Wayne

State University

Department of Physics and Astronomy

PHY 2181 General Physics

Experiment # 4

KIRCHOFF'S RULES AND THE

INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A BATTERY
1. Synopsis
You will verify Kirchoff's rules and observe the terminal potential difference of "real" sources of
emf, such as a battery.

2. Objectives

Learn how to build simple circuits involving a source of voltage and resistive components.
Learn how to measure voltages and current across a circuit using Digital Multimeters.
Learn and understand Kirchoffs laws.
Learn how to measure the internal resistance of a battery.
3. Preparation
Read the section of your textbook discussing Kirchoffs rules.
Read sections 4-6 of this write-up.

4. Introductory Remarks
The effective resistance (or net resistance) of N resistors connected is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances.

Reff = R1 + R2 + ...+ RN

The multiplicative inverse of the effective resistance (or net resistance) of N resistors connected in
parallel is equal to the sum of the multiplicative inverses of the N resistances.
1
1
1
1
= +
+ ...+
Reff R1 R2
RN

You will use the above two relationships to analyze the electric circuits used in this laboratory.
The analysis of complicated circuits is greatly simpliGied by the use of the following two rules Girst
stated by Gustav Kirchoff (1824-1887).
Junction Rule

The algebraic sum of the currents entering or leaving a junction is zero.
PHY 2181 EXP # 4




Loop Rule

The algebraic sum of the potential differences across all the elements in any closed circuit
loop must be zero.
An excellent exercise is to analyze the circuits used in PART I using Kirchoff's Laws. In Part II, you
will use the loop rule to calculate the internal resistance of a battery.
The current that any real battery can produce is limited. While the electrochemical factors that
limit the current are complex, any real battery behaves as if it were a perfect battery connected in
series with an internal resistance ( in Fig. 2). The voltage of the Gictitious perfect battery is
assumed to be the same as the open-circuit voltage of the real battery. The drop in the terminal
voltage of the real battery, , that occurs when a current is drawn from the battery is treated as
being the voltage drop across that internal resistance1 . The smaller the internal resistance is, the
more current the battery can deliver. One could Gind the internal resistance by measuring the
current Glowing through a dead short across the terminals and calculate from Ohm's Law, but this
method is not recommended. Only a small current should be drawn from the battery when
measuring . However, if only a small current is drawn from the battery, the change in the terminal
voltage of the battery will be too small to measure with a conventional needle-type voltmeter.
However, the digital meter, with its four-digit accuracy, can easily measure the change.

Figure 1 A battery is treated as an ideal source of emf, , in series with an internal resistance, . The
battery terminal voltage is
.

5. Equipment Required

Set of resistors
Banana plug cables
Power Supply
Digital Multimeter (DMM)

6. Experimental Procedure
6.1. Part #1: Currents and Voltage Through Simple Circuits
1. Select four different resistors greater than 40 ohms and accurately measure their resistances
with a digital multimeter (DMM).
PHY 2181 EXP # 4

2. Draw the two following schematic diagrams in your notebook.

Circuit #1

Circuit #2
Figure 2 Schematic diagrams of the circuits used in Part I.
3. Calculate the total effective resistance (across points A and B) of both circuits. Determine the
current through and the voltage across each of the four resistors expected with a 10 V batterie
(or power supply).
4. Assemble the resistors to produce Circuit #1. But DO NOT CONNECT the power supply.
5. Measure the resistance of the assembled circuit using a DMM. Compare this value with the total
effective resistance calculated in Step 3. If the value of the total effective resistance calculated
in Step 3 differs by more than 10% different from the measured value, check the circuit, repeat
your measurements, and verify your calculations for errors.
6. Calculate the total current that will Glow through the circuit when the power supply is
connected in. If the expected current is larger than 250 mA, check your circuit and calculations.
7. Ask the TA to verify and APPROVE your circuit.
8. Once you have received approval of the TA, connect the resistor network to the 10-volt power
supply (use the wall power strip connections).
9. Measure the current that Glows through the circuit (i.e. provided by the power supply)
10. Compare the measured value with the value you calculated in step 6.
11. If the two values (i.e. the prediction and the measured value) differ by more than a few percent,
once again check the circuit to make sure the connections were properly made, and repeat the
measurements.
12. Dismantle Circuit #1 and assemble the resistors to produce Circuit #2. Do NOT connect the
power supply. Repeat steps 5 through 11 with Circuit #2.

PHY 2181 EXP # 4

6.2. PART II: The internal resistance of a battery

1. Select a resistor of about 50 ohms and accurately measure its resistance using a DMM.
2. Setup the circuit shown in Fig 1. Wire a "good" 6-volt battery, resistor, and a switch in a series
circuit.
3. Measure the "open-circuit" voltage E of the battery.
4. Close the switch and measure the voltage Vab of the battery.
5. Calculate the current Glowing through the circuit.
6. Repeat the measurements using a "bad" 6-volt battery.

7. Data Analysis and Results

7.1. Part #1
Present your results as follows:

1. Draw a schematic diagram of each circuit.
2. On each diagram, label all currents and voltage drops.
3. Present a table comparing theoretically and experimentally determined currents and voltage
drops along with a calculation of the percent discrepancy.

PHY 2181 EXP # 4

Wayne State University

Physics and Astronomy
PHY 2131 General Physics

Circuit #1

Name:

Date:

Partner:

Section:

Resistance w/
DMM (ohms)

Predicted
Current (A)

Predicted
Voltage (V)

Measured
Current (A)

Measured
Voltage (V)

Resistance w/
DMM (ohms)

Predicted
Current (A)

Predicted
Voltage (V)

Measured
Current (A)

Measured
Voltage (V)

Resistor 1
Resistor 2
Resistor 3
Resistor 4
E f f e c t i v e
Resistor

Circuit #2
Resistor 1
Resistor 2
Resistor 3
Resistor 4
E f f e c t i v e
Resistor

PHY 2181 EXP # 4

Part #2
1. Draw a schematic diagram of your circuit and write down an equation stating Kirchoff's "loop"
rule.
2. Solve the Kirchoff's loop rule equation for the terminal voltage .
3. State which conditions are necessary to have Vab=E, and relate this to the "open circuit" voltage
of the battery.
4. Assuming that the "open circuit" voltage of the battery is equal to E, use the closed circuit values
for the terminal voltage and the current Glowing through the circuit to obtain a value for the
internal resistance of the "good" battery, .
5. Similarly, calculate the internal resistance of the "bad" battery.
6. Compare the values of the internal resistance by calculating a percent discrepancy.
7. What conservation laws are equivalent statements of the "junction" and "loop" rule?

PHY 2181 EXP # 4

8. APPENDICES
Appendix A: How to Read the Color Coding on a Resistor

First two bands of color give

first two significant figures
of resistance value
Third band gives number of zeroes
in multiplier
Black multiplier = 1**
Red = 100
Orange = 1000, etc.

Color Code*
Black 0
Brown 1
Red
2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue
6
Violet 7
Gray
8
White 9

Last band is usually gold or silver

and is the accuracy
which the manufacturer will
guarantee the value
Silver = 10%
Gold = 5%
E.G., A 10,000-ohm resistor guaranteed to 10% will be color-coded
BROWN-BLACK-ORANGE-SILVER

Appendix B: Practical Pointers

To rephrase what might have been missed on the Girst reading: A voltmeter is easy to use, as you
leave the circuit elements intact and just connect it across the element whose voltage you are
measuring. However, for an ammeter, you must insert the meter into the circuit by opening the
circuit at some point. Thus, there is more "work" in using an ammeterand it is a nuisance in some
real-life cases, as in cutting open a wire to install an ammeter in your car's charging system.
You may insert a voltmeter into a circuit with no damage to the meter. But to put an ammeter
across a circuit element (or worse, across a battery or power supply) usually spells the end of the
meter if it is unfused, since the ammeter offers a low-resistance path around the circuit element for
the high current.
Appendix C: The Thermocouple
A battery can convert chemical energy (a name referring to the energy available due to the electric
forces binding atoms and molecules together) into electric energy (a name meaning speciGically that
the source of energy can be utilized to move electric charges). It is also possible under special
circumstances to convert thermal energy into electric energy, the source once again being the
difference in binding energies of the electrons to the atoms of the two different metals.

A thermocouple can be formed by joining the ends of almost any two different metals. Common
ones in use are copper-iron, copper-Constantan, and Chromel-Alumel thermocouples. (The latter
three names are alloys, mixtures of different metals). If the two fused ends in the diagram are at
different temperatures, a potential difference will exist between the two ends, and a current i will
PHY 2181 EXP # 4

Glow.2 If the complete circuit pictured above is broken anywhere and the ends attached to a
voltmeter or a potentiometer, the size of the potential difference can be measured. Tables in the
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics and other handbooks give the temperature as a function of
voltage for commonly used thermocouples.

The tables in the handbooks usually give the values when one junction is at 0C, the freezing point
of water, as a reference temperature, while the other junction is placed where the temperature is to
be determined. Thermocouples now usually have built in "reference junctions" that simulate the
effect of the reference junction being at T = 0C.

Thermocouple: Practical Application

An interesting practical application of a thermocouple is the "thermo-electric generator" whose tip
you will Gind located above the Glame of the pilot light in your gas-Gired furnace or water heater. It is
a safety feature built into the appliance: If the pilot light should blow out, this feature will cause a
complete shut-off of all gas to render the furnace or heater inoperative. The general layout is
illustrated below.
Main Valve Control
Box

Thermocouple

Solenoid

Pilot Light Button

Pilot Light

Burner Valve
Main Burner

Thermostat

Gas
Main Valve

Solenoid
Transformer

The thermocouple tip must be hot enough to generate the emf that energizes the solenoid of the
main valve so that the valve stays open to gas Glow, hence those instructions that you often see on
such appliances: "Push in pilot light knob, light pilot light, hold knob depressed for one minute, and
release." Once this has been accomplished, the pilot light will stay on. Flow of gas to the main
burner is then left to be controlled mainly by the thermostat in the house.

This is known as the Seebeck Effect. The effect is reversible; that is, if one of the wires is cut
open and a battery is inserted to send a current through the loop, one junction is cooled and the
other is heated. This latter is known as the Peltier Effect and is the basis of the silent-type
thermoelectric refrigerator that can run off your car battery.
2

PHY 2181 EXP # 4