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Introduction
If an electric current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a
transverse force on the moving charge carriers. This force tends to push the carriers to one side of the
conductor. The Hall effect is used to measure charge carrier concentration (n), charge mobility () as
well as to determine the sign of the charge carriers. In these experiments you will investigate this
phenomenon by studying a sample of germanium.
Theory1
Evolution of Resistance Concepts
Electrical characterization of materials evolved in three levels of understanding. In the early
1800s, the resistance R and conductance G were treated as measurable physical quantities
obtainable from two-terminal I-V measurements (i.e., current I, voltage V). Later, it became
obvious that the resistance alone was not comprehensive enough since different sample shapes
gave different resistance values. This led to the understanding (second level) that an intrinsic
material property like resistivity (or conductivity) is required that is not influenced by the
particular geometry of the sample. For the first time, this allowed scientists to quantify the
current-carrying capability of the material and carry out meaningful comparisons between
different samples.
By the early 1900s, it was realized that resistivity was not a fundamental material parameter,
since different materials can have the same resistivity. Also, a given material might exhibit
different values of resistivity, depending upon how it was synthesized. This is especially true for
semiconductors, where resistivity alone could not explain all observations. Theories of electrical
conduction were constructed with varying degrees of success, but until the advent of quantum
mechanics, no generally acceptable solution to the problem of electrical transport was
developed. This led to the definitions of carrier density n and mobility (third level of
understanding), which are capable of dealing with even the most complex electrical
measurements today.
The Hall Effect and the Lorentz Force
The basic physical principle underlying the Hall effect is the Lorentz force. When an electron
moves in an applied magnetic field, it experiences a force acting normal to both directions and
moves in response to this force. For an n-type, bar-shaped semiconductor such as shown in Fig.
1, the carriers are predominately electrons of bulk density n.
UMKC, Department of Physics
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Modern Physics Hall Effect
We assume, see Figure 1, that a constant current I flows along the x-axis from left to right in the
presence of a z-directed magnetic field. Electrons subject to the Lorentz force initially drift away
from the current line toward the negative y-axis, resulting in an excess surface electrical charge
on the sides of the sample. This charge results in a voltage across the two sides of the sample,
which is called the Hall voltage, VH. (Note that the force on holes is toward the same side
because they would move in the opposite direction, and due to their positive charge.) The
magnitude of the Hall voltage is equal to IB/qnd, where I is the current, B is the magnetic field, d
is the sample thickness, and q (1.602 x 10-19 C) is the elementary charge. In some cases, it is
convenient to use layer or sheet density (ns = nd) instead of bulk density. One then obtains the
equation
n s = IB /qV H
(1)
Thus, by measuring the Hall voltage VH and from the known values of I, B, and q, one can
determine the sheet density ns of charge carriers in semiconductors. If the measurement
apparatus is set upas described later in Section III, the Hall voltage is negative for n-type
semiconductors and positive for p-type semiconductors. The sheet resistance RS of the
semiconductor can be conveniently determined by use of the van der Pauw resistivity
measurement technique. Since sheet resistance involves both sheet density and mobility, one can
determine the Hall mobility from the equation
= V H /RS IB = 1/(qn S RS )
(2)
If the conducting layer thickness d is known, one can determine the bulk resistivity ( = RSd)
and the bulk density (n = nS/d).
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Modern Physics Hall Effect
Generally, the Hall angle is defined as the angle between the current density vector and
the local electric-field vector in the presence of a perpendicular magnetic field. Since it
is independent of a particular sample geometry and even of material inhomogeneities,
the Hall angle represents a fundamental intrinsic physical quantity in galvanomagnetic
transport.
Formulae Needed
Hall coefficient
n = 1/eRH
r = Vlwd/Il
Vl = voltage between two points l
cm apart on one face of sample, d = thickness of
sample
Mobility
= RH/r m2V-1s-1
Hall angle
H = tan-1(B)
w = 4 mm
l = 6 mm
d = 0.5 mm
B = ______ Gauss = ______ x10-4 Tesla
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Modern Physics Hall Effect
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Modern Physics Hall Effect
[1] http://www.eeel.nist.gov/812/effe.htm
[2] Cenco Physics Instruction Manual: Hall Effect WLS1800-24
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Modern Physics Hall Effect