecavities.
Uneven,orexcessive,ejectionforces.
Thermalimbalanceinthedie
16
Insufficientdraftinsectionsofthedie.
Excessiveporosityincriticalregionsofthepart.
Productdesignnotmatchedtotheprocess.
Inadequatediedesign.
4.3.1.2 Remedies
Reducedrystrength,addsawdust/coaldust.
Reducepouringtemperature.
Avoidsuperheatingofmetal.
Usechills.
Providefeeders.
Avoidearlyknockoutandgivesufficientcoolingtime.
Correctcomposition.
Reducesharpcorners.
4.3.2 Shrinkage
Shrinkagedefectsoccurwhenfeedmetalisnotavailabletocompensatefor
shrinkageasthemetalsolidifies.Shrinkagedefectscanbesplitintotwodifferent
types:openshrinkagedefectsandclosedshrinkagedefects.Openshrinkage
defectsareopentotheatmosphere,thereforeastheshrinkagecavityformsair
compensates.Therearetwotypesofopenairdefects:pipesandcavedsurfaces.
Pipesformatthesurfaceofthecastingandburrowintothecasting,whilecaved
surfacesareshallowcavitiesthatformacrossthesurfaceofthecasting.
Closedshrinkagedefects,alsoknownasshrinkageporosity,aredefectsthatform
withinthecasting.Isolatedpoolsofliquidforminsidesolidifiedmetal,whichare
17
calledhotspots.Theshrinkagedefectusuallyformsatthetopofthehotspots.
Theyrequireanucleationpoint,soimpuritiesanddissolvedgascaninduceclosed
shrinkagedefects.Thedefectsarebrokenupintomacroporosityandmicro
porosity(ormicroshrinkage),wheremacroporositycanbeseenby.
Figure11Shrinkage[2]
4.3.2.1 Causes
Thedensityofadiecastingalloyinthemoltenstateislessthanitsdensityinthe
solidstate.Therefore,whenanalloychangesphasefromthemoltenstatetothe
solidstate,italwaysshrinksinsize.
Thisshrinkagetakesplacewhenthecastingissolidifyinginsideadiecastingdie.
Atthecenterofthicksectionsofacasting,thisshrinkagecanendupasmany
smallvoidsknownasshrinkageporosity.
Iftheshrinkageporosityissmallindiameterandconfinedtotheverycenterof
thicksectionsitwillusuallycausenoproblems.
However,ifitislargerinsize,orjoinedtogether,itcanseverelyweakenacasting.
Itisalsoaparticularproblemforcastingswhichneedtobegastightorwater
tight.
18
4.3.2.2 Remedies
Thegeneraltechniqueforeliminatingshrinkageporosityistoensurethatliquid
metalunderpressurecontinuestoflowintothevoidsastheyform.
Figure12Sinkmark[2]
19
4.3.3.1 Causes
Sinkmarksarecausedmainlybythermalcontraction(shrinkage)duringcooling.
Afterthematerialontheoutsidehascooledandsolidified,thecorematerial
startstocool.Itsshrinkagepullsthesurfaceofthemainwallinward,causinga
sinkmark.Iftheskinisrigidenough,deformationoftheskinmaybereplacedby
formationofavoidinthecore.
Localizedgeometricfeaturessinkmarkstypicallyoccurinmoldingswiththicker
sections,oratlocationsoppositefromribs,bossesorinternalfillets.
Highvolumetricshrinkage.
Insufficientmaterialcompensation.
Earlygatefreezeofforlowpackingpressuremaynotpackthecavityproperly.
Shortpackingorcoolingtime.
Highmeltand/ormoldtemperatures.
4.3.3.2 Remedies
Assinkmarksoccurduringpacking,themost.
Effectivewaytoreduceoreliminatethemistocontrolthepackingpressure
correctly.Todeterminetheeffectsofpackingonsinkmarks,usea
simulationpackagesuchasMoldflowPlasticsInsight.
Changepartgeometry.
Alterpartdesigntoavoidthicksectionsandreduce.
Thethicknessofanyfeaturesthatintersectwiththemainsurface.
Reducevolumetricshrinkage.
Relocategatestoproblemareas.
Optimizetherunnersystemdesign
Restrictiverunnersystemdesigncanresultin
prematuregatefreezeoff.
20
Figure13Metallicprojection[2]
4.4.1.1 Causes
Clearancebetweentwoelementsofthemoldorbetweenmoldandcore;poorly
fitmoldjoint.
4.4.1.2 Remedies
Careinpatternmaking,moldingandcoremaking.Controloftheirdimensions;
Careincoresettingandmoldassembly.
21
4.4.2 Cavities
Blowholes,pinholes,Smoothwalledcavities,essentiallyspherical,oftennot
contactingtheexternalcastingsurface(Blowholes).Thedefectcanappearinall
regionsofthecasting.
Figure14Blowholes[2]
4.4.2.1 Causes
Blowholesandpinholesareproducedbecauseofgasentrappedinthemetal
duringthecourseofsolidification.
4.4.2.2 Remedies
Makeadequateprovisionforevacuationofairandgasfromthemoldcavity;
Increasepermeabilityofmoldandcores.
4.4.3 Discontinuities
Hotcracking.Acrackoftenscarcelyvisiblebecausethecastingingeneralhasnot
separatedintofragments.Thefracturesurfacesmaybediscoloredbecauseof
oxidation.Thedesignofthecastingissuchthatthecrackwouldnotbeexpected
toresultfromconstraintsduringcooling.
22
Figure15Bodycrack[2]
4.4.3.1 Causes
Damagetothecastingwhilehotduetoroughhandlingorexcessivetemperature
atshakeout.
4.4.3.2 Remedies
Careinshakeoutandinhandlingthecastingwhileitisstillhot;Sufficientcooling
ofthecastinginthemold.
23
Figure16Incomplete[2]
4.4.4.1 Causes
Insufficientquantityofliquidmetalintheladle.Prematureinterruptionof
pouringduetoworkmanserror.
4.4.4.2 Remedies
Havesufficientmetalintheladletofillthemold,Checkthegatingsystem.
Instructpouringcrewandsupervisepouringpractice.
4.4.5.1 Causes
Rigidityofthepatternorpatternplateisnotsufficienttowithstandthe
rammingpressureappliedtothesand.Theresultisanelasticdeformationofthe
patternandacorresponding,permanentdeformationofthemoldcavity.In
diagnosingthecondition,thecomparethesurfacesofthepatternwiththoseof
themolditself.
24
4.4.5.2 Remedies
Assureadequaterigidityofpatternsandpatternplates,especiallywhensqueeze
pressuresarebeingincreased.
Flowmarks.Onthesurfacesofotherwisesoundcastings,thedefectappearsas
lineswhichtracetheflowofthestreamsofliquidmetal.
Figure17Defectivesurface[2]
4.4.6.1 Causes
Oxidefilmswhichlodgeatthesurface,partiallymarkingthepathsofmetalflow
throughthemold.
4.4.6.2Remedies
Increasemoldtemperature;
Lowerthepouringtemperature;
Modifygatesizeandlocation.
Tiltthemoldduringpouring.
25
4.4.7 Rat Tail and Buckles
Rattailsandbucklesarecausedbytheexpansionofathinouterlayerof
mouldingsandonthesurfaceofthemouldcavityduetometalheat.
Figure18Rattail[2]
4.4.7.1 Causes
Arattailiscausedbydepressionofapartofthemouldundercompression
whichappearsasanirregularlineonthesurfaceofthecasting.
Abuckleisamoreseverefailureofthesandsurfaceundercompression.
4.4.7.2 Remedies
Themouldmustprovideforproperexpansioninsteadofformingcompressed
layerstoavoidthisdefect.
26
5 CONCLUSION
Inthisresearchworkdifferentcastingdefectsarestudied.Byreferringdifferent
researchpaperscausesandtheirremediesarelisted.Thesewillhelptoquality
controldepartmentofcastingindustriesforanalysisofcastingdefect.Thisstudy
willdefinitelybehelpfulinimprovingtheproductivityandyieldofthecasting.
Rejectionsofthecastingonthebasisofthecastingdefectshouldbeasminimized
andalltheaboveresearchisheadinginthesamedirection.
27
REFERNCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/
Google
https://www.google.com.eg/search?q=casting+defects+distortion&espv=2
&biw=1366&bih=624&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=hZZmVJ2cGcLJOf
9gdAO&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ#tbm=isch&q=defected+casting&imgdii=_
Slideshare
http://www.slideshare.net/pallawisinha9/castingdefects
http://www.ijrat.org/downloads/march2014/paper%20id232014109.pdf
28