7.

1 The Respiratory Process in Energy Production

All living processes require energy.

Eg:
o Muscle contraction
o Active transport
o Transmission of nerve impulse
o Synthesis proteins
o Formation new protoplasm for
growth
o Cell division
Two types of respiration:
o External resp. : a mechanical process
that maintain a continuous exchange
of gases between the respiratory
surfaces on an organism and uts
environment.
o Internal resp. (cellular respiration) :
biochemical process in which energy
is made available to all living cells.
RESPIRATION : process of obtaining O2 and
delivering it to the cells for cellular respiration
and removing CO2 produced by the cells.
Main substrate for producing energy

State the condition leading to anaerobic respiration in

cells
-

Explain the process of anaerobic respiration in human

muscles
-

glucose.

TWO types of cellular respiration:

o Aerobic respiration
o Anaerobic respiration

Explain the energy production from glucose during

the process of aerobic respiration
-

A process where the breakdown of glucose

involves the use of O2.
Requires continuous supply of O2 which
obtained from the air during external
respiration.
CO2 and H2O always produced as waste
products.
Occurs in the mitochondria.
Can be represented by:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2898kJ (38 ATP)

Glucose

oxygen

carbon
dioxide

water

energy

Organisms showing aerobic respiration are

called aerobes.
Energy released used to convert ADP to ATP
(instant energy).
To use energy stored in ATP, the ATP
molecule must be broken down again to ADP.

Prolonged physical activity: cells are forced to

do work without enough O2 supply. Body
using more ATP quickly than the lungs and
circulatory system can deliver O2 to the cells
for cellular respiration.
Cells continue generating ATP without using
O2.

Anaerobic respiration occurs in cytoplasm.

Occurs in condition: fast running, fast walking,
swimming.
Vigorous exercise causing an increased in
heartbeat rate, breathing rate.
Blood cannot supply O2 fast enough to meet
demand for ATP (O2 debt).
Therefore, muscles obtain the extra energy
from anaerobic respiration.
o Glucose molecules break down
partially into lactic acid.
o can be represented by :
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + 150kJ (2 ATP)
Glucose

lactic acid

When level of lactic acid concentration is high,

causing muscular cramps and fatigue.
When one rests after an exercise, the lactic
acid gets slowly oxidized by the O2 which is
available later on.
O2 debt is said to have been paid (cleared)
when all the lactic acid has been eliminated
through increased breathing.
Can be represented by:
2C3H6O3

Lactic acid

+ 6O 2
oxygen

6CO2

carbon dioxide

+ 6H2O + energy
water

Explain the process of anaerobic respiration in

yeast
-

Organims respire anaerobically known as

anaerobes.
o Eg: bacteria, yeast.
Occurs in cytoplasm.
Producing ethanol.
Catalysed by zymase enzyme (fermentation
process).
C6H12O6 zymase 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 210 kJ
Glucose

ethanol

carbon energy
dioxide

Compare and contrast aerobic respiration with

anaerobic respiration

both are cellular

respiration

both use glucose as

the source of energy

system of respiration
- Aquatic animals: Gills
- Terrestrial animals: Lungs
- Unicellular organism (eg: Amoeba sp.) :
gaseous exchange occurs over the whole
plasma membrane.
Characteristics of respiratory surfaces in humans and
other organisms
1 The resp. surface is moist
2 Cells lining the respiratory surface are thin
3 The respiratory structure has a large surface area
4 The resp. surface are permeable to the
respiratory gases (O2 and CO2)
Adaptation of respiration for insects
1. Respiratory system of insects is tracheal
system.
2. Tracheal system of insect consists of spiracle,
trachea, air sac and tracheoles.

similarities
energy is stored in
ATP molecules

both are catalysed by

enzymes

Differences
Aerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration
Glucose are oxidized in
Glucose are oxidized in
the presence of O2
the absence of O2
Occurs in mitochondria
Occurs in cytoplasm
Complete oxidation of
Incomplete oxidation of
glucose to CO2 and H2O
glucose into lactic acid or
ethanol.
38 ATP molecules
2 ATP molecules released
released
Occurs in most animals
Occurs in lower
and all higher organisms
organisms such as yeast,
bacteria, germinating
seeds and cells of higher
organisms such as
skeletal muscles.
7.2 The Respiratory Structures and Breathing
mechanisms in Humans and Animals
Adaptation of RESPIRATION: GAS EXCHANGE
-

Supplies oxygen for cellular respiration

(metabolism) and disposes of waste (CO2)
gas travels through resp. surface via diffusion
vertebrates are large, so must have a complex

3. Tracheal system consists of air tubes called

tracheae
4. Air enters the tracheae through spiracles
5. Spiracles have valves which allow air, go in
and out of the body
6. Tracheae reinforced with rings of chitin which
prevent them from collapsing
7. Trachea split into numerous finer tubes called
tracheoles
8. Large number of tracheoles provides large
surface area for diffusion of gases
9. Tracheoles :
10. So tiny, can channel O2 directly to the cells in
the different parts of body
11. Are numerous , increase total surface area
12. Have thin and moist wall at the end of tip ,
make it easy for respiratory gases to be
dissolved
13. Larger insects like grasshoppers have air sacs
in their tracheal system to speed up
movement of gases to and from the insects
tissue

Adaptation of respiration for fish

1. Respiratory structures of fish gills
2. Bony fish have 4 pairs of gills which are protected
by operculum
3. Gill consist of filaments which supported by gill
arch
4. Filament s have a thin wall called lamellae
5. Structural adaptation of the gills:
Thin membranes allow the absorption of
respiratory gases into the blood capillaries
Rich of blood capillaries efficient and
transport of respiratory gases
Surrounded by water enable respiratory
gases to be dissolve
Large surface area of filaments and lamellae
for efficient gases exchange
6. Efficiency of gaseous exchange is further
enhanced
by
countercurrent
exchange
mechanism

7. Mechanism of Countercurrent Exchange

- Water flows over the gills in one direction
- Blood flows in the opposite direction
through blood capillaries in the lamellae
- As deoxygenated blood enters the blood
capillaries, it encounters water with higher
O2 content
- Along the blood capillaries, conc gradient
allows the transfer of O2 into the blood
- However, conc of CO2 in blood is higher
than in water. So CO2 diffused from blood
into water
8. Breathing mechanism of fish
When Inhale
- Its mouth opens, buccal cavity
lowered.
- Operculum closes, opercular cavity
becomes bigger
- Resulted in lower pressure in the
buccal cacity
- Water is then drawn into its mouth
along with dissolved O2.
When exhale
-

Its mouth closes, raising buccal cavity

floor.
As water flows through lamellae,
respiratory gases are exchanges
between blood capillaries and water.
As this occurs, the opercular cavity
becomes smaller.
High pressure in buccal cavity forces
the operculum to open allowing
water to flow out.

Adaptation of respiration for amphibian (Eg: Frog)

1. Amphibians such as frog live on land and in
water
2. Gaseous exchange occur through skin and
lungs
3. Adaptation of the skin for gaseous exchange:
o skin is thin and highly permeable allow
the absorption of respiratory gases into
the blood capillaries
o beneath the skin is a network of blood
capillaries to receive O2 and transport it
to body cells
o skin is moist by secretion of mucus
facilitate rapid and efficient exchange of
gases between the skin and the
environment
4. Adaptation of the lung for gaseous exchange:
- Surface area for gases exchange is
increased by numerous inner partition
facilitate the efficient diffusion of
respiratory gases in and out rapidly

Covered with a rich network of blood

capillaries to receive O2 and transport it
to body cells
- Membrane of the lungs are thin and moist
to increase the surface area for gases
exchange
5. Breathing mechanism of amphibian
When inhale
- When a frog inhales, it breathes in
through its nostrils.
- The bucco-pharyngeal floor is lowered
and fresh air is drawn in.
- At the same time, its glottis closes, and air
remains in the lungs.
- Afterwards, the glottis opens.
- Its nostrils are then closed and buccopharyngeal floor is raised.
- This causes high air pressure which forces
air into its lungs thus expanding them.
When Exhale
-

Its lungs muscles contract, expelling air

from its lungs
A frog does this by the abdominal
pressure and elasticity of the lungs.
Some of the air flows out of its nostrils
and some mixes with air in the buccopharyngeal cavity.

4. Features Of Alveoli And The Function In

Gaseous Exchange
- A large number of alveoli in the lungs
to increase the surface area for
exchange of gases
- Walls are made up of a single layer of
cells gases can diffuse easily across
the thin walls
- Walls secrete a thin lining of moisture
gases can dissolve in moisture and
diffuse easily across walls
- Surrounded by a network of blood
capillaries can transport O2 to and
CO2 away from the cells
5. Breathing mechanism in human

INHALATION
External intercostal muscles contract
Internal intercostal muscles relax
Rib cage move upwards and outwards
Diaphragm contracts and flattens
Volume of thoracic cavity increase resulting in
reduced air pressure in alveoli
Higher atmospheric pressure outside causes air
to rush in
EXHALATION
External intercostal muscles relax
Internal intercostal muscles contract
Rib cage move downwards and inwards

Adaptation of Respiration for Humans

1. Gaseous exchange in humans take place in
the lungs
2. Air enters lungs through :
trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli
3. Trachea is supported by cartilage to prevent it
from collapse during inhalation

Diaphragm relaxes and returns to dome-shaped

Volume of thoracic cavity decrease resulting in
higher air pressure in alveoli
Air is force out of lungs

7.3 GASEOUS EXCHANGES ACROSS RESPIRATORY

SURFACES & TRANSPORT OF GASES IN HUMANS

TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES IN HUMAN

a) Transport of O2 from lungs to body cell

How does the gaseous exchange happen between

the alveolus and the blood capillaries?
Gaseous exchange happens between the
alveolus and the blood capillaries through
diffusion.
The O2 concentration or partial pressure of
O2 in the alveolus is higher than the blood
capillaries.
O2 from the alveolus diffuses into the blood
capillaries.
The blood capillaries carry CO2 from body
cells to the alveolus.
So, it has a higher partial pressure of CO2
compared to the air in the alveolus.
CO2 diffuses into the alveolus and then it is
breathed out through the nose or mouth.

After the gaseous exchange happens between

the alveolus and the blood capillary, the O2
from the blood capillaries must be
transported to the body cells and tissues for
cellular respiration.
O2 combines with haemoglobin (Hb) to form
Oxyhaemoglobin.
Hb is the red pigment in the red blood cells.
O2 in the form of Oxyhaemoglobin is caries to
the cells and tissues.
For the O2 to dissolve in the cells and tissues
that need them, partial pressure of O2 plays
an important role.
The Oxyhaemoglobin is not stable, so it will be
broken down into Hb and O2 when it reaches
the cell or tissue with low partial pressure of
O2.

b) Transport of CO2 from body cells to lungs

At the same time the CO2 will diffuse into the

blood capillary.
CO2 released by respiring cells diffuses into
the blood plasma and into the red blood cells
(RBC).
CO2 can be transported from the body cells to
the lungs through three ways.

7% dissolves into the plasma.

23% binds to the multiple amino groups of Hb
(Carbaminohaemoglobin).
And 70% is carried as bicarbonate ions.
The reaction between the CO2 with water
forms carbonic acid.
Carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme in the RBC
catalysed the reaction.
The carbonic acid then breaks into a
hyf\drogen ion and a bicarbonate ion.
The bicarbonate ions diffuse into the blood
plasma and carried to the lungs.
At the lungs, the process that happens is the
reverse of what happens in the tissue.

1
2
3
4

rate of ventilation increase.rate of

ventilation is the rate of gaseous
exchange between alveoli and blood
capillaries

Process
The bicarbonate ions diffuse from the
blood plasma into the RBC and form
carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid breaks down to CO2 and
water.
CO2 diffuse from the blood capillaries
into the alveolus.
CO2 is breathed out through the nose or
mouth.

The CO2 than is carried through the plasma

diffuses into the alveolus.
The carboxyhaemoglobin that is carried by
RBC will break down intoCO2 and Hb and CO2
diffuses into the alveolus.

7.4 THE REGULATION MECHANISM IN RESPIRATION

CORRELATION RATE OF RESPIRATION WITH O2 AND
CO2 CONTENTS IN THE BODY
1. During vigorous exercise, muscles require
more O2 and glucose to release E during
cellular respiration. So, rate of respiration
increase.
2. Thus, to supply more O2, rate and depth of
breathing increase.
3. At the same time, the heartbeat increase to
pump more blood into circulation.
o

this enable more O2 and glucose to be

supplied for cellular respiration and more
CO2 removed from the cells.

REGULATORY MECHANISM OF O2 CONTENT IN THE

BODY

MAINTAINING A HEALTHY RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Do not smoke
Smoking can causes emphysema, bronchitis,
and lung cancer.
Smoking also can cause laryngitis which
makes speaking painful.
There are lots more effects of smoking to
lungs.
Not only the smokers suffer, but those who
breathe the smoke also can be affected.

7.6 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

ENERGY REQUIREMENT IN PLANT

HUMAN RESPIRATORY RESPONSE & RATE OF

RESPIRATION IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS

Plant require energy from cellular respiration

During cellular respiration, plant cells take in
O2 and produce CO2.
Photosynthesis only occurs in the presence of
light.
In darkness, plants carry out respiration.
Plants need energy continuously to sustain
their living process
Intake of O2 for respiration
Stomata and lenticels are structures
that are related to the gaseous
exchange in plants.
Stomata are openings in the
epidermis of a leaf.
They have a mechanism for opening
and closing. They open to let in O2
and release CO2.
Lenticels are small openings on the
surface that usually found in stems.

 Plants do not have specialized organs

for gaseous exchange.
Most plants take in O2 through leaves,
stems and roots because they have
large surface area for gaseous
exchange.
Gaseous exchange happens by simple
diffusion through stomata in the
leaves and lenticels on the stems and
roots.

The differences in concentration

gradient of O2 facilitate O2 to diffuse
continuously into the cell.

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION IN

PLANTS
1. Types of respiration in plants
a. Aerobic respiration
b. Anaerobic respiration

The exchange of O2 in plants can occur

in the day or at night.
In general, stomata are open during
the daytime when photosynthesis is
active, and then closed at night, when
open stomata would only lead to
water loss.
However, stomata may be closed
even in bright sunlight under hot, dry
conditions in which water
conservation is a matter of life and
death.
O2 from the atmosphere goes into the
lead through stomata into the air
space in leaf.
O2 is also given out as a waste product
of photosynthesis during the day.
The concentrations of O2 in the air
spaces become higher than the
surrounding cells.
As a result, O2 diffuses into the cells.

Aerobic respiration in plants

Aerobic respiration is carried out by

plants in the presence of O2.
During aerobic respiration, O2
concentration in the cell is lower than the
concentration of O2 in the air spaces.
It causes O2 to diffuse continuously into
the cell.
It combines with glucose to produce
energy.
This type of respiration is frequently
carried out by plants throughout the day
and night.
CO2 produced during aerobic respiration
is used in photosynthesis during the day
because photosynthesis is faster than
respiration.
equation:

Graph shows CO2 uptake in plants related to

light intensity

Anaerobic respiration in plants

Under certain circumstances, plants

can also carry out anaerobic
respiration for short period.
Basically, anaerobic respiration
happens during the absence of O2.
During floods, plants can survive for
many days submerged in the water
respiring anaerobically.
Rice plants are one good example of
anaerobic respiration.
Young rice plants can respire
anaerobically using its roots in the
waterlogged field which have little or
no O2.
Anaerobic respiration also happens
during early stages of germination
when the embryo is completely
enclosed within airtight seed coat.
Equation:

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF

PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION

Photosynthesis
Respiration
Similarities
Both are metabolic processes.
Both processes are needed to sustain life.
Both are needed to maintain composition of CO2
and O2 in the air.
Differences
Occurs in chloroplast
Occurs in mitochondria
Occurs in sunlight
Occurs in the dark as
well as in sunlight
Solar energy is
Chemical energy in
converted into chemical glucose is converted into
energy and stored in the heat and useful energy,
form of glucose.
the ATP released
Releases O2
Uses O2
Combines CO2 and
Breaks down glucose to
water to produce
produce CO2, water and
glucose. It is an anabolic
energy. It is a catabolic
process.
process.

At night, photosynthesis does not take place.

Only respiration takes place. CO2 is released
into the atmosphere.
So, the CO2 uptake is denoted as negative.
As light intensity increases during the day
light, the rate of photosynthesis also
increases. It causes the quantity of CO2
released into the atmosphere to decrease.
This is because CO2 released during
respiration is used for photosynthesis.
This correlation continues until it reaches a
certain point of light intensity whereby the
rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of
respiration.
At this point, all the CO2 released from
respiration is equal to the CO2 used up for
photosynthesis.
This point of equilibrium is called the
compensation point.