MB0032 Set 1 and Set 2 Completed

Name: Falguni Pandit Registration No.
: 520966021
MBA – II SEM
OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032
MB0032
Registration No.: 520966021
Page No: 1 Name: Falguni Pandit |Registration No.: 520966021

Name: Falguni Pandit Registration No.: 520966021
MBA – II SEM
Set – 1
1. Describe the broad classification of Operations Research
models in details. Name the different steps needed in OR
approach of problem solving?
Answer: A model is known as the representation of the reality. It is
known as an idealized representation or abstraction of a real life system.
The main objective of this model is to identify significant factors and their
interrelationship. A model is helpful is decision making as it provides a
simplified description of complexities and uncertainties of a problem in
logical structure.
A broad classification of OR models:

a) Physical modes include all form of diagrams, graphs and charts. They
are designed to deal with specific problems. They bring out significant
factors and inter-relationship in pictorial firm so as to facilitate analysis.
There are two types:
1) Ieonic models and 2) Analog models
Iconic model is known as an image of an object or system that is
represented on a small scale. We can say that these models can simulate
the actual performance of a product.
On the other hand analog models are small physical systems that have
similar characteristics and work like an object. For example- Toy.
b) Mathematical Model or Symbolic models represent the decision variable
of the system. The model employs a set of mathematical symbols also.
The variables are related by mathematical system also. For example -
Allocation, sequencing, replacement models etc.
c) It is by nature of Environment We have 1) Deterministic model in which
every thing is defined and the results are certain. Eg: EOQ model 2)
Probabilistic models in which the input and output variables follow a
probability distribution Eg: Games Theory.
d) By the extent of Generality: The tow models belonging to this class are
1) General model canbe applied in general and does not pertain to one
problem only. Eg: Linear Programming
2) Specific model is applicable under specific condition only. For example -
Sales can response curve or equation which can be known as a function of
advertising that is applicable in the marketing function alone.
The scientific method translates a real given problem into a mathematical

representation which is solved and retransformed into the original
context. The OR approach to problem solving consists of the following
steps:
1) Definition of the problem
The first and the most important requirement is that the root problem
should be identified and understood. The problem should be identified
properly, this indicates three major aspects:
1) A description of the goal or the objective of the study,
2) an identification of the decision alternative to the system, and

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3) a recognition of the limitations, restrictions and requirements of the
system.
2) Construction of the model
Depending on the definition of the problem, the operations research team

should decide on the most suitable model for representing the system.
Such a model should specify quantitative expressions for the objective
and the constraints of the problem in terms of its decision variables.
3) Solution of the model
Once an appropriate model has been formulated the next stage in the
analysis calls for its solution and the interpretation of the solution in the
context of the given problem – A solution to a model implies
determination of a specific set of decision variables that would yield on
optimum solution. An optimum solution is one which maximizes or
minimizes the performance of any measure in a model subject to the
condition and constraints imposed on the model.
4) Validation the model
A model is a good representative of a system, and then the optimal
solution must improve the system’s performance. A common method for
testing the validity of a model is to compare its performance with some
post data available for the actual system.
5) About Implementation of the final result
The optimal solution obtained from a model should be applied practice to
improve the
performance of the system and the validity of the solution should be
verified under changing conditions.
2. Describe the graphical method to solve the Linear

Programming Problem. Use the following example –
Maximize Z = 30x1 + 40x2
Subject to the constraints
1.5x1 + 1.9x2 ≤ 600
0.3 x1 + 0.2x2 ≤ 100
0.0x1 + 0.2x2 ≤ 30
and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0
Answer: A LPP with 2 decision variables x1 and x2 can be solved easily

by graphical method.
We consider the x1 x2 – plane where we plot the solution space, which is
the space enclosed by the constraints. Usually the solution space is a
convex set which is bounded by a polygon; since a linear function attains
extreme (maximum or minimum) values only on boundary of the region, it
is sufficient to consider the vertices of the polygon and find the value of
the objective function in these vertices.

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By comparing the vertices of the objective function at these vertices, we
obtain the
optimal solution of the problem.
The method of solving a LPP on the basis of the above analysis is known
as the graphical
method. The working rule for the method is as follows:
Working Rule:
Step I: Write down the equations by replacing the inequality symbols by
the equality symbol in the given constraints.
Step II: Plot the straight lines represented by the equations obtained in
step I.
Step III: Identify the convex polygon region relevant to the problem. We
must decide on which side of the line, the halfplane is located.
Step IV: Determine the vertices of the polygon and find the values of the
given objective
function Z at each of these vertices. Identify the greatest and least of
these values. These are respectively the maximum and minimum value of
Z.
Step V: Identify the values of (x1, x2) which correspond to the desired
extreme value of Z. This is an optimal solution of the problem.
Solution by Graphical Method
Let the horizontal axis represent x1and vertical axis represent x2. plot the
constraint lines,
feasibility region has been shown in fig.
Any point on the thick line or inside the shaded portion will satisfy all the restrictions of the
problem then ABCDE is the feasibility region carried out by the constraints operating on the
objective function. This depicts the limits within which the values of the decision variables
are permissible. The intersection points C and D can be solved by the linear equations 0.1x2
< 30, 0.1x1 + 1.5x2 = 600, and 0.2x1 + 0.2x2 < 100 i.e. C(150,300) and D(300,180).
We work out the revenues at different corners points as tabulated below

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From the above table we find that revenue is maximum at Rs.31500 when
150 unit of X1 and 300 units of X2 are produced.
3. Describe the Penalty Cost method (Big M Method) for solving

L.P.P.
Answer: Penalty Cost Method Or Big-M Method
Consider a L.P.P. when atleast one of the constraints is of the type > or
= . While expressing in the standard form, add a non negative variable to
each of such constraints. These variables are called artificial variables.
Their addition causes violation of the corresponding constraints, since
they are added to only one side of an equation, the new system is
equivalent to the old system of constraints if and only if the artificial
variables are zero. To guarantee such assignments in the optimal solution,
artificial variables are incorporated into the objective function with large
positive coefficients in a minimization program or very large negative
coefficients in a maximization program. These coefficients are denoted by
± M.
Whenever artificial variables are part of the initial solution X0, the last row
of simplex table will contain the penalty cost M. The following
modifications are made in the simplex method to minimize the error of
incorporating the penalty cost in the objective function. This method is
called Big M method or Penalty cost method.
1) The last row of the simplex table is decomposed into two rows, the first
of which involves those terms not containing M, while the second involves
those containing M.
2) The Step 1 of the simplex method is applied to the last row created in
the above modification and followed by steps 2, 3 and 4 until this row
contains no negative elements. Then step 1 of simplex algorithm is
applied to those elements next to the last row that are positioned over
zero in the last row.

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3) Whenever an artificial variable ceases to be basic, it is removed from
the first column of the table as a result of step 4, it is also deleted from
the top row of the table as is the entire column under it.
4) The last row is removed from the table whenever it contains all zeroes.
5) If non zero artificial variables are present in the final basic set, then the
program has no
solution. In contrast, zero valued artificial variables in the final solution
may exist when one or more of the original constraint equations are
redundant.
4. Why Duality concept is important in OR? Describe the economic

importance of the Duality concept.
Answer: The Importance of Duality Concept Is Due To Two Main
Reasons
i. If the primal contains a large number of constraints and a smaller
number of variables, thelabour of computation can be considerably
reduced by converting it into the dual problem and then solving it.
ii. The interpretation of the dual variable from the loss or economic point
of view proves
extremely useful in making future decisions in the activities being
programmed.
Economic importance of duality concept
The linear programming problem can be thought of as a resource
allocation model in which the objective is to maximize revenue or profit
subject to limited resources. Looking at the problem from this point of
view, the associated dual problem offers interesting economic
interpretations of the L.P resource allocation model. We consider here a
representation of the general primal and dual problems in which the
primal takes the role of a resource allocation model.
Primal
Maximize
From the above resource allocation model, the primal problem has n
economic activities and m resources. The coefficient cj in the primal
represents the profit per unit of activity j. Resource i, whose maximum
availability is bi, is consumed at the rate aij units per unit of activity
j.Interpretation of Duel Variables –
For any pair of feasible primal and dual solutions,
(Objective value in the maximization problem) ≤ (Objective value in the
minimization problem) At the optimum, the relationship holds as a strict
equation. Note: Here the sense of optimization is very important. Hence

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clearly for any two primal and dual feasible solutions, the values of the
objective functions, when finite, must satisfy the following inequality.
The strict equality, z = w, holds when both the primal and dual solutions
are optimal.
Consider the optimal condition z = w first given that the primal problem
represents a resource allocation model, we can think of z as representing
profit in Rupees. Because bi represents the number of units available of
resource i, the equation z = w can be expressed as profit (Rs) = Σ
(units of resource i) x (profit per unit of resource i) This means that the
dual variables yi,
represent the worth per unit of resource i [variables yi are also called as
dual prices, shadow prices and simplex multipliers]. With the same logic,
the inequality z < w associated with any two feasible primal and dual
solutions is interpreted as (profit) < (worth of resources) This relationship
implies that as long as the total return from all the activities is less than
the worth of the resources, the corresponding primal and dual solutions
are not optimal. Optimality is reached only when the resources have been
exploited completely, which can happen only when the input equals the
output (profit). Economically the system is said to remain unstable (non
optimal) when the input (worth of the resources) exceeds the output
(return). Stability occurs only when the two
quantities are equal.
5. Describe the Matrix Minimum method of finding the initial

basic feasible solution in the transportation problem.
Answer: The Initial basic Feasible solution using Matrix Minimum
Method
Let us consider a T.P involving m-origins and n-destinations. Since the
sum of origin capacities equals the sum of destination requirements, a
feasible solution always exists.
Any feasible solution satisfying m + n – 1 of the m + n constraints is a
redundant one and hence can be deleted. This also means that a feasible
solution to a T.P can have at the most only m + n –
1 strictly positive component, otherwise the solution will degenerate. It is
always possible to assign an initial feasible solution to a T.P. in such a
manner that the rim requirements are satisfied.
This can be achieved either by inspection or by following some simple
rules. We begin by imagining that the transportation table is blank i.e.
initially all xij = 0. The simplest procedures for initial allocation discussed
in the following section.
Matrix Minimum Method

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Step 1:Determine the smallest cost in the cost matrix of the
transportation table. Let it be cij , Allocate xij = min ( ai, bj) in the cell ( i,
j)
Step 2: If xij = ai cross off the ith row of the transportation table and
decrease bj by ai go to step 3. if xij = bj cross off the ith column of the
transportation table and decrease ai by bj go to step 3.
if xij = ai= bj cross off either the ith row or the ith column but not both.
Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the resulting reduced transportation
table until all the rim
requirements are satisfied whenever the minimum cost is not unique
make an arbitrary choice among the minima.

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6. What do you understand by the Integer Programming Problem?

Describe the Gomory’s All-I.P.P. method for solving the I.P.P.
problem.
Answer: Integer Programming Problem
The Integer Programming Problem I P P is a special case of L P P where all
or some variables are constrained to assume nonnegative integer values.
This type of problem has lot of applications in business and industry
where quite often discrete nature of the variables is involved in many
decision making situations. Eg. In manufacturing the production is
frequently scheduled in terms of batches, lots or runs; In distribution, a
shipment must involve a discrete number of trucks or aircrafts or freight
cars .
An integer programming problem can be described as follows:
Determine the value of unknowns x1, x2, … , xn so as to optimize z =
c1x1 +c2x2 + . . .+ cnxn
subject to the constraints ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + . . . + ain xn =bi , i = 1,2,…,m
and xj > 0 j = 1, 2,
… ,n where xj being an integral value for j = 1, 2, … , k ≤ n.
If all the variables are constrained to take only integral value i.e. k = n, it
is called an all (or pure) integer programming problem. In case only some
of the variables are restricted to take integral value and rest (n – k)
variables are free to take any non negative values, then the problem is
known as mixed integer programming problem.
Gomory’s All – IPP Method
An optimum solution to an I. P. P. is first obtained by using simplex
method ignoring the
restriction of integral values. In the optimum solution if all the variables
have integer values, the current solution will be the desired optimum
integer solution. Otherwise the given IPP is modified by inserting a new
constraint called Gomory’s or secondary constraint which represents
necessary condition for integrability and eliminates some non integer
solution without losing any integral solution. After adding the secondary
constraint, the problem is then solved by dual simplex method to get an
optimum integral solution. If all the values of the variables in this solution
are integers, an optimum inter-solution is obtained, otherwise another
new constrained is added to the modified L P P and the procedure is
repeated. An optimum integer solution will be reached eventually after
introducing enough new constraints to eliminate all the superior non
integer solutions. The construction of additional constraints, called
secondary or Gomory’s
constraints, is so very important that it needs special attention.
The iterative procedure for the solution of an all integer programming

problem is as follows:
Step 1: Convert the minimization I.P.P. into that of maximization, if it is in
the minimization form. The integrality condition should be ignored.

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Step 2: Introduce the slack or surplus variables, wherever necessary to
convert the inequations into equations and obtain the optimum solution of
the given L.P.P. by using simplex algorithm.
Step 3: Test the integrality of the optimum solution
a) If the optimum solution contains all integer values, an optimum basic
feasible integer solution has been obtained.
b) If the optimum solution does not include all integer values then proceed
onto next step.
Step 4: Examine the constraint equations corresponding to the current
optimum solution. Let these equations be represented by
Where n’ denotes the number of variables and m’ the number of

equations.
Choose the largest fraction of bis ie to find {bi}i
Let it be [bk 1]
or write is as
f ko
Step 5: Express each of the negative fractions if any, in the k th row of
the optimum simplex
table as the sum of a negative integer and a nonnegative fraction.
Step 6: Find the Gomorian constraint
and add the equation
to the current set of equation constraints.

Step 7: Starting with this new set of equation constraints, find the new
optimum solution by dual simplex algorithm. (So that Gsla (1) is the initial
leaving basic variable).
Step 8: If this new optimum solution for the modified L.P.P. is an integer
solution. It is also feasible and optimum for the given I.P.P. otherwise
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return to step 4 and repeat the process until an optimum feasible integer
solution is obtained.

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1. Describe in details the OR approach of problem solving. What
are the limitations of the
Operations Research?
Answer: The OR approach to problem solving consists of the following
steps:
1. Definition of the problem.
2. Construction of the model.
3. Solution of the model.
4. Validation of the model.
5. Implementation of the final result.
1. Definition of the problem
The first and the most important requirement is that the root problem
should be identified and
understood. The problem should be identified properly, this indicates
three major aspects: (1) a
description of the goal or the objective of the study, (2) an identification of
the decision
alternative to the system, and (3) a recognition of the limitations,
restrictions and requirements of
the system.
2. Construction of the model
Depending on the definition of the problem, the operations research team
should decide on the
most suitable model for representing the system. Such a model should
specify quantitative
expressions for the objective and the constraints of the problem in terms
of its decision variables.
A model gives a perspective picture of the whole problem and helps
tackling it in a well
organized manner. If the resulting model fits into one of the common
mathematical models, a
convenient solution may be obtained by using mathematical techniques. If
the mathematical
relationships of the model are too complex to allow analytic solutions, a
simulation model may be
more appropriate. There are various types of models which can be
constructed under different
conditions.
3. Solution of the model
Once an appropriate model has been formulated, the next stage in the
analysis calls for its
solution and the interpretation of the solution in the context of the given
problem. A solution to a
model implies determination of a specific set of decision variables that
would yield an Optimum
solution. An Optimum solution is one which maximize or minimize the
performance of any

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measure in a model subject to the conditions and constraints imposed on
the model.
4. Validation the model
A model is a good representative of a system, then the Optimal solution
must improve the
system’s performance. A common method for testing the validity of a
model is to compare its
performance with some past data available for the actual system. The
model will be valid if under
similar conditions of inputs, it can reproduce the past performance of the
system. The problem
here is that there is no assurance that future performance will continue to
duplicate past behavior.
Also, since the model is based on careful examination of past data, the
comparison should always
reveal favorable results. In some instances this problem may be overcome
by using data from trial
runs of the system. It must be noted that such a validation method is not
appropriate for
nonexistent systems, since data will not be available for comparison.
5. Implementation of the final result
The optimal solution obtained from a model should be applied practice to
improve the
performance of the system and the validity of the solution should be
verified under changing
conditions. It involves the translation of these results into detailed
operating instructions issued in
an understandable form to the individuals who will administer and operate
the recommended
system. The interaction between the operations research team and the
operating personnel will
reach its peak in this phase.
Limitations of OR
The limitations are more related to the problems of model building, time
and money factors.
i) Magnitude of computation: Modern problem involve large number of
variables and hence to
find interrelationship, among makes it difficult.
ii) Non – quantitative factors and Human emotional factor cannot be taken
into account.
iii) There is a wide gap between the managers and the operation
researches
iv) Time and Money factors when the basic data is subjected to frequent
changes then
incorporation of them into OR models is a costly affair.
v) Implementation of decisions involves human relations and behaviour.
2. What are the characteristics of the standard form of L.P.P.?
What is the standard form

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of L.P.P.? State the fundamental theorem of L.P.P..
Answer: The Standard Form Of LPP
The characteristics of the standard form are:
1. All constraints are equations except for the non negativity condition
which remain inequalities
(>, 0) only.
2. The right hand side element of each constraint equation is non-
negative.
3. All variables are non-negative.
4. The objective function is of the maximization or minimization type.
The inequality constraints can be changed to equations by adding or
subtracting the left hand side
of each such constraints by a nonnegative variable. The nonnegative
variable that has to be added
to a constraint inequality of the form < to change it to an equation is
called a slack variable. The
non-negative variable that has to be substracted from a constraint
inequality of the form ³ to
change it to an equation is called a surplus variable. The right hand side
of a constraint equation
can be made positive by multiplying both sides of the resulting equation
by (-1) wherever
necessary. The remaining characteristics are achieved by using the
elementary transformations
introduced with the canonical form.
The Standard Form Of The LPP
Any standard form of the L.P.P. is given by
Fundamental Theorem Of L.P.P.

Given a set of m simultaneous linear equations in n unknowns/variables, n
> m, AX = b, with r(A)
= m. If there is a feasible solution X > 0, then there exists a basic feasible
solution.
3. Describe the Two-Phase method of solving a linear
programming problem with an
example.
Answer: Two Phase Method
The drawback of the penalty cost method is the possible computational
error that could result

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from assigning a very large value to the constant M. To overcome this
difficulty, a new method is
considered, where the use of M is eliminated by solving the problem in
two phases. They are
Phase I: Formulate the new problem by eliminating the original objective
function by the sum of
the artificial variables for a minimization problem and the negative of the
sum of the artificial
variables for a maximization problem. The resulting objective function is
optimized by the
simplex method with the constraints of the original problem. If the
problem has a feasible
solution, the optimal value of the new objective function is zero (which
indicates that all artificial
variables are zero). Then we proceed to phase II. Otherwise, if the optimal
value of the new
objective function is non zero, the problem has no solution and the
method terminates.
Phase II : Use the optimum solution of the phase I as the starting solution
of the original
problem. Then the objective function is taken without the artificial
variables and is solved by
simplex method.
Examples:
7) Use the two phase method to
Maximise z = 3x1 – x2
Subject to 2x1 + x2 > 2
x1 + 3x2 < 2
x2 < 4,
x1, x2 > 0
Rewriting in the standard form,
Maximize z = 3x1 – x2 + 0S1 – MA1 + 0.S2 + 0.S3
Subject to 2x1 + x2 – S1 + A1 = 2
x1 + 3x2 + S2 = 2
x2 + S3 = 4,
x1, x2, S1, S2, S3, A1 > 0.
Phase I :
Consider the new objective,
Maximize Z* = – A1
Subject to 2x1 + x2 – S1 + A1 = 2
x1 + 3x2 + S2 = 2
x2 + S3 = 4,
x1, x2, S1, S2, S3, A1 > 0.

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Solving by Simplex method, the initial simplex table is given by
x1 enters the basic set replacing A1.

The first iteration gives the following table:
Phase I is complete, since there are no negative elements in the last row.
The Optimal solution of the new objective is Z* = 0.
Phase II:
Consider the original objective function,
Maximize z = 3x1 – x2 + 0S1 + 0S2 + 0S3
Subject to
x2 + S3 = 4
x1, x2, S1, S2, S3 > 0

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with the initial solution x1 = 1, S2 = 1, S3 = 4, the corresponding simplex
table is
Proceeding to the next iteration, we get the following table:
Since all elements of the last row are non negative, the current solution is
optimal.
The maximum value of the objective function
Z = 6 which is attained for x1 = 2, x2 = 0.
4. What do you understand by the transportation problem? What
is the basic assumption
behind the transportation problem? Describe the MODI method of
solving transportation
problem.
Answer: This model studies the minimization of the cost of transporting a
commodity from a
number of sources to several destinations. The supply at each source and
the demand at each
destination are known. The transportation problem involves m sources,
each of which has
available ai (i = 1, 2, …..,m) units of homogeneous product and n
destinations, each of which
requires bj (j = 1, 2…., n) units of products. Here ai and bj are positive
integers. The cost cij of
transporting one unit of the product from the i th source to the j th
destination is given for each i

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and j. The objective is to develop an integral transportation schedule that
meets all demands from
the inventory at a minimum total transportation cost.
It is assumed that the total supply and the total demand are equal.
The condition (1) is guaranteed by creating either a fictitious destination

with a demand equal to
the surplus if total demand is less than the total supply or a (dummy)
source with a supply equal
to the shortage if total demand exceeds total supply. The cost of
transportation from the fictitious
destination to all sources and from all destinations to the fictitious sources
are assumed to be zero
so that total cost of transportation will remain the same.
The Transportation Algorithm (MODI Method)
The first approximation to (2) is always integral and therefore always a
feasible solution. Rather
than determining a first approximation by a direct application of the
simplex method it is more
efficient to work with the table given below called the transportation
table. The transportation
algorithm is the simplex method specialized to the format of table it
involves:
i) finding an integral basic feasible solution
ii) testing the solution for optimality
iii) improving the solution, when it is not optimal
iv) repeating steps (ii) and (iii) until the optimal solution is obtained.
The solution to T.P is obtained in two stages. In the first stage we find
Basic feasible solution by
any one of the following methods a) Northwest corner rale b) Matrix
Minima Method or least
cost method c) Vogel’s approximation method. In the second stage we
test the B.Fs for its
optimality either by MODI method or by stepping stone method.
Modified Distribution Method / Modi Method / U – V Method.
Step 1: Under this method we construct penalties for rows and columns
by subtracting the least
value of row / column from the next least value.
Step 2: We select the highest penalty constructed for both row and
column. Enter that row /
column and select the minimum cost and allocate min (ai, bj)
Step 3: Delete the row or column or both if the rim availability /
requirements is met.
Step 4: We repeat steps 1 to 2 to till all allocations are over.

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Step 5: For allocation all form equation ui + vj = cj set one of the dual
variable ui / vj to zero and
solve for others.
Step 6: Use these value to find Δij = cij – ui – vj of all Δij >, then it is the
optimal solution.
Step 7: If any Dij £ 0, select the most negative cell and form loop.
Starting point of the loop is
+ve and alternatively the other corners of the loop are –ve and +ve.
Examine the quantities
allocated at –ve places. Select the minimum. Add it at +ve places and
subtract from –ve place.
Step 8: Form new table and repeat steps 5 to 7 till Δij > 0
5. Describe the North-West Corner rule for finding the initial basic
feasible solution in the
transportation problem.
Answer: North West Corner Rule
Step1: The first assignment is made in the cell occupying the upper left
hand (north west) corner
of the transportation table. The maximum feasible amount is allocated
there, that is x11 = min
(a1,b1)
So that either the capacity of origin O1 is used up or the requirement at
destination D1 is satisfied
or both. This value of x11 is entered in the upper left hand corner (small
square) of cell (1, 1) in
the transportation table
Step 2: If b1 > a1 the capacity of origin O, is exhausted but the
requirement at destination D1 is
still not satisfied , so that at least one more other variable in the first
column will have to take on a
positive value. Move down vertically to the second row and make the
second allocation of
magnitude
x21 = min (a2, b1 – x21) in the cell (2,1). This either exhausts the
capacity of origin O2 or
satisfies the remaining demand at destination D1.
If a1 > b1 the requirement at destination D1 is satisfied but the capacity
of origin O1 is not
completely exhausted. Move to the right horizontally to the second
column and make the second
allocation of magnitude x12 = min
(a1 – x11, b2) in the cell (1, 2) . This either exhausts the remaining
capacity of origin O1 or
satisfies the demand at destination D2 .
If b1 = a1, the origin capacity of O1 is completely exhausted as well as
the requirement at
destination is completely satisfied. There is a tie for second allocation, An
arbitrary tie breaking

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choice is made. Make the second allocation of magnitude x12 = min (a1 –
a1, b2) = 0 in the cell
(1, 2) or x21 = min (a2, b1 – b2) = 0 in the cell (2, 1).
Step 3: Start from the new north west corner of the transportation table
satisfying destination
requirements and exhausting the origin capacities one at a time, move
down towards the lower
right corner of the transportation table until all the rim requirements are
satisfied.
6. Describe the Branch and Bound Technique to solve an I.P.P.
problem.
Answer: The Branch And Bound Technique
Sometimes a few or all the variables of an IPP are constrained by their
upper or lower bounds or
by both. The most general technique for the solution of such constrained
optimization problems is
the branch and bound technique. The technique is applicable to both all
IPP as well as mixed
I.P.P. the technique for a maximization problem is discussed below:
Let the I.P.P. be
Subject to the constraints
xj is integer valued , j = 1, 2, …….., r (< n) –––– (3)

xj > 0 …………………. j = r + 1, …….., n ––––––––––(4)
Further let us suppose that for each integer valued xj, we can assign lower
and upper bounds for
the optimum values of the variable by
Lj ≤ xj ≤ Uj j = 1, 2, …. r ––––––––––––– (5)
The following idea is behind “the branch and bound technique”
Consider any variable xj, and let I be some integer value satisfying Lj £ I £
Uj – 1. Then clearly
an optimum solution to (1) through (5) shall also satisfy either the linear
constraint.
x j > I + 1 ––––––––––––– ( 6)
Or the linear constraint xj ≤ I ………………...(7)
To explain how this partitioning helps, let us assume that there were no
integer restrictions (3),
and suppose that this then yields an optimal solution to L.P.P. – (1), (2),
(4) and (5). Indicating x1
= 1.66 (for example). Then we formulate and solve two L.P.P’s each
containing (1), (2) and (4).
But (5) for j = 1 is modified to be 2 ≤ x1 ≤ U1 in one problem and L1 ≤ x1
≤ 1 in the other.

MBA – II SEM

Further each of these problems process an optimal solution satisfying
integer constraints (3)
Then the solution having the larger value for z is clearly optimum for the
given I.P.P. However, it
usually happens that one (or both) of these problems has no optimal
solution satisfying (3), and
thus some more computations are necessary. We now discuss step wise
the algorithm that
specifies how to apply the partitioning (6) and (7) in a systematic manner
to finally arrive at an
optimum solution.
We start with an initial lower bound for z, say z (0) at the first iteration
which is less than or equal
to the optimal value z*, this lower bound may be taken as the starting Lj
for some xj.
In addition to the lower bound z (0) , we also have a list of L.P.P’s (to be
called master list)
differing only in the bounds (5). To start with (the 0 th iteration) the
master list contains a single
L.P.P. consisting of (1), (2), (4) and (5). We now discuss below, the step by
step procedure that
specifies how the partitioning (6) and (7) can be applied systematically to
eventually get an
optimum integer valued solution.
Set – 2
Q1: Compare and contrast NPV with IRR.
ANS 1.
Net present value method

The cash inflow in different years are discounted (reduced) to their present value
by applying the appropriate discount factor or rate and the gross or total present
value of cash flows of different years are ascertained. The total present value of
cash inflows are compared with present value of cash outflows (cost of project)
and the net present value or the excess present value of the project and the
difference between total present value of cash inflow and present value of cash
outflow is ascertained and on this basis, the various investments proposals are
ranked.

MBA – II SEM

Cash inflow = earnings / profits of an investment after taxes but before
depreciation
The present value of cash outflows = initial cost of investment and the comment
of project at various points of time ^
Decision rule After ranking various investments proposals on basis on net

present value, projects with negative net present value (net present value of
cash inflows less than their original costs) are rejected and projects with positive
NPV are considered acceptable. In case of mutually exclusive alternative
projects, projects with higher net present value are selected. Net present value
method is suitable for evaluating projects where cash flows are uneven.
Merits
1. The most significant advantage is that it explicitly recognizes the time value of
money, e.g., total cash flows pertaining to two machines are equal but the net
present value are different because of differences of pattern of cash streams.
The need for recognizing the total value of money is thus satisfied.
2. It also fulfills the second attribute of a sound method of appraisal. In that it

considers the total benefits arising out of proposal over its life time.
3. It is particularly useful for selection of mutually exclusive projects.

4. This method of asset selection is instrumental for achieving the objective of
financial management, which is the maximization of the shareholder's wealth. In
brief the present value method is a theoretically correct technique in the
selection of investment proposals.
Demerits
1. It is difficult to calculate as well as to understand and use, in comparison with

payback method or average return method.
2. The second and more serious problem associated with present value method
is that it involves calculations of the required rate of return to discount the cash
flows. The discount rate is the most important element used in the calculation of
the present value because different discount rates will give different present
values. The relative desirability of a proposal will change with the change of
discount rate. The importance of the discount rate is thus obvious. But the
calculation of required rate of return pursuits serious problem. The cost of capital
is generally the basis of the firm's discount rate. The calculation of cost of capital
is very complicated. In fact there is a difference of opinion even regarding the
exact method of calculating it.
3. Another shortcoming is that it is an absolute measure. This method will accept

the project which has higher present value. But it is likely that this project may
also involve a larger initial outlay. Thus, in case of projects involving different
outlays, the present value may not give dependable results.
4. The present value method may also give satisfactory results in case of two
projects having different effective lives. The project with a shorter economic life

MBA – II SEM

is preferable, other things being equal. It may be that, a project which has a
higher present value may also have a larger economic life, so that the funds will
remain invested for longer period while the alternative proposal may have
shorter life but smaller present value. In such situations the present value
method may not reflect the true worth of alternative proposals. This method is
suitable for evaluating projects whose capital outlays or costs differ significantly.
Internal rate of return method The technique is also known as yield on

investment, marginal efficiency value of capital, marginal productivity of capital,
rate of return, time adjusted rate of return and so on. Like net present value,
internal rate of return method also considers the time value of money for
discounting the cash streams. The basis of the discount factor however, is
difficult in both cases. In the net present value method, the discount rate is the
required rate of return and being a predetermined rate, usually cost of capital
and its determinants are external to the proposal under consideration. The
internal rate of return on the other hand is based on facts which are internal to
the proposal. In other words, while arriving at the required rate of return for
finding out the present value of cash flows, inflows and outflows are not
considered. But the IRR depends entirely on the initial outlay and cash proceeds
of project which is being evaluated for acceptance or rejection. It is therefore
appropriately referred to as internal rate of return. The IRR is usually, the rate of
return that a project earns. It is defined as the discount rate which equates the
aggregate present value of net cash inflows (CFAT) with the aggregate present
value of cash outflows of a project. In other words it is that rate which gives the
net present value zero. IRR is the rate at which the total of discounted cash
inflows equals the total of discounted cash outflows (the initial cost of
investment). It is used where the cost of investment and its annual cash inflows
are known but the rate of return or discounted rate is not known and is required
to be calculated.
Accept / Reject decision

The use of IRR as a criterion to accept capital investment decision involves a
comparison of actual IRR with required rate of return, also known as cut off rate
or hurdle rate. The project should qualify to be accepted if the internal rate of
return exceeds the cut off rate. If the internal rate of return and the required rate
of return be equal, the firm is indifferent as to accept or reject the project. In
case of mutually exclusive or alternative projects, the project which has the
highest IRR will be selected provided its IRR is more than the cut off rate. In case
there are budget constraints, the projects are ranked in descending order of their
IRR and are selected subject to provisions.
Evaluation of IRR
1. Is a theoretically correct technique to evaluate capital expenditure decision. It

possesses the advantages which are offered by the NPV criterion such as, it
considers the time value of money and takes into account the total cash inflows
and outflows.
2. In addition, the IRR is easier to understand. Business executives and non-

technical people understand the concept of IRR much more readily than they
understand the concept of NPV. For instance, Business X will

MBA – II SEM

understand the investment proposal in a better way if it is said that the total IRR
of Machine B is 21% and cost of capital is 10% instead of saying that NPV of
Machine B is Rs. 15,396.
3. It itself provides a rate of return which is indicative of profitability of proposal.
The cost of capital enters the calculation later on.
4. It is consistent with overall objective of maximizing shareholders wealth.

According to IRR, the acceptance / rejection of a project is based on a
comparison of IRR with required rate of return. The required rate of return is the
minimum rate which investors expect on their investment. In other words, if the
actual IRR of an investment proposal is equal to the rate expected by the
investors, the share prices will remain unchanged. Since, with IRR, only such
projects are accepted which have IRR of the required rate, therefore, the share
prices will tend to rise. This will naturally lead of maximization of shareholders
wealth. ^
The IRR suffers from serious limitations:
1. It involves tedious calculations. It involves complicated computation problems.
2. It produces multiple rates which can be confusing. This situation arises in the
case of non-conventional projects.
3. In evaluating mutually exclusive proposals, the project with highest IRR would
be picked up in exclusion of all others. However in practice it may not turn out to
be the most profitable and consistent with the objective of the firm i.e.,
maximization of shareholders wealth.
4. Under IRR, it is assumed that all intermediate cash flows are reinvested at the
IRR. It is rather ridiculous to think that the same firm has the ability to reinvest
the cash flows at different rates. The reinvestment rate assumption under the
IRR is therefore very unrealistic. Moreover it is not safe to assume always that
intermediate cash flows from the project may be reinvested at all. A portion of
cash inflows may be paid out as dividends, a portion may be tied up with current
assets such as stock, cash, etc. Clearly, the firm will get a wrong picture of the
project if it assumes that it invests the entire intermediate cash proceeds.
Further it is not safe to assume that they will be reinvested at the same rate of
return as the company is currently earning on its capital (IRR) or at the current
cost of capital (k).
NPV versus IRR NPV indicates the excess of the total present value of future
returns over the present value of investments. IRR (or DFC rate) indicates on the
other hand the rate at which the cash flows (at present values) are generated in
the business by a particular project.
Both NPV and IRR iron out the difference due to interest factor or say higher
returns in earlier years and higher returns in later years (though the total returns
in absolute terms may be around the same for several projects).
Between the two, IRR or DFC rate is the more sophisticated method ¬a popular
as well, since:
(a) IRR method -mostly subjective decision regarding discounting rate. ^

MBA – II SEM

(b) Whilst under NPV the main basis of comparison is between different NPV's of
different projects, under IRR or DFC rate approach a number of basis is available.
For example ¬
DFC rate Vs Discount rate of return (on normal operations) ^ DFC rate Vs Cut
off rate of the company DFC rate Vs Borrowing rate (on cost of capital) DFC
rates between different projects
(c) The results under DFC rate approach are simpler for the management to
understand and appreciate. We should however be very careful in applying the
decision rules properly when NPV and IRR calculation shows divergent results.
The rules are ¬
(i) the projects be the basis of decision when mutually exclusive in character;
(ii) there is capital rationing situation
(d) IRR should be a better guide when there are plenty of project situations (as it
is there in a long enterprise) and no major constraints (for example, in respect of
macro projects).

MBA – II SEM

Q2: Zodiac Ltd is considering purchase of investment worth Rs. 40
lakhs. The estimated life and the new cash flow fir 3 years are as under.
Machines B C
A
Estimated life 3 Years 3 Years 3years
Cash inflows(in lakhs)
1 Year 27 06 12
2 Year 18 21 80
3 Year 55 33 30
Ans 2
A) Payback period
Machine A. Rs.27 lakhs will be recovered in 1st year & the balance 13 lakhs (40 –
27) will be recovered in 2nd year of 18 lakhs
Payback period = 1year +(13/18*12month) or =1year +13/18

1 year 8.6 month = 1year + 0.72
1.72year
machine B. Rs.06 lakhs will be recovered in 1st year & the balance 34 lakhs
(40 – 6) will be recovered in 2nd year of 21 lakhs
payback period = 1year +(35/21*12month) or =1year + 35/21
= 1year 20 month = 1year +1.66
2.66year
machine c. Rs.12 lakhs will be recovered in 1st year & the balance 28 lakhs
(40 – 12) will be recovered in 2nd year of 80 lakhs
payback period = 1year + (28/80*12month) or =1year + 28/80
= 1year + 4.2 month = 1year + 0.35
= 1.35year

MBA – II SEM
machine A. Rs. 35.4546 will be recovered in 2nd year & balance 4.5454(40-
35.4546) will be recovered in 3rd year out of 39.149
=2year + (4.5454/39.149)
=2year + 0.1161
=2.11year
machine A. Rs. 22.0968 will be recovered in 2nd year & balance 17.9032(40-
22.0968) will be recovered in 3rd year out of 23.489
=2year + (17.9032/23.489)
=2year +0.7621
=2.76year
machine A. Rs. 74.4936 will be recovered in 2nd year & balance -34.4936
(40- 74.4936) will be recovered in 3rd year out of 95.8436
=2year + (-34.4936/95.8436)
=2year + -0.3598
= 1.64year

MBA – II SEM

Q3: The cash flow stream of Nanotech Ltd, is as follows:
years 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cash flows -120 -100 40 60 80 100 130
(in millions)
The cost of capital is 13% find MIRR.
Ans 3:
Present value of cost = 120 * 100/1.13

= 194.69
Terminal value of cash flow
432
= 40(1.13) + 60(1.13) +80(1.13)+100(1.13)+130
= 40*1.6305 + 60*1.4429 + 80*1.2769 + 113 + 130
=496.95
MIRR is obtain on solving the following equation.
6
194.69 = 496.95/(1+mirr)
6
(1+mirr) = 496.95/194.69
6
(1+mirr) = 2.5525
Q3: Elaborate different sources of risk in a project

ANS. Risk in the project are many. It is possible to identify three separate and
distinct type of risk in any project.
1. Stand – alone risk : it is measured by the variability of expected returns of the
project
2. portfolio risk : a firm can be viewed as portfolio of projects having a certain
degree of risk. When new project is added to the existing portfolio of project, the
risk profile of the firm will alter. The degree of the change in the risk depends on
the existing portfolio of the
projects. If the return from the new project is negatively correlated with the
return from portfolio, the risk of the firm will be further diversified away.
3. market or beta risk: it is measured by the effect of the project on the beta of
the firm. The market risk for a project is difficult to estimate. Stand alone risk of
a project when the project is considered in isolation. Corporate risk is the
projects risks of the firm. Market risk is systematic risk. The market risk is the
most important risk because of the direct influence it has on stock prices.
Source of risk: the source of risk are

1. project – specific risk
2. competitive or competition risk
3. industry - specific risk
4. international risk

MBA – II SEM

5. market risk
1. project – specific risk: the source of this risk could be traced to something
quite specific to the project. Managerial deficiencies or error in estimation of
cash flow or discount rate may lead to a situation of actual cash flow relised
being less than that projected.
2. competitive risk or competition risk: unanticipated of a firm’s competitors will
materially affect the cash flows expected from a project. Because of this the
actual cash flow from a project will be less than that of the forecast.
3. industry- specific : industry – specific risks are those that affect all the firms in
the industry. It could be again grouped in to technological risk, commodity risk
and legal risk. All these risks will affect the earnings and cash flows of the
project. The changes in technology affect all the firms not capable of adapting
themselves to emerging new technology. The best example is the case of firm
manufacturing motors cycles with two stroke engines. When technological
innovation replaced the two stroke engines by the four stroke engines those
firms which could not adapt to new technology had to shut down their
operations. Commodity risk is the arising from the affect
of price – changes on goods produced and marketed. Legal risk arise from
changes in laws and regulations application to the industry to which the firm
belongs. The best example is the imposition of service tax on apartments by the
government of India when the total number
of apartments built by a firm engaged in that industry exceeds a prescribed limit.
Similarly changes in import – export policy of the government of India have led
to the closure of some firms or sickness of some firms.
4. international risk : these types of risk are faced by firms whose business
consists mainly of exports or those who procure their main raw material from
international markets. For example, rupee –dollar crisis affected the software and
BPOs because it drastically reduce their profitability. Another best example is
that of the textile units in Tirupur in Tamilnadu, exporting their major part of the
garments produces. Rupee gaining and dollar weakening reduced their
competitiveness in the global markets.

MBA – II SEM

Q4: The expected cash flow of Tejaswini Ltd, are an follow. (5 Marks)
Year Cash flow

0 (50000)
1 9000
2 8000
3 7000
4 12000
5 21000
The certainty equivalent factor balance as per the following equation α t=1-05.05t. Calculate the
NPV of the project if the risk free rate of return is 9%.
Ans 4:

MBA – II SEM

Q5: From the following information prepare cash budgets for VSI Co. Ltd.:
Particulars Jan Feb March April

Opening cash balance 20,000 1,60,000 1,65,000 2,30,000
Collection from customer 1,30,000 45,000 40,000 63200
Payments : 25,000 1,05,000 1,00,000 1,14,200
Raw materials purchase 1,00,000 10,000 15,000 12,000
Salary and Wages 15,000 ---- ---- ---
Other expenses 6,000 ---- 20,000 ---
Income Tax ---
Machinery
The firm wants to maintain a minimum cash balance of Rs.25000 for

each month. Creditors are allowed one-month credit. There is no lag in
payment of salary, other expenses.
Ans 5:
For JAN:
Bank over Draft 21,000 for maintain minimum cash balance for
month of
February 21000+4000=25000.
For FEB:
No need to take bank over Draft because closing balance 25,000.
For MARCH:
Bank over Draft 10,000 for maintain minimum cash balance for
month of
April 15,000+10,000=25000.
At last closing balance month of April 65,600 so return to bank 31,000

form month
of april , 65,600 – 31,000= 34,400

MBA – II SEM

Case Study
Assume you are an external financial consultant. You have been
approached by a client M/s Technotron Ltd to give a presentation on
Credit Policy adopted by Information technology companies. You are
specifically asked to deal with credit standards, credit period, cash
discounts and collection programme. For the sake of simplicity take any
two information technology companies and analyze the credit policy
followed by them.
ANS:-
Credit policy Variables
1. Credit standards.
2. Credit period.
3. Credit discount and
4. Collection programme.
1. Credit standards : The term credit standards refer to the criteria for
extending credit to customers. The bases for setting credit standards are.
a. Credit rating
b. References
c. Average payment period
d. Ratio analysis
There is always a benefit to the company with the extension of credit to its
customers but with the associated risks of delayed payment or non payment,
funds blocked in receivables etc. The firm may have light credit standards. It
may sell on cash basis and extend credit only to financially strong customers.
Such strict credit standards will bring down bad – debt losses and
reduce the cost of credit administration. But the firm may not be able to increase
its sales. The profit on lost sales may be more the costs saved by the firm. The
firm should evaluate the trade – off between cost and benefit ofany credit
standards.
2. Credit period: Credit period refer to the length of time allowed to its
customers by a firm to make payment for the purchase made by customers of
the firm. It is generally expressed in days like 15 days or 20 days. Generally,
firms give cash discount if payment are made within the specified period. If a
firm follows a credit period of ‘net 20’ it means that it allows to its
customers 20 days of credit with no inducement for early payments. Increasing
the credit period will bring in additional sales from existing customers and new
sales from new customers. Reducing the credit period will lower sales, decrease
investments in receivables and reduce the bad debt loss. Increasing the credit
period increases the incidence of bad debt loss. The effect of increasing the
credit period on profits of the firm are similar to that of relaxing the credit
standards.
3. Cash discount: Firms offer cash discount to induce their customer to make
prompt payments. Cash discount have implications on sales volume, average
collection period, investment in receivables, incidence of bad debt and profits. A
cash discount of 2/10 net 20 means that a cash discount of 2% is offered if the

MBA – II SEM

payment is made by the tenth day; other wise full payment will have to be made
by 20th day.
4. Collection programme : The success of a collection programme depends on
the collection policy pursued by the firm. The objective of a collection policy is to
achieve. Timely collection of receivable, there by releasing funds locked in
receivables and minimize the incidence
of bad debts. The collection programmes consists of the following.
1. Monitoring the receivables

2. Reminding customers about due date of payment
3. On line interaction through electronic media to customers about the payments
due around the due date.
4. Initiating legal action to recover the amount from overdue customer as the
last resort the dues from defaulted customers. Collection policy formulated shall
not lead to bad relationship with customers.

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Name: Falguni Pandit Registration No.

OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

Registration No.: 520966021

Page No: 1 Name: Falguni Pandit |Registration No.: 520966021

OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

A broad classification of OR models:

The scientific method translates a real given problem into a mathematical

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

2) Construction of the model

Depending on the definition of the problem, the operations research team

2. Describe the graphical method to solve the Linear

Answer: A LPP with 2 decision variables x1 and x2 can be solved easily

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

We work out the revenues at different corners points as tabulated below

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

3. Describe the Penalty Cost method (Big M Method) for solving

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

4. Why Duality concept is important in OR? Describe the economic

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

5. Describe the Matrix Minimum method of finding the initial

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

Page No: 8 Name: Falguni Pandit |Registration No.: 520966021

OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

6. What do you understand by the Integer Programming Problem?

The iterative procedure for the solution of an all integer programming

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

Where n’ denotes the number of variables and m’ the number of

and add the equation

to the current set of equation constraints.

OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

Page No: 11 Name: Falguni Pandit |Registration No.: 520966021

OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

Fundamental Theorem Of L.P.P.

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

x1 enters the basic set replacing A1.

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

Proceeding to the next iteration, we get the following table:

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

The condition (1) is guaranteed by creating either a fictitious destination

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OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

Page No: 19 Name: Falguni Pandit |Registration No.: 520966021

OPERATIONS RESEARCH - MB0032

Subject to the constraints

xj is integer valued , j = 1, 2, …….., r (< n) –––– (3)

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