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Physics 445LW

Modern Physics Laboratory


Hall Effect

Introduction
If an electric current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a
transverse force on the moving charge carriers. This force tends to push the carriers to one side of the
conductor. The Hall effect is used to measure charge carrier concentration (n), charge mobility () as
well as to determine the sign of the charge carriers. In these experiments you will investigate this
phenomenon by studying a sample of germanium.
Theory1
Evolution of Resistance Concepts
Electrical characterization of materials evolved in three levels of understanding. In the early
1800s, the resistance R and conductance G were treated as measurable physical quantities
obtainable from two-terminal I-V measurements (i.e., current I, voltage V). Later, it became
obvious that the resistance alone was not comprehensive enough since different sample shapes
gave different resistance values. This led to the understanding (second level) that an intrinsic
material property like resistivity (or conductivity) is required that is not influenced by the
particular geometry of the sample. For the first time, this allowed scientists to quantify the
current-carrying capability of the material and carry out meaningful comparisons between
different samples.
By the early 1900s, it was realized that resistivity was not a fundamental material parameter,
since different materials can have the same resistivity. Also, a given material might exhibit
different values of resistivity, depending upon how it was synthesized. This is especially true for
semiconductors, where resistivity alone could not explain all observations. Theories of electrical
conduction were constructed with varying degrees of success, but until the advent of quantum
mechanics, no generally acceptable solution to the problem of electrical transport was
developed. This led to the definitions of carrier density n and mobility (third level of
understanding), which are capable of dealing with even the most complex electrical
measurements today.
The Hall Effect and the Lorentz Force
The basic physical principle underlying the Hall effect is the Lorentz force. When an electron
moves in an applied magnetic field, it experiences a force acting normal to both directions and
moves in response to this force. For an n-type, bar-shaped semiconductor such as shown in Fig.
1, the carriers are predominately electrons of bulk density n.
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Figure 1. Standard geometry for a Hall effect measurement.

We assume, see Figure 1, that a constant current I flows along the x-axis from left to right in the
presence of a z-directed magnetic field. Electrons subject to the Lorentz force initially drift away
from the current line toward the negative y-axis, resulting in an excess surface electrical charge
on the sides of the sample. This charge results in a voltage across the two sides of the sample,
which is called the Hall voltage, VH. (Note that the force on holes is toward the same side
because they would move in the opposite direction, and due to their positive charge.) The
magnitude of the Hall voltage is equal to IB/qnd, where I is the current, B is the magnetic field, d
is the sample thickness, and q (1.602 x 10-19 C) is the elementary charge. In some cases, it is
convenient to use layer or sheet density (ns = nd) instead of bulk density. One then obtains the
equation

n s = IB /qV H

(1)

Thus, by measuring the Hall voltage VH and from the known values of I, B, and q, one can
determine the sheet density ns of charge carriers in semiconductors. If the measurement
apparatus is set upas described later in Section III, the Hall voltage is negative for n-type
semiconductors and positive for p-type semiconductors. The sheet resistance RS of the
semiconductor can be conveniently determined by use of the van der Pauw resistivity
measurement technique. Since sheet resistance involves both sheet density and mobility, one can
determine the Hall mobility from the equation

= V H /RS IB = 1/(qn S RS )

(2)

If the conducting layer thickness d is known, one can determine the bulk resistivity ( = RSd)
and the bulk density (n = nS/d).

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Generally, the Hall angle is defined as the angle between the current density vector and
the local electric-field vector in the presence of a perpendicular magnetic field. Since it
is independent of a particular sample geometry and even of material inhomogeneities,
the Hall angle represents a fundamental intrinsic physical quantity in galvanomagnetic
transport.

Formulae Needed
Hall coefficient

RH = VHw/BI m3C-1 where VH = Hall voltage in


volts, w = width of the sample in m, B = magnetic
flux in Tesla

Concentration of charge carriers per unit volume

n = 1/eRH

Resistivity of the sample

r = Vlwd/Il
Vl = voltage between two points l
cm apart on one face of sample, d = thickness of
sample

Mobility

= RH/r m2V-1s-1

Hall angle

H = tan-1(B)

For our sample

w = 4 mm
l = 6 mm
d = 0.5 mm
B = ______ Gauss = ______ x10-4 Tesla

where e = 1.6 x 10-19 C

Experimental Apparatus and Procedures2


1. Set the Gauss meter to X1.
2. Switch on the Gauss meter and carefully adjust it to zero.

Figure 1. Gauss meter


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DO NOT SWITCH ON ELECTROMAGNET (discharge tube power supply) AT THIS TIME.


3. Set multimeter 1 to direct current amps.
4. Switch on the constant current source.
5. Adjust the constant current source so that multimeter 1 shows 5mA. This occurs at about 1
volt.
6. Keep magnetic field at zero as measured by Gauss meter.

Figure 2. Constant current power supply


DO NOT SWITCH ON ELECTROMAGNET (discharge tube power supply) AT THIS TIME.
7. Press and hold the range switch on multimeter 2 while turning selector dial to mV. If the meter
shows AC, press the yellow switch.
8. If the meter dows not read zero mV, ask the lab assistant to set the zero adjust.
DO NOT SWITCH ON ELECTROMAGNET (discharge tube power supply) AT THIS TIME.

Figure 3. Discharge tube power supply

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Figrue 4. Magnet and sample holder


9. Adjust the DC volts knob on the constant current power supply downward until multimeter 1
reads zero current.
10. The voltage monitor selector should be set to 80 V.
11. Rotate all the selector knobs on the electromagnet power supply counter clockwise to the
minimum.
12. Turn on the electromagnet power supply.
13. Rotate the red selector knob very slowly clockwise until 17 volts shows.
14. Rotate the black DC amps selector knob until the meter reads 3.5 amps.
15. Set the Gauss meter selector switch to X10.
16. Slowly increase the DC amps selector knob until the Gauss meter reads between 153 and 157
Gauss.
17. Do not change the current in the electromagnet during the experiment. In other words, keep the
magnetic field constant.
18. Vary the current on the constant current power supply in small increments. Note the current
I(mA) on multimeter 1 and the Hall voltage (mV) on multimeter 2. Record these values. Take
at least seven readings.
19. Reverse the direction of the magnetic field by interchanging the "+" and "-" connections of the
coils, that is, by interchanging the red and black wires to the coils of the electromagnet. Now
note the Hall voltages for the same values of current as in step 18. Note: use only the
magnitude and not the sign of the Hall voltage.
Remember that all procedures, settings, and readings that you take must be recorded in your lab
notebook.
Results
Include the following items in your lab report:
Hall coefficient
Sign of Hall coefficient and type of material
Concentration of charge carriers per unit volume
Resistivity of the material
Mobility
Hall angle
A graph of Hall voltage vs current

[1] http://www.eeel.nist.gov/812/effe.htm
[2] Cenco Physics Instruction Manual: Hall Effect WLS1800-24

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