Et ZC341-L4

Instrumentation and
control
ET ZC 341
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Swapna Kulkarni
Lecturer,
Operational Amplifiers
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Inverting Amplifier
Equation shows that this circuit inverts the
input signal and may have either attenuation
or gain, depending on the ratio of input
resistance, R1 and feedback resistance R2.
Vout
R2
Vin
R1
3
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
It is important to note that the input impedance of

this circuit is essentially equal to R1, the input
resistance. In general, this resistance is not large, and
hence the input impedance is not large. The output
impedance is low.
Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
4
Summing Amplifier

Figure: The Op Amp summing Amplifier
5
Summing Amplifier
A common modification of the inverting
amplifier is an amplifier that sums or adds two
or more applied voltages.
This circuit is shown in figure for the case of

summing two input voltages. The transfer
function of this amplifier is given by
6
Vout
R2
R2

V1
V2
R3
R1
The sum can be scaled by proper selection of

resistors. For example, if we make R1 = R2=R3,
then the output is simply the (inverted) sum
of V1 and V2. The average can be found by
making R1 = R3 and R2 = R1/2.
7
Develop an op amp circuit that can provide an output

voltage related to the input voltage by Vout=3.4 Vin+5
Solution:
One way is to use a summing amplifier with Vin on
one input and 5 V on the other. The gains will be
selected to be 3.4 and 1.0,respectively. The
summing amplifier is also an inverter, however, so
the sign will be wrong.
Thus, a second amplifier will be used with a gain of
-1 to make the sign correct. The result is shown in
next slide. Selection of the values of resistors is
based on the general notion of keeping the
currents in mA.
8

Figure : The op amp circuit for example.

9
Noninverting Amplifier
A noninverting amplifier may be constructed
from an op amp, as shown in figure.
The gain of this circuit is found by summing
the currents at the summing point, S, and
using the fact that the summing point voltage
is Vin so that no voltage difference appears
across the input terminals.
10

Figure A noninverting amplifier
I1 + I 2 = 0
Where
I1 = Current through R1
I2 = Current through R2
11
But these currents can be found from Ohms

law such that this equation becomes
Vin Vin Vout
0
R1
R2
Solving this equation for Vout we find
Vout
R2
1
Vin
R1
12
Differential Instrumentation Amplifier

An ideal differential amplifier provides an
output voltage with respect to ground that is
some gain times the difference between two
input voltages.
Vout = A(Va-Vb)
Where A is the differential gain and both Va and
Vb are voltages with respect to ground.
Such an amplifier plays an important role in
instrumentation and measurement.
13
To define the degree to which a differential

amplifier approaches the ideal, we use the
following definition.
The common-mode input voltage is the
average applied to the two input terminals,
Vcm
Va Vb
2
14
An ideal differential amplifier will not have any

output that depends on the value of the
common-mode voltage; that is the circuit gain
for commonmode voltage, Acm will be zero.
The common-mode rejection ration (CMRR) of
a differential amplifier is defined as the ratio
of the differential gain to the common-mode
gain.
15
The common mode rejection (CMR) is the

CMRR expressed in dB.
A
CMRR
Acm
CMR 20 log10 (CMRR )
16
Differential Amplifier

Figure : The basic differential amplifier configuration
17
Differential Amplifier
There are a number of op amp circuit for
differential amplifiers.
Notice that the circuit uses two pairs of
matched resistors, R1 and R2. When the
matching is perfect and the op amp is ideal, the
transfer function for this amplifier is given by
Vout
R2
V2 V1
R1
18
If the resistors are not well matched, the CMR will

be poor. The circuit of figure has a disadvantage in
that its input impedance is not very high and,
further is not the same for the two inputs. For this
reason, voltage followers are often used on the
input to provide high input impedance. The result is
called an instrumentation amplifier.
19
Instrumentation Amplifier
Figure shows one type of instrumentation amplifier
in common use, voltage followers are simply placed
on each input line. The transfer function is still
given by equation.
Vout
R2
V2 V1
R1
One disadvantages of this circuit is that changing

gain requires changing two resistors and having
them carefully matched in value.
Input offset compensation can be provided using
only the differential amplifier op amp to
compensate for overall offsets of all three op amps.
20

Figure : An instrumentation amplifier includes voltage

followers for input isolation.
21
A more common configuration of instrumentation

amplifier, however, is the circuit shown in figure. This
circuit allows for selection of gain, within certain
limits, by adjustment of a single resistor, RG. It can be
shown that the CMR of this circuit, although still
dependent on careful matching of the differential
amplifier resistors, does not depend on matching of
the two R1s. The transfer function of this amplifier is
given by
Vout
2 R1
1 R
G
R3
R
V2 V1
22

Figure: This instrumentation amplifier allows the

gain to be changed using a single resistor
23
The input impedance is very high, and the

output impedance very low. Many IC
manufacturers provide this circuit with fixed
differential gain and R1 but allow the user to
insert external RG so the desired gain can be
selected. They can thus ensure a high CMR.
24
Voltage-to-Current Converter
Because signals in process-control are most
often transmitted as a current, specifically 4 to
20 mA, it is often necessary to employ a linear
voltage-to-current converter.
Such a circuit must be capable of sinking a
current into a number of different loads
without changing the voltage-to-current
transfer characteristics.
25

Figure : A voltage-to-current using an op amp

26
An op amp circuit that provides this function is

shown in figure. An analysis of this circuit
shows that the relationship between current
and voltage is given by
R2
I
Vin
R1 R3
27
Provided that the resistance are selected so

that
R1(R3+R5)=R2R4
The circuit can deliver current in either
direction, as required by a particular
application.
28
The maximum load resistance and maximum current

are related and determined by the condition that the
amplifier output saturates in voltage. Analysis of the
circuit shows that when the op amp output voltage
saturates, the maximum load resistance and
maximum current are related by
Rml
Vsa t
R4 R5
R3
Im
R3 R4 R5
29
Where
Rml = maximum load resistance
Vsat= op amp saturation on voltage
Im = maximum current
A study of equation shows that the maximum load
resistance is always less than Vsat/Im. The minimum
load resistance is zero.
30
Current-to-Voltage Converter

Figure : A current-to-voltage converter using an op amp. Care must

be taken that the current output capability of the op amp is not
exceeded.
31
At the receiving end of the process-control signal

transmission system, we often need to convert the
current back into a voltage. This can be done most
easily with the circuit shown in figure. This circuit
provides an output voltage given by
Vout = -IR
Provided the op amp saturation voltage has not been
reached. The resistor, R, in the non-inverting terminals is
employed to provide temperature stability to the
configuration.
32
Integrator
Figure An integrator circuit using an
op amp.

Another op amp circuit to

be considered is the
integrator. This
configuration, shown in
figure, consists of an input
resistor and a feedback
capacitor. Using the ideal
analysis, we can sum the
currents at the summing
point as
Vin
dVout
C
0
R
dt
33
Which can be solved by integrating both terms

so that the circuit response is
Vout
V
dt
in
RC
This result shows that the output voltage

varies as an integral of the input voltage with
a scale factor of -1/RC. This circuit is employed
in many cases where integration of a
transducer output is desired.
34
Other function also can be implemented, such as a

highly linear ramp voltage. If the input voltage is
constant Vin=K, equation reduces to
Vout
t
RC
Which is linear ramp, a negative slope of K/RC. Some

mechanism of reset through discharge of the
capacitor must be provided, because otherwise Vout
will rise to the output saturation value and remain
fixed there in time.
35
Differentiator
It is also possible to construct an op amp
circuit with an output proportional to the
derivative of the input voltage.
dVin Vout
C
0
dt
R
36

Figure : This circuit takes the time derivative of the

input voltage
37
Solving for the output voltage shows that the

circuit response is
Vout
dVin
RC
dt
Therefore, the output voltage varies as the

derivative of the input voltage
Practically speaking, this circuit exhibits
erratic or even unstable response and can
be used only in combination with other
circuitry to depress this instability.
38
Linearization
The op amp can also implement linearization.
Generally, this is achieved by placing a nonlinear element in the feedback loop of the op
amp (shown in fig.)
F(Vout)
Vin
Vout
+
39
Linearization
The summarization of currents provides
Vin/R+I(Vout)=0
where Vin=input voltage
R= input resistance
I(Vout)= nonlinear variation of current with voltage
Eq. is solved (in principle) for Vout, we get
Vout=G(Vin/R)
where Vout=output voltage
G(Vin/R)= a nonlinear function of the input
voltage[actually the inverse function of I(Vout)]
40
Summary
To present a complete picture of analog signal
conditioning, the following points were
considered:
1. The need for analog signal conditioning was
reviewed and resolved into the requirements
of signal-level changes, linearization, signal
conversions, and filtering and impedance
matching.
41
2.Bridge circuits are a common example of a

conversion process where a changing
resistance is measured either by a current or
by a voltage signal. Many modifications of the
bridge are used, including electronic balancing
and techniques of lead compensation.
3. The high and low pass RC filters are passive
circuits used to block undesired free quencies
from data signals.
42
Operational amplifiers (op amp) are a special

signal-conditioning building block around
which many special function circuits can be
developed. The device was demonstrated in
applications involving amplifiers, converters,
linearization circuits, integrators, and several
other functions.
43
Digital Signal
Conditioning
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Programmable Logic Controllers

The move toward digital logic techniques and
computers in industrial control paralleled the
development of special controllers called
programmable logic controllers(PLCs) or simply
programmable controllers(PCs).
These devices are particularly suited to the
solution control problems associated with
Boolean equations and binary logic problems in
general.
They are a computer-based outgrowth of relay
sequence controllers.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Computer Interface
Generic model of a
computer bus system.

The processor is connected to

external equipment via three
parallel sets of digital lines.
The data lines carry data to and
from the processor.
The address lines allow the
computer to select external
locations for input and output.
The control lines carry
information to and from the
computer related to operations,
such as reading, writing,
interrupts, and so on.
This collection of lines is called
the bus of the computer.
The term Interface refers to the hardware

connections and software operations
necessary to input and output data using
connections to the bus.
All of the equipment connected to the
computer must share the bus lines.
It is an important consideration for interface
hardware that a bus line not be compromised
by some external connection.
This means that the external equipment must

not hold a bus line in a logic state when that
equipment is not using the bus.
If a data line is held at 0 by some equipment
even when it is not performing data transfer,
then no other equipment could raise that line
to the 1 state during its data transfer
operations.
This problem is prevented by the use of tri
state buffers.
Tri -State Buffers

Isolation of a bus line is accomplished by
making all connections via a special digital
device called a tri-state buffer.
This device acts like a simple switch.
When the switch is closed, the logic level on
its input is impressed upon the output.
When open, the output is placed in a highimpedance state- that is, an open circuit.
Tri -State Buffers

Tri-state buffers allow multiple
signals to share a single digital line

in the bus.
Fig. shows how two digital signals can

both be connected to a single data line
through tri-state buffers.
Normally, both tri states are disabledthat is, in the high impedance state.
When the computer needs to input
signal A, an enable signal, E1, is sent to
tri state 1 so that the state of A is
placed on the data line.
After the computer reads the line, tri
state 1 is disabled again.
Similarly, when the computer needs
the state of signal B, an enable, E2, is
sent to tri state 2 to place B on the
line.

Comparator
The most important digital tool for the
process- control technologist is one that
translates digital information to analog and
vice versa.
Most measurements of process variables are
performed by devices that translate
information about the variable to an analog
electrical signal.
Comparator
To interface this signal with a computer or
digital logic circuit, it is necessary first to
perform an analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion.
The specifies of this conversion must be well
known so that a unique, known relationship
exists between the analog and digital signals.
Often, the reverse situation occurs, where a
digital signal is required to drive an analog
device. In this case, a digital-to-analog (D/A)
converter is required.
Comparator
A basic comparator compares
voltages and produces a digital
output.
The most elementary form of

communication between the
analog and digital is a device
(usually an IC) called a
comparator.
This device simply compares two
analog voltages on its input
terminals.
Depending on which voltage is
larger, the output will be a 1
(high) or a 0(low) digital signal.
The comparator is extensively
used for alarm signals to
computers or digital processing
All rights reserved. systems.
Comparator
This element is also an integral part of the analog-todigital and digital-to-analog converter.
One of the voltages on the comparator inputs,Va or
Vb will be the variable input, and other a fixed value
called a trip, trigger, or reference voltage.
The reference value is computed from the
specification of the problem and then applied to the
appropriate comparator input terminal.
The reference voltage may be provided from a
divider using available power supplies.
A process control system specifies that temperature should never

exceed 160C if the pressure also exceeds 10kPa. Design an alarm
system to detect this condition, using temperature and pressure
transducers with transfer functions of 2.2 mV/C and 0.2 V/kPa,
respectively.

The alarm conditions will be

a temperature signal of
(2.2 mV/C)(160C)=0.352 V
coincident with a pressure
signal of
(0.2V/kPa)(10kPa)=2V.
The circuit shows how this
alarm can be implemented
with comparators and one
AND gate. The reference
voltage could be provided
from dividers.
Open Collector comparators

Some comparators models have a
special method of providing the
digital output signal.
Fig.(a) shows that the output
terminal of the comparator is
connected internally to the
collector of a transistor in the
comparator. This is called an opencollector output.
Even if there is base-emitter
current in the transistor, no voltage
will show up on the collector until
it is connected to a supply through
some collector resistor.
Many comparators use an opencollector output.

Fig (b) shows that an external resistor is

connected from the output to an appropriate
power supply. This is called a collector pull-up
resistor.
Now the output terminal will show either a
0(0V) if the internal transistor is ON or 1 (Vs) if
the internal transistor is OFF.
Advantages of open collector

comparators
1. It is possible to use a different power source for the
output. Ex. Suppose you want to activate a +12 V
relay with the output of a comparator that operates
on +5V. By using an open-collector model, you can
connect the pull-up resistor to a +12 V supply and
power the relay directly from the output.
2. It is possible to OR together several comparators
outputs by connecting all open collector outputs
together and then using a common pull-up resistor.
If any one of the comparators output transistors is
turned ON, the common output will go low.
Hysteresis Comparator
When using comparators, there is often a problem if
the signal voltage has noise or approaches the
reference value too slowly.
The comparator output may jiggle back and forth
between high and low as the reference level is
reached.
A comparator output will jiggle when a noisy signal passes through the
reference voltage level.
Such fluctuation of output may cause problems

with the equipment designed to interpret the
comparator output signal.
This problem can often be solved by providing a
deadband or hysteresis window to the reference
level around which output changes occur.
Once the comparator has been triggered high,
the reference level is automatically reduced so
that the signal must fall to some value below the
old reference before the comparator goes to the
low state.
There are many ways this hysteresis can be provided,

but fig.a shows one common technique.
Feedback resistor Rf is provided between the output
and one of the inputs of the comparator, and that
input is separated from the signal by another
resistor,R.
Under the condition that Rf>>R, the response of the

comparator is shown in fig.b.
The response of comparator is shown in the graph in

fig (b).
The arrows indicate increasing or decreasing input
voltage.
The condition for which the output will go

high (V) is defined by the condition
Vin Vref
Once having been driven high, the condition

for the output to drop back to the low (0 V)
state is given by the relation
Vin Vref (R / Rf )V 0
The deadband or hysteresis is given by

(R/Rf)V, and is thus selectable by choice of
the resistors, as long as this relation is
satisfied.
Digital-to-Analog Converters(DACs)
A DAC accepts digital information and
transforms it into an analog voltage.
The digital information is in the form of a
binary number with some fixed number of
digits.
Especially when used in connection with a
computer, this binary number is called a
binary word or computer word.
The digits are called bits of the word.
DACs
Thus, an 8-bit word would be a binary number
having eight digits, such as 10110110.
A unipolar DAC converts a digital word into an
analog voltage by scaling the analog output to
be zero when all bits are zero and some
maximum value when all bits are one.
This can be mathematically represented by
treating the binary number that the word
represents as a fractional number.
DACs
The output of the DAC can be defined as a scaling of
some reference voltage:
1
Vout VR [b1 2 b2 2 ...... bn 2 ]
where Vout= Analog output voltage

VR=reference voltage
b1b2.bn = n-bit binary word
The minimum Vout is zero, and the maximum is
determined by the size of binary word because, with
all bits set to one, the decimal equivalent approaches
VR as the number of bits increases.
Thus a 4 bit word has maximum of

1
Vout VR [2 2 2 2 ] 0.9375VR
An alternative equation is often easier to use.
This is based on noting that the expression in
brackets is really just the fraction of total
counting states possible with the n bits being
used.
Vout N / 2n VR
where N= base 10 whole number equivalent of
DAC input.
EX.: What is the output voltage of a 10 bit DAC with a

10 V reference if the input is (a) 0010110101=0B5H,
(b)20FH?What input is needed to get a 6.5V output?
Solution:
(a) Vout 10[23 25 26 28 210 ] 10[0.1767578] 1.767578V
(b) 20FH=517 and 2 =1024,so
Vout=(527/1024)10.0=(0.514648)10.0=5.14648V
To get 6.5V output, N 2n (V / V ) 1024(6.5 /10) 665.6
out
R
=>We can not get exactly 6.5V from the converter.
For N=665=299H or N=666=29AH, the outputs are 6.494V
and 6.504V,repectively.
The only way to get exactly 6.5V of output would be to
change the value of the reference slightly.
Bipolar DAC
Some DACs are designed to output a voltage
that ranges from plus to minus some
maximum when the input binary ranges over
the counting states.
Although computer frequently use 2s
complement to represent negative numbers,
this is not common with DACs.
Instead, a simple offset-binary is frequently
used, wherein the output is simply biased by
half the reference voltage .
The bipolar DAC relationship is then given by

Vout N / 2n VR 1/ 2VR
Notice that if N=0, the output will be given by

the minimum value, Vout(min) = -VR/2.
However , the maximum value for N is equal
to 2n 1,so that the maximum value of
output voltage will be
Vout (max) (2 1) / 2 VR 1/ 2VR 1/ 2VR VR / 2
n
Ex. A bipolar DAC has 10 bits and a reference of 5V.

What outputs will result from inputs of 04FH and
2A4H? What digital input gives a zero output voltage?
Solution:
04FH = 79 and 2A4H = 676
Vout=(79/1024)(5)-(5)/2=-2.1142578 V
Vout= (676/1024)(5)-(5)/2=0.80078 V
The zero occurs when Vout=0,
0=N/1024(5)-(5)/2
=> N=512 =200H= 1000000000
Conversion Resolution
It is a function of the reference voltage and
the number of bits in the word.
The more bits, the smaller the change in
analog output for a 1 bit change in binary
word, and hence the better the resolution.
The smallest possible change is simply given
by
Vout VR 2 n
where Vout= smallest output voltage;
VR = reference voltage;
n= number of bits in the word
Ex. Determine how many bits a D/A converter must

have to provide output increments of 0.04V or less. The
reference is 10 V.
Solution:One way to find the solution is to

continually try word sizes until the resolution falls
below 0.04V per bit.
V=0.04=(10)(2-y)=>log(0.04)=log[(10)(2-y)]
log(0.04)=log(10)-ylog2
=>y=[log(10)-log(0.04)]/log 2=7.966
Thus n=8 will be satisfactory.
Vout=(10)(2-8)=0.039.625 V
DAC Characteristics
For modern applications, most DACs are IC
assemblies , viewed as a black box having certain
input and output characteristics.
A generic DAC diagram,

showing typical input and
output signals.
1. Digital Input: Typically, digital input is a parallel

binary word composed of a number of bits specified
by the device specification sheet. TTL logic levels
are usually required, unless otherwise noted.
2. Power supply: It is bipolar at a level of 12 to 18V
as required for internal amplifiers. Some DACs
operate from a single supply.
3. Reference supply: It is required to establish the
range of output voltage and resolution of the
converter. This must be a stable, low-ripple source.
In some units , an internal reference is provided.
4. Output : The output is a voltage representing the

digital input . This voltage changes in steps as
the digital input changes by bits, with the step
determined eq. The actual output may be
bipolar if the converter is designed to interpret
negative digital inputs.
5. Offset : Because the DAC is usually implemented
with op amps, there may be the typical offset
voltage with a zero input. Typically, connections
will be provided to facilitate a zeroing of the DAC
output with a zero word input.
6. Data Latch: Many DACs have a data latch built into

their inputs. When a logic command is given to latch
data, whatever data are on the input bus will be
latched into the DAC, and the analog output will be
updated for that input data. The output will stay at
that value until new digital data are latched into the
input.
In this way , the input of the DAC can be
connected directly onto the data bus of a computer,
but it will be updated only when a latch command is
given by the computer.
7. Conversion time: A DAC performs the

conversion of digital input to analog output
virtually instantaneously. From the moment
that the digital signal is placed on the inputs
to the presence of the analog output voltage
is simply the propagation time of the signal
through internal amplifiers. Typically, settling
time of the internal amplifiers will be a few
microseconds.
DAC Structure
A DAC is used as a black box, and no knowledge
of the internal workings is required.
There is some value, however, in briefly showing
how much conversions can be implemented.
The simplest conversion uses a series of op amps
for input for which the gains have been selected
to provide an output.
The most common variety, however, uses a
resistive ladder network to provide the transfer
function.

With the R-2R choice of resistors, it can be shown

through network analysis that the output voltage is
given by equations. The switches are analog electronic
switches.
Ex. A control valve has a linear variation of opening

as the input voltage varies from 0 to 10 V. A
microcomputer outputs an 8 bit word to control the
valve opening using an 8-bit DAC to generate the
valve voltage.
a. Find the reference voltage required to obtain a full
open valve (10V).
b. Find the percentage of valve opening for a 1 bit
change in the input word.
Solution : a)The full open valve condition occurs with

a 10V input. If a 10 V reference is used, a full digital
word 11111111 will not give 10V,so we use larger
reference.
1
2
8
V
V
[
b
2
b
2
......
b
2
]
out
R 1
2
8
Thus , we have
10= VR (1/2+1/4+1/8++1/256)
VR =10/0.9961=10.039V
b) The percentage of valve change per step is found
first from
Vout=VR2-8=(10.039)(1/256)=0.0392
Thus, percent = (0.0392)(100)/10=0.392 %
Data Output Boards

It is now common and convenient to obtain a
printed circuit board that plugs into a personal
computer expansion slot and is complete data
output system.
The board has all necessary DACs, address
decoding, and bus interface.
In most cases, the supplier of the board also
provides elementary software-often written in
C,BASIC, or assembly language-as necessary to
use the board for data input.
Next Class
Data Acquisition System
Thermal Sensors
Its Design and Characteristics

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Instrumentation and

It is important to note that the input impedance of

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure: The Op Amp summing Amplifier

This circuit is shown in figure for the case of

The sum can be scaled by proper selection of

Develop an op amp circuit that can provide an output

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure : The op amp circuit for example.

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure A noninverting amplifier

But these currents can be found from Ohms

Vin Vin Vout

Differential Instrumentation Amplifier

To define the degree to which a differential

An ideal differential amplifier will not have any

The common mode rejection (CMR) is the

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure : The basic differential amplifier configuration

If the resistors are not well matched, the CMR will

One disadvantages of this circuit is that changing

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure : An instrumentation amplifier includes voltage

A more common configuration of instrumentation

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure: This instrumentation amplifier allows the

The input impedance is very high, and the

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure : A voltage-to-current using an op amp

An op amp circuit that provides this function is

Provided that the resistance are selected so

The maximum load resistance and maximum current

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure : A current-to-voltage converter using an op amp. Care must

At the receiving end of the process-control signal

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Another op amp circuit to

Which can be solved by integrating both terms

This result shows that the output voltage

Other function also can be implemented, such as a

Which is linear ramp, a negative slope of K/RC. Some

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure : This circuit takes the time derivative of the

Solving for the output voltage shows that the

Therefore, the output voltage varies as the

2.Bridge circuits are a common example of a

Operational amplifiers (op amp) are a special

Programmable Logic Controllers

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The processor is connected to

The term Interface refers to the hardware

This means that the external equipment must

Tri -State Buffers

Tri -State Buffers

signals to share a single digital line

Fig. shows how two digital signals can

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

The most elementary form of

A process control system specifies that temperature should never

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.