Course:- 28117

Class:- 289013
HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Examination for the Degree of
MEng in Petroleum Engineering
Reservoir Engineering 1
Tuesday 6th January 1998
09.30 - 13.30
NOTES FOR CANDIDATES
1.

This is a Closed Book Examination.

2.

15 minutes reading time is provided from 09.15 - 09.30.

3.

Examination Papers will be marked anonymously. See separate instructions for

completion of Script Book front covers and attachment of loose pages. Do not write
your name on any loose pages which are submitted as part of your answer.

4.

This Paper consists of 3 Sections:- A, B and C.

5.

Section A:Sections B & C:-

Attempt all Questions

Attempt 4 numbered Questions with at least 1 Question from
each Section

6.

Section A:Section B / C:-

20% of marks
80% of marks

Marks for Questions and parts are indicated in [brackets]

7.

This Examination represents 100% of the Class assessment.

State clearly any assumptions used and intermediate calculations made in numerical
questions. No marks can be given for an incorrect answer if the method of
calculation is not presented.

9.

Answers must be written in separate, coloured books as follows:Section A:Section B:Section C:-

Blue
Green
Yellow

SECTION A
A1

Define:(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Gas formation-volume factor

Oil formation-volume factor
Total formation-volume factor
Solution gas-oil ratio
[2]

A2

Explain briefly what you understand by:(i)

(ii)

Compositional model description for the characterisation of a

reservoir fluid.
Black oil description for the characterisation of a reservoir fluid.
[3]

A3

Draw the pressure - temperature phase diagram for a gas condensate

reservoir indicating the following:(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Bubble point and dew point lines

Critical point
Cricondentherm
Lines of constant proportion of liquid-gas
Region of retrograde condensation.
[3]

A4

Derive an equation for the average permeability, resulting from radial

circular flow into a well from layers of different permeabilities and
thicknesses.
From where would such an average be obtained ?
[3]

A5

List the rock properties that should be determined in a rock-mechanicaloriented, special core analysis programme.
[3]

A6

Describe the nature of a partially communicating fault and how pressure

data may be used to identify the transmissibility index of such features.
[3]

A7

Explain the difference between a steady-state and a semi-steady-state

productivity index.
[3]

SECTION B
B8
(a)

Methane is a significant component in reservoir fluids.

Using a sketch for a binary of methane and n-decane (C10), illustrate
the impact of methane on the critical point loci of C1-C10 binary
mixtures.
What is the significance of this diagram ?
[6]

(b)

A wet gas is producing at 40,000 SCF/STB, from a reservoir which has

been estimated from petrophysics to have a volume of 1.1 x 1010 cu ft.
and has a pressure of 3,000 psia and a temperature of 250F
The composition of the producing gas is given below:Component (MW)

Composition (Mole fraction)

Gas
Condensate

Methane
(16.04)
Ethane
(30.07)
Propane
(44.09)
N-butane
(58.12)
N-pentane
(72.15)
Hexane
(86.17)
Heptane plus
(114.2)
(equivalent to octane)

0.84
0.07
0.05
0.02
0.02
-

0.16
0.34
0.31
0.10
0.09

(i)

What is the composition of the reservoir gas?

(ii)

What are the reserves of gas and condensate at 3,000 psia?

(iii)

How much gas will have been produced, when the pressure has
dropped to 2,000 psia?
[14]
R = 10.72cu ft.psi/lb mole.R
1lb mole = 379.4 SCF
1bbl = 5.615cu ft

B9
(a)

You have been given a PVT report for an oil sample.

List the procedures and calculations you would take to determine:(i)
(ii)

The bubble point pressure at reservoir temperature

The solution gas-oil ratios and the oil formation volume factors
above the bubble point and below the bubble point.
[10]

(b)

A laboratory cell, contained 290cc of reservoir liquid at its bubble point

of 2100 psia at 145F. 21cc of mercury were removed from the cell and
the pressure dropped to 1700 psia. Mercury was then re-injected at
constant temperature and pressure and 0.153 SCF of gas was removed
leaving 270cc of liquid in the cell. The process was repeated reducing
the pressure to 14.7 psia and the temperature to 60F. Then 0.45 SCF of
gas was removed and 207.5cc of liquid remained in the cell.
Determine:(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Bo and Rs at the bubble point.

Bo, Bt, Bg, Rs and z at 1,700 psia and 145F
Bt at 2100 psia and 145F
[10]

B10 Using field examples, describe the various rock-mechanical phenomena

which can be activated in producing reservoirs, and explain the impact of
these phenomena on reservoir development and management strategies.
[20]

B11
(a) For low permeability rocks, the measured permeability of the rock, using
gas as the fluid is more than it is using a liquid.
Comment briefly on this and how the permeability of a rock can be
obtained using gas as the fluid.
[4]
(b)

The system below represents the common arrangement for measuring the
permeability of a core plug using a gas.

Derive an equation to calculate the gas permeabilities of a rock using the

above system.
[6]
(c)

What is the free water level?

Explain briefly why, because of capillary pressure, it is possible to have
water saturations of large values, up to 100%, above the oil-water contact
and above layers with lower water saturations.
[4]

(d)

Capillary pressure data are obtained from core samples which represent a
small part of the reservoir. Leverett derived a J Function using the
Poiseuille equation for laminar flow:q=

r 4 P
8L

to relate Capillary pressure (Pc), to Permeability (k), and Porosity ().

Derive the 'J' function and comment on one of its limiting assumptions.
[6]

B12
(a) Identify the various elements in the material balance equation below:( N N p )Bo = NBoi Bg [ NR si ( N N p )R s G ps ]
[(G G pc )Bg GBgi ] ( We Wp Bw )
c + Swc c w
NBoi (1 + m )p f
( WinjBw + G injBg )
1 Swc

with a line above the symbols of the equation e.g.

( We Wp Bw ) = net water inf lux

[3]
(b)

Simplify the material balance equation above so that it can be used for an
undersaturated reservoir without waterdrive and water production.
Modify the simplified equation so that it can be used to express the
recovery at the bubble point in terms of the effective compressibility of
the reservoir system..
[4]

(c)

To predict the performance of a solution gas drive reservoir we require

both the instantaneous gas-oil ratio equation and an equation to express
the average oil saturation.
Derive the instantaneous gas-oil ratio equation and use the equation to
explain briefly the shape of the producing GOR of a depletion type
reservoir from a pressure above the bubble point to one significantly
below the bubble point pressure.
[6]

(d)

Tarners method and Tracy's modification of Tarner's method use the

Material Balance equation, the Instantaneous GOR equation and the
Saturation equation to predict oil production as a function of pressure for
a solution gas drive reservoir from the bubble point pressure.
Describe briefly, in a step by step procedure, the application of one of
these methods.
[7]

SECTION C
C13 A tight formation of horizontal permeability, k y, equal to 0.5md and
thickness, h, of 150ft is to be developed for oil production. The choice
lies between horizontal wells or vertical wells with hydraulic fracturing.
The rock mechanics suggest that an infinite-conductivity fracture of halflength, xf, equal to 300ft will be feasible.
Determine the length of a horizontal well, L, which will have a
comparable semi-steady-state productivity index (PI) to the fractured,
vertical well.
Additional Well Data:Formation vertical permeability, kz = 0.01md
Oil viscosity, 0 = 1.5cp
Oil formation volume factor, B0 = 1.25
Wellbore radius, rw = 0.3ft
Equivalent cylindrical external radius of reservoir drainage
compartment, re = 10,000ft.
[20]
C14 A particular formation has been shown to be amenable to acid treatment
which can increase the rock permeability from the intrinsic value of 5md
to an improved value of 17md due to its effect on interstitial clay.
In a formation of 80ft thickness and 20% porosity, estimate how much the
well productivity index will be increased if 1000bbl of acid are injected
into the formation, assuming piston displacement of connate water and
oil to a residual saturation of 0.35.
Additional reservoir data:Connate water saturation, Swc = 0.25
Oil formation volume factor, B0 = 1.2
Oil viscosity, 0 = 0.8cp
Drainage area external radius, re = 5000ft
Wellbore radius, rw = 0.3ft
[20]

C15 Discuss how the wireline formation tester can give information on
dynamic aquifer effects and indicate where other phenomena can give
similar pressure-depth plots to those associated with a dynamic aquifer.
Why is it important to know if dynamic aquifer effects are present?
[20]

End of Paper

Course:- 28117
Class:- 289013

HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Examination for the Degree of
MEng in Petroleum Engineering

Reservoir Engineering 1
Friday 8 January 1999
09.30 - 13.30
NOTES FOR CANDIDATES
1.

This is a Closed Book Examination.

2.

15 minutes reading time is provided from 09.15 - 09.30.

3.

Examination Papers will be marked anonymously. See separate

instructions for completion of Script Book front covers and attachment
of loose pages. Do not write your name on any loose pages which are
submitted as part of your answer.

4.

This Paper consists of 3 Sections:- A, B and C.

5.

Section A:Sections B & C:-

Attempt all Questions

Attempt 4 numbered Questions with at least
1 Question from each Section

6.

Section A:Section B / C:-

20% of marks
80% of marks

Marks for Questions and parts are indicated in [brackets]

7.

This Examination represents 100% of the Class assessment.

State clearly any assumptions used and intermediate calculations made

in numerical questions. No marks can be given for an incorrect answer
if the method of calculation is not presented.

9.

Answers must be written in separate, coloured books as follows:Section A:Section B:Section C:-

Blue
Green
Yellow

SECTION A
A1

Define:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

The gas formation volume factor

The oil formation-volume factor
The total formation volume factor
The solution gas-oil ratio
[2]

A2

Derive an equation in terms of equilibrium ratios and composition to

predict liquid and vapour ratios and compositions resulting from the
flash separation of a reservoir fluid. Explain briefly the application of
the equation when the reservoir fluid composition, temperature, and the
pressure of the separation are known.
[3]

A3

Derive the instantaneous gas-oil ratio equation and plot the shape of
the producing GOR versus pressure for a solution gas drive reservoir
[3]

A4

With the aid of a diagram, comment on the fluid pressure gradients in an

oil reservoir with a gas cap with a supporting aquifer for a normally
pressured reservoir. Illustrate the gradient for an overpressured
reservoir.
[3]

A5

Briefly describe how the permeability sensitivity of rocks to stress can

be measured in the laboratory, and draw a graphical, normalised,
representation of the results you would expect to see for sandstones
with high, medium and low permeabilties measured at ambient
conditions.
[3]

A6

Discuss the common mechanisms of formation damage occurring during

drilling.
[3]

A7

Discuss the concept of a critical rate in coning situations.

[3]

SECTION B
B8
(a)

Draw a Pressure-Temperature phase diagram to illustrate the phase

behaviour of a gas condensate fluid.
[2]

(b)

Explain briefly gas cycling with reference to gas condensate reservoirs.

[3]

(c)

A wet gas reservoir is producing gas and condensate with the

compositions given below at a gas-oil ratio of 25,000 SCF/STB. The
average reservoir temperature is 260F and the initial reservoir pressure
is 8520 psia.
The pore volume of the reservoir is considered to be 9.5 x 108 cu ft and
the average water saturation is 19%.
(i)

Calculate the composition of the reservoir fluid

(ii)

Calculate the inplace reserves in SCF of gas and STB

condensate of the reservoir at the original pressure.

(iii)

Calculate the production of gas and condensate when the

reservoir pressure has declined to 4260psia.
[15]
1bbl = 5.615 cu ft
0F = 460 R
1lb mole = 379.4 SCF
R = 10.73 psi cu ft/lb mole R
Composition of Produced Fluids
(Mole fraction)
Gas
C1
C3
C5
C8

Attachments

Methane
Propane
n-Pentane
Octane

0.890
0.075
0.035
--

Condensate
-0.215
0.620
0.165

B9
(a)

After natural water drive or injected water drive residual oil is left
within that part of the rock contacted by the water. Comment briefly
with the aid of a sketch why this might be.
[5]

(b)

Miscible gas injection can be used to recover the residual oil after a
water flood. Explain briefly what miscible gas injection is and why in
some cases gas injected is alternated with water injection in a WAG
(water alternating gas ) process.
[5]

(c)

An edge water drive reservoir extends to a radius of 8,000 ft. Sealing

faults are such that the water influx only forms part of a full radial
system as the sketch below illustrates. The supporting aquifer extends
to a radius of 40,000ft. Over the first two years of production the
pressure decline is expected to be as follows:
Time( months)
0
Pressure(psia) 4640

6
4630

12
4612

18
4584

24
4448

After the first 6 month period 23,200 bbls. of water were estimated to
have influxed from the aquifer.
The properties common to the oil reservoir and the adjoining aquifer are
as follows:
permeability
k
water viscosity
w
porosity

effective water compressibility =

=
120 milli darcies
=
0.8 cp
=
0.2
1 x 10 -6 psi-1

(i)

Calculate the average thickness of the aquifer sands.

(ii)

The cumulative water influx after 12, 18 and 24 months.

The Hurst & van Everdingen equation for a full radial flow

system is:
[10]

We = 1.119cR o2 hpWD

where
We
p
WD
c
Ro
h

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

cumulative water influx (bbls)

pressure drop(psi)
dimensionless water influx
compressibility of the aquifer (psi-1)
radius of the oil reservoir (ft)
average thickness of the aquifer sands. (ft)
porosity

Charts are supplied of dimensionless water influx WD versus

dimensionless time tD (see 2 attachments)
where
t D = 2.309

t
k
w

kt
w cR 2o

= time ( years)
= permeability (millidarcies)
= viscosity (cp)

Aquifer Radius 40,000ft

Oil Reservoir Radius
8,000ft
Angle - 135

B10
(a)

Describe briefly the drive mechanisms associated with producing an

undersaturated oil reservoir, without a supporting aquifer, down to a
pressure well below the bubble point.
[6]

(b)

Explain briefly why surface samples from a wet gas or condensate

reservoir can be unrepresentative if collected too early after a shut
down or major well disturbance. What suggestions would you give to
get more representative samples.
[4]

(c)

Table 1 gives the results for a constant mass study on an oil sample. In
the test the volume of live oil was measured as a function of pressure.
The temperature was maintained at the reservoir temperature of 220 F.
In another test a sample of the same oil in a PVT cell,at its bubble point
and at 220 F was passed through a two stage separator at 500 psig
and 160 F and 0 psig and 60 F. 38 cc of oil were removed from the
PVT cell and 28.34 cc of oil were collected from the final separator. A
total amount of 3492 cc of gas at 60F and 0 psig were collected from
both stages of the separation process.
In a further test a differential liberation procedure was carried out on a
sample of the oil at 220 F and the volumes of oil remaining and
standard volumes of gas liberated at each stage were recorded. The
results are presented in Table 2.
From the results of these tests assuming separator conditions of 500
psig and 160 F and 0 psig and 60 F determine:
(i)

The bubble point pressure of the reservoir fluid at 220 F

(ii)

The oil formation volume factor at 4400 psig and 3925 psig.

(iii)

The solution gas to oil ratio at 4400 psig and 3925 psig.

(iv)

The oil formation volume factor and solution gas to oil ratio you
would use for reservoir calculations at 1605 psig.

(v)

The total formation volume factor at 3300 psig.

[10]

Table 1 Constant Mass Study of Reservoir fluid at 220 F

Pressure (psig)

5500

5000

4500

4350

4173

4000

3800

3675

Volume of
Oil in Cell (cc)

193.00

194.97

196.08

196.42

196.81

197.21

197.68

198.00

Pressure (psig)

3643

3594

3493

3446

3293

3146

2954

2713

Volume of
Oil in Cell (cc)

198.46

199.21

200.85

201.66

204.67

208.00

213.29

221.82

Pressure (psig)

2453

2186

1968

1769

1580

1344

Volume of
Oil in Cell (cc)

234.39

252.81

274.35

302.11

339.97

415.31

Table 2 Differential test at 220 F

Pressure (psig)
in Cell

Cumulative Gas Produced

Volume of Oil

cc @ 60 F & 0 psig

(cc at pressure)

177.25

2924

698

171.13

2265

1440

164.75

1605

2051

159.50

1095

2537

154.88

420

3322

147.13

3996

135.50

Bubble point pressure

@60F

125.00

B11
(a)

(b)

In reserve estimates what do you understand by Proven, Probable and

Possible reserves.
[6]
A well penetrates an oil reservoir from which core samples have been
collected and capillary pressure curves generated using the air-mercury
method. The capillary pressure data for the specific rock types are
given in the attached figure. The lowest 100% Sw saturation level was
found at the bottom of the well in rock A as indicated.
(i)

Determine the free water level and indicate it on the diagram.

[2]

(ii)

Construct the water saturation profile on the saturation height

diagram.
[7]

(iii)

Estimate the oil -in place per unit cross section area over the
reservoir thickness.
[5]

Data
The specific gravities of water and oil relative to water density at 60 F are
1.03 & 0.8 respectively. The density of water at 60F is 62.4 lbm/cu.ft.
Air/mercury capillary pressure = 10 x capillary pressure water/ oil.
1 bbl = 5.615 cu. ft
1 lbf = 1 lbm x g.
psi = lbf / sq inch

B12

You have been appointed as the engineering manager of a reservoir.

Given that you appreciate the importance of allowing for the activation
of rock mechanical phenomena ( stress-sensitivity) in the management
of the reservoir, explain how you would screen the reservoir for stress sensitivity at the reservoir scale by listing and describing:

(a) the relevant rock mechanical phenomena to be considered,

and their impact on reservoir performance
[9]
(b) the data set required to conduct the screening process
[9]
(c) the software tools necessary
[2]

Section C
C13

A super well has been devised for high permeability reservoirs in

which individual vertical wells are drilled in two concentric circles as
shown in the diagram. Each ring has the same number of wells but
staggered in position as shown. Yaxley has given an expression for the
Dietz shape factor for a well in a triangular drainage area, also shown as
a diagram. Sketch the approximate shape of the well drainage areas for
the super well configuration and show how Yaxleys formula may
be used to obtain the productivity index of the wells in the inner and
outer rings.
CA =

4A

4 re 3
ro
exp
ln + 2 ln

ro 4
2 sin o

where

A=

re2 = re2
2
2

or
Derive the Hawkins equation for the damage skin factor in an openhole completion. Supposing the skin factor, S , has been measured in a
transient well test what additional information could be used to
estimate the depth of damage, ra , and hence the damage zone
permeability, ka .
[20]

Closed Outer
Boundary

16 Well "Super Well" in a Large Circular Reservoir

C14

A two layer reservoir is produced commingled as shown in the diagram

and it is desired to balance the production by the use of variable
chokes; here balanced production implies that the rate from a layer is
proportional to its thickness i.e. q1 /h1 = q2 /h2 . This is the basis of
smart wells used to optimise production behaviour. Each choke
diameter may be continuously varied from fully open to closed. Given
a vertical lift curve for the well i.e. a plot of bottom-hole flowing
prerssure, pwf , versus well total flow-rate, q , where q = q1 + q2 ,
show how the choke settings may be calculated to give maximum
balanced production. Assume that the choke performance is given by
an equation of the form:
qi = Cch At

2p
1 2

where p = pressure drop over choke

qi = flow-rate through device
Cch = discharge coefficient (constant)
2
At = throat area = D t /4
Dt
= D
p
Dt = throat diameter
Dp = pipe diameter
[20]

C15

Describe the phenomenon of supercharging and the procedures

which may be used to obtain a useful WFT survey in a low permeability
reservoir
[20]

End of Paper

Balanced Production Using

Variable Chokes

Layer 1
S1
q

q=q +q
1
2

k1 h1

Layer 2
2

S2

k2 h2

p2

Q14

BEHAVIOUR OF OIL FIELD HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS

Pseudo Reduced Pressure, Pr
1.1

1.1

Pseudo Reduced Temperature

3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.9
1.8

1.0

0.9

1.

1.

05

1.7

1.

1.6

1.7

0.8

1.3
1.1

1.0
1.05
1.2
0.95

1.

1.5

0.6

2
1.

1.2

1.6
1.8

0.5
1.15

1.7
1.9

1.3

2.4
3.0

2.6

1.2

1.05

0.25
2.8

1.1

3.0

1.1
Compressibility of
Natural Gases
(Jan. 1, 1941)

2.6 2.4
2.2
2.0

1.0

1.8
1.7
1.6

0.9
7

1.4

2.2

2.0

1.1

0.3

1.5

4
1.
.
15

1.25

0.4

1.6

1.4
1.35
1.3

1.

Compressibility Factor, z

1.45

0.7

1.9

1.2

1.0

1.1
1.4
1.3

1.05

0.9
9

10

11

12

13

Pseudo Reduced Pressure, Pr

14

15