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CANADIAN THESES
ON MICROFICHE

T H ~ S E SCANA~IENNES
SUR MICROFICHE

Barry Edward Neil Reid

"The Inner Circle:. Some Aspects of the City
of Algiers and its Role in Pre-Colonial Algeria"
' .

UN,VERS,TY,uN,VERS,T~

Simon Fraser University

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'

THE INNER CIRCLE:

SOME ASPECTS QF THE CITY OF ALGIERS

AND I T S ROLE I N PRE-COLONIAL ALGERIA

B a r r y E . N. R e i d

>

$.A.

I
,

( ~ o n s1,
. ~

h F rna s e r U n i v e r s i t y ,

1971

A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

%

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE.DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS
i n the D e p a r t m e n t

of

ist to'^

B a r r y E. N. R e i d 1984
S W N FRASER UNIVERSITY

'

D e c e m b e r 1984
-

A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . T h i s w o r k may n o t be
-r e p r o d u c e d i n w h o l e o r i n p a r t , by p h o m c o p y
o r o t h e r m e a n s , w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n o f the a u t h o y
/
/'

/"

PART t A t COPYf?iGHT L ICENS E

I hereby g r a n t t o Simon Fraser U n i v e r s i t y t h e r,ight t o lend

my t h e s i s , p r o J e c t o r extended essay ( t h e t i t l e o f which i s shown below)

t o users o f t h e S i m n Fraser U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , and t o make p a r t i a l o r
s i n g l e copies o n l y - f o r such users o r i n response t o a request f r o m ' t h e
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I f u r t h e r agree t h a t permission

f o r m u l t i p l e copyfng o f t h i s work f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted

by me o r t h e &an

o f Graduate Studies.

I t i s , understood t h a t copy i ng

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w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n permission.

T i t l e of Thesis/Project/Extended Essay

"The Inner Circle:

Some As~e'ctsof the City of Algiers and

its Role in Pre-Colonial Algeriau

Author:
(signature)

Barry Edward Neil Reid

'

APPROVAL

Name:
Degree:

Barry Edward Neil Reid

M.A.

Title of thesis:

The Inner C i r ~ l e : Some Aspects of the City of

Algiers and its Role in Pre-Colonial Algeria
4

J.I. Little, Chairman

Examining Committee:

N.L.

CLeveland,Tefiior Supervisor

J. Spagnolo, Supervisory Committee

n & n ~ E x t e y a j l Examiner,
e Professor,' Geography Department,
Simon Eraser University

December, 1984

ABSTRACT

u n t i l t h e 1960's most s t u d i e s of p r e - c o l o n i a l A l g i e r s were

based on preconceptions e s t a b l i s h e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e French Conquest
of 1830.

The e i g h t e e n t h century c i t y was portrayed a s s u f f e r i n g from

p o l i t i c a l anarchy, s o c i a l chaos, and o v e r a l l economic d i s t r e s s ; it

was considered t o have been rescued from t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s by t h e French
occupation.

This p i c t u r e of A l g i e r s r e q u i r e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount

of modification i n t h e l i g h t of r e c e n t h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h which shows

- t h a t t h e people of A l g i e r s found t h e i r c i t y t o be a v i a b l e urban u n i t .
f

I f h i s t o r y i s t o r e f l e c t r e a l i t y , then new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s must be

produced from t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a and re-evaluations

of o l d e r s t u d i e s

must'be &esented without t h e overwhelming European b i a s which h a s

3

coloured e a r l i e r scholarship.

Thus, a s p e c t s of l i f e i n and around

~ l ~ i e need
k s t o be re-examined. i n o r d e r t o b u i l d a more s a t i s f a c t o r y
p i c t u r e of t h e p r e - c o l o n i a l c i t y d u r i n g t h e h a l f - c e n t u r y preceding
the Conquest.

A l g i y s was A v i a b l e p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y w i t h a h i g 6 d e g r e e

of s o c i a l cohesion and a sound economic base.

*

The c i t y was n o t simply

a haven f o r p i r a t e s and an establishment dedicated t o e n s l a v i n g C h r i s t i a n s ;

-

i t w a s developing an i d e n t i t y based on i t s connections w i t h t h e Muslim

world, i t s l o c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e Mediterranean r e g i o n , and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s with t h e r e s t of North A f r i c a .

This study focukes on p r e - c o l o n i a l A l g i e r s from 1780 t o 1830,t

and p r e s e n t s the c i t y a s an independent, developing urban r e g i o n , w i t h

some d i f f i c u l t i e s which were i n t h e process of being r e s o l v e d when
the Conquest occurred.

~ l ~ i e was
r k much mo I% l i k e o t h e r Mediterranean
/

I s l a m i c towns t h a n l i k e t h e decaying, o l i g a r c h i c mosaic p o r t r a y e d i n

the l i t e r a t u r e of t h e p a s t .
/ E k e major sources f o r t h i s study include r e c e n t works by
Yorth African and French s p e c i a l i s t s , e a r l i e r French h i s t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ,
r e l e v a n t new s t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h on North A f r i c a , a d selected B r i t i s h
Foreign O f f i c e m a t e r i a l .

The major c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s r e s t s

with i t s r e - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of standard m a t e r i a l s and i t s i n t e g r a t i o n

of e a r l y l i t e r a t u r e with t h e new p e r s ~ e c t i v eprovided by r e c e n t

scholarship.

-~

Ottoman

From

Charles

A.

Julian,

ClioCorq

Algiers

hlor4h A i r i c a ,

(Lcndoo, l97a), P. 2 8 9 .

GLOSSARY OF O ' I T O W ADMINISTRATIVE"POSITIONS

Agha

'

Ottoman d i g n i t a r y ; i n t h e Divan a t A l g i e r s , a m i n i s t e r
responsible f o r administering t h e m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s
. o u t s i d e of t h e fahs.
Local d i g n i t a r y w i t h i n t h e v a r i o u s harah ( q u a r t e r s )
o r person iny.e-karge-- of a s p e c i f i c c o r p o r a t i o n ; an urban
notable.

Beit el-maldji

~ i ~ n i t rae srp ~
o n s i b l e f o r f i l l i n g vacant p o s i t i o n s
w i t h i n the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h i e r a r c h y .

r)

Ottoman a d m i n i s t r a t i v e head of a b e y l i k (province),

appointed by t h e dey.
-

Cadi

'

A Muslim judge involved w i t h c i v i l law and u s u a l r e l i g i o u F

An a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r w i t h i n t h e lower l e v e l bureaucracy;
i n t h e h i e r a r c h y , between an amin and khodja.

Ottoman governor of ~ l g i e r s ;g e n e r a l l y s e l e c t e d from

w i t h i n t h e A l g i e r s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system.

v-

"Gardien-bashi"

Captain of t h e p o r t .

Khal i f a

Administrator w i t h i n t h e b e y l i k , under t h e bey.

Khaznadar

T r e a s u r e r ; secand p o s i t i o n in. t h e Divan.

Khod j a

Deputy m i n i s t e r s r e s p o ~ s i b l ef o r c a r r y i n g o u t t h e
d e c i s i o n s made w i t h i n t h e Divan. 'There were a t l e a s t
s i x Khodjas on t h e Divan.

Khodja el-Kheil

Receiver-general of t a x e s and t r i b u t e .

11

J u r i s c o n s u l t a n t " e n t i t l e d t o i n t e r p r e t ' a n d expound

Islamic law. There were two w i t h i n t h e Divan a t ,
Algiers.
Local o f f i c e r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o r d e r l y o p e r a t i o n
of c o r p o r a t i o n s , markets, and o t h e r s e r v i c e s .
-

Nakib el-ashraf

Member of t h e Divan i n charge of habous'and r e l a t e d t o p i c s .

Oukil el-Khard j

Representative of t h e marine i n t e r e s t s on t h e Divan.

9
,-

-,-

W
'

vii

Pasha

Ottoman term denoting

of high rank. In early
Ottoman Algiers, the equivalent of the &, appointed
by the Porte.

Rakamdj i

Sheikh

chief
Respected, even venerated man, selected --as
, ,. the
.
of a tribe or brotherhood.

'

::

viii

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
P r e - c o l o n i a l A l g i e r s : t h e problems; r e v i e w of
l i t e r a t u r e and s o u r c e s ; I s l a m i c c i t i e s
CHAPTER I .

A HISTORICAL OUTLINE

.............

'

15

The e a r l y s i t e ; t h e I s l a m i c c i t y ; o t t b m a n ,
A l g i e r s : from b e y s t o d e y s ; i n t e r n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ; a p o s i t i v e re-assessment

CHAPTER 11.

A DESCRIPTIVE SYNTHESIS

...........

-32

S i t e , s i t u a t , i o n , and l a y o u t ; a functionabl
analysis
CHAPTER 111.

THE FRAMEWORK OF GOVERNMENT

.........

P h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; r e l a t 4 o n s
w i t h t h e Ottoman E m p i r e ; l b e y l i c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s ;
11
t h e o u t e r c i r c l e ; " t h e Dar e l - S u l t a n ; t h e government of t h e c i t y ; a c h a n g i n g p o l i t i c a l system

CHAPTER I V .

. . . . . . . . .-, .

An overview; t h e r o l e of "la c h a s e ; " an

a g r i c u l t u r a l economy; r e s o u r c e s ; i n t e r n a l
t r a d e , m a n u f a c t u r i n g and commerce; a r t i s a n s
and c o r p o r a t i o n s ; e x t e r n a l t r a d e ; o r d i n a r y
revenues and t a x a t i o n ; economic harmony

CHAPTER V.
Y

THE ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

THE SOCIAL NETWORR

..............

109

The r o l e of I s l a m ; ulama, marabouts, and suf i s ;

t h e Ottoman t r i b a l p o l i c y ; e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y ; c i v i c
s o c i a l S t r u c t u r e s ; c u l t u r e ' a n d education

............................
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
/

CONCLUSIONS.

136
142

'

S e v e r a l r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t c i t y - s t a t e s developed a l o n g
t h e North A f r i c a n l i t t o r a l d u r i n g t%e y e a r s p r i o r t o t h e European e x p a n s i o n
of t h e m i d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

These ~ i t y ~ s t a t were
es
u n i q u e urban
,

w i t h networks of s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and economic r e l a t i o n t

s h i p s which t i e-d them t o t h e I s l a m i c w o r l d , t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d ,

and t h e Nortlq;African h i n t e r l a n d .

One of t h e most d i s t i n c t i v e of t h e s e

s e a - p o r t c i t i e s was A l g i e r s , a p o l i t i c a l c e n t r e i n t h e Maghrib Ghich

was a l s o a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n M e d i t e r r a n e a n t r a d e , and a n i n t e n s e ,
c o l o u r f u l complex of s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s .

A l g i e r s was n o t

a c - a p i t a l c i t y i n t h e modern n a t i o n a l i s t i c s e n s e , b u t i t d i d e x e r k
a n i n f l u e n c e which seemed t o tyanseend i t s s i z e and r a t h e r l i m i t e d power
i n many a r e a s ,

I n the half-century

b e f o r e t h e French c o n q u e s t , t h e

S
'psi,

~ i t had
y
i t s p a t t e r n s of urban, r e l a t i o n s h i p s d i s r u p t e d by d i v e r s e phenomena,
y e t i t c o n t i n u e d i t s development b e c a u s e of t h e "network of i n t e r r e l a t i o n - 'c,
s h i p s which h e l d t o g e t h e r t h e segments of medieval I s l a m i c ' u r b a n ' s o c i e t y , I f
3

w h i l e a t t h e same time t h e c i t y went through s e v e r a l " p e r i o d s of s o c i a l

and i n s t i t u t i o

transition."

These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s make A l g i e r s a

f a s c i n a t i n g s u b j e c t f o r h i s t o r i c a l , a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e of i t s p o s i t i o n

1.

i
Cleveland, "The &nkip& Ge-il
of T a n i s , 1858487fJ: d
Study i n Urban I n s t i t u t i o n a l Change," I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of
Middle E a s t S t u d i e s , I X (19781, p . 33.

W.

LA

--

i n t i m e and s p a c e , its c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y , and i t s sp6ci.f i c m e t h o d s

A

of d e a l i n g w i t h change.

,J

C i t i e s , guch a s A T g g r s , af ~0 i , ' f - o v h e ~ t m k ~ r r ~
&

w i t h p a r a m e t e r s which a r e r e a s o n a b l y defined:.

This is n o t intended

t o imply t h a t c i t i e s a r e more s a t i s f a c t o r y f i e l d s f o r s t u d y t h a n n a t i o n s ,

i n d i v i d u a l s , o r c i v i l i z a t i d n s , nor i s t h e r e an i n t e n t i o n t o o v e r s t a t e
t h e importance of c i t y d w e l l e r s .

Howeve$,

a s E l b a k i Hermassi h a s observed

i n h i s c o n c e p t u a l 'model of North A f r i c a n s o c i e t y , t h e c i t y d o e s form

an e s s k n t i a l p a r t of t h e whole, and i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e
i n d i k d u a l part/s b e f o r e a t t e m p t i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e sum of t h e p a r t s : 2
T h i s s t u d y , t h e r e f o r e , w i l l f o c u s on A l g i e r s d u r i n g t h e l a s t y e a r s of
f

i t s p o l i t i c a l independence from Europe, t h a t i s , f r o m ' t h e 1 7 8 0 ' s t o

A s t u d e n t of urban h i s t o r y h a s many o b s t a c l e s t o overcome

even though t h e s u b j e c t may a p p e a r t o b e d e l i m i t e d i n time and' s p a c e .

He

must l e a r n from t h e g e o g r a p h e r s t h e f a c t o r s of s i t e
and s i t u a t i o n and ghe g e n e r a l mor@hology of t h e c i t y
a s i t s t a n d s . Next he must t a k e @ y c s s i o n
of whatever
t h e p o l i t i c a l , economic, i n d u s t r i 2 1 . and s o c i a l h i s t o r i a n s
can g i v e him. A f t e r t h a t t h e must m a s t e r t h e whole
c o r p u s of t o p o g r a p h i c a l m a t f r i a l - n o t o n l y maps, b u t
p r i n t s , d r a w i n g s , photographs and d e s c r i p t i o n s of l o s t
b u i l d i n g s . L a s t , h e must know t h e % i t y
'3

...

T h i s i s an immense t a s k , and i t i s n o t t h e i-n t e n t i o n o f . t h i s study

2.

Hermassi's model of North A f r i c a n s o

t y involves three concentric
c i r c l e s : the inner c i r c l e represent
he p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l c e n t r e s ,
t h e c i t i e s ; t h e second c i r c l e r e p r e s
s t h e Makhzan t r i b e s ( t h o s e
who a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n t r o l of t h e i n n e r c i r c l e ' ) ; t h e t h i r d c i r c l e
s t a n d s f o r t h e t r i b e s which choose n o t t o g i v e a l l e g i e n c e t o t h e
p o l i t i c a f o r d e r - * ' t h e d i s s i d w t - a & smr-d%~4defif
+rib-.
" Se&
L e a d e r s h i p and N a t i o n a l Development i n North A f r i c a , ( B e r k e l e y ,
1972), pp- 8-9,
S i r John Summerson, "The C i t y a s ~ r t i f a c t - , "i n The H i s t o r i a n and
t h e C i t y , ed. by Oscar B a n d l i n and John Burchard (Cambridge, 19661,
p. 165.

3.

--

- --

t o s a t i s f y a l l t h e demands n o t e d above.

Indeed, t h e e x i s t i n g s t a t e

of h i s t o r i c a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l r e s e a r c h on p r e - c o l o n i a l A l g i e r s i s s o
emaciated t h a t S m e r s o n ' s r e q u i r e m e n t s w i l l n o t l i k e l y b e met f o r some
>

time.

It i s t h e i n t e n t i o n of t h i s s t u d y t b examine p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h

on p r e - c o l o n i a l

A l g i e r s , t o s u g g e s t t h e e r r o r s afld m i s c o n c e p t i o n s of

t h a t r e s e a r c h , and t o o f f e r new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e l i f e of t h e c i t y
and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t s h i n t e r l a n d based on a r e - e v a l u a t i o n of t h e

sourcei.
A b r i e f r e v i e w of t h e e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e w i l l r e v e a l t h e

I n 1976, William Spencer overviewed t h r e &

j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s paper.
a

hundred y e a r s of A l g i e r ' s h i s t o r y , c o n c e n t r a t i n g on some r e l a t i v e l y

minor a s p e c t s : t h e r o l e of p i r a c y i n t h e development of t h e c i t y ; and

t h e importance of Europe, w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e
v h i c h shows t h a t n e i t h e r Europe n o r p i r a t e s p l a y e d a c o n t i n u o u s , s i g n i f i c a n t
r o l e LI-I t h e c i t y .

Other r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d s t u d i e s c o n t i n u e t o r e s t a t e

' n i s t o r k o g r a p h i c a l a&oaches

ssfrictr have been c r i t i c i z e d

Ly

Sorth African

s p e c i a l i s t s f o r t h e i r n a x r o k i e s s i n o u t l o o k and t h e i r l a c k of f o c u s on i m p o r t a n t i n t e r n a l i s s u e s .

Thus, t h e i n i t i a l problem which a r i s e s

,'/

when a t t e m p t i n g t o w r i t e a h i s t o r y of a p r e c o l o n i a l North A f r i c a n c i t y

c o n c e r n s t h e m a t e r i a l s which a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r u s e .

Most of t h e s c h o l a r s h i p

i s French b o t h i n ' l a n g u a g e and o u t l o o k , and many of t h e s t u d i e s a r e

4.
5.

William S p e n c e r , A l g i e r s i n t h e Age of t h e C o r s a i r s (Norman, 1976).

See, f o r example, J o b 3. Wolf, The Barbary Coast (New York, 1979).
For o t h e r comments on r e c e n t schofarsh-ig s e e Michael Brett, l l P r o M ~
ii~t h e Z n t e r p r e t z t i o z of t h e H i s t o r y of t h e Maghrib i n t h e L i g h t
cf f m Recerrt Wlicat ions ," 3
d & kkiean ffiH+e9y7-3 (1972), pp. 489-506; 2nd Edmmd Burke I I L "Towards a H i s t o r y
o f t h e S g h r i b ," ?!id612 E a s t e r n S t u d i e s , X I , 3 (1975), p$ 3063-79

n o t w e l l documented.

F o r example, i n Boyer's La v i e q u o t i d i e n n e

Alger,

a v a l u a b l e monograph f o r s t u d e n t s of t h i s . p e r i o d , h e w r i t e s i n a c o n v e r s a t i o n a l
i

s t y l e which h e l p s t o f a c i l i t a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b u t h e k e e p s h i s s p e c i f i c
sources a s e c r e t .

We a r e f o r c e d t o r e l y on h i s r e p u t a t i o n a s a h i s t o r i a n .

I n John w s f ' s The Barbary Coast and i n s p e n c e r , we have t h e same problem .

t o some e x t e n t : r e f e r e n c e i s made t o a r c h i v a l r e s e a r c h
and Ottoman

B r i t i s h , French,

b u t t h e r e i s l i t t l e evidence t o suggest t h a t t h e s e sources

were used i n f o r m u l a t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s e s found i n t h e t e x t s .

I n any

c a s e , t h e s e a r c h i v e s m y n o t b e t h e b e s t p l a c e s t o l'ook f o r e v i d e n c e
re-&ding

North African s o c i e t y .
European a r c h i v e s g e n e r a l l y p r e s e n t t h e r e s e a r c h e r w i t h p e r s p e c t i v e s

which need t o b e avoided i f a c c u r a t e p r e s e n t a t i o n of non-European

countries
\

i s an o b j e c t i v e .

As. L u c e t t e Valensi. h a s w r i t t e n , Consuls

were r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e G c i t i e s i n which t h e y l i v e d ,
t r a v e l l e d o n l y r a r e l y , and were p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e i r
duties . . .
Few of them spoke A r a b i c
They
were n e v e r p e r m i t t e d t o e n t e r t h e homes of t h e c i t y
. . . . They were a s uninformed a b o u t t h e day-to-day
urban l i f e a s %hey were a b o u t t h e p e a s a n t r y .
7

....

F o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s was n o t always t h e c a s e .

When t h e B r i t i s h Consuls

a t A l g i e ~ swrote of t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e i r l e t t e r s were n o t even touched

w i t h t g e s i g h t s , sounds and s m e l l s of t h e c i t y , b u t o n l y w i t h t h e d r y ,
d u s t y ;rose

of F o r e i g n Off i c e j a r g o n .

nbt historians.

Consuls w r o t e t o inform b u r e a u c r a t s ,

N e v e r t h e l e s s , a p a r t from t h e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s ,

i t i s s t i l l p o s s i b l e t o g l e a n b i t s of r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n and i n s i g h t

6.

7.

P i e r r e Boyer, L a vie q u o t i d i e n n e & A l g e r i l a v d k d e l l i n t e r v - e n t i a n

Francaise ( P a r i s , 1963).
L u c e t t e V a l e n s i , O n t h e Eve of Coloni.alism ( ~ e wYork, 19771, p.
xxiii.

from some of t h e s e documents

'8

For example, Consular p a p e r s c a n h e l p

t o v e r i f y d a t e s and p e r s o n a l i t i e s , a s w e l l a s g i v e u s some i d e a of economic

c o n c e r n s and t h e e f f e c t of Europe and dopea an i d e a s on A l g i e r s .

s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e ' c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x p o r t a t i o n of g r a i n t o Europe may s e r v e

to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s point.

S e v e r a l o b s e r v e r s have n o t e d t h a t t h e Dey

( r u l e r ) of A l g i e r s h e l d a p e r s o n a l monopoly on t h i s commerce.

However,

w e g e t a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t view on t h i s s u b j e c t from a - B r i t i s h c o n s u l ,
C h a r l e s L o g i e , who w r i t e s :
From t h e p r o s p e c t s of t h e c r o p s t h i s y e a r , t h e r e
w i l l remain a g r e a t e r q u a n t i t y t h a n t h e l a s t f o r
e x p o r t a t i o n , b u t no c o n t r a c t s are p e r m i t t e d b e f o r e
t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o v i n c e s make a r e t u r n t o t h e Dey
and Diwan of t h e q u a n t i t i e s c o l l e c t e d , t h a t a
judgement may be fbrmed of t h e q u a n t i t y t h e y w i l l
g r a n t L i c e n s e t o exp%t, a f t e r l e a v i 6 g s u f f i e n t
f o r home consumption.
-9
T h i s s t a t e m e n t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e "monopoly" was n o t simply a means
t o p r o v i d e revenue f o r t h e %,'but

t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e c i t y

/
was a l s o concerned
w i t h p r o v i d i n g s u f f i c i e n t food f o r i t s c i t i z e n s .
Thus, t h e r e i s an e v i d e n t need f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of r e s e a r c h
i n t o pre-co1,oniaL A l g e r i a s o t h a t an " a c c e p t a b l e f o u n d a t i o n of f a c t u a l
statement

[including]

some measure of c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e modern p e r i o d

. ,. . . b e

established."

10

T h i s p o i n t s t o a n o t h e r problem which c o n f r o n t s s t u d e n t s of
A l g e r i a n h i s t o r y : tlie c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s c h o l a r 4 y e f f o r t on t h e c o l o n i a l

8.

9.
10.

The B r i t i s h p e r s p e c t i v e i s found i n t h e P u b l i c Record O f f i c e (London).

See S e r i e s FO 3, which i s a f i l e of correspondence between t h e
v a r i o u s c o n s u l s a t A l g i e r s and t h e S e c r e t a r y of State f o r - t h e South
( l a t e r , t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e ) from 1760 u n t i l t h e 1 8 3 0 ' s .
FO 3 / 7 , C h a r l e s Logie t o W. W. G r e n v i l l e , 27 A p r i l 1790.
B r e t t , "P-roblems ,:' p. 492.

and n a t i o n a l p e r i o d s , a c o n c e n t r a t i o n which h a s impeded t h e development

of a c o h e r e n t h i s t o r y of A l g e r i a .

11

T h i s t r e n d h a s n o t been t o t a l l y

n e g a t i v e b e c a u s e it h a s caused i n t e n s i v e and i n f o r m a t i v e d e b a t e between.

6

t h e v a t i o u s "sihools"

of w r i t e r s and t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i p n . s ' . o f ' S v i d e n c e .

j

Iri t h e h i n e t e e n t h and t h e f i r s t h a l f of t h e t w e ~ t i e t h - e e r i t u r yi n F r a n c e ,
.g '
*

where most r e s e a r c h concerned w i t h A l g e r i a was c e n t e r e d , tkie most p r e v a l e n t

h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l approach c o u l d b e termed " c o l o n i a l a p o l o g i s t . "

The

o b j e c t i v e of t h i s approach w a s 2 0 promote t h e i d e a t h a t p r e - c o l o n i a l
A l g e r i a was i n a s t a t e of n e a r anarchy and a l m o s t complete c h a o s , a
I

s i t u a t i o n well s u i t e d t o "la mission c i v i l a t r i c e . "

Later, a " r e v i s i o n i ~ t ' ~

o r ' t r e ~ ~ n ~ t r u ~ t i o snc ih ~
o ot l' lappeared which was d i v i d e d i n t o two main

1
g r o u p s : t h o s e who were o r i e n t e d towards a M a r x i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
h i s t o r y , w i t h i t s emphasis on c l a s s s t r u g g l e , mode of p r o d u c t i o n , economic
problems, and a d i a l e c t i c a l a p p r o a c h ; and t h o s e who were more n a k i o n a l i s t i c
i n outlook.
>erdistinct,

11.

12.

12,

.
.
'
O f c o u r s e , a t times t h e s e s c h o o l s were n e i t h e r s e p a r a t e

b u t t h e ' r main i d e a

t h a t t h e r e was a need t o "decolonize"

The r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d h i s t o r i e s by Abdallah L a r o u i (The H i s t o r y

of t h e Maghrib, P r i n c e t o n , 1977) and J a m i l M. Abun-Nasr (A H i s t o r y
of t h e Maghrib, Cambridge, 1975) a r e welcome a d d i t i o n s t o t h e
E n g l i s h o r i e n t e d a u d i e n c e which had only ~ h a r l e s - ~ n d rJgu l i e n ' s
H i s t o r y of North A f r i c a (London, 1970) t o r e l y ' o n b e f o r e t h e i r
publication.
See D.C. Gordon i n S e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n and H i s t o r y i n t h e T h i r d
World ( P r i n c e t o n , 1 9 7 1 ) , who o u t l i n e s t h r e e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l
approaches t o t h i r d world h i s t o r y . The " f u t u r i s t s " a r e t h o s e
who a t t e m p t t o underplay t h e r o l e of h i s t o r y i n t h e development
of n a t i o n s and n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . The " a p o l o g i s t s " a r e t h o s e
who t e n d t o n e g a t e t h e r o l e of t h e west - t h e c o l o n i z e r s - r e l y i n g
on t h e i r p r e - c o l o n i a l h i s t o r y t o p r o v i d e them w i t h models a s t h e y
s t r i v e to d e v e l o p their iden~ity. The f i n a l group, t h e "xeccms t r u c t i o n a l i s t s , " a r e t h o s e who a t t e m p t t o r e v i v e t h e past,."but
who a t t h e same time r e a l i z e
t h e i n a d e q u a c i e s of t h i s
p a s t i n f a c e of t h e c h a l l e n g e s of modernity." (p. 50)

....

-.

Algerian h i s t o r y

was a c o n s t a n t theme i n t h e i r s c h o l a r s h i p .

13

P a r t of t h i s d e c o l o n i z a t i o n must b e a re-examination of t h e pre-colonia'l

p e r i o d i n o r d e r t o g e t away from t h e c o n s t a n t r e i t e r a t i o n o f t h e " f a c t

\.

t h a t t h e p e r i o d of Ottoman A l g e r i a s t i l l i s mainly one of T u r k s , p i r a t e s ,

l p a n i s h and F r e n c h , s t i l l l a r g e l y e x t e r n a l and e l i t i s t . "

14

A s Kenneth

P e r k i n s h a s o b s e r v e d : "To a r g u e t h a t c o l o n i a l i s m a l t e r e d e s s e n t i a l p a t t e r n s
of l i f e i n t h e Maghrib i s p o i n t l e s s , even i f t r u e , u n l e s s s u b s t a n t i a l
e v ' d e n c e can b e produced t o i l l u s t r a t e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e p r e c o l o n i a l

Mag r i b .

I1

1.5

t
'

' - , ,

'

Other problems r e l a t i v e t o s o u r c e s a r e d i s c u s s e d by A.A.

and Edmund Burke 111.

"9ed

16

Heggoy

Both a u t h o r s n o t e t h e r o l e which o r a l t r a d i t i o n s

i n t h e s e n s e of h i s t o r y f e l t and understood by p r e - c o l o n i a l A l g e r i a n s ,

and b o t h r e g r e t t h e l o s s of a g r e a t d e a l of t h i s i m p o r t a n t d a t a due
t o t h e d i f f e r i n g c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s of west and e a s t w i t h r e g a r d t o
the

of o r a l h i s t o r y i n t h e academic world.
Robert Xantran i n L'Annuaire de 1 ' A f r i q u e du nord c h a s t i z e s
I

h i s t o r i a n s f o r c o n c e n t r a t i n g on c l a s s i c a l and modern s t u d i e s and f o r

a

n e g l e c t i n g t h e Ottoman p e r i o d i n Maghribi h i s t o r y .

He o b s e r v e s t h a t

t h e r e a r e volumes of documents r e l a t i v e t o "des r e v e n u e s d e s d e y s , d e s

13.
14.
'

15.
i6.

See John Wansbrough,

"The D e c o l o n i z a t i o n of North A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , "
J o u r n a l of A f r i c a n H i s t o r f r , I X , 4 (1968), pp. 643-650.
P e t e r Gran, "On Modem Maghribi H i s t o r y , " Revue d T H i s t o i r e Maghrebi
n o s . 13-14 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p.58.
K . J . P e r k i n s , Foreword i n L u c e t t e V a l e n s i , On t h e - E v e of C o l o n i a l i s m ,
p . ix*
A . A . Heggoy , "The S o u r c e s f o r ~ i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A l g e r i a n H i s t o r y :
A C r i t i c a l E s s a y , " Muslim World, LXIV, 4 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , pp. 292-299; and
Edmund Burke 111, "Towards a H i s t o r y of t h e Maghri-by1' Middle E a s t e r n
S t u d i e s , X I , 3 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , pp. 306-323.

imp6ts pay4es p a r l e s t r i b u s , d e s b i e n s d e s f o n d a t i o n s p i e u s e s (habous)

de l a Mekke e t de Medine 2 A l g e r , d e s t a x e s a u x q u e l l e s 6 t a i e n t soumis
t

l e s J u i f s , du r e c r u t e m e n t d e s J a n i s s a i r e s , ( e t ) d e l a c o u r s e

....

I1

17

Mantran goes on t o a r g u e t h a t o r i e n t a l i s t s c a p a b l e of r e a d i n g A r a b i c
o r Ottoman T u r k i s h must b e g i n t o t r a n s l a t e and r e c o r d t h e c o n t e n t s of
t h e s e a r c h i v e s s o t h a t t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e u t i l i z e d by o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s
and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n o b t a i n i n g an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of North
Africa's recent past.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , even though t h i s a r t i c l e was w r i t t e n

more t h a n twenty y e a r s ago, t h e r e h a s n o t been much r e s p o n s e t o M a n t r a n ' s

s u g g e s t i o n s , and we a r e s t i l l r e l y i n g , f o r t h e most p a r t , on European
documents and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
Abdallah L a r o u i c a r r i e s on t h i s c r i t i c i s m i n h i s The H i s t o r y
of t h e Maghrib.

He reviews t h e c y c l i c a l n a t u r e of w e s t e r n s c h o l a r s h i p
_C

on North A f r i c a , w i t h one s t u d y making r e f e r e n c e t o a n o t h e r ; i d e a s

b e i n g " v e r i f i e d " by unproven o r p o o r l y r e s e a r c h e d h y p o t h e s e s o f f e r e d
by s t u d e n t s who have p i c k e d up an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n someone e l s e ' s s t u d y ;
b

and t h e n , f u r t h e r s i g n i f i c a n c e g i v e n t o t h e p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s by t h e s e
r e p e a t e d r e f e r e n c e s t o them.

"The consequence i s a c o n s p i r a c y which

p u t s t h e most a d v e n t u r o u s h y p o t h e s e s i n t o c i r c u l a t i o n and u l t i m a t e l y
imposes them a s e s t a b l i s h e d t r u t h . ' I l 8
The s t u d e n t o r r e g e a r c h e r who does n o t have a working knowledge
of e i t h e r A r a b i c o r Ottoman T u r k i s h i s f a c e d w i t h a dilemma: d o e s h e
c o n t i n u e t o b u i l d h y p o t h e s e s which may i n t h e f u t u r e b e seen a s f a u l t y ?

17.

Robert X a n t r a n , " k s donnds de 1' h i s g o i r e moderne e i c m t e m p r a i n e

de l l b l g e ) r i e e t de l a T u n i s i e , " Annuaire de l l A f r i q u e du n o r d ,
(1962) , p. 247.
Laroui, H i s t o r y , p.3.

Does h e t a k e up a s t u d y of a r e g i o n i n which n q furtLrer language s t u d y

is n e c e s s a r y ?

O r , does he t a k e t h e e v i d e n c e -'at h i s Zi8posa1, temper

*-"+

i t w i t h s o u r c e s which u t i l i z e t h e a v a i l a b l e contemporary m a t e r i a l s ,
and t h e n e v a l u a t e i t w i t h t h e knowledge t h a t very few c o n c l u s i o n s a r e
P

e v e r immutable?

Of c o u r s e , t h e obvious g o a l should b e t o become f a m i l i a r

w i t h t h e n l a n g u a g e s r e l e v a n t t o s c h o l a r s h i p , b u t t h e p r o c e s s of h i s t o r i c a l
i n v e s t i g a t i o n need n o t s t o p simply b e c a u s e t h a t h a s n o t y e t ' b e e n a c h i e v e d .
'
I

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t i n ormed h y p o t h e s e s be p u t Lb e f o r e tGe ' i n t e l l e c t u a l

~ ~ m m u n i t y 2onr d e r t o b e t t e r p r o g r e s s towards t h e common g o a l s of under-

---

s t a n d i n g i&nd.awareness;
?%e f i n a l problem t o b e a d d r e s s e d a t t h i s p o i n t i s one of
b

classification.

Where does A l g i e r s f i t i n t h e cqfitinuum of u r b a n s ~ u d i e s ?

How i s i t s i m i l a r t o o r d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r c i t i e s ?

The f i r s t and

perhaps most i m p o i t a n t h i n t i s t h a t A l g i e r s was a p a r t of t h e Muslim

world.

It was an I s l a m i c c i t y . a n d , s u c h i t h e l d c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s i n

common w i t h o t h e r c i t i e s of t h e I s l a m i c world:
w a l l s and q u a r t e r s , t o l i s t j u s t a few.

mosques, m a r k e t s , c a s b a h ,

Thus i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o i n v e s t i g a t e
t

t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d t o I s l a m i c c i t i e s and t o p l a c e A l g i e r s i n t h e
c o n t e x t of urban s t u d i e s
i s beyond t h e scope of t h i s

Obviously, a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y

aper, but it i s e s s e n t i a l t o i n d i c a t e t h e

a r e a s of s i m i l a r i t y and d i f f e r e n c e between o t h e r c u l t u r a l r e g i o n s and

i

Algiers.
C i t i e s have l o n g b e e n a s o u r c e of c u r i o s i t y , i n s p i r a t i o n ,
and d e b a t e f o r h i s t o r i a n s .

The l i t e r a t u r e i s e x t e n s i v e , and r a n g e s
>

from b r o a d l y t h e o r e t i c a l t o i n t e n s e l y s p e c i f i c , from s t u d i e s on t h e

o r i g i n s and meanings of urban a r e d s and u r b a n i z a t i o n , t o c a s e s t u d i e s

of h d i v i d u a l towns and c i t i e s o r a s p e c t s of towns and c i t i e s .

From

t h i s v a s t expanse of l i t e r a t u r e t h e r e emerge many i m p o r t a n t i d e a s and

i m p r e s s i o n s , n o t t h e l e a s t of which i s t h e concept of t h e c i t y a s an
e n t i t y w i t h a " p e r s o n a l i t y , " an i d e n t i t y ' .

As Oscar Handlin h a s observed

c o n c e r n i n g medieval and p r e - i n d u s t r i a l c i t i e s : " ( t h e s e ) e a r l i e r communities

p o s s e s s e d an i n d i v i d u a l l i f e of t f i o y n
s u c c e s s o r s do n o t .

" 19

i n a s e n s e t h a t t h e i r modern

However, sometimes t h e r e a r e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n

d i s c o v e r i n g t h e s o u r c e s of a c i t y ' s i d e n t i t y .

Gideon S j o b e r g h a s observed
P

that :
C e r t a i n a s p e c t s of k h e c i t y d w e l l e r s
l i f e-ways
l i e f o r e v e r beyond o u r g r a s p . The o n l y r e a s o n a b l e
a l t e r n a t i v e i s e x t r a p o l a t i o n t o t h e p a s t from d a t a
on more r e c e n t .
c i t i e s , u t i l i z i n g i n the
p r o c e s s , r e c e n t advances i n t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t ' s
knowledge of s o c i a l s y s t e p s
20

...

F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e a r e a l s o many s i m i l a r i t i e s between v a r i o u s c i t i e s
w i t h i n t h e I s l a m i c c u l t u r a l r e a l m , and i t i s p o s s i b l q t o compare and
c o n t r a s t A l g i e r s w i t h c i t i e s such a s F e s , ~ a l 6 ,o r T u n i s , c i t i e s on
which much more r e s e a r c h h a s been done.
Recent l i t e r a t u r e on I s l a m i c towns p r e s e n t s u s
which i s r e l a t i v e l y c o n s i s t e n t .
/

F i r s t , t h e r e were few

i n s t i t u t i o n s P s u c h a s c o u n c i l s , c o r p o r a t i o n s o r codes.

21

i t h a pattern

i f any

municipal

However ,-t h i s

s t a t e m e n t mu4t be q u a l i f i e d w i t h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e r e were
v a r i e t i e s of c h e c k s , b a l a n c e s , and p a t t e r n s which d i d n o t conform t o

19.
20.
21.

Oscar Handlin; e d . , The H i s t o r i a n and t h e C i t y , p . 2 .

Gideon S j o b e r g , The P ~ e i d u s t r i a l i c y (New York, 1 9 6 8 ) , p.333.
S.M. S t e r n , "The C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e I s l a m i c C i t y , ' ' i n The I s l a m i c
C i t y , e d . by A.H. Hourani and S.M. S t e r n (Oxford, 1970), p.26.

t h e w e s t e r n c o n c e p t s of "municipal

i n s t i t u t i o n s - , " b u t which e x i s t e d

i n d i f f e r e n t forms i n t h e I s l a m i c c i t i e s .

Second, t h e b a s i c u n i t of

t h e town was t h g f a m i l y , which r e s i d ~ di n a n inward-looking h o u s e , s e p a r a t e

from t h e commercial and m a n u f a c t u r i n g w o r l d .

Each f a m i l y l i v e d w i t h i n

a q u a r t e r ( h a r a h ) - a r e g i o n of c u l t u r a l , e t h n i c , o r t r i b a l a f f i l i a t i o n i n s i d e t h e wa1l.s of t h e c i t y .

There i s evidence. which g u g g e s t s t h a t

q u a r t e r s were not" d e l i m i t e d by economic o r s o c i a l s t a t u s , and t h a t some

q u a r t e r s c o u l d be -secured from t h e r e s t of t h e _ c i t y durin'g t i m e s of
u n r e s t o r d i s r u p t i o n by d o o r s o r g a t e s .

22

Each q u a r t e r was a l m o s t s e l f -

c o n t a i n e d and s e l f - r e l i a n t : t h e r e c o u i d b e . a l o c a l mosque, s m a l l mark

'P'

(suweqahs), s c h o o l s ( m e d r a s a s ) , b a t h s (harnmams), and even s m a l l workshops.

T h i r d , economic o r g a n i z a t i o n was based on a r e l a t i v e l y free-market

23

system

of t r a d e , m a n u f a c t u r i n g , and commerce which was n o t m o n o p o l i s t i c a s

-I

European medieval systems were, b u t which had systems of c o n t r o l i n

which t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y of t h e c i t y r e t a i n e d a g r e a t d e g r e e of economic
power.

24

F o u r t h , t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y was based on a form of s o c i a l

c o n t r a c t i n which t h e r u l e r s found i t n e c e s s a r y t o pay a t t e n t i o n t o

t h e n e e d s and wishes of t h e governed, and w h i l e t h e r e were few i n s t i t u t i o n s
d e s i g n e d t o e n s u r e t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p. was m a i n t a i n e d , t h e r e was

a g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e among t h e v a r i o u s urban groups which a i d e d i n t h e

22.
23.

24.

A . A . I s m a i l , " O r i g i n , i d e o l o g y and p h y s i c a l p a t t e r n s of
U r b a n i z a t i o n , " E k i s t i c s , mIII, 195 (1972), p . 116.
G.E. von Grunebaum, "The S t r u c t u r e of t h e Muslim T o w , "
Essays i n t h e Nature and Growth of a C u l t u r a l T r a d i t i o n
l 9 5 5 ) , p. 147; and Ismail, I 1o r i g i n , " p. 117.
G.E. von Grunebaum, " S t r u c t u r e of t h e Muslim Town," pp.

Arab
i n Islam:
-- - -

ondon don,
150-151.

f u l f i l l i n g of t h e " c o n t r a c t . "

25

F i f t h , I s l a m i c c i t i e s were n o t "unique,
f

bounded, o r s e l f - c o n t a i n e d i n s t i t u t i o n s " which e x i s t e d w i t h o u t b o t h

p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r h i n t e r l a n d .
n e c e s s a r y f o r them t o e x i s t &I t h e w i d e r world
I s l a m - t o some e x t e n t .

It was a l s o

t h e w o r l d - o u t s i d e of

Thus, t h e major i n f l u e n c e which p r e v a i l e d

26

o v e r therecity, i t s h i n t e r l a n d , i t s i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
2 a s Islam.
and i t s c u l t u r e w

Almost e v e r y o b s e r v e r . o f I s l a m i c s o c i e t i e s

h a s n o t e d t h a t h o t o n l y was 1 s l a m a n urban r e l i g i o n , b u t a l s o t h a t " 1 ' I s l a m

a b e s o i n d e s cit&.,"

t h a t , "chaque v i l l e e s t a v a n t t o u t m e c i t a d e l l e

d e l a f ~ i . " On~ a~n i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s , Itto t h e Muslim, a town was a

,

s e t t l e m e n t i n which h i s r e i i g i o u s d u t i e s and h i s s o c i a l i d e a s c o u l d
be completely f u l f i l l e d . "

28

4 .

The cement which h e l d t h e c i t y and i t s

h i n t e r l a n d t o g e t h e r , t h e m u n i c i p a l i n s t i t u t i o n which e x i s t e d where t h e r e
Gere no m u n i c i p a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , was I s l a m .
T h i s s t u d y w i l l a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n how A l g i e r s , i n a gi3en
half-century,

f i t s i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l framework of t h e I s l a m i c c i t y .

I t w i l l a l s o e v a l u a t e and a n a l y z e t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and economic

f a c e t s of t h e c i t y i n o r d e r t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t w i t h a p e r s p e c t i v e which
a l l o w s f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of A l g e r i a and A l g i e r s a s v i a b l e e n t i t i e s
b e f o r e t h e a r r i v a l of Europe, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o come t o c o n c l u s i o n s

25.

26.
27.
28.

7
'
1

A.H. Hourani n o t e s : ' w o r e g e n e r a l l y , t h e r u l e r and h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s

c o u l d n o t l i g h t l y i g n o r e t h e wishes of t h o s e groups i n t h e c i t y
w i t h which t h e i r i n t e r e s t s were bound up."
"The I s l a m i c C i t y
i n t h e l i g h t of r e c e n t Research," The I s l a m i c C i t y , p . 19.
I . M . L a p i d u s , '%us1 i m C i t i e s an&3slamic S o 5 i e t i e s , I t Middle E a s t e r n
C i t i e s , ed. by I .M. Lapidus ( B e r k e l e y , l 9 6 9 ) , p. 73.
G: M a r ~ a i ,
s "La cmtep~iortdes v i l l e s d a n s 1' I s l a m , " - R e v u s d 'Alger ,
2 (1954-55), pp. 524-525.
4
G.E. von Grunebaum, " S t r u c t u r e of t h e Muslim Town," p. 142.
s

";

rPr

which a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from much of what i s e x t a n t i n c-urrent s c h o l a r i

shlp.

It i s e v i d e n t t h a t , b e c a u s e of t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of most of tthe

p h y s i c a l c i t y a s i t w a s d u r i n g the, p r e - c o l o n i a l

period, i t is

t o d e t e r m i n e s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n s , ~ r e c i s enumbers, and e x a c t names orez3-

3*

#2$
N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s b o t h n e c e s s a r y and p o s s i b l e t o hyp$khea

descriptions.

s i z e a b o u t c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s of t h e c i t y and i t s r o l e b e c a u s e
of t h e comm4nts and o b s e r v a t i o n s of e a r l y w r i t e r s and t h e work of o t h e r
h i s t o r i a n s and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s .

The major d e f i c i e n c y h a s a l r e a d y

been n o t e d : t h e l a c k of a contemporary n a t i v e Muslim o b s e r v e r who r e c o r d e d

t h e s c e n e a s h e saw i t .

There i s no A l g e r i a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e

Bin Diyaf s c h o o l of p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l o b s e r v a t i o n .

We a r e w i t h o u t

t h e s e r v i c e s o f a competent r e p o r t e r , w i t h o u t a n a d e q u a t e s y n c h r o n a l
d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e c i t y , i t s f u n c t i o n s , and i t s f u n c t i o n a r i e s +
A l g i e r s was n o t a c i t y f u l l of b l o o d - t h i r s t y
was i t a North A f r i c a n garden of p l e n t y and p r o s p e r i t y .

pirates, neither
A l g i e r s was

a c i t y w i t h i t g a w n i d e n t i t y , based on many f a c t o r s : i t s f u n c t i o n a s

~-

a p o r t ; i t s styl;

of g a v k m e n t ; i t s c u l t u r a l mix; i t s s i t u a t i o n on

t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o a s t ; i t s s i t e ; i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h Europe, t h e
X i d d l e E a s t , and i t s own t e r r i t o r i e s ; i t s I s l a m i c h e r i t a g e ; and o t h e r
1c
Y,

variable qualifiesS.

14t

Thus, t h e r e a l A l g i e r s w i l l n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d
'

simply i n t h e c o n t e & of it; r u l i n g

i t s c o r s a i r s , o r i t s European
b

connections.

It w i l l be t h e h i s t o r y

of t h e c i t y which

Ps

w i l l e v e n t u a l l y p r o v i d e us w i t h a more b a l a n c e d p i c t u r e of l i f e i n A l g i e r s
b e f o r e t h e Conquest.

It i s necessary t o attempt t o provide an a n a l y s i s

,'-

14

of p r e - c o l o n i a l A l g i e r s i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o observe t h e a r e k where
f u r t h e r primary r e s e a r c h i s e s s e n t i a l and t o show where r e - * i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of c u r r e n t l y p u b l i s h e d d a t a may r e s u l t i n new d i r e c t i o n s .

CHAPTER I

A HISTORICAL OUTLINE

It i s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r of a c i t y i s a r e s u l t . o f

several constant, inter-related

and s i t u a t i o n .

f a c t o r s including s i t e , climate, c u l t u r e ,

One of t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l d e t e r m i n a n t s of c i v i c s t y l e

and form i s h i s t o r y .

S i n c e any c i t y i s a p r o d u c t of i t s p a s t , i t i s
m

e s s e n t i a l t o e s t a b l i s h t h e h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n which l e a d s f r o m t h e p a s t
t o t h e p e r i o d under s t u d y .

Some a s p e c t s of a c i t y ' s f u t u r e a r e e v i d e n t

from v e r y e a r l y f o r m a t i o n s and e h e s e s t r c t u r e s t e n d t o l o c k a c i t y
into certain patterns.

For example, t h e l a y o u t of A l g i e r s h a s been

d e s c r i b e d by some w r i t e r s a s a "crossbow aimed a t t h e h e a r t of Europe"

o r "a b e n t bow, p e r h a p s an a p p r o p r i a t e symbol f o r an Ottoman forward

,..
Y

b a s e p o i n t e d towards C h r i s t i a n l a n d s . "

R e g a r d l e s s of t h i s r h e t o r i c ,

t h e "shape" of t h e c i t y b e a r s no r e a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t s p u r p o s e ; t h e
l a y o u t of A l g i e r s was e s t a b l i s h e d l o n g befo're Europe was t h e "enemy,"

a r e s u l t of Roman, n o t I s l a m i c i n f l u e n c e .

Thus an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

..-

A l g i e r s ' p a s t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t s t o t a l urban environment

a t t h e t u r n of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
I n a n t i q u i t y Icosium,

he most l i k e l y o r i g i n a l name of A l g i e r s ,

was a s m a l l , unassuming p l a c e where P u n i c s a i l o r s from Carthage and

-

1.

--

S p e n c e r , A l g i e r s , p . 29

16
-

o t h e r l a r g e c e n t r e s p u l l e d t h e i r b o a t s onto shore d u r i n g t h e f r e q u e n t
s t m m s in t h e a r e a .

During t h e s e s t o p s it i s p r o b a b l y t h a t t h e P h o e n i c i a n s

traded with . t h e l o c a l people

o l i v e s , d a t e s , and h i d e s

i n exchange

f o r t h e more l u x u r i o u s goods of more developed M e d i t e r r a n e a n c i t i e s ,

F r e s h *water was a l s o always a v a i l a b l e t h e r e , a s w e l l a s o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s from t h e h i n t e r l a n d .

After the f a l l o

C a r t h a g e , a s Roman

i n f l u e n c e expanded t h r o u g h o u t A f r i c a , t h e town became a c o l o n y of Rome,

whose r o l e was t o p r o v i d e t h e c a p i t a l w i t h a s much g r a i n a s p o s s i b l e .

..

Even a t t h i s e a r l y d a t e , t h e c i t y ' s f u t u r e l a y o u t was e v i d e n t :

the

t r i a n g u l a r shape w i t h t h e f o r t r e s s a t t h e apex; t h e major s t r e e t p a t t e r n s ;

and t h e p o r t l o c a t i o n , were a l l f i x e d from Roman t i m e s .

With t h e d e c l i n e

of Roman power, North A f r i c a was l e f t t o t h e Berber ' t r i b e s who had t o

contend w i t h b o t h o c c a s i o n a l Vandal i n v a s i o n s and e f f o r t s by t h e B y z a n t i n e s
which t h e y claimed a s p a r t of
to e s t a b l i s h hegemony o v e r ffriqiya,
,

t h e i r empire.

Over a l l t h e s e y e a r s t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t

t h a t ;he c i t y e v e r a t t a i n e d a n y t h i n g h i g h e r than a r n e d i o c r e - r e p u t a t i o n :

t h e p o r t was t o o s m a l l and open t o wind and waves t o be of much c o n s i s t e n t

u s e , e s p e c i a l l y when o t h e r p o r t s such a s Bougie, Anaba, and Oran gave

more s e c u r e anchorage t o l a r g e r f l e e t s .
Very l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t A l g i e r s i s a v a i l a b l e from t h e
medieval y e a r s e i t h e r .

The c i t y changed hands f r e q u e n t l y d u r i n g t h e

I s l a m i c i n v a s i o n s , b e i n g t a k e n f i r s t by one g r o u p , t h e n by o t h e r s

2.
3.

Evidence of Punic t r a d i n g from rhe f i r s t an& s e c o n d z & n t u r % sB.C.

has been uncovered i n A l g i e r s . See Paul XacKendrick, The S o r t h
African Scex+es Speak tGk+peI E S T , I W j , p. &Hi.
Reng LespGs, A l g e r . g t u d e de g g o g r a p h i e e t d r h i s t o i r e u r b a i n e s
( P a r i s , 1930), pp. 99-100.

Arabs f o l l o w i n g B e r b e r s , A l m r a v i d s , Almohads, and t h e n f u r t h e r B e r b e r s .

t '

and Arabs - w i t h v e r y l i t p l e c o n t i n u i t y o r s t a b i l i t y .

During t h i s same

p e r i o d A l g i e r s was d e s c r i b e d by I b n Haukal a s a c i t y w i t h many b a z a a r s

which e x p o r t e d honey', b u t t e r , f i g s and o t h e r f r u i t s t o s e v e r a l M e d i t e r r a n e a n
ports.

It

He a l s o n o t e d t h a t t h e h a r b o u r had been improved b u t gave no

i n d i c a t i o n of where t h e .changes had been made.

Ibn WaldGn ranked $ g i e r s

i n t h e " t h i r d o r d e r " of urban a r e a s :
LJ
Fes b e i n g h i s " f i r s t , o r d e r H t y p e ; Bougie, Tlemcen and Ceuta r e p r e s e n t i n g
4'

"second o r d e r " c i t i e s ; Oran and A l g i e r s i n t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n ; w i t h t h e

continuum extending to those p'laces which "cannot lie considered c i t i e s
x

. . .

(which) belt-g t o t h e c a t e g o r y of v i l l a g e s a n d . h a m l e t s . "

t

Nevertheless, A l g i e r s e x h i b i t e d a l l t h e c h a r a c t e

s t i c s necessary

f o r t h e developmect of a s t r o n g , urban c e n t r e e x c e p t f o r one major d e f i c i e n c y :

the s t r o n g c e n ~ r s igaverzment n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of p e r s o n a l

5 .
-

5.
6.

Ibn Haukal was a t e c t h c e n t u r y A r a b t r a v e l l e r and g e o g r a p h e r who

was f a m i l i a r w i t h S p a i n , North A f r i c a , and t h e S a h a r a . He was
b o t h a m i s s i o n a r y o f I s l a m and a merchant who r e c o r d e d h i s i m p r e s s i o n s
o f ' economic c o n c e r n s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e p r o d u c t i o n of manufactured
and a g r i c u l t u r a l goods. A . 5 i g u e 1 , i q t h e Encyclopaedia of I s l a m
(Vol. 3 , NeQ E d i t i o n (Leiden, l 9 7 l ) , p . 787), n o t e s t h a t H a u k a l ' s
" c o n s t a n t c a r e t o d e p i c t a r e g i o n p r e c i s e l y i n t h e s t a t e and a t
t h e d a t e t h a t he 5 i m s e l f had seen i t
give t o h i s text
. undoubted v a l u e f o r t h e h i s t o r i a n . "
C i t e d i n L e s p & s , A l g e r , pp. 100-101.
Ibn Khaldun, Tne Yuqaddimah, t r a n s . by F. R o s e n t h a l ( P r i n c e t o n ,
1 9 6 7 ) , p. 27A. I b n Khaldun l i s t s t h e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r
I?
s e d e n t a r y c i v i l i z a t i o n " a s c l i m a t e and g e o g r a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s ;
c o n s t a n t r e - p o p u l a t i o n ; s e c u r e s i t u a t i o n ; wholesome a i r ; ample
f r e s h water; s u i t a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s c l o s e t o the c i t y ; sources
of f w l ; p r o x i m i t y U k e s e a in ar&-f-ate
rrade; a
u n i f i e d s p i r i t u a l e ~ ~ t a b l i s h m e;n ta r e a s o n a b l y p r o f i t a b l e and s e c u r e
b u s i n e s s c l i m a t e ; a wide v a r i e t y of c r a f t s and s k i l l s ; - a n d t h e
" e x i s t e n c e of group f e e l i ~ g . ' ~Over a l l t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h e
n o t 2 s t h e n e c e s s i t y of a d y n a s t i c a u t h o r i t y , c a p a b l e of l o n g t e r m
p l z n n i n g an$ c o n t i n u e d d i r e c t i o n t o t h e c i t y and i t s c i t i z e n s .
Se2 pp. 263-295.

...

0s e c u r i t y and economic s t a b i l i t y .

Thus, t h r o u g h o u t t h e medieval p e r i o d

i n A l g i e r s ' h i s t o r y , t h e c i t y n e v e r a t t a i n e d a v e r y h i g h l e v e l of advancement
o r importance i n comparison w i t h o t h e r North A f r i c a n c i t i e s .

In f a c t ,

..

.
i t i s n o t a b l e t h a t A l g i e r s - p r o b a b l y now
t h e most f a m i l i a r c i t y name i n ' A f r i c a , e x c e p t t h a t
of C a i r o - d e s i g n a t e d i n t h e Middle Ages a s p o t of'
v e r y l i t t l e consequence. Bougie, i n s i g n i f i c a n t t o d a y ,
was t h e n incomparably more i m p o r t a n t .
7
A l g i e r s e n t e r e d i t s most dynamic phase of development i n t h e
early sixteenth century.

A.C.

Hess n o t e s t h a t t h e c i t y was on t h e f r o n t i e r
E

of two e m p i r e s : t h e Ottoman and t h e I b e r i a n , and a s a r e s u l t , once t h e

c i t y became a f o c a l p o i n t , i t remained a dominant f e a t u r e of M e d i t e r r a n e a n
c i v i l i z a t i o n f o r t h e n e x t t h r e e hundred y e a r s - l o n g a f t e r t h e c o n f l i c t
between t h e empires had ceased t o b e of c u r r e n t importance.

I n 1510 t h e c o n f l i c t between t h e Ottoman and S p a n i s h empires

b r o u g h t - ~ e d r o ' ' ~ a v a r r too A l g i e r s .

A t - t h i s time t h e c i t y was under t h e

c o n t r o l of t h e Arab T h a t a l i b i t r i b e which, from t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

had been m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e t e r r i t o r y and people around A l g i e r s by t a k i n g
advantage of t h e d i v e r s i t y of c u l t u r e s and t r i b e s i n t h i s c e n t r a l Maghrib
region.

T h i s d i v e r s i t y i s a key t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e background of

t h e c i t y and t h e a b i l i t y of i t s f u t u r e r u l e r s t o m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l o v e r
a r e a s which w e r e - p r e v i o u s l y v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l .

I n essence,

pre-Turkish A l g i e r s and i t s s u r r o u n d i n g t e r r i t o r y c o n s i s t e d of s e v e r a l
f a c t i o n s : t h e o r i g i n a l Berber i n h a b i t a n t s , s u b d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l

7.
8.

G. Welch, North A f r i c a n P r e l u d e (New York, 1 9 4 9 ) ~p . 300.

The F o r g o t t e n F r o n t i e r (Chicago, 1 9 7 8 ) . Unlike t h e T u r n e r h y p o t h e s i s
which assumed t h a t t h e f r o n t i e r was "the meeting p o i n t between
s a v a g e r y and c i v i l i z a t i o n , " H e s s ' s f r o n t i e r i n v o l v e s t h e c o n f l i c t
between c i v i l i z a t i o n s of r e l a t i v e l y e q u a l s0phi.s t i c a t i o n which were
based on extreme c u l t u r a l o p p o s i t e s .

19
t r i b a l groups; s e d e n t a r y Arabs l i k e t h e T h a ' a l i b i ; nomadic and seminomadic Arabs; and many o t h e r groups such a s t h e Andalusians e x p e l l e d
from Granada a f t e r 1492, people from o t h e r small towns, b l a c k s from
c e n t r a l A f r i c a , and s o oh.

I n a l l , Hermassi h a s noted seventy-three

d i f f e r e n t " e t h n o p o l i t i c a l u n i t s " i n t h e A l g i e r s r e g i o n i n t h e precolonial period.

He d i v i d e s t h e s e u n i t s i n t o f o u r c a t e g o r i e s : Makhzan
&

t r i b e s , t h a t i s t h o s e who co-operated w i t h t h e government of t h e day;

s u b j e c t t r i b e s ; semi-independent u n i t s ; and t h e d i s s i d e n t groups.

10

p o l i t i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n r e q u i r e d t o f u n c t i o n w i t h i n t h e parameters

The
%

set by t h i s d i v e r s i t y would have been c o n s i d e r a b l e .

When t h e f r o n t i e r war came t o A l g i e r s i n 1510 t h e d i v e r s i t y

of t h e r e g i o n was a r e a s o n f o r l o c a l c u l t u r a l d e s p a i r .

However, under-

n e a t h t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n t h e r e was one u n i f y i n g f a c t o r , Islam.

When

Islam was under s i e g e , d i v e r s i t y and. independence l o s t some of t h e i r

'

importance

t h e f r o n t i e r war w a s between Islam and C h r i s t i a n i t y

and a s long a s t r i b a l o r group independence was h e l d t o b e more important

t h a n t h e f e e l i n g of i d e n t i t y w i t h a l a r g e r c u l t u r a l g y u p (asabiyah)
t h e r e was l i t t l e hope of s u c c e s s a g a i n s t t h e C h r i s t i a n i n v a d e r s .
Pedro Navarro took Mers-el-Kebir,

As

Oran, and Bougie, t h e n demanded t r i b u t e

from Tenes, D e l l y s , C h e r c h e l l , and Mostaganem, i t became obvious t h a t

9.

10.

The Andalusian (Morisco) p o p u l a t i o n a t A l g i e r s amounted t o about

60,000 by t h e end of t h e e x p u l s i o n s i n 1609. Both Hess (Forgotten
F r o n t i e r , p.. 154) and E.G. Friedman ("North A f r i c a n P i r a c y , "
I n t e r n a t i o n a l H i s t o r y Review, I , 1 (1979), p. 11.) n o t e t h a t over
250,000 Moriscos were a x p e l l e d from Spain. Friedman s t a t e s t h a t
60,000 s e t t l e d i n A l g i e r s , forming a c o n s i d e r a b l e c u l t u r a l group
whose r o l e i n t h e development of t h e c i t y h a s n e v e r been examined.
Elbaki Hermassi, Leadership, p . 47.

A l g i e r s was a l s o i n t h e l i n e - u p .

Up t o t h i s p o i n t t h e c i t y ' s low s t a t u s

had c o n t r i b u t e d t o i t s d e f e n c e , b u t when t h e S p a n i s h f o r c e d t h e c i t y
t o gi,ve them one of t h e s m a l l i s l a n d s j u s t three-hundred

y a r d s from

t h e Marine Gate i n o r d e r t o b u i l d one of t h e i r p r e s i d i o s , t h e p e o p l e

of A l g i e r s were f o r c e d t o overcome t h e i r c u l t u r a l . d i v e r s i t y i n f a v o u r
of a u n i f i e d r e s p o n s e t o t h i s t h r e a t t o t h e i r way of l i f e .

The r e s p o n s e

t o o k t h e form of an i n v i t a t i o n t o Aruj and Kheir el-Din B a r b a r o s s a ,

two Ottoman p r i v a t e e r i n g b r o t h e r s who were busy i n t h e w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n

c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e f r o n t i e r war e f f o & a g a i n s t S p a i n .
t h e i r e x p l o i t s had been d a r i n g

Up t o t h i s p o i n t

involving a g u e r r i l l a

s t y l e n a v a l w a r f a r e campaign

s e t t l e m e n t s of S p a i n .

T h e i r answer t o t h e T h a ' a l i b i r e q u e s t was a m a j o r t u r n i n g p o i n t i n A l g i e r s '

I

h i s t o r y , b r i n g i n g t h e c i t y i n t o a much c l o s e r working r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
/

\
t h e Ottoman Empire.

The saga of t h e B a r b a r o s s a b r o t h e r s h a s been w r i t t e n and r e Ir

w r i t t e n many t i m e s s i n c e t h e i r ascendancy over A l g i e r s between 1516

;and

1529.

I t would b e p o i n t l e s s t o go over t h e d e t a i l s of t h e b r o t h e r s '

r o l e i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of Ottoman hegemony o v e r A l g i e r s .

It should

s u f f i c e & o n o t e t h a t b o t h b r o t h e r s were competent s a i l o r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,

b u i l d e r s , p o l i t i c i a n s , and p e r i o d i c a l l y , s o l d i e r s a s w e l l .

Aruj was

e v e n t u a l l y k i l l e d i n a b a t t l e between S p a n i s h and A l g e r i a n l l f o r c e s
n e a r Tlemcen i n 1518, w h i l e Kheir e l - D i n i L a s a r e s u l t of h i s n a v a l e x p e r t i s e

11.

"Algerian" w i l l b e used throughout t o d e n o t e mixed groups of

p e o p l e who c o u l d h a r d l y be c a l l e d a n y t h i n g e l s e . It i s n o t
i n t e n d e d t o imply t h a t t h e r e was o r was n o t a n A l g e r i a n " n a t i o n a l i t y
i t i s simply a . term of convenience.

,"

d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e w e s t , was a p p o i n t e d commander of t h e Ottoman f l e e t

k

i n 1533.12

I n 1516, however, t h e B a r b a ,
r o s s a s and t h e i r s m a l l f l e e t

of s h i p s were t h e most powerful a g e n t s of t h e Ottoman Empire i n t h e

w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , and t h e y r a p i d l y gained a r e p u t a t i o n among t h e
Yuslim l e a d e r s i n t h e c o a s t a l communities (who were s l o w l y b e i n g overwhelmed by Spanish power) a s t h e b e s t hope f o r t h e f u t u r e of I s l a m
i n North ~ f r i c a . The c o n s t r u c t i o n by t h e S p a n i s h of t h e Penon a t A l g i e r s
M

and t h e subsequent f o r c e d pzyment of t r i b u t e t o S p a i n by t h e c i t y caused

t h e l e a d e r s of t h e t r i b a l groups a t A l g i e r s t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h t h e B a r b a r o s s a s :
c o n t r o l and c o n c e s s i o n s i n t h e c i t y i n exchange f o r t h e e j e c ~ i o nof
the Spanish.

1529.

T h i s t a s k began i n 1516 and was f i n a l l y accomplished i n

The Penon, which had f o r m e r l y c o n t r o l l e d a c c e s s by s e a t o t h e

c i y was d e s t r o y e d and t h e r u b b l e was used t o connect t h e f o u r i s l a n d s

and t h e n j o i n t h e new i s l a n d t o t h e mainland w i t h -a causeway: t h e Mole
of A l g i e r s .
The S p a n i s h a t t e m p t e d t o overcome t h e Ottoman e x p a n s i o n by
c o u n t e r - a t t a c k i n g from Oran a t Tlemcen, w h i l e Kheir el-Din c o u n t e r e d
w i t h an envoy t o t h e S u l t a n r e q u e s t i n g " t h a t t h e t e r r i t o r i e s ( t h e y )
had t a k e n b e i n c l u d e d w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e l a n d s p r o t e c t e d by
t h e Ottoman S u l t a n . "

13

The name of t h e S u l t a n ' b e c a m e a p a r t of t h e

F r i d a y p r a y e r s a t A l g i e r s , and c o i n s were m i n t e d i n h i s name a l s o .

t h i s way A l g i e r s e n t e r e d t h e f i r s t phase of Ottbman

i2.
13.

=T

In

t r o l in the central

The -most r e c e n t e v a l u a t i o n of t h e Barbarossa s t o r y i s i n c l u d e d

i n Hess, F o r g o t t e n F r o n t i e r , p. 61 f f .
Hess, F o r g o t t e n F r o n t i e r , p . 65.

Maghrib.

T h i s f i r s t s t a g e s e t t h e p a t t e r n f o r f u t u r e governments i n

/'
A l g i e r s , w i t h i t s o l i g a r c h i c s t y l e , i t s u s e of m i l i t a r y power t o m a i n t a i n
c o n t r o l , and i t s c h a u v i n i s t i c a l l y f o r e i g n a t t i t u d e towards l o c a l groups
and t h e i r l e a d e r s .
r

During t h i s " b e y l i c a l p e r i o d " t h e S u l t a n a p p o i n t e d t h e bey

The bey would be s e n t t o A l g i e r s where

from among t h o s e a t h i s c o u r t .

he would t a k e o v e r p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l of t h e c i t y , r e l y i n g on t h e major
A t t h i s t i m e t h e r e were two groups t o conskder:

power groups f o r s u p p o r t .

t h e t a i f a of t h e r a i s ( t h e p a r t i a l l y o r g a n i z e d p r i v a t e e r s and c o r s a i r s ) ;
and t h e j a n i s s a r y c o r p s ( o d j a k ) , who were'ottoman t r o o p s s e n t by t h e
P o r t e t o A l g i e r s t o a i d i n t h e f r o n t i e r w a r f a r e b e i n g c a r r i e d on from
the c i t y .

A t times the vzrious f a c t i o n s a t Algiers refused t o recognize

&

t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e S u l t a n ' s d e s i g n a t e , and t h i s a l s o h e l p e d t o e s t a b l i s h
future tendencies.

,-

Almost from t h e very b e g i n n i n g , A l g i e r s began t o

e s t a b l i s h i t S independencz from t h e P o r t e .

When t h e v a r i o u s f a c t i o n s

a t A l g i e r s c o u l d n o t a c c e p t t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e i r d e s i g n a t e d - r u l e r ,
\

t h e y were n o t slow t o make changes i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

One of t h e

f i r s t example's of t h i s a g g r e s s i v e l y independent s p i r i t o c c u r r e d i n 1557

when the/ o d j a k a s s a s s i n a t e d t h e bey, Mehmet P a s h a , w i t h t h e i r i n t e n t i o n
b e i n g t h a t t h e i r agha ( l e a d e r ) w o u l d - t a k e o v e r t h e p o s i t i o n and be r e c o g n i z e d
as

by t h e P o r t e .

They were o n l y a l i t t l e premature a t t h i s p o i n t .

The f r o n t i e r p e r i o d a t A l g i e r s e x i s t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s i x t e e n t h
f

c e n t u r y , w i t h S p a i n a t t e m p t i n g t o overcome t h e Ottoman i n f l u e n c e i n
the w e s t e r n X e d i t e r r a n e a n by implementing s e v e r a l a t t a c k s oh A l g i e r s .
I n 1530 t h e S p a n i s h a d m i r a l Andrea D o r i a a t t a c k e d , b u t was d r i v e n from

A l g i e r s ; C h a r l e s V mounted a l a r g e a t t a c k i n 1541, coming c l o s e t o s u c c e s s

b u t e v e n t u a l l y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e i d e a which was becoming e x t a n t througho u t p a r t s of Europe - t h a t A l g i e r s was i n v i n c i b l e .

As S p a i n began t o

r e a l i z e t h e f u t i l i t y of a t t e m p t i n g t o d e a l w i t h I s l a m i n A f r i c a a t t h e
same t i m e a s she had t o come t o terms w i t h o t h e r powers i n Europe
e s p e c i a l l y France

t h e f r o n t i e r p e r i o d came t o an end and t h e second

s t a g e of A l g i e r s ' development began: a p e r i o d of change and c o n s o l i d a t i o n

combined w i t h c o n t i n u e d s e p a r a t i o n from t h e c o n t r o l of t h e Ottoman Empire.
To most o b s e r v e r s t h e c i t y a t t a i n e d i t s h i g h e s t l e v e l of power
and p r e s t i g e i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

T h i s was t h e p e r i o d of A l g i e r s '

r e s t r i c t e d r e n a i s s a n c e , when t h e c i t y was e s t a b l i s h i n g i t s i d e n t i t y
based on two i m p o r t a n t i n d i g e n o u s f a c t o r s : t h e Ottoman n a t u r e of t h e
r u l i n g c l a s s ; and t h e I s l a m i c n a t u r e of t h e e n t i r e s o c i e t y .
i

f a c t o r i n t h i s r e n a i s s a n c e was t h e i n a b i l i t y

The o t h e r

of Europe t o respond t o

t h e growth of t h e c i t y , a3d A l g i e r s took advantage of t h i s i n a b i l i t y

by expanding i t s a t t a c k s on European s h i p p i n g wherever p o s s i b l e .

Un-

f o r t u n a t e l y , many o b s e r v e r s have focused t h e i r a t t e n t i o n on t h e secondary

r e s u l t s of t h e s e c h a n g e s : s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e p i r a c y and s l a v e r y i s s u e s .

14.

During t h i s p e r i o d t h e c i t y ' s s t y l e of government was a l t e r e d a l s o ,

,
from t h e b e y l i c a l t o t h e more independent p a s h a l i c . The p a s h a s a f t e r

1587 were a p p o i n t e d by t h e P o r t e f o r a t h r e e y e a r t e r m , and d u r i n g t h e

e a r l y y e a r s of t h i s system t h e Regency government brought A l g i e r s i n t o
a more mainstream p o s i t i o n

provincial policy.

14.

i n t o l i n e w i t h p r e v i o u s l y e s t a b l i s h e d Ottoman

A l g i e r s "ceased t o b e a b a s t i o n of t h e T u r k i s h

For example, John B. Wolf t a k e s more than h a l f of h i s book t o

d i s c u s s t h e s e two i s s u e s d u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1600 t o 1714.

24

~.

Empire a g a i n s t t h e S p a n i s h Empire: ( i t ) became ( a n ) o r d i n a r y p r o v i n c e ,

o n l y more remote."

15

As t h e r a i s and t h e o d j a k became more powerful

t h e i r government came t o c o n t r o l n o t o n l y t h e c i t y b u t a l s o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
t e r r i t o r y which, i n t u r n , allowed them t o expand i n economic 'and p o l i t i c a l
,terms.

U d e r t h i s s y s t e m t h e c i t y reached t h e z e n i t h of i t s power and

,

prestige.
I n s p i t e of r h e t o r i c i n t e n d e d t o downplay t h e p o s i t i v e r o l e
of t h e Turks a t A l g i e r s by most n i n e t e e n t h and t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c o l o n i a l
a p o l o g i s t s , t h e T u r k i s h p e r i o d was t o make A l g i e r s one 'of t h e most i m p o r t a n t ,
f e a r e d , m i s u n d e r s t o o d , and s e c r e t i v e c i t i e s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n .
I t was t h e T u r k i s h i n f k u e n c e which gave t h e c i t y i t s monuments, i t s

r e p u t a t i o n , and i t s s p e c i a l atmosphere, and y e t t h e Turks n e v e r r e a l l y

e s t a b l i s h e d more t h a n a s e c o n d - c l a s s c i t y s t a t e w i t h somewhat tenuous
links t o the interior.

T h e i r power b a s e was o r i g i n a l l y l i n k e d t o t h e i r

\ u s e of t h e new "powder tecknology ," b u t even when t h i s a d v a n t a g e d e c l i n e d

i n importance t h g i r c o n t r o l c o n t i n u e d .

T h e i r economy was based on t r a d e ,

commerce, and t h e p r a c t i c e of p r i v a t e e r i n g , y e t even though t h e r e i s

.

s u b s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t much of t h e p r o f i t was f i l t e r e d
through f o r e i g n middlemen, t h e i r c i v i c economy d i d no worse t h a n , any
o t h e r comparable M e d i t e r r a n e a n c i t y .
"ethno-political

The Turks used t h e d i v e r s i t y of

u n i t s " t o t h e i r own a d v a n t a g e , and i n s o d o i n g they

b u i l t a c i t y based- on a range of c r o s s - c u l t u r a l v a l u e s which was o u t

of s t e p w i t h t h e r e s t of t h e Muslim w o r l d .

They produced no Khaldunian

d y n a s t i e s ; o n l y a l i t t l e l i t e r a t u r e a d w n u m e n t a l a r t ; and t h e p r e s e n t

15.

J u l i e n , H i s t o r y of North A f r i c a , p . 302.

25 .
c u l t u r a l l e a d e r s h i p of A l g e r i a h a r d l y acknowledges t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n
t o t h e i r society.

Yet f o r t h r e e hundred y e a r s t h e Turks m a i n t a i n e d

, .
t h e i r p 6 k i t i o n and' g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e d t h e q u a l i t y of l i f 6, - s e c u r i t y ,
-J

s t a b i l i t y , an&, f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s of t h e c i t i z e n s of A l g i e r s .
z.

The c i t y d i d n o t s t a y a t i t s z e n i t h f o r v e r y l o n g .

As technology

developed newer s h i p s and weapons; a s European s t a t e s became more c e n t r a l i z e d

L

and s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o s m a l l e r c o u n t r i e s ; a s t r a d e
r o u t e s s h i f t e d w i t h t h e d i s c o v e r y of new s o u r c e s of s u p p l y ; and a s
c a p i t a l i s m r e p l a c e d t h e o l d e r economic o r d e r s i n Europe, t h e r o l e of
c i t i e s l i k e A l g i e r s changed a l s o .

I n s t e a d of b e i n g a p a r t i c i p a n t i n

t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , t h e c i t y became even more of an " o u t s i d e r . "

Cut

o f f from t h e r a p i d l y d e v e l o p i n g n o r t h e r n s t a t e s by c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s ,
t h e c i t y was l e f t on i t s own t o a d a p t and respond t o t h e l a r g e r changing
world which i n c r e a s i n g l y e x p l o i t e d t g e r e g i o n f o r whatever would supply
Europe's a v a r i c i o u s demands.

A t t h e same time t h e l a c k of a w i d e r p e r s p e c t i v e

from w i t h i n caused narrowness t o i n c r e a s e ; a r e g r e t t a b l e b u t u n d e r s t a n d a b l e

r e s u l t of c u l t u r a l i s o l a t i o n .

I t h a s been n o t e d , f o r example, t h a t

t h e r e was no p r i n t i n g p r e s s i n a l l of A l g i e r s b e f o r e t h e conquestYLand
t h i s f a c t i s u s u a l l y intended t o support the i d e a t h a t t h e Algerians
were somehow l a c k i n g i n t h e i r d e s i r e f o r g r e a t e r i n f o r m a t i o n .
i s n o t t h e o n l y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s d a t a .

This

Technologically, the printing

p r e s s belonged t o Europe, and t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t any

Europeans, a t t e m p t e d t o b r i n g t h e p r e s s t o A l g i e r s .

Ln any c a s e , a p r i n t i n g

p r e s s o p e r a t e d by Europeans c o u l d h a r d l y f i l l t h e needs of such a c u l t u r a l l y

diverse c i t y as Algiers.

I t a l s o would have p u t many of t h e e l i t e

group of p r o f e s s i o n a l s c r i b e s o u t of work.

It i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e i d e a of t h e i n v i n c i b i l i t y of

A l g i e r s , which began w i t h t h e d e f e a t of C h a r l e s V, was c a r r i e d on i n

t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y n o t s o much by r e a l i t y a s by l a c k of i n t e r e s t
on t h e ' p a r t of Europe.

The c i t y was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t enough t o w a r r a n t

<

a major a t t a c k by any European power, y e t i t was s i g n i f i c a n t enough

P

k.

a s a secondary t r a d i n g c e n t r e and a s a depob, .or European n a v i e s o p e r a t i n g

i
t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n - where f o o d , w a t e r , and/other p r o v i s i o n s were
generally available

t o allow the c i t y t o maintain i t s r o l e .

A l g i e r s ' t h i r d and f i n a l p r e - ~ o n q

t phase t h e r e f o r e , was

o n e , o f a p p a r e n t d e c l i n e when compared w i t h t h e growth and development

of many o t h e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n towns.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e i s much more

t o " d e c l i n e " t h a n a p p e a r a n c e s a s s e e n from Europe.

Many e a r l i e r a u t h o r i t i e s

on A l g e r i a n s o c i e t y seem t o have been b a s i n g t h e i r h i s t o r i e s on t h e

premise t h a t c o n t i n u e d p r o g r e s s w a s n o t o n l y a s i g n of advanced c i v i l i z a t i o n ,
b u t a l s o p r o v i d e n t i a l reward f o r s e r v i c e s r e n d e r e d .

Thus, t h e " d e c l i n e "

of A l g i e r s was an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e c i t y ' s e r a had run i t s c o u r s e ;

t h a t t h e age of p r o g r e s s * w a s about t o o v e r t a k e A f r r c a .
t h e s e i d e a s do n o t always s t a n d up t o c a r e f u l s c r u t i n y .

Unfortunately
I t may be t r u e

t h a t t h e c i t y d e c l i n e d i n some ways: i f , f o r example, p o p u l a t i o n i s

c o n s i d e r e d , t h e r e was a d e f i n i t e d e c l i n e between t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y
and t h e French i n v a s i o n ;

16

however t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e d e c l i n e i n

p o p u l a t i o n have very l i t t l e t o do w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l o r economic f a c t o r s

16.

LespBs, A I g e r , p. 129, r e p o r t s a d e c l i n e from 100,000 i n 1634

t o a b o u t 30,000 i n 1789. V a l e n s i (On t h e Eve of C o l o n i a l i s m ,
p. 36) e s t i m a t e s t h e p o p u l a t i o n of A l g i e r s a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
50,000 i n 1830. See Chapter 5 (below) f o r a more d e t a i l e d
discussion.

which e a r l y o b s e r v e r s have s t r e s s e d .
S e v e r a l a u t h o r s have observed t h a t t h e s i z e of t h e A l g e r i a n
" f l e e t " d e c l i n e d a s t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y began.

This observation
-a

i s a l s o based on s e l e c t e d s o u r c e s , and seems t o have been p r e s e n t e d

t
i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a pre-determined o b j e c t i v e : t h a t t h e 9 ~ b n q u s s 'lsavedrt
8

t h e c i t y from t o t a l e c o n o m i c c o l l a p s e .
t h i s evaluation.

There i s e v i d e n c e which c o n t r a d i c t s

'

~ n d r ; Devoulx n o t e s t h a t t h e r e were c o n t i n u o u s changes

i n t h e i i z e and q u a l i t y of t h e A l g e r i a n f l e e t .

17

If a year i s selected

which h a s a low t o t a l number of s h i p s , ' i t may b e p o s s i b l e t o e x t r a p o l a t e

f a r d i f f e r e n t c o n c l u s i o n s from a y e a r i n which t h e number of v e s s e l s
i s greater.

For example, i n 1826 o n l y t h r e e s h i p s a r e l i s t e d , w h i l e

i n 1827, a t o t a l of s i x t e e n s h i p s a r e i n c l u d e d .

This only serves t o

i l l u s t r a t e t h e o b v i o u s : s i n c e t h e "navy" was e s s e n t i a l l y composed'of

p r i z e s , t h e s i z e of t h e f l e e t s a y s more about t h e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e
>

of " l a c o u r s e t ' than i t docs about t h e ' s t a t u s of t h e c i t y .

The two a s p e c t s

a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y completely integr#ed.
F u r t h e r , t h e r e a r e very few s t a t i s t i c s a v a i l a b l e which would
s u p p o r t t h e c o n t e n t i o n of economic d e c l i n e

t h e e v i d e n c e seems t o be

based on some r e l a t i v e l y i n a c c u r a t e o b s e r v a t i o n s .

As was ,the c a s e i n

most o t h e x M e d i t e r r a n e a n c i t i e s , A l g i e r s went through p e r i o d s of d i f f i c u l t y

and p r o s p e r i t y , b u t t h e r e does n o t seem t o be any p a t t e r n which would
i n d i c a t e c o n t i n u o u s , uniform d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t r a d i n g systems.

The

d e c l i n e of A l g i e r s seems a c t u a l l y t o have been more hope on t h e p a r t

of European merchants t h a n r e a l i t y a t A l g i e r s .

17.

Y e t , there were certainly

"La H a r i n e d e l a Re'gence d ' A l g e r . " Revue A f r i c a i n e , No. 77,

(18691, pp. 381-420.

'i

, some r e a s o n s f o r t h e c i t y t o f e e l somewhat overwhelmed by e v e n t s beyond

I n f a c t , i t i s q u i t e a c c u r a t e t o s t a t e t h a t t h e c i t y must

its control.

have had a s t a b l e a d m i n i s . t r a t i o n and a s e c u r e economic f o u n d a t i o n d u r i n g

t h e s o c a l l e d p e r i o d of d e c l i n e i n o r d e r f o r t h e c i t y t o e x i s t i n s t r e n g t h
a s l o n g a s it d i d .

C o n s i d e r , f o r example, some of t h e n a t u r a l . a n d n o t

so n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s which t h e c i t y had t o , c o n t e n d w i t h i n t h e h a l f
century p r i o r t o i t s conquest.
Between 1784 and 1787 a s e r i e s of d e v a s t i n g p l a g u e s ravaged
the c i t y .

During t h e s e f o u r y e a r s a l o n e , almost 17,000 p'eople d i e d

at, Algiers.

18

It

a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o compiehend t h e e f f e c t which

t h i s c a l a m i t y had on t h e p e o p l e of t h e c i t y .

Even i n contemporary t e r m s ,

t h e numbers a r e s t a g g e r i n g , y e t when we c o n s i d e r t h e problems which

t h e p l a g u e must have caused i n t h e v a r i o u s q u a r t e r s , i t once a g a i n becomes
J

e v i d e n t t h a t t h e c i t y must have had c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s o u r c e s f o r d e a l i n g

with the d i f f i c u l t i e s .

The l o g i s t i c s of c a r e , c o l l e c t i o n , and d i s p o s a l

of c o r p s e s a l o n e would have been a f o r m i d a b l e t a s k .

,

Some o b s e r v e r s

would a r g u e t h a t t h e A l g e r i a n s used s l a v e s t o t a k e c a r e of the. problems,

o v e r l o o k i n g t h e f a c t t h a t t h e lower c i t y

- where'$ most

of t h e s l a v e s

l i v e d - was t h e a r e a where t h e most d e v a s t i n g r e s u l t s 'of t h e epidemic

were f e l t .

A t t h i s same t i m e , t h e A l g e r i a n f l e e t was reduced t o t e n

r e l a t i v v l y mediocre s h i p s by 1788, and t h e S p a n i s h were a c t i v e l y

a t t e m p t i n g t o r e g a i n some of t h e t e r r i t o r i e s on t h e c o a s t , a t t a c k i n g
Algiers

however i n e f f e c t i v e l y , i n t h e summers of I783 and 1784.19

Thus,

very few s l a v e s were b e i n g t a k e n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i d , and v e r y few s h i p s

18.
19.

V a l e n s i , On t h e Eve of C o l o n i a l i s m , pp. 87-89.

J u l i e n , H i s t o r y , p . 320.

29

would have c a l l e d a t t h e p o r t w h i l e i t was known t h a t t h e p l a g u e was

there.

The - s t a b i l i t y of t h e A l g e r i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was f u r t h e r demon-

s t r a t e d by t h e S p a n i s h c e s s i o n of Oran t o A l g i e r s i n 1791, a b o.u.t t h e

same t i m e t h a t one of A l g i e r s ' most imposing a r c h i t e c t u r a l e d i f i c e s ,
t h e Grand Mosque, was b u i l t .
I n 1794 a hoard of locus-ts descended on t h e city-, consuming
a l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g g r e e n w i t h i n s e v e r a l m i l e s , l e a d i n g t o food s h o r t a g e s
and a. r e d u c t i o n i n t h e amount of g r a i n a v a i l a b l e f o r e x p o r t ' t o Europe.

20

Ten yeads l a t e r a more s e v e r e famine caused a massive r e v o l t a g a i n s t

*

t h e Jews of t h e c i t y who were p o p u l a r l y s e e n a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e

s h o r t a g e of food b e c a u s e t h e y were a l s o seen- a s t h e c o n t r o l l e r s of g r a i n
exportation.

T h i s r e v o l t caused a change i n ; l e a d e r s h i p , y e t t h e c i t y ' s

administration continued t o f u n c t i h .

The B r i t i s h Consul, Richard C a r t w r i g h t ,

r e p o r t e d t o h i s s u p e r i o r s t h a t t h e d e c l i n e of t h e J e w i s h i n f l u e n c e a t
A l g i e r s (a r e s u l t of t h e i r c l o s e c o n c e c t i o n s w i t h t h e f o r m e r

w,
Mustapha

Pasha, who had been a s s a s s i n a t e d by t h e o d j a k d u r i n g t h e r e v o l t ) would

be b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e B r i t i s h and d i s a s t r o u s t o t h e French.

21

Never-

t h e l e s s , t h e r e was an a l m o s t o r d e r l y t r a n s i t i o n of power which i n d i c a t e d

a d e p t h of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n which h a s g e n e r a l l y been u n n o t i c e d .
Between 1815 and 1825 t h e r e were no fewer t h a n seven major
r e v e r s e s f a c e d and overcome by t h e p e o p l e of A l g i e r s .

20.

21.

I n 1814-15 more

Bout i n , " R e c o n n a i s s a n c ~d e s v i l l e s , f o r t s e t b a t t e r i e s d ' b l g e r ,"

i n Esquer, C o l l e c t i o n d e documents i n e d i t s s u r ' l ' h i s t o i r e d e 1 ' ~ l g e r i e
a p r e s 1830 ( A l g e r , 1 9 2 7 ) , --p. 68.
FO. 3 / 1 0 , 19 March 1805 and 30 August 1805.

p l a g u e s of l o c u s t s d e v a s t e d c r o p s .
1816 b r o u g h t a b o u t s t r ' u c t u r a l
'22
d e v a s t a t i o n by t h e Anglo-Dutch

a c t i o n s of Exmouth and Van C a p e l l a n ;

1817 saw t h e r e t u r n of t h e p l a g u e s , when u$ t o f i v e hundred p e o p l e p e r

day were dying d u r i n g t h e w o r s t p e r i o d s , w i t h a t o t a l of o v e r 16,000

~ ~
p l a g u e s c o n t i n u e d t o t h e end of w i n t e r i n
d e a t h s a t A l g i e r ~ . These
1818, l e a v i n g a h e r i t a g e

05

d i s l o c a t i o n , p o v e r t y , economic h a r d s h i p

and p e r s o n a l d e s p a i r i n t h e i r wake.

The n e x t few y e a r s were r e l a t i v e l y

c a l m , . w i t h a minor i n e f f e c t i v e bombardment by t h e B r i t i s h Admiral Neale

i n 1824, and a r a t h e r more d e s t r u c t i v e s e r i e s of e a r t h q u a k e s i n 1825,
when f i f t y - t h r e e

city.

s h c c k s i n two weeks caused extensive damage to t h e

24
The p o i n t of t h i s s h o r t c h r o n i c l e i s simple': i f t h e

a n d - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e c i t y was a s h a t e d a n d a s i n e f f i c i e n t a s most
o b s e r v e r s would c o n t e n d , t h e r e was ample o p p o r t u n i t y f o r . r e v o l t a g a i n s t
the ruling c l a s s .

The Turks were n o t a m a j o r i t y ; t h e y were n o t t h e

o n l y m i l i t a r y power; t h e y d i d n o t c o n t r o l t h e c o x n e r c e of t h e c i t y ;
,

"

and t h e r e were s e v e r a l a u t s i d e groups which would have been q u i t e happy

t o run them o u t af t h e . c i t y .

There were a l s o o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o do s o .

For example, when t h e e a r t h q u a k e s of 1825 damaged A l g i e r s , t h e t o m

of B l i d a h
destroyed.

22.

a b o u t f o r t y m i l e s s o u t h of A l g i e r s

was a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y

A s a r e s u l t , t h e dey of A l g i e r s s e n t 3,000 t r o o p s

about

William S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s of A l g i e r s (Boston, 1 8 2 6 ) , p . 66 and

V a l e n s i , .On t'k E w of Colonialism, p. 5. VaknsF nutees t h a t
s i n c e wheat was i n such s h o r t supply ' I . .
t h e dey 'forbade i t s
expert ,
and zven imr)orted same ta p r a y i s i o n t h ~
capital.
S t a t e s t o r e h o u s e s were a l s o opened i n an u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t t o
a v e r t u n r e s t , and s e r i o u s s h o r t a g e s c o n t i n u e d i n 1816."
R.L. P l a y f a i r , The Scourge of Christendom (London, 18841, p. 284.
#
J. R. X o r e l l , Algsria (London, l854), p. 72.
+

23.
24.

one-half

of h i s t o t a l k a r m e d f o r c e - ' t o B l i d a h t o p r o t e c t t h e town from

p i l l a g i n g by t h e ' . d i s s i d e n t Kabyle t r i b e s who tended t o u s e t h i s t y p e

of. s i t u a t i o n t o t h e i r a d v a n t a g e .

25

T h i s was h a r d l y t h e r e a c t i o n of
i

t h e t y p e of government x h i c h e a r l i e r a u t h o r s would l e a d .us t o b e l i e v e

existed i n pre-colonial Algiers.

f t i s , t h e r e f o r e , n e c e s s a r y t o re-examine

'.

p o i n t s outlined-In

the introduction.

some of t h e major

F i r s t , it is e s s e n t i a l t o attempt

t o e s t a b l i s h some a s p e c t s of the " p e r s o n a l i t y " of t h e c i t y ; t o r e - c o n s t r u c t

t h e p h y s i c a l e l e m e n t s which were p r e s e n t b e f o r e European c o l o n i a J i s m
began t o a l t e r t h e c o u r s e of t h e c i t y ' s h i s t o r y .

It i s important a l s o ,

t o d e t e r m i n e what t h e city w a s l i k e f o r t h e p e o p l e who l i v e d t h e r e ;

to describe the s e t t i n g &ich

i n l a t e r c h a p t e r s w i l l b e t h e background

ro m r e a c a d e m i c a l l y o r i P n t e d s t u d i e s of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , p o l i t i c s ,
C

economics, r e l i g i o n , and o t h e r f u n c t i o n s of t h e c i t y .
*

25.

See FO 3 / 2 7 , 7 %rch 1 8 2 5 .

rl

CHAPTER I1

A DESCRIPTIVE SYNTHESIS

As Kabyles from t h e mountain v i l l a g e s e a s t of A l g i e r s approached

.

t h e c i t y , h e a d i n g f o r t h e major road i n t h e Regency,

their f i r s t

i n d i c a t i o n of t h e c i t y was t h e s d b u a a n farms and v i l l a s which were

s p r e a d o u t h a p h a z a r d l y over t h e S a h e l a r e a of t h e M i t i d j a .

Almost

e v e r y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y o b s e r v e r remarked a b o u t t h e s e p i c t u r e s q u e ,
f e r t i l e masarcas:
The h i l l s and v a l l i e s round a b o u t A l g i e r s a r e a l l
o v e r b e a u t i f i e d w i t h g a r d e n s and c o u n t r y - s e a t s ,
w h i t h e r t h e r n h a b i t a n t s of b e t t e r f a s h i o n r e t i r e ,
. d u r i n g the' h e a t s of t h e summer s e a s o n . They a r e
l i t t l e w h i t e h o u s e s , shaded w i t h a v a r i e t y of
f r u i t - t r e e s and ever-greens

...

1.

Known a s t h e T r i k e l - S u l t a n .
The Regency was s e r v e d w i t h a network
of r o a d s c o n n e c t i n g t h e v a r i o u s c e n t r a l p l a c e s . These r o a d s were
narrow, k e p t i n v e r y poor r e p a i r ( e x c e p t i n t h e Dar e l - S u l t a n ) ,
and were o n l y s u i t a b l e f o r f o o t t r a f f i c , h o r s e s , o r mules. See
H a r c e l E m e r i t , A l g g r i e 2 l'e'poque d'Abd-el-Kader
( P a r i s , 1951),
pp. 195-197.
See a l s o P i e r r e Boyer, L ' 6 v o l u t i o n .de 1 1 A l g 6 r i e ~ g d i a n e ,
( P a r i s , 1 9 6 0 ) , pp. 65-67.
The m i t i d j a r e g i o n of A l g e r i a h a s ~ ~ b e edne s c r i b e d by S h a l e r , ( S k e t c h e s ,
p. 8 3 b s "probably one of t h e most v a l u a b l e expanses of t e r r i t o r y ,
i t s c l i m a t e , p o s i t i o n , and t h e f e r t i l i t y of i t s s o i l c o n s i d e r e d ,
I t was (and s t i l l i s ) c a p a b l e of producing
t h a t e x i s t s on o u r globe.''
a l l the a g r i c u l t u r a l requirements f o r Algiers.
I n t h e Turkish
p e r i o d t h e common d i f f i c u l t i e s were p e r i o d i c d r o u g h t ( 1 787, 1805) ,
p e s t i l e n c e - such a s l o c u s t s (1794, 1 8 1 5 ) , a n d p r a z z i a s by KabySes
o r d i s s i d e n t t r i b e s from t i m e t o t i m e . I t s a r e a i s c l o s e t o one
thousand 3 u a r e m i l e s .
Thomas Shaw, T r a v e l s and Q b s e r v a t i o n s (Edinburgh, 1808), V. 1, p. 86.

2.

3.

These farms were owned by wealthy T u r k s , K o u l o u g h l i s , and Arabs; a few

r e n t e d by t h e o c c a s i o n a l ~ u r o p e a nc o n s u l o r merchant.

From t h e road

it was p o s s i b l e t o s e e t h e Bay of A l g i e r s on t h e r i g h t , and t h e many

b a t t e r i e s and f o r t i f i c a t i o n s b u i l t over t h e y e a r s s i n c e 1541 a t i n t e r v a l s

a l o n g t h e c o a s t t o p r e v e n t a r e c u r r e n c e of t h e i n v a s i o n which had endangered
t h e e a r l y T u r k i s h e f f o r t s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c i t y and i t s h i n t e r l a n d a s
their territory.

A f t e r c r o s s i n g t h e Oued el-Harrach on one of t h e f o u r b r i d g e s

i n t h e Regency,

t h e c i t y g r a d u a l l y become more v i s i b l e ; t h e i r r e g u l a r

f o r t y f o o t h i g h c r e n e l l a t e d s t o n e and b r i c k w a l l e x t e n d i n g up t h e h i l l
f o r j u s t over one thousand y a r d s .

A t t h e lower end of t h e w a l l , j u s t

went of t h e b a t t e r y on t h e w a t e r ' s edge, was t h e major land-gate of

t h e c i t y , Bab Azoun.

O u t s i d e t h e g a t e was a l a r g e open s p a c e where

a n i m a l s were b u t c h e r e d f o r food; where people from o t h e r r e g i o n s w a i t e d

t o be h i r e d a s d a y - l a b o u r e r s ;

a mosque which came t o b e known a s t h e

C h a r l e s V of S p a i n , a f t e r h i s s a c k of Tunis (1535), determined t o

e r a d i c a t e t h e Muslim t h r e a t t o t h e west which had been e s t a b l i s h e d
a t A l g i e r s i n 1530. H i s hopes were smashed by r e s i s t a n c e from a l l
segments of A l g e r i a n s o c i e t y combined w i t h h o r r i b l e weather which
d e s t r o y e d most of h i s s h i p s . See Wolf, Barbary C o a s t , pp. 17-30.
Boyer, ~ ' & o l u t i o n , p. 66.
The a s p e c t of t h e c i t y a s p r e s e n t e d t o t h o s e a r r i v i n g by l a n d was
f a r d i f f e r e n t from t h e view d e s c r i b e d by t h e Europeans a r r i v i n g
by s h i p . Almost every European d e s c r i p t i o n c o n t a i n s words l i k e :
"pyramid, l1 " t r i a n g u l a r , l1 "amphitheatre," " w h i t e , and s o f o r t h . They
then go on t o c o n t r a s t t h e b e a u t y of t h e c i t y from a d i s t a n c e w i t h
i t s r e a l i t y from up c l o s e . However, t o t h e p e o p l e a r r i v i n g by
l a n d , t h e combination of m i l i t a r y power, p r o d u c t i v i t y , and p o l i t i c a l
r e a l i t y were a p p a r e n t from t h e f i r s t view of t h e c i t y . For " t y p i c a l "
European r e s p o n s e s s e e : Lespes, A l g e r , p . 166 f o r a summary of
French o b s e r v a t i o n s ; S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , pp. 47-48 f o r an e a r l y
American r e a c t i o n ; and G.A. J a c k s o n , A l g i e r s (London, 1817), p.
16 f o r a n E n g l i s h p o i n t of view. Both Spencer ( A l g i e r s , p. 4)
and Wolf (Barbary C o a s t , p. 93) echo t h e s e s e n t i m e n t s .

"aerbe'r mosque ;" Muslim ,:cemeteries ; a .kouba f o r S i d i Mansur ; and a s m a l l

g e n e r a l market p l a c e where goods from t h e i n t e r i o r c o u l d b e s o l d w i t h o u t i n f r i n g i n g on t h e commercial a r e a s w i t h i n t h e w a l l s .

Up t h e h i l l -

were t e n t s and p o o r l y c o n s t r u c t e d houses where t h e tnderemployed l i v e d

\

w h i l e w a i t i n g e i t h e r f o r an o p p o r t u n i t
to their villages.

f-

i n s i d e o r f o r a chance t o r e t u r n

Over a l l t h i s a c t i v i t y was t h e c o n s t a n t reminder

of t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e c i t y , Bab Azoun: t h e a c t u a l g a t e was composed

of two massive, r e i n f o r c e d wooden d o o r s w i t h d e f e n s i v e b a s t i o n s on e i t h e r
side.

The & l s

extended o v e r t h e d o o r s , and embedded i n t h e m a s o n e

were t h e " c r o c h e t s de f e r n o n t o which were thrown t h o s e whom t h e a u t h o r i t i e s

chose t o u s e a s examples of what happened t o p e o p l e who b r o k e t h e laws
of t h e c i t y .

Bab Azoun was t h e most i m p r e s s i v e of t h e l a n d - g a t e s

s i n c e i t n o t o n l y c o n f r o n t e d t h e s o u r c e of most of t h e i n d i g e n o u s
o p p o s i t i o n , K a b y l i a ; b u t a l s o was t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e T r i k e l - S u l t a n .

- were s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t a r e a s ,
Immediately i n s i d e Bab Azoun
i n c l u d i n g t h e b a r r a c k s of t h e s p a h i s d e l ' a g h a ,

those Turkish troops

whose d u t y i t was t o c o l l e c t t h e t a x e s from t h e . c o u n t r y s i d e d u r i n g t h e

a n n u a l p e r i o d s of m a h a l l a .

These ' s o l d i e r s l i v e d on t h e upper f l o o r

Condemned Muslims were executed o u t s i d e Bab Azoun; Jews and C h r i s t i a n s

o u t s i d e Bab el-Oued
(Harcel Colombe i n "L ' A l g e r i e Turque, I n i t i a t i o n
a l l A l g & r i e ( P a r i s , 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 113) Paul Crombet, w r i t i n g i n 1817,
j u s t a f t e r t h e r e v o l t of t h e J a n i s s a r i e s , n o t e s w i t h d i s t a s t e t h e
e x e c u t i o n of two Jews on t h e " c r o c h e t s d e f e r " a t Bab el-Oued,
and t h e " m u r a i l l e s couronees d e t e t e s de m o r t s symmetriquement
arrangees c o m e des pots Q f l e u r s
" a t Bab Az un
,-&
.Ir:;i s
Crombet, "Alger a u temps d e s T u r c s , " Revue d e P a+
p . 82.
a
These e x p e d i t i o n s have been d e s c r i b e d a s " e x p e d i t i o n a r y columns
which p i l l a g e d t h e c m t r y s i d e " ( & l i e n , H i s t e v , p. 2 9 3 ) ; hewever,
t h e amount of " p i l l a g i n g " which o c c u r r e d i s s u b j e c t t o c o n t r o v e r s y .
L a r o u i ( H i s t o r y , pp. 268-9) n o t e s t h a t t h e s u c c e s s of t h e m a h a l l a s
depended on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e b e y s and A l g i e r s , n o t t h e
f o r c e of t h e e x p e d i t i o n s .

....

of a funduq; a l a r g e two s t o r y b u i l d i n g s u r r o u n d i n g an open c o u r t y a r d ,

which s e r v e d a s a combination h o t e l , m a r k e t p l a c e , and workshop.

In

t h e funduq, t r a d e r s and a r t i s a n s from t h e i n t e r i o r c o u l d d i s p o s e of

t h e i r goods w h i l e p u r c h a s i n g n e c e s s i t i e s w i t h i n t h e c i t y .
was t h e major h i d e t a n n i n g a r e a of t h e c i t y

Bab Azoun

c l o s e t o t h e meat m a r k e t s ,

c l o s e t o w a t e r , and downwind from t h e r e s i d e n t i a l q u a r t e r s f o r most

of t h e y e a r

a s w e l l a s t h e c e n t r e of t h e f a b r i c ' d y e i n g

industry.

An

o f f i c i a l of t h e dey ( ~ h a d j 5 - e l - k h e i l ) was s t a t i o n e d c l o s e t o t h e g a t e
i n o r d e r t o c o l l e c t t a x e s from t h o s e w i s h i n g t o t r a d e i n s i d e t h e w a l l s

and t o monito5.- t h e t r a f f i c from t h e c o u n t r y s i d e .

F.

he 'most i m p o r t a n t market a r e a a t Bab Azoun was t h e o l i v e

o i l funduq where Kabyles and townspeople a l i k e c o u l d buy-the e s s e n t i a l

cooking m a t e r i a l .

In the o i l

funduq

b u y e r s would f i n d l a r g e p o t t e r y

j a r s of o i l a l 6 n g t h e w a l l s , w h i l e s e l l e r s

u s u a l l y Kabyles

would

b r i n g t h e i r o i l from t h e i r v i l l a g e s , s t a y i n g i n t h e funduq u n t i l i t
had been s o l d .

Business i n t h i s market u s u a l l y t o o k a much s h o r t e r

t i m e t o complete t h a n i n t h e o t h e r m a r k e t s , mostly b e c a u s e of t h e f o u l
s m e l l emanating from t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s which t o o k p l a c e i n t h e

"v

same market.

From Bab ~ z o u nt o t h e o t h e r main l a n d - g a t e ,

t h e p r i n c i p a l market

Bab e l - O u e d , was

s t r e e t of A l g i e r s , t h e , S o u k e l - K e b i r ,

a narrow,

t w i s t i n g avenue r u n n i n g more or l e s s p a r a l l e l t o t h e p o r t u n t i l i t connected

w i t h t h e s t r e e t s g o i n g t o t h e p o r t , where i t veered westward towards
Bab el-Oued.

I
Boyer n o t e s t h a t even though t h i s was t h e major commercial

a r t e r y " t r o i s badauds d i s c u t a n t ferme s u f f i s e n t

obstruer l a

mar6e humaine."

v o i e e t a c i n q u a n t e p a s s a n t s donnent l ' i m p r e s s i o n

Along t h e Souk el-Kebir were many s m a l l shops b u i l t i n t o t h e

main f l o o r of t h e h.ouses which l i n e d t h e s t r e e t .

Other s t r e e t s l e d

o f f t h e Souk and on t h e s e were t h e a r t i s a n s and f o o d - s e l l e r s .

The lower

s t a t u s m a n u f a c t u r i n g and m e r c a n t i l e a r e a s were g e n e r a l l y c l o s e r t o t h e
g a t e s , and a s p e d e s t r i a n s n e a r e d t h e c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e town
a r e a where t h e s t r e e t s from t h e p o r t met t h e Souk el-Kebir

buildings'became evident.

the

the principle

I n t h i s c e n t r a l r e g i o n were t h e c o n s u l a t e s

of F r a n c e , G r e a t B r i t a i n , S p a i n , Denmark, Sweden, t h e U.S.A.,

N a p l e s , and S a r d i n i a , s i d e by s i d e ;

10

many c$es,

Holland,

and t h e more h i g h l y

r e g a r d e d a r t i s a n s : j e w e l e r s , gold and s i l v e r s m i t h s , s c r i b e s , p e r f u m e r s ,
b o o k s e l l e r s , and m a n u s c r i p t w r i t e r s ;

11

The a i r h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l y

improved from t h a t of Bab Azoun.

4

I n t h i s a r e a was a l s o t h e s m a l l open a r e a (maydan) which s e r v e d

a s a f o c a l h o i n t f e r c i v i c and p u b l i c e v e n t s ; a f o u k a i n i n t h e c e n t r e
!

of t h e s q u a r e added t o i t s charm.

Off t h e maydan wa9 t h e D j e n i n a , t h e

p a l a c e of t h e deys u n t i l 1816 when A l i Khodja (1816-18) moved h i s r e s i d e n c e

and t h e s t a t e t r e a s u r y t o t h e f o r t i f i e d casbah i n t h e uppermost s e c t i o n
of t h e c i t y .

The p a l a c e was one of t h e more i m p r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e s ,

a l t h s u g h from t h e o u t s i d e t h e r e was l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n

of i t s n a t u r a l

b e a u t y o r a u t h o r i t y e x c e p t f o r t h e marble benches o u t s i d e t h e door and

9.

10.
11.

Boyer, La v i e , p. 51. Other o b s e r v e r s had s i m i l a r i m p r e s s i o n s :

s e e f o r example H.G. Barnby, The P r i s o n e r s of A l g i e r s (London,
l 9 6 6 ) , pp. 29-34.
Boyer, La v i e , p. 56.
There i s n o e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e were any p r i n t i n g p r e s s e s
i n A l g i e r s b e f o r e t h e Conquest. See M. Renaudot, Alger ( P a r i s ,
1830) p. 18; and Boyer, La v i e , p . 60.

t h e two J a n i s s a r y g u a r d s who m a i n t a i n e d watch o v e r t h e a r c h e d e n t r a n c e .

12

The upper s t o r y of t h e p a l a c e c o n t a i n e d t h e mint which produced t h e

6

b'

l o c a l currency.

C l o s e by y a s t h e bakery which s u p p l i e d t h e D j e n i n a ,

t h e e i g h t J a n i s s a r y b a r r a c k s , and t h e b a g n i o s ( t h e s l a v e b a r r a c k s which,
%

p r i o r t o 1816 were used t o house t h e c a p t u r e d Europeans k e p t i n t h e

-r"

c i t y ) w i t h t h e i r d a i l y b r e a d and b i s c u i t .

Adjacent t o t h e maydan were

h

t h e two main mosques of A l g i e r s : one, t h e Djama Djedid; a s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y

T u r k i s h s t y l e d multiple-domed

of t h e b u i l d i n g o v e r l o o k i n g t h e p o r t .
2
'

s t r u c t u r e , facing the c i t y with t h e r e a r

The seaward s i d e of t h e mosque

was a c t u a l l y b u i l t i n t o t h e s e a w a l l j u s t s o u t h of t h e main p o r t f o r t i fications.

13

The s m a l l e r Jami el-Sayyida mosque

14

opened o n t o t h e maydan,

c l o s e t o t h e harnmam known a s t h e " ~ a g n edu Roi" (1550).15

,

C
-

.
i

. +,

.*

Both t h e hammam

and t h e f o u n t a i n s i n t h e D j e n i n a and t h e maydan were ,supplied by t h e

aqueduct which e n t e r e d t h e c i t y a t Bab e l - D j e d i d ,

j u s t below t h e casbah.

l l B a d e ~ t a n , ttth e s l a v e market d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r d a y s of t h e Regency,

was a second, s m a l l e r open a r e a c l o s e t o t h e c i v i c c e n t r e .

% the

Souk el-Kebir c o n t i n u e d n o r t h p a s t t h e Djama K e b i r ,

t h e numbers of Jewish houses i n c r e a s e d a s d i d t h e more m i l i t a r i s t i c

12.

13.

14.
15.

The u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d f a c a d e was i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e Muslim a t t i t u d e

towards o s t e n t a t i o n : " I s l a m i c i d e o l o g y i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y h o s t i l e
t o l u x u r i o u s d w e l l i n g s and t o l o f t y o n e s , which a r e symbols of
p r i d e and a r r o g a n c e . " ( I s m a i l , " O r i g i n , " p. 115). For a complete
d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e p a l a c e s e e "Alger en 1830 d f a p r $ s
un contemporain," (unsigned a r t i c l e ) Revue ~ i b g r a l e ,XXIX (1960),
pp. 46-48.
Today t h e mosque i s about f i f t y y a r d s from t h e s e a b e c a u i of
r e b u i l d i n g and expansion of t h e p o r t f a c i l i t y which t o o k p3ace
d u r i n g t h e French o c c u p a t i o n .
Destroyed s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e c o n q u e s t . See J u l i e n , History,t p.
323.
~ e s ~ gA
s l,g e r , p. 1*75.

a s p e c t s of t h e c i t y .

F o r t Neuf, h e l p i n g c o n t r o l a c c e s s t o t h e p o r t ;

a c a s e r n e of J a n i s s a r i e s ; and, w i t h i n f i v e hundred y a r d s , t h e low,

i r r e g u l a r E u l j A l i f o r t r e s s (1568-69)

known a s t h e " ~ o r tof t h e , T w e n t y -

f o u r Hours," were a l l i n t e n d e d t o - p r o t e c t t h e n o r t h e r n a p p r o a c h e s t o
~ a c t u a l g a t e was a low, v a u l t e d , c u r v i n g p a s s a g e
Bab e l - o ~ e d . ~The
through t h e w a l l , c l o s e a b l e by two l a r g e d o o r s .
t h e Dar el-Nehas;

17

b r i c k and p o t t e r y ovens; Jewish and C h r i s t i a n g e m e t e r i e s ;

and t h e tomb of t h e " p a t r o n s a i n t of ' A l g i e r s "

Tha'alibi.

O u t s i d e t h e g a t e were

S i d i Abd al-Rahman a l -

A s m a l l r a v i n e l e d up t h e h i l l t o t h e c r e s t , t h e w a l l on

t h e s o u t h e r n bank e x t e n d i n g c t o t h e c i t a d e l where i t met t h e w a l l from

v

Bab Azoun, forming t h e rough t r i a n g l e s o o f t e n commented on by e a r l y

Y

observers.
t

'

'

The c i t a d e l of ~ l ~ i e r tsh e,

was one of t h e l e a s t a c c e s s i b l e

p a r t s of t h e T u r k i s h c i t y t o Europeans.

Even B o u t i n , who v i s i t e d , r e c o r d e d ,

and mapped every m i l i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n h e could f i n d , d i d n o t * p e & t r a t e

t h e c a s b a h : he o b s e r v e s t h a t ''2/3.de

l a v i l l e s o n t i n t e r d t t s aux ~ u r o p e ' e n s ;

c ' e s t une e s p z c e d e m e r v e i l l e que d e p a s s e r p a r l a P o r t e Neuve."

18

This

c i t a d e l , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , was - t h e s i t e of t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y ; t h e m i l i t a r y
p r e s e n c e t h e r e was i n t e n d e d

p r o t g g e r l a populat'ion c i t a d i n e d e s

e n v a h i s s e u r s g t r a n g e r s d'une p a r t , e t d e s i n c u r s i o p s d e s t r i b u s nomades

16,
17.

18.

B o u t i n , "Reconnaisance ,at pp. 36-7.

The gun powder f a c t o r y and cannon foundry. See ~ e s p h s ,A l g e r , '
p. 153n2 and FO 317, 21 October 1790, (Consul Logie t o G r e n v i l l e ) .
Logie n o t e s t h a t t h e powder manufactured a t A l g i e r s i s " i n s t r e n g t h
l i t t l e i n f e r i o r t o o u r s , b u t n o t s o w e l l ground."
He a l s o n o t e s
t h a t one o r two thousand b a r r e l s of powder were imported i n tribute
each y e a r .
B o u t i n , "Reconnaissance ," p . 33.

ik,

39
d'autre part.

I'

19

I n r e a l i t y , i t was n o t u n t i l 1817 t h a t t h e c a s b a h ,

o r i g i n a l l y b u i l t a s p a r t of t h e main f o r t i f i c a t i o n s of t h e c i t y i n t h e
s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , came t o b e a " f o r t r e s s e dans l a f o r t r e s s s . "

Separated

from t h e main c i t y by a w a l l two t o t h r e e m e t r e s t h i c k and t e n t o twelve

m e t r e s h i g h , made of every l o c a l m a t e r i a l i n c l u d i n g b l u e l i m e s t o n e ;

20

armed w i t h f i f t y cannon-s f a c i n g t h e c i t y ; and e n t e r e d by o n l y one w e l l p r o t e c t e d g a t e n e a r Bab el-Djedid

entity.

( P o r t e Neuve), i t was' t r u l y a d i s t i n c t

The c a s b a h was s u p p l i e d w i t h f r e s h w a t e r by an a q u e d u c t f r o m A

in ~ e b o u d j 2a 1 which flowed i n t o t h e a r e a t o supply numerous f o u n t a i n s ,

and f i l l e d t h e hammam.

A f t e r u s e t h e w a t e r was c a r r i e d by underground

sewers down t h r o u g h t h e town i n t o t h e s e a .

The s p i r i t u a l n e e d s of t h e

r e s i d e n t s were f u l f i l l e d i n a t l e a s t t h r e e mosques, includ'ing t h e S a f i r , 2 2

w h i l e e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s c o u l d b e met a t t h e & o l e d e l l A g h a , which r e c e i v e d
' f i f t y measures of b a r l e y from t h e government each y e a r t o h e l p w i t h
expenses.

23

The d e y ' s p a l a c e , a t h r e e s t o r e y , open c o u r t y a r d b u i l d i n g

p r o v i d e d comfort t o t h e dey and h i s e n t o u r a g e , w h i l e b a r r a c k s p r a v i d e d

a s l i g h t l y l e s s comfortable e x i s t e n c e t o the troops s t a t i o n e d t h e r e .

24

As i n t h e lower town, narrow winding s t r e e t s c u l m i n a t i n g i n s t e e p s t a i r c a s e s ,

dead e n d s , and o c c a s i o n a l g a t e s o r c h a i n s were n o r m a l , w h i l e f l a t - r o o f e d

19.

20.
21.
22.
A%
l-L'- 24.

Stambouli and Zghal, "La v i e u r b a i n e dans l e Maghrib P r e ' c ~ l o n i a l , ~ ~

Annuaire de l 1 ~ E r i q u edu Nord (1972), p . 196.
See Boyer, La v i e , p. 37 and Lespks-, A l g e r , p .
L
~ e s p s s ,A l g e r , p . 176.
J u l i e n , H i s t o r y , p. 323.
-Boyer, L ' e ' v o l u t i o n , p . 701129.
Sek t h e e n g r a v i n g i n J u l i e n , H i s t o i r e d e l 1 ~ l g ; i i e Contemporaine
( P a r i s , 1 9 6 4 ) , f a c i n g p. 32.

Lh9.

houses provided o c c u p a n t s w i t h views of t h e e n t i r e c i t y .

Included

i n t h e casbah were,many . m i l i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h e main a r s e n a l s

f o r t h e c i t y , powder magazines and s m a l l s t a b l e s f o r t h e h b r s e s of t h e
dey and
-

h i s troops.

25

I n s h o r t , the casbah
- was "une v e r i t a b l e v i l l e

f o r t i f i e e au s e i n d e l a c a p i t a l e . "

26

The c i t y was d i v i d e d i n t o . two major r e g i o n s : El-Djebel

(the

heights), including the casbah

- and t h e more e x c l u s i v e r e s i d e n t i a l q u a r t e r s
of Arabs, T u r k s , a n d ' K o u l o u g h l i s ; and El-Outha ( t h e p l a i n ) , which i n c l u d e d
most of t h e m e r c a n t i l e a r e a s and t h e q u a r t e r s below t h e Souk e l - K e b i r .
Each of t h e s e major r e g i o n s was sub-divided i n t o h a r a h ( q u a r t e r s ) which
were c a p a b l e of s e p a r a t i o n from each o t h e r by g a t e s which were c l o s e d
each e v e n i n g a t sundown.

27

Each q u a r t e r was s e l f - c o n t a i n e d ,

and i n c l u d e d

f o u n t a i n s , hammams, shops b u i l t i n t o h o u s e s , mosques and s c h o o l s .

28

T h i s p a t t e r n of s e l f - c o n t a i n m e n t r e p e a t e d i t s e l f i n t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n
and d e s i g n of t h e h o u s e s i n t h e c i t y .

S h a l e r , L e s p e s , and o t h e r s a l l

.agree on t h e b a s i c d e s i g n of t h e houses and on t h e i d e o l o g y of t h e

residential unit.

25.
26.
27.
28.

29.

2!3

k y e r , La v i e , p. 37. The main s t a b l e s were l o c a t e d a b o u t f o u r

hundred y a r d s west of Bab el-Djedid; o u t s i d e t h e c i t y .
Stambouli and Zghal, "La v i e u r b a i n e , " p . 197.
S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , p. 74.
Each house had a s m a l l v e s t i b u l e b u i l t immediately i n s i d e t h e
d o o r . T h i s s q i f a could b e used e i t h e r a s a w a i t i n g room f o r
v i s i t o r s o r , i n t h e lower q u a r t e r s , a s a shop f o r s e l l i n g whate v e r t h e owner was making o r t r a d i n g . Most of t h e m e r c h a n d i s i n g
went on i n !Ale el-Outha r e g i o n , away from t h e more r e s i d e n t i a l
q u a r t e r s . S@h L e s p e s , A l g e r , pp. 171-2.
S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , pp. 71-73 and Lespks, A l g e r , pp. 171-73.
Guiauchain ( i n Lespgs, A l g e r , p . 120) n o t e s : "Alger semble a v o i r
e ' t e ' b a t i t o u t d'une p i g c e p a r l a mgme G u i p e d ' o u v r i e r s . "

The inward l o o k i n g maskan bouse] , open t o t h e

calm of t h e s k y , made c o o l by t h e element of w a t e r ,
s e l f - c o n t a i n e d and p e a c e f u l , t h e d e l i b e r a t e a n t i t h e s i s
of t h e h a r s h p u b l i c world of work, w a r f a r e and
commerce, i s t h e p l a c e where t h e
Arab f a m i l y
found i t s s a k i n a h [ t r a n q u i l i t y ]

...

' 30

T h i s " t r a n q u i l i t y " was n o t a common p a r t of t h e lower ci-ty.

From t h e Souk el-Kebir

t o t h e p o r t was t h e commercial c e n t r e of ~ l g i e r s ;

an a r e a of n o i s e , movement, b u s i n e s s and p l e a s u r e .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , even

w5thi.n t h i s m i l i e u were two s e p a r a t e h a r a h : t h e J e w i s h q u a r t e r , w i t h

i t s synagogue, low h o u s e s , d a r k narrow s t r e e t s , and a u r a of u n c e r t a i n t y ;

31

c o n t r a s t e d t o t h e q u a r t e r of t h e c o r s a i r s ( t a i f f a e l - r a i s ) , w i t h i t s
p a p t i a l houses b u i l t c l o s e t o t h e i r s o u r c e of power, t h e p o r t .

In

t h e r a i s q u a r t e r were t h e c a f e and t a v e r n a r e a s , i n c l u d i n g t h e Zenkat

s l b a Ta.baren - t h e s t r e e t of seven t a v e r n s .

32

The main s t r e e t l e a d i n g from t h e c i t y ' t o t h e p o r t was c a l l e d

T r i k Bab D j e z i r a ; t h e g a t e ' w a s known a s Bab D j e z i r a o r Bab D j i h a d ,
w h i l e a secondary s t r e e t l e a d i n g t o a f i f t h and s m a l l e s t g a t e , Bab
el-Hout

(Gate of t h e F i s h e r y ) , was mostly used by f i s h e r m e n and l o c a l

t r a d e r s wh%agged
main p o r t .

30.
31.

32.

t h e i r b o a t s up o n t o t h e s h o r e j u s t s o u t h of t h e

The e x t r a n c e t o t h e p o r t t h r o u g h Bab D j e z i r a was a v a u l t e d

I s m a i l , " O r i g i n s ,<p.

115. .

X. Rosenstock, "Ec nomic and S o c i a l C o n d i t i o n s among t h e Jews

of A l g e r i a , (1790-1848)," H i s t o r i a J u d a i c a , X C I I I , P a r t 1,
A p r i l 1956, p. 17.
I t seems a s though t h e I s l a m i c r e s t r i c t i o n on a l c o h o l was n o t
s t r i c t l y e n f o r c e d i n A l g i e r s , a t l e a s t among t h e T u r k s ,
and o t h e r s i n t h e lower c i t y . See Boutin ("Reconnaissance," p .
68) who complains t h a t t h e l o c u s t p l a g u e of 1794 s e v e r e l y damaged
t h e - v i n e s t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t " l a q u a l i t & du v i n a beaucoup diminu;
P a u l Crombet ("Alger," p . 8 7 ) a l s o remarks bn t h e e x c e l l e n c e of
t h e wine and t h e p r o p e n s i t y of some A l g e r i a n s f o r d r i n k i n g .

a,

.I'

42

p a s s a g e way l e a d i n g under t h e w a l l t o t h e causeway which connected t h e

..
o r i g i n a l group of i s l a n d s t o t h e mainland.

Between t h e i s l a n d s , which

were j o i n e d t o g e t h e r by r o c k s and an e x t e r i o r w a l l , and t h e c i t y .was

t h e harbour.

A l g i e r s was n o t a n a t u r a l p o r t ; i t was o n l y t h r o u g h t h e

- e f f o r t s o f - g e n e r a t i o n s of b o t h s l a v e and h i r e d ' l a b o u r t h a t t h e c i t y
was a b l e t o connect t h e s m a l l i s l a n d s ( e l - D j a z a ' i r )
t o t h e mainland.

t o g e t h e r and then

The h a r b o u r was calm., w i t h f i f t e e n t o twenty f e e t

of w a t e r i n c l o s e t o t h e docks, p r o t e c t e d by a s e r i e s of b a t t e r i e s and

a c o m b i n a e n a r s e n a l and l i g h t h o u s e .

The p o r t f a c i l i t y was c a p a b l e

of c o n s t r u c t i n g o q * r e p a i r i n g s h i p s a s l a r g e a s f r i g a t e s , and S h a l e r
r e p o r t e d t h r e e s c h o o n e r s b e i n g b u i l t a t t h e same t i m e i n 1822.

33

The

p o r t ' s a r s e n a l was s u p p l i e d w i t h e v e r y t h i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e " c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

armament, equipment, and r e p a i r s " of s h i p s ; some of t h e m a t e r i a l from
t h e h i n t e r l a n d , t h e r e s t r e c e i v e d a s t r i b u t e ' f r o m European s t a t e s .

34

The p o r t d i d n o t a p p e a r t o b" t o o l a r g e , p e r h a p s c a p a b l e of h o l d i n g
P

f i f t y v e s s e l s , b u t i t was c e r t a i n l y of a d e q u a t e s i z e f o r A l g i e r s . During
.
it h e B r i t i s h a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e c i t y ' i n 1824, Lord C l a r e n c e P a g e t n o t e d :
The s t r a n g e t h i n g was t h a t o u t of t h i s l i t t l e
Mole t h e r e came d a i l y hundreds of f i n e g a l l e y s
f u l l y armed, and no one c p u l d u n d e r s t a n d how
t h e y c o u l d f i n d room f o r them, b e s i d e s s e v e r a l
l a r g e f r i g a t e s and c o r v e t t e s i n s i d e .
35
C

*Even d u r i n g t h e t i m e when t h e c i t y was " i n d e c l i n e " t h e government

c o n t i n u e d t o r e b u i l d and m a i n t a i n t h i s f a c i l i t y .

A f t e r thelbombardment

of 1816 which r e s u l t e d i n "the d e s t r u c t i o n of n e a r l y h a l f A l g i e r s ,

t

~ e s p & sA
, l g e r , p . 136 and p . . 4 4 .
See D u b o i s L T h a i n v i l l e , "Sur A l g e r , " p . 148.
C i t e d i n P l a y f a i r , Scourge, p . 301.

L
\

43
and

. . . the

b u r n i n g of t h e .whole A l g e r i a n navy ,"

.. 36

refortification
.

c o n t i n u e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i n 1822 S h a l e r could o b s e r v e t h a t :

A l l t h e approaches by s e a t o A l g i e r s a r e defended
by such f o r m i d a b l e works, mounted w i t h heavy cannon,
a,s t o r e n d e r any d i r e c t a t t a c k by s h i p s a d e s p e r a t e
s o t h a t i t seems c e r t a i n t h a t
undertaking ;
a s i m i l a r a t t a c k t o ' ~ x m o u t h ' s would n o t a g a i n
succeed
' 37

..

...

In a l l these aspects Algiers exhibited t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of t h e I s l a m i c c i t y , f u l f i l l i n g the' 0 , y g a n i s a t i o n and s i t e - p a t t e r n t e n d e n c i e s
i

noted i n r e c e n t s t u d i e s .
which'distinguished

I t s most i n t e r e s t i n g a t t r i b u t e ? were t-hose

i t from t h e "norm :" t h e m u l t i - e t h n i c i t y

of t h e lower

c i t y ; t h e l e a d e r s h i p of a f q r e i g n b u t r e l a t e d e l i t e ; t h e s e t t i n g , which
w h i l e f a c i n g Europe was an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e Muslim w o r l d ; t h e s y m b i o t i c
.

r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e land add t h e - s e a ; t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of c i t y -,

and h i n t e r l a n d ; and t h e unique I I p e r s o n a l i t y " which made A l g i e r s a
f a s c i n a t i n g p l a c e f o r s o many o b s e r v e r s

citizens as well a s strangers.

p r e - c o l o n i a l BLgiers w a s r a p l a c e where t h i r t y thousand p e o p l e l i v e d ;

d

8:

some were s u c c e s s f u l i n a c h i e v i n g t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s , o t h e r s were n o t ;

6

some o b s e r v e r s enjoyed t h e c i t y , 'some d i d n o t .

I n 1791, Consul d e Kercy

w r o t e : A l g e r e s t l a s e u l e v i l l e du monde q u i a i t merit;
p a r une machine i n g e m a l e . "

38

d'btre & r a s h

I n 1817 P a u l Crombet w r o t e :

"on y

,~-

t r o u v e p a r t o u t d e s s i t e s p i t t o r e s q u e s , pars&m6s d e b o s q u e t s romantiques
e t anime's p a r une q u a n t i t e ' p r o d i g i e u s e d e r a s s i g n o l s que r e m p l i s s e n t
l ' a i r d e l e u r s c h a n t s mklodieux."

36.
37.
38.
39.

39

Admiral van Cappelan i n J a c k s o n , A l g i e r s , p . 305.

S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , pp. 46-47
"Memoires," p . 111.
Crombet, "Alger," p. 87

44
T h i s d u a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e seems t o have been a key f a c t o r i n
pre-colonial

A l g e r i a n l i f e : even i n t h e Muslim i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e r e were

two r i t e s , which c r e a t e d a m c h more t o l e r a n t s o c i e t y , a more f l e x i b l e

approach t o l i f e , a g r e a t e r freedom of c h o i c e and a c t i o n f o r t h e c i t i z e n s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e s o c i e t y , t h e Muslim f a m i l y u n i t ,
remained of paramount importance: t h e p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s , monuments, and
i n s t i t u t i o n s were minimal; t h e c i t y was b u i l t around f a m i l y h o u s e s and
\

i t managed t o p r e s e r v e t h e i n t e g r i t y of t h i s u n i t t h r o u g h o u t i t s p r e c o l o n i a l existent;.

The c e n t r e of t h e i n n e r c i r c l e was n e i t h e r t h e

souk, t h e mosque, t h e p o r t , n o r t h e p a l a c e , b u t t h e maskan.

One of t h e i m p o r t a n t t h r e a d s which r a n t h r o u g h t h e s e c i r c l e s
L

wa2 t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e system

t h e system of government which was

'V

a t t e m p t i n g t o keep d i v e r s e c u l t u r a l groups t o g e t h e r w h i l e o t h e r f o r c e s
were a t t e m p t i n g t o push them a p a r t .
c h a r a c C e r i s t i c s of Algiecs,

Wh'ile d i s c u s s i n g governmental

it i s e s s e n t i a l t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e c i t y

was n o t i s o l a t e d from t h e r e s t of t h e r u r a l community; i t was t h e c e n t r e

1

of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , b u t i t was n o t a c a p i t a l c i t y i n t h e modem s e n s e .
A l g i e r s . was a p a r t of a g r e a t e r community and t h u s , i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r
t h e f o c u s s h i f t s from a
of t h e o u t e r c i r c l e s

d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i n n e r c i r c l e t o an i n v e s t i g a t i o n
t h e d i s s i d e n t and makhzan t r i b a l groups and t h e

b e y l i c a l governments of Oran, T i t t e r i , and C o n s t a n t i n e .

Throughout,

however, t h e emphasis i s on t h e r o l e of A l g i e r s and t h e way i t s r u l i n g

d

other regions,

45

4
CHAPTER III

TEE F R ~ % ~ ~ O R K
OF GOVERNMENT

A d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y , p r e - c o l o n i a l A l g e r i a was d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l
sub-sections,

each w i t h s e p a r a t e b u t l i m i t e d a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n i t s r e g i o n .

The s t r u c t u r e begiris

ET

Algiers, s p r e a d i n t o t h e immediate h i n t e r l a n d ,

t h e f a h s , and t h e n tc a more d i v e r s e r e g i o n , t h e Dar e l - S u l t a n .

The

r e s t of t h e c o u n t r y ;-as d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e p r o v i n c e s ( b e y l i k s ) each
-iit'n i t s own " c a p i t a l " and a d m i n i s t r a t 5 v e s t r u c t u r e s .
-

As p r o x i m i t y

c o A l g i e r s d e c r e a s e d t h e t r e n d was f o r c o n t r o l and a u t h o r i t y t o d e c r e a s e
1 .

also.

There was n e v e r a time when t h e government of A l g i e r s c o n t r o l l e d

t h e e n t i r e c o u n t - r y s i d s , y e t , t h i s same government was somehow c a p a b l e

3f

e x t r a c t i n g ' t a x a t i o n and p r o v i d i n g a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e of s e c u r i t y

an2 j u s t i c e f o r t h e a r e a s which were under t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u m b r e l l a

of rhz A l g i e r s ' a u t h o r i t i e s .

I n o r d e r t o understand t h i s juxtaposed

o r d e r and d i s u n i t y it i s n e c e s s a r y

.-

LO

examine t h e v a r i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s ,

t h a i r c o n n e c t i o n s , and t h e i r b e h a v i o u r s ; i t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o c l a r i f y
i

:h2

c o n f ~ s i o n& i c h h a s r e s u l t e d from o v e r a hundred y e a r s of s c h o l a r -

3 of1 t h~e O t t a z a z s i n A l g i e r s n o t i n g t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s which e x i s t e d

between t h e e v i d e n c e and t h e

conclusion^.^

more f l e x i b l e a s p e c t s of t h e A l g i e r s

Johnson w a s aware of t h e

governmen%

o b s e r v i n g t h a t t h e system

11

was t r y i n g t o respond t o t h e r e a l i t i e s of t h e s i t u a t i o n ; i n p l a c e s

it was changing and d e v e l o p i n g " and it v a r i e d i t s u s e of a u t h o r i t y i n

time and s p a c e . .
2
minimal.

I n s p i t e of t h i s c a l l t o a c t i o n t h e r e s p o n s e h a s been
d-'

The p r a g m a t i c n a t u r e of t h e government h a s been i g n o r e d , and

r e s t a t e m e n t s of e a r l i e r , narrow

sometimes e t h n o c e n t r i c

hypotheses

based on o b s e r v a t i o n s from t i m e s which were very different from t h e l a t t e r

y e a r s of t h e Regency have c o n t i n u e d .

To mosr o b s e r v e r s , t h e c e n t r a l problem which d e t e r m i n e d t h e

p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a s i s of t h e government w a s s i m p l e : i t was n e c e s s a r y

". . .

t o a s s u r e t h e f l o w of t a x money from t h e Arab and B e r b e r t r i b e s

t o t h e beys

..

"

and from them t o A l g i e r s .

Thus, t h e c o l l e c t i o n

of t a x e s Became t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e of government,
a c o m p l e t e l y one-way system.

Marcel Colombe a g r e e s w i t h t h i s s e n t i n m e n t ,

n o t i n g that t h e Turks used A l g e r i a a s a s o u r c e of w e a l t h t o b e e x p l o i t e d

w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e w e l l - b e i n g of t h e p e o p l e .

Julien states

t h a t the. "government of t h e Turks was a n i n d u s t r y from which t h e y made

every e f f o r t t o d e r i v e t h e maximum p r o f i t . "
e n t i r e overview:

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

I'

. . . the

D a n z i g e r summaries t h e
Y

Turks t o o k no i n t e r e s t i n t h e well-being

" A l g e r i a : Some problems of modern H i s t o r y " J o u r n a l of A f r i c a n H i s t o r y ,

Vol. 2 , 1964. pp. 221-242.
Johnson, " A l g e r i a , " p. 224.
R. D a n z i e r , Abd a l - Q a d i r and t h e A l g e r i a n s , (New York, 1977), pp.
15-16.
M. Cole&+
" L ' ~ l g e r F e tul-que," p. 118.
J u l i e n , H i s t o r y , p. 324.

of t h e i r s u b j e c t s

....

T h e i r r e l a t i o n s were based s o l e l y on two t h i n g s

o b t a i n i n g t h e l a r g e s t p o s s i b l e amount i n t a x e s
s u f f i c i e n t law and o r d e r t o e n s u r e

. . . and maintaining

. . . collection . . . .

I'

~hese

o b s e r v a t i o n s must c a u s e c o n s i d e r a b l e

b e c a u s e t h e obvious

anomaly s t i l l e x i s t s :

able t o maintain t h i s

How were s o

one-sided r e l a t i o n s h i p ' over s o many o t h e r g r o u p s ?

Hermassi e x p l a i n s

t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n i s t o b e found i n t h e number of s m a l l t r i b a l groups

and t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o combine a g a i n s t t h e Ottoman a u t h o r i t i e s , b u t
t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n g i v e n t h e c o m p l e t e l y n e g a t i v e , ones i d e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of A l g e r i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s .

T h e r e must have

been some p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e government which e n a b l e d i t

t o f u n c t i o n and which gave
of t h e p e o p l e of A l g e r i a .
on

P legitimacy

and a t l e a s t t h e minimal c o n s e n t

Abun Nasr h i n t s a t

but does n o t e l a b o r a t e

t h i s n e c e s s i t y : "The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e c o u n t r y was a m i l i t a r y

one, whose main p u r p o s e s were t o p r e s e r v e p e a c e , a d m i n i s t e r j u s t i c e ,

and c o l l e c t taxes.""

T h i s s t a t e m e n t d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e g o a l s of

t h e government may n o t have been a s one-sided

supposed

a s had been g e n e r a l l y

i n f a c t , t h e s e . g o a l s a r e s u r p r i s i n g l y s i m i l a r t o governmental

o b j e c t i v e s i n a l m o s t any o t h e r n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s o c i e t y .

Therefore,

c o n s i d e r i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n c o l l e c t i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g .evidence,
it i s e s s e n t i a l t o examine t h e s t r u c t u r e s - o f government i n o r d e r t o

comprehend t h e r e a s o n s why t h e r e was such a l e v e l of s u c c e s s f u l governm

in A l g e r i a .

6.
7.
8.

D a n z i g e r , Abd a l - Q a d i r , p . 16.
Hermassi, L e a d e r s h i p , p. 46.
Abun Nasr, H i s t o r y , p . 1 7 5 .

The f i r s t - though c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e most i m p o r t a n t - component

of A l g i e r s r government concerned t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e P o r t e and

t h e Regency.

T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p encompas$es a r a t h e r s h o r t continuum

from nominal t o i n s i g n i f i c a n t d u r i n g t h e

a t t e r years, but i n the e a r l i e s t

s t a g e s of t h e Regency i t was i m p o r t a n t t h b t t h e P o r t e r e c o g n i s e t h e
l e g i t i m a c , ~ of t h e p a s h a s of A l g i e r s s i n c e i, t h e c i t y ' w a s t h e w e s t e r n t e r m i n u s
of t h e j i h a d a g a i n s t S p a i n ;

As time p a s s e d , t h e r e c o g n i t i o n became

l e s s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e government b u i l t i t s own l e g i t i m a c y on t h e
b a s i s of i t s a b i l i t y and s t r e n g t h .

Sorbe o b s e r v e r s n o t e t h a t t h e P o r t e

d e s i r e d t o m a i n t a i n some l e v e l of c o n t r o l over t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y
governments, b u t t h e r e i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c 4 t o s u p p o r t t h i s c o n t e n t i o n .
I t a p p e a r s a s i f t h e P o r t e was a c t u a l l y c o n t e n t t o l e t t h e f a r west

of I s l a m run i t s own a f f a i r s a s l o n g a s t h e r e was token r e c o g n i t i o n

of t h e r o l e of t h e S u l r a n i n t h e a f f a i r s of s t a t e - i n t h e F r i d a y p r a y e r s ,
i n t h e m i n t i n g of c o i n a g e , and i n t h e send&
f o r example.

of a n n u a l g i f t s and t r i b u t e ,

T h i s a t t i t u d e i s more u n d e r s t a n d a b l e g i v e n t h e s t a t e of a f f a i r s

i n t h e p r o v i n c e s c l o s e r t o t h e c a p i t a l of t h e Ottoman Empire, where

d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d under s t u d y t h e P o r t e was b e g i n n i n g a s e r i e s of reforms

which e n t a i l e d a t r e n d towards g r e a t e r c e n t r a l i z a t i o n .
was n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e s e c e n t r a l i z i n g p l a n s .

The Maghrib

It a p p e a r s a s i f t h e

P o r t e was n o t g r e a t l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e problems of A l g i e r s a s t h e r e were

enough d i f f i c u l t i e s d e a l i n g w i t h reform i n and around A n a t o l i a .

The

S u l t a n e x p r e s s e d h i s sympathy w i t h t h e g o a l s of t h e A l g e r i a n government,
b u t t h e r e was l i t t l e s u b s t a n t i a l h e l p g i v e n .

9.

T h i s e v a l u a t i o n i s summarized

See Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, (Oxford, 1 9 6 8 ) ,

pp. 89-90.

i n an 1827 l e t t e r from t h e l a s t dey of A l g i e r s , H u s s e i n Pasha .(1818-

1830) t o t h e P o r t e i n which t h e dey o u t l i n e s t h e c o n t i n u i n g d i s p u t e

r

w i t h F r a n c e and n o t e s t h a t : "D*epuis p l u s i e r s anne'es, l t O d j a k

. . . nra

p a s reFu de t r o u p e s du c 6 t 6 d e l l A n a t o l i e .
faqons, besoin de troupes t u r q u e s

....

LrOdjak a y a n t , d e t o u t e s

" 10 The Grand V i z i e r added

a n o t e t o t h i s l e t t e r , s t a t i n g t h a t before t h i s request could be granted

0

i t needed i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y .

11

The S u l t a n i n d i c a t e s h i s s o l i c i , t a t i o n s ,

b u t t h e r e was no change i n t h e p o l i c y which p r e v i o u s l y had s u p p l i e d

Algiers with Anatolian r e c r u i t s .

From 1827 t o 1829 o n l y s e v e n t y - s i x

new r e c r u i t s a r e l i s t e d a s a r r i v i n g a t A l g i e r s , none of them, a p p a r e n t l y ,

from A n a t o l i a .

Thus, s c h o l a r l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i ; between

12

t h e P o r t e and A l g i e r s remains somewhat ambiguous a n d , u n t i l f u r t h e r

r e s e a r c h p r o v i d e s u s w i t h more d a t a , t h e 'term "nominal" seems t o be
t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p .

10.

11.
12.

13.

13

E . Kuran, "La l e t t r e du d e r n i e r dey d ' A l g e r a u grand v i z i r de

1'Empire ottoman," Revue A f r i c a i n , l e r - 2eme t r i m .
(19521,
p. 192.
Kuran, " L e t t r e " , p . 125.
M. Colombe, " C o n t r i b u t i o n
116tude d e recrutement d e l r O d j a q
d f A l g e r dans l e s d k r n i e r e s anne'es d e l a Rkgence," Revue A f r i c a i n ,
Tome 8 7 (19431, p. 183.
Areas f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y i n c l u d e t h e r o l e of A l g e r i a n s h i p s and
t r o o p s i n t h e Greek War of Independence, g i v e n t h a t t h e r e w a s '
some T u n i s i a n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h 'Ottoman f o r c e s ( b o t h S h a l e r ,
S k e t c h e s , p . 164 and H.D. d e Grammont, H i s t o i r e d l A l g e r s o u s
la domination
Turque ( P a r i s , 1 8 8 7 ) , p. 386, h i n t a t A l g e r i a n
p a r t i c i p a t i o n ) and a thorough a n a l y s i s of c o r r e s p o n d e p c e between
A l g i e r s and Europe, and A l g i e r s and t h e P o r t e . A c u r s o r y e v a l u a t i o n
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e was a much h i g h e r l e v e l of r e s p e c t and honour
g i v e n t o t h e S u l t a n t h a n t o European k i n g s - even d u r i n g t i m e s
when ~ u r o p ewas i n a more powerful p o s i t i o n r e g a r d i n g A l g i e r s .
See Document 78, (SP 1 0 2 / I 206) i n L e t t e r s from B a r b a r y , e d .
J.F.P. Hopkins, (Oxford, 1 9 8 2 ) pp. 97-99; E . ICufan, % e r t r e u ,
pp. 188-195; and A . Temirni, Recherches e t documents d ' h i s t o i r e
rnaghrkbine
. d e 1816 a 1871, (Tunis, l 9 ~ l ) , e s p e c i a l l y documents
n o s . 1 t o 10, pp. 221-239.

One of t h e most i m p o r t a n t components of t h e p r e - c o l o n i a l

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of A l g e r i a concerned t h e - . s t r u c t u r e of government i n t h e

three beyliks.

T h i s i s t h e a r e a which h a s caused t h e most d i f f i c u l t y

f o r t h e c o l o n i a l a p o l o g i s t s who a r e unable t o e x p l a i n why, i f t h e Ottoman

p r e s e n c e was a s unpopular a s t h e i r s c h o o l h a s a r g u e d , a few thousand
' m i l i t a r i l y i n f e r i o r t r o o p s and b u r e a u c r a t s were c a p a b l e of a d m i n i s t e r i n g
ari a r e a which t h e c o l o n i a l power of ~ r a * c e was u n a b l e t o c o n t r o l .

The

s e c r e t of t h e s u c c e s s d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y i n A l g e r i a
i s c l o s e l y connected t o b o t h c u l t u r a l v a l u e s and t h e p h i l o s o p h y of
- ,
government: c u l t u r a l l y t h e r e were s e v e r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s between t h e
Ortomans and o t h e r e t h n i c g r o u p s ; p o l i t i c a l l y , t h e r u l i n g c l a s s d i d
n o t r e q u i r e a l l e g i e n c e ' o r l o y a l t y from t h e p e o p l e .

It was s u f f i c i e n t

f o r t h e a d m i n i s t - r a t o r s i f t h e p e o p l e were p r e p a r e d t o pay t h e i r t a x e s ,
bey t h e e s s e n t i a l l a w s , and a l l o w t h e economic system t o f u n c t i o n .

T h e i r pragmatism i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a f f a i r s enabled them t o m a i n t a i n

t h e i r p o s i t i o n w i t h o u t a l i e n a t i n g t h e p e o p l e of t h e c o u n t r y s i d e o r
r e q u i r i n g them t o i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y .

The governmental

s t r u c t u r e s r e f l e c t t h i s p r a g m a t i c approach.
The b a s i c f kamework of government' cons i s t e d of s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t
b u t r e l a t e d s e c t o r s , each w i t h s u b - d i v i s i o n s and f l e x i b l e a f f i l i a t i o n s
JI

and g r o u p i n g s .

The common s o u r c e of a u t h o r i t y r e s t e d i n t h e government

of A l g i e r s , a l t h o u g h t h e l e v e l of a u t h o r i t y v a r i e d i n t i m e and s p a c e .
The immediate e n v i r o n s of t h e c i t y
i

t h e f a h s - were a d m i n i s t e r e d a s
F

p a r t of t h e c i t y .

The n e x t a r e a of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e Dar e l - S u l t a n ,
-

was a d m i n i s t e r e d t h r o u g h t r i b a l s h e i k h s o r Ottoman c a i d s , who r e p o r t e d

C-

51
directly t o the o f f i c i a l s a t Algiers.
more s u b m i s s i v e t r i b e s

These a r e a s c o n s i s t e d of t h e

- t h e r a i a - whose p e o p l e found

i t more b e n e f i c i a l

t o work w i t h t h e c e n t r a l power t h a n t o r i s k u p s e t t i n g t h e b a l a n c e between

governed and government by a t t e m p t i n g t o j o i n t h e more independent t r i b e s
o u t s i d e t h e a r e a s of d i r e c t c o n t r o l .

The t h i r d c i r c l e of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

i,

was composed of t h o s e t r i b e s known a s ma h z a n , meaning t h o s e who c o n t r i b u t e d

t a x e s - e i t h e r v o l u n t a r i l y o r b e c a u s e of c o e r c i o n

t o the central authority.

These t r i b e s u s u a l l y were semi-independent, b u t i t was u s u a l l y i n t h e i r

b e s t i n t e r e s t s t o pay t h e n e c e s s a r y t a x e s i n o r d e r t o g a i n t h e advantage
from t h e p o l i c i e s of t h e Ottoman a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . .The a r e a s o u t s i d e
t h e s e " c i r c l e s " of a u t h o r i t y were complete'ly i n d e p e n d e n t , n e i t h e r paying
t a x e s t o t h e government n o r p a r t a k i n g i n t h e b e n e f i t s of t h e governmental
q o l i c i e s .

These were mostly mountainous, remote, and a l m o s t i n a c c e s s i b l e

Berber r e g i o n s where f i e r c e l y independent t r i b e s m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r ways

of l i f e long a f t e r t h e Ottoman a u t h o r i t y had d i s a p p e a r e d from A l g e r i a .
It i s necessary, t h e r e f o r e , t o attempt t o analyze t h e various

l e v e l s of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n n o t o n l y i n o r d e r t o show how t h e system

f u n c t i o n e d b u t a l s o t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e r e were p o s i t i v e b e n e f i t s
t o peJle
to.

and t h a t t h e system a c t u a l l y d i d f u n c t i o n a s i t was i n t e n d e d

I t was n e v e r i n t e n d e d t h a t ' t h e government a t A l g i e r s r u l e t h e e n t i r e

c o u n t r y ; i t was n e v e r 2 i n t e n d e d t h a t t h e p e o p l e of t h e mountains and

d e s e r t s w o u l d , b e f o r c e d t o comply completely w i t h t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y ;
n e i t h e r was it i n t e n d e d t h a t a l l t h o s e l i v i n g w i t h i n t h e t e r r i t o r y
c o n t r o l l e d e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y by t h e government a t A1 i e r s

should have t o d e m o n s t r a t e l o y a l t y t o t h a t government 5n any o t h e r

d

way t h a n by paying t a x e s and a l l o w i n g t h e economic system t o f u n c t i o n

freely.

The key was t h e measure of independence g r a n t e d even t o t h o s e

who, w h i l e r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e t o A l g i e r s , were n o t c o n s t r a i n e d t o have

very much t o do w i t h e i t h e r t h e c i t y o r i t s p e o p l e .
Of t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o b e c o n s i d e r e d ,
t h e t h r e e b e y l i k s were e m b l e a a t i c of t h e pragmatism s o e v i d e n t i n A l g e r i a n
politics.

Each b e y l i k was s i m i l a r i n s t r u c t u r e , b u t t h e r e were s e v e r a l

differences in practice.

The b e y l i k which was t h e p o o r e s t , s m a l l e s t ,

and c l q e s t t o A l g i e r s wa; cente'red

of T i t t e r i .

i n Medea, b u t known a s t h e B e y l i k

Medea i t s e l f was n o t f a r from A l g i e r s , o n l y s i x t y k i l o -

m e t r e s s o u t h w e s t , b u t t h e t e r r i t o r y extended s o u t h i n t o t h e S a h a r a ,
an a r e a where independence was n o t o n l y p r i z e d - b u t a l s o p o s s i b l e .

An

i n c i d e n t i n 1820 d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e p r e v a i l i n g a t t i t u d e between t h e

Ottomans and t h e A l g e r i a n s .

Once o r t w i c e a y e a r , depending on need

and c i r c u m s t a n c e s a m i l i t a r y and c o m e r c i a l convoy ( m a h a l l a ) was s e n t

e i t h e r from A l g i e r s o r t h e p r o v i n c i a l " c a p i t a l s " t o c o l l e c t t h e t a x e s
and t r i b u t e from t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s .

'These t a x e s were u s u a l l y c o l l e c t e d

by t h e s h e i k h s of t h e makhzan t r i b e s and t h e n p a s s e d on t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s
/

of t h e b e y l i k s , who i n t u r nL r e l a y e d t h e t a x e s t o A l g i e r s .

'

I f , however,

some of t h e t r i b e s r e f u s e d t o produce t h e r e q u i r e d t r i b u t e , t h e bey

of t h e a r e a would have t o f o r c i b l y c o l l e c t t h e t a x e s .

A refusal like

t h i s o c c u r r e d i n 18z0 a t Ain Mahdi - l o c a t e d some 350 k i l o m e ~ r e ss o u t h west of A l g i e r s - i n a n i n h o s p i t a b l e mountainous r e g i o n , t h e D j e b e l

h o u r , where a T i j a n i b r o t h e r h o o d had come t o c o n t r o l t h e town.

The

T i j a n i s l e g i t i m i z e d t h i s l a c k of r e s p e c t f o r Ottoman a u t h o r i t y by n o t i n g

t h a t t h e Ottomans "were n o t t r u e Muslims any more s i n c e t h e y r e l i n q u i s h e d

t h e S h a r i a and adopted s e c u l a r laws."

Abun-Nasr

14

also notes that the

c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t i e s c o u l d have allowed t h e T i j a n i s t o ' c o n t r o l t h e t o w n ,

I

i f t h e y had p a i d r e g u l a r t r i b u t e , b u t w i t h o u t t r i b u t e , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s
were compelled t o a d o p t a m i l i t a r y s o l u t i o n .
The bey of T i t t e r i was i n one of t h e most p r e c a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s

r
j

a s f a r a s h i s c o n t i n u e d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h A l g i e r s was c o n c e r n e d .

The

.,

r e g i o n wa's n o t very w e a l t h y , and t h e r e seems t o have been c o n s i d e r a b l e

p r e s s u r e on t h e bey t o p r o v i d e more r e g u l a r d e l i v e r i e s of t a x e s ; a l s o ,
t h e d i v e r s i t y of t h e r e g i o n b o t h e t h q i c a l l y and g e o g r a p h i c a l l y caused
A l g i e r s t o c o n s i d e r t h e r e g i o n a s .a p o t e n t i a l s p u r c e of r e v o l t .

15

Many

a r e a s w i t h i n t h e b e y l i k were n o t under t h e c o n t r o l of t h e bey o r t h e

c a i d s of t h e v a r i o u s makhzan t r i b e s

t h e c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e model i s

n o t j u s t a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e c o u n t r y and A l g i e r s , b u t t o t h e p r o v i n c i a l
c a p i t a l s and t h e i r h i n t e r l a n d s a l s o .

The b e y l i k of T i t t e r i was sub-

d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e major r e g i o n s : t h e T e l l , t h e " T e l l m e r i d i o n a l , " and

t h e "caidat el-Kirah."

Each of t h e s e was f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o watans

under t h e i n d i r e c t c o n t r o l of t h e bey.

I n t h e s o u t h of t h e b e y l i k was

t h e a r e a of i n g p e n d e n t t r i b e s , t h e nomads who o n l y needed a c c e s s t o

weekly markets f o r t h e i r n e c e s s i t i e s on a n i r r e g u l a r b a s i s , b u t who
o t h e r w i s e we=

almost c o m p l e t e l y f r e e of Ottoman i n f l u e n c e s .

The

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e b e y l i k Gas, t h e r e f o r e , s u b j e c t t o s e v e r a l

14.

15.

J
Abun

Nasr, The T i j a n i y y a (London, 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 62. O f cour'se, t h i s

c o m e n t most l i k e l y r e f e r s t o happenings i n t h e c e n t r a l Empire,
n o t A l g i e r s , and demonstrates t h a t even i n t h e S a h a r a t h e r e ws
a l i v e l y and c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t i n a f f a i r s o u t s i d e of t h e l o c a l
area.
P . Boyer, ~ ' 6 v o l u t i o nd e 1 ' ~ l g g r i emgdiane ( P a r i s , 1 9 6 0 ) , pp. 20-22.

'--.

p a r t i c u l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s : it was c l o s e t o A l g i e r s and t h u s t h e bey

was c o n t r o l l e d more s t r i c t l y i n c a s e d i s p u t e s w i t h t h e c a p i t a l emerged;

it was a r e l a t i v e l y poor a r e a , where c o l l e c t i n g t a x e s was d i f f i c u l t ;

and t h e e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y of t h e a r e a tended t o make t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s of a u t h o r i t y somewhat t e n u o u s .

This d i v e r s i t y

d i d n o t make l i f e m i s e r a b l e f o r t h e Ottoman a u t h o r i t i e s a l o n e
+

after

t h e Conquest, t h e French e x p e r i e n c e d t h e same problems, b e i n g welcomed

by some groups and f o u g h t by o t h e r s .
,

The b e y l i k s o\Oran

in t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s .

and C o n s t a n t i n e were s l i g h t l y more orthodox

*

?hey tended t o a l l o w t h e i r b e y s t o l a s t f o r

t h e u s u a l t h r e e y e a r s , and s i n c e t h e p r o v i n c i a l c e n t r e s were f a r from

A l g i e r s , t h e r e was g e n e r a l l y v e r y l i t t l e i n t e r f e r e n c e ' i n t h e i r a f f a i r s .
The bey2 had t o p r e s e n t themselves a t A l g i e r s w i t h g i f t s and e x p l a n a t i o n s
every t h i r d y e a r , and f r e q u e n t l y a new bey was s e l e c t e d a t t h i s t i m e ,
b u t t h e r e a s o n was u s u a l l y n o t connected w i t h b e y l i c a l p o l i t i c s b u t w i t h
t h e a v a r i c e of t h e government of A l g i e r s which tended t o s e l l $he p o s i t i o n
to th6 highest bidder.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , b o t h b e y l i k s had t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s

w i t h t r i b e s which d e s i r e d independence and t h e r e were s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s

of a t t a c k s on Ottoman s e t t l e m e n t s r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e t o A l g i e r s .

After

t h e Conquest, t h e c e n t r e s of o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e French o c c u p a t i o n came

from t h e t r i b e s i n t h e b e y l i k of Oran, t h e c i t y of C o n s t a n t i n e , and
t h e Kabyle mountain r e g i o n s .

T h i s h a s u s u a l l y been i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean

t h a t t h e s e r e g i o n s wanted t o m a i n t a i n o r d e v e l o p , i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t u s ,
b u t i t i s a l s o q u i t e p o s s i b l e c h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e Ottomans
was more t o l e r a b l e t h a n t h a t provided by t h e c o n q u e r o r s .

It i s n o t

n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e t h a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e French i n A l p r i a was
simply " l a s u b s t i t u t i o n d e l a domination f r a n c a i s e & l a d o m i n a t i o n t u r q u e . "
The o u t e r c i r c l e . of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , was n o t a c l e a n
c o n c e n t r i c s p h e r e of i n f l u e n c e b u t r a t h e r a pock-marked

disputed t e r r i t o r y

where s h i f t i n g c o a l i f i o n s of independent and semi-independent

attempted t o
could.

tribes

own i n t e r e s t s and a d v a n t a g e s a s b e s t t h e y

T h e r q w e p some t r i b e s which remained l o y a l t o t h e Ottomans

f o r most of d t h r e e hundred y e a r s of t h e i r power. - O t h e r t r i b e s l i v e d

d

c l o s e t o t h e s e makhzan r e g i o n s , . b u t b e c a u s e of t h e i r own s p e c i f i c
e t h n o c e n t r i c i t y , wavered i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o t h e a u t h o r i t y from A l g i e r s
o r t h e p r o v i n c i a l c a p i t a l s ; sometimes a l l i e d t o t h e makhzan t r i b e s ,
sometimes s e e k i n g g r e a t e r independence.

There were a l s o t h e c o m p l e t e l y

independent t r i b e s who r a r e l y - i f e v e r - r e c o g n i z e d t h e s u z e r a i n t y
of t h e Ottdmans.

T h e _ a u t h o r i t i e s , however, o n l y r a r e l y a t t e m p t e d t o

f o r c e t h e s e groups t o submit o r even pay t r i b u t e .

T h i s h a s l e d many

o b s e r v e r s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t i e s were i n c a p a b l e of
c o n t r o l l i n g t h e t r i b e s ; t h a t t h e r e g w a s weak; t h a t t h e r e was c o n s t a n t
a n i m o s i t y between t h e t r i b e s and t h e a u t h o r i t i e s ; and t h a t t h e t r i b e s
I

were always l o o k i n g f o r c h a n c e s t o e s c a p e from whatever c o n t r o l t h e

Ottomans p o s s e s s e d .

H o w e v e r i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e - even p r o b a b l e

t h a t t h e Ottomans were f a r more c l e v e r a t managing t h e economic and

p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e s of t h i s o u t e r c i r c l e .

. ,

They d i d p o s s e s s a form of

,.

leverage

white

e n a b l e d them t o c o n t r o l t h e w i d e s t p o s s i b l e a r e a w i t h

a minimum of t r o o p s t r e n g t h ; t h e y e x t r a c t e d t h e maximum i n b e n e f i t s

16.
*

G s e l l , Mak$ais, and Yver, H i s t o i r e d ' ~ l ~ 6 r i( P

e a r i s , 1929), p . 191.

16

r'

w i t h a minimum of e f f o r t .
The s t r u c t u r e of t h e Ottoman a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' o f

the beyliks

was n o t s t a t i c , b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d i s c e r n how t h e v a r i o u s governments

functioned.

The t y p i c a l pyramid model does n o t f i t t h i s sytem, a s power

A

tended t o be d i f f u s e d , n o t d i r e c t ; and i n many. a r e a s r e a l power seemed

t o r e s i d e n o t i n t h e b u r e a u c r a r i c h i e r a r c h y of t h e bey and h i s s t a f f ,
b u t i n t h e c a i d s and o t h e r middle l e v e l o f f i c i a l s who were c l o s e r t o
t h e s o u r c e s of r u r a l , t r i b a l power.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e most promineng
f

p o s i t i o n of a u t h o r i t y was t h e
.

&,

who a l o n g w i t h h i s chosen l i e u t e n a ~ t

( K h a l i f a ) was g r a n t e d by A l g i e r s t h e r i g h t s t o t h e d i s b u r s e m e n t of t h e

'

a z e l lands within t h e i r jurisdiction.

T h i s l a n d , amounting t o a b o u t

one m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s , was l e t t o t h o s e t r i b e s which a g r e e d t o t h e payment

of t h e hukr t a x - r e g u l a r payment i n d i c a t i n g c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e - b e y l i k .
1

17

Within t h e b e y l i k t h e f i n a n c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n was under t h e c o n t r o l of

t h e Khaznadar ( t r e a s u r e r ) " q u i c o n s e r v a i t l e T r g s o r du Bey e t pour c e t t e
r a i s o n k t a i t un d e s p r i n c i p a u x d i g n i t a i r e s du B e y l i k , s i n o n l e p l u s
important."

18

T h i s o f f i c i a l w a s a s s i s t e d by a Khodjai (deputy ~ i n i s t e r j

w i t h s e v e r a l a s s i s t a n t s , u s u a l l y Jews.

The m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n of
'-

t h e b e y l i k e x i s t e d p a r a l l e l , t o t h e f i s c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , and was modelled

a f t e r o t h e r Ottoman t y p e s , i n v o 1 v i n g . a c o r p s of j a n i s s a r i e s i n t h e c a p i t a l s ,
o t h e r t r o o p s r a i s e d from l o c a l makhzan t r i b e s when and i f n e c e s s a r y ,
a l o n g w i t h t h e b e y ' s p e r s o n a l guard and t h e P s p a h i s ( c a v a l r y ) which

17.

18.

?-

Ruedy, Land P o l i c y i n C o l o n i a l ~ l ~ e r (iBae r k e l e y , 1997), p . 9 .

Ruedy n o t e s t h a t by 1830 most of t h i s l a n d "had beer$ i n h a b i t e d by
t h e same t r i b e s f ram time immemorial'' an i n d i m t i a n t h a t t U x e
was a c e r t a i n d e g r e e of s t a b i l i t y i n t h e b e y l i k s .
Boyer, L V 6 v o l u t i o n , pp. 20-22.

57
formeh t h e l o c a l " i e s e r v e " f o r c e s .

/"
There were many o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

f u n c t i o n a r i e s i n t+e g e y l i k towns, and a l m o s t a l l of them weresOttomans

o r t h e i r descenaants.

19

O u t s i d e of t h e c a p i t a l s , o u t p o s t s (zmala) were

e s t a b l i s h e d a t s t r a t e g i c m i l i t a r y and e c o n A . p o i n t s .

To p a s t o b s e r v e r s

t h e s e zmala were i n t e r p r e k e d a s i n d i c a t i o n s of g e n e r a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n
w i t h OttUman r u l e , a s s i g n s t h a t t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s were i n c o n s t a n t
need of p o l i c i n g i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t r k o l t s a g a i n s t t h e unwelcome a u t h o r i t y .
It i s more l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e zmala were t h e c o r n e r s t o n e s of b e y l i c a l .
4

strength.

<he governmeGt e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s e c o n t r o l p o i n t s a t

places

where weekly m a r k e t s were h e l d , and a l o n g t h e main r o u t e s of t h e ~ ~ l g r i m a g e

and t r a d e c a r a v a n s .

19.

20.

20

Thus, when any t r i b e s wished t o t r a d e , t h e y had

See Boyer, L ' g v o l u t i o n , pp. 27-33 f o r a more complete d e s c r i p t i o n

of t h e s e f u n c t i o n a r i e s and t h e i r r o l e s . ' .
A t t h i s time t h e r e a r e only s c a t t e r e d r e f e r e n c e s , n o t systematic
research, t o support t h i s hypothesis r e l a t i v e t o A l g e r i a . In
Morocco, f o r example, weekly m a r k e t s were a n i m p o r t a n t r u r a l
t r a d i t i o n i n v o l v i n g n o t o n l y t h e economic s p h e r e s b u t a l s o t h e '
s o c i a l and j u d i c i a l a s p e c t s of l i f e . These g a r k e t s were l o c a t e d
a t p l a c e s which were, f o r s i x d a y s , c o m p l e t e l y empty, b u t on t h e
market d a y , became t h e c e n t r a l p l a c e f o r many d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s .
These r u r a l souks gave t h e p e o p l e an o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e t t l e d i s p u t e s ,
s i n c e q a d i s were p r e s e n t ; t o s e t t l e l e g a l i s s u e s , * s i n c e c o u r t s
were sometimes i n s e s s i o n ; t o c a t c h up on news from o t h e r r e g i o n $ ,
s i n c e t h e y were u s u a l l y l o c a t e d a t t x a n s f e r p o i n t s o r a l o n g common
r o u t e s ; and t o g e t s e r v i c e s which were n o t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e ,in
some v i l l a g e s , s i n c e a r t i s a n s , e n t e r t a i n e r s , and s p e c i a l i s t s were
a l s o present.
It i s r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t when t h e Ottomans
n o t e d t h e importaqce of t h e s e markets and t h e s t r a t e g i c v a l u e
of t h e i r l o c a t i o r i s , t h e y , would choose t o u s e them a s p a r t of t h e i r
system of r u r a l p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , and economic management.' They
a l s o c h o s e n o t t o l e a v e t h e l o c a t i o n s a s "empty space" b u t b u i l t
p.ermanent s t r u c t u r e s t h e r e i n o r d e r t o advance t h e i r p u r p o s e s .
Ori t h e g e n e r a l r o l e of t r i b a l m a r k e t s , s e e M.W. M i k e s e l l , "The
Role of T r i b a l Markets i n Morocco" (Geographical Review, XLVIII,
No. 4 , 1958, pp. 594-511); and t h e works of W a l t e r Fogg, i n c l u d i n g
'The Ecofiomic R e v o l u t i o n i n t h e C o u n t r y s i d e of French Moroccou
( J o u r n a l of t h e R o y a 1 ' ~ f r i c a nS o c i e t y , Vol. 35, No. 139, 1936,
pp. 123-129) ; and h he Suq : A st%dy i n t h e human geography of

8"

..

t o come t o t h e markets where c o n t r o l was r e l a t i v e l y simple and where

c o l l e c t i n g t a x was a p a r t of t h e procedure.

Furthermore, t o a t t a c k
6

t h e zmala c o u l d , i n a c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t , b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a n t i - s o c i a l
by a l l t h e v a r i o u s groups because t h e t r o o p s were a l s o p r o t e c t i n g t h e

pilgrimage r o u t e s which every one hoped t o t r a v e l on a t some time i n

>

their life.
I n t h e b e y l i k s , t h e n , government was d i f f u s e d , w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r e s
being f l e x i b l e y e t c o n s i s t e n t l y i n place.

The s u b j e c t s of t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

system were 1 e f t . v e r y much t o t h e c o n t r o l of t h e i r own s h e i k h s w i t h i n

t h e i r douars.

The v i l l a g e r s were allowed t o h a r v e s t t h e i r c r o p s and

h e r d s , p r a c t i c e t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l customs, t r a v e l , t r a d e d u r i n g
.

t h e weekly markets, and f e e l r e l a t i v e l y s e c u r e from a c t a c k by o t h e r

groups f o r t h e g r e a t e r p a r e of t h e i r l i v e s .

It i s t r u e t h a t t h e h i g h e r

l e v e l s of government were i n a c c e s s i b l e t o them, and t h a t they were run

by f o r e i g n e r s , b u t to; many n'ineteenth c e n t u r y p e o p l e , v i l l a g e r s a few
m i l e s away were f o r e i g n e r s .

The Ottoman presence was n o t c o l o n i a l

except t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t r e t i r e d t r o o p s and government o f f i c i a l s had

F

a c c e s s t o l a n d , b u t t h e r e was no immigration p o l i c y which took l a n d

-

from t h e t r i b e s and used i$ f o r Ottoman s e t t l e m e n t s ; , f u r t h e r , when

Ottomans > e f t t h - e i r p o s i t i o n i n government they u s u a l l y chose t o l i v e
a

i n t h e Dar e l - S u l t a n ,

some even r e t u r n i n g t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l homes.

The
Morocco'' (Geography, X V I I , No. 98, 1932, pp. 257-267).
a r t i c l e by Johnson, ("Problems," p. 226) mentions' t h e p o s s i b l e
r o l e of these markets: ' I , + , i t was p o s s i b l e far Zhe Tarks
t o s u p e r v i s e important roads and markets, and by c o n t r o l l i n g
communications and t h e movement of p o p u l a t i m s LQ exercise a
p o l i t i c a l control .
I f a p a r t i c u l a r t r i b a l grouping had
offended t h e Turks i n some way, then they could be f o r b i d d e n
t h e u s e of c e r t a i n markets
.I 1 Danziger (Abd-al-Qadir,
p. 2 3 ) mentions the same u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e s e markets.

. . .,

...

...

"

The D a r e l - S u l t a n ,

t h a t i s t k r r e g i o n o q t s i d e of A l g i e r s which
--

w a s under t h e d i r e c t c o n t r o l of t h e dey and government of A l g i e r s , was

t h e most f e r t i l e and p r o d u c t i v e land i n t h e c e n t r a l c o a s t a l a r e a of
Algeria.

It was a r e g i o n of farms and summer houses owned mostly by

Ottomans and wealthy merchants, w i t h r e s i d e n c e s f o r f o r e i g n c o n s u l s

a l s o located there,

I n t h i s r e g i o n t h e government had l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y

e x e r c i s i n g complete c o n t r o l , a s t h o s e t r i b a l groups which l i v e d i n t h e

r e g i o n tended t o I3enefi.t from proximity t o A l g i e r s : t h e y could work

in

t h e c i t y ; t r a d e i n d a i l y markets o u t s i d e t h e g a t e s ; g a i n s e ' c u r i t y

from the. p r e s e n c e of t r o o p s -nearby; and g,e n e,r a l l y e x i s t w l t h o u t i n t e r -

ference in their d a i l y affairstrBesFdes these factors, t h e b e a f people

were sometimes r e l a t e d t o t h e

n s , s i n c e i n t e r m a r r i a g e between'

t h e A l g e r i a n s and t h e Ottomans was common.

>

here-were no makhzan t r i b e s

a s such i n t h e reg-ion s i n c e t h e r e was no need t o o r g a n i z e t h e a r e a on

this basis.

A d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y , t h e r e g i o n was d i v i d e d ' i n t o s m a l l e r d i s t r i c t s
-

under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e agha of Arabs a t A l g i e r s who was a m&ber

of t h e dey ' s c a b i n e t ( d i v a n ) . 21

There were f o u r r e g i o n a l c e n t r e s each

w i t h small permanent g a r r i s o n s : B l i d a h ; Colea; C h e r c h g l l ; and D e l l y s ;

.

and t h e s e ; a l o n g w i t h A l g i e r s , provided! t h e maik s o u r c e of m i l i t a r y

J
protection.

'

'

m e s e v e r a l watans were headed by Ottoman c a i d s who worked

with t r i b a l s h e i k h s t,o keep 'the a r e a a s f r e e f rorn.disputes a s pas-sible.

- , ,

I n g e n e r a l , t h e people on t h e p l a i n s were Arabs w h i l e t h o s e i n t h e mountains

- =

! Q-

were B e r b e r s , b u t t h e r e seems t o have b e e p a n almost c o n s t a n t mutual

i

21.

Boyer ( L ' & o l u t i o n , p. 19) s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e were seven sub. . ./

. . .
d l v l s ~ ~ E m e r i( ' ' tT 9 s t r i h ~ p r i v 1B1~ I P P G Pn A 1 & r ~- P , I I
h a l e s E.S.C., XXI, No. 1, 1966, p . 53) n o t e s t h a t t h e r e were
eleven.

d e s i r e f o m a i n t a i n t h e t r a n q u i l i t y of t h e r e g i o n .
fostered these attitudes

6y

22

The Ottoman r u l e r s

making s u r e t h a t t h e g r o u p s on t h e edges
t

'

of t h e Dar e l - S u l t a n had l a n d s "colfipos& m o i t i e ' d e t e r r i t o i r e s d e p l a i n e ,

moiti;

d e t e r r i t o r i e s montagnew.

. . . se

A i n s i d e s popu$ations d i f f e r e n t e s

s u r v e i l l a i e n t mutuellement, Schangeaint l e u r s produics, e t

l e Gouvernement t u r q u e e x e r ~ a i tson a r b i t r a g e en c a s d e c o n f l i t . "

23

The s u c c e s s of. Ottoman p o l i c i e s i n t h i s r e g i o n was a t t e s t e d t o a f t e r

t h e c o n q u e s t when t h e Arabs of t h i s r e g i o n r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t t h e t r a n s f e r
of l a n d and power p e a c e f u l l y when a g r e e d t o by t h e gover&ent.

When

they proved i n c a p a b l e of r e s i s t i n g t h e French from t h e i r own l a n d s ,

they immigrated t o t h e w e s t where t h e y formed a s t r o n g p o c k e t of r e s i s t a n c e ,
w h i l e t h e Kabyles of t h e more mountainous a r e a s f o u g h t a g a i n s t French
i n c u r s i o n s around B l i d a h and on t h e e a s t e r n f r i n g e s of t h e Dar e l - S u l t a n .

24

It would b e b o t h c o n v e n i e n t and accommodating i f , a s Spencer

has c l a i m e d , " A l g i e r s had i t s own mayor and c i t y c o u n c i l . ' '

25

Unfortunately,

t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e which would s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s was t h e c a s e , and

t h e r e f o r e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e government
a t A l g i e r s on more t h a n one l e v e l : a s i t a p p l i e d t o t h e c i t y , and a s

22.

23.
24.
25.

There was a major Kabyle r e v o l t i n 1773-74 when t h e B e r b e r s c u t

t h e aqueduct from B l i d a h t o A l g i e r s a n d i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of g r a i n t o A l g i e r s .
(See FO 315, 5 A p r i l 1773
and FO 315, 21 August 1774, Consul P r a s e r t o F.O.)
Fraser notes
t h a t - t h e c a u s e of t h e r e v o l t was t h e d e s i r e , " t o r e d r e s s t h e m s e l v e s
f o r t h e v i o l e n c e of a Government which - b e i n g u n a b l e t o p l u n d e r
a t s e a now employ a s e t of r a p a c i o u s o f f i c e r s t h a t p l u n d e r t h e
Provinces."
De Grammont r e p o r t s r e v o l t s i n 1790, 1815-16, and
i n 1825, a f t e r t h e e a r t h q u a k e a t B l i d a h , t h e r e were r e p o r t s
of a t t a c k s by m b y l e s on t h e town. S e e a l s o FO 3 / 2 7 , 7 Ma-rch 1825.
E m e r i t , "Tribus en A l g g r i e , " p. 54.
E m e r i t , "Tribus en Alge'rie," p. 54
S p e n c e r , A l g i e r s , p. 54
-

4
-

--

i t a p p l i e d t o t h e w i d e r world.

T t i s h e l p f u l t o n o t e t h a t a l l of t h e

f u n c t i o n s of government were ' u n i t e d i n one l a r g e group, b u t t h e r e i s

some c o q t r o v e r s y a s t o t h e r o l e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of i n d i v i d u a l s
w i t h i n t h e group.

It i s d i f f i c u l t even t o g e t agreement among t h e a t h o r s

a b o u t t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h d v a r i o u s l e v e l s of t h e d i v a n , l e t a l o n e
'sc/

t h e t i t l e s , names, and d u t i e s of t h o s e who h e l d o f f i c e .

The one a s p e c t

of government which a l m o s t everyone a g r e e s on t o some e x t e n t c o n c e r n s

t h e of i c e of t h e dey.
U n t i l 1817, t h e

9 of

A l g i e r s , t h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e most powerful

p e r s o n i n t h e c o u n t r y , was a c t u a l l y n o more i n f l u e n t i a l t h a n t h e s o u r c e s

of h i s p o s i t i o n wished him to be.

The r e a l power was d i v i d e d among

t h e o d j a k , t h e t a i f a of r a i s , and t h e system of a l l o c a t i n g t h e p u b l i c
domain.

The f i r s t was m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h based on t h e a b i l i t i e s of t h e

j a n i s s a r y c o r p s t o - o v e r b a l a n c e any o t h e r m i l i t a r y g r o u p ; t h e second
was a monetary power, based on t h e r e s u l t s of c o r s a i r a c t i v i t y ; t h e
t h i r d was b o t h s o c i a l and economic, d e r i v e d from t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
lr

t h e l a n d and t h e p e o p l e

b o t h u r b a n and r u r a l .

The d i f f i c u l t i e s i n v o l v e d

i n m a i n t a i n i n g a p o s i t i o n of l e a d e r s h i p g i v e n t h i s d i f f u s e d p o w e r , b a s e
a r e o b v i o u s , and u n t i l 1817, when t h e
from f h e lower town p a l a c e
'

9A l i

t h e Djenina

Khodja moved h i s r e s i d e n c e

to t

t o be a t t h e mercy of t h e most powerful group

, the

t h e odjak.

tended

The t r a n s i t i o n

which took p l a c e a t t h i s time began a n i m p o r t a n t new t r e n d i n A l g e r i a n

p o l i t i c s and i s one of t h e r e a s o n s f o r many of t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n s which

are so e v i d e n t i n some
Immediately p s i a x t o 1

1-,. the

w a s selected fram the

-D

by t h e o d j a k , and was r e s p o n s i b l e okfy t o t h e o d j a k f o r h i s p o s i t i o n .

He was, a s most o b s e r v e r s a g r e e , r e l a t i v e l y powerful b u t c o m p l e t e l y

expendable.

Thus, when t h e r e were economic o r m i l i t a r y d i f f i c u l t i e s

d u r i n g t h e l a t e r y e a r s of t h e Regency, t h e

a was

t h e f i r s t t o go.

From 1.791, on t h e d e a t h of Mohammed ben-Osman (1766-1791)

a n a t u r a l death

- who

t h e r e were n i n e o t h e r deys who were s e l e c t e d :

.rs.

died
three

d i e d n a t u r a l d e a t h s ; s i x were deposed and a s s a s s i n a t e d ; w h i l e H u s s e i n ,

t h e f i n a l dey_, was s e n t t o e x i l e i n t h e Middle E a s t .

The d e p o s i t i o n s

o c c u r r e d between 1805 and 1815 when t h e government was g o i n g through

t h e l a s t s t a g e s of i t s m i l i t a r y o l i g a r c h i c p e r i o d .

T h i s was t h e p e r i o d

when t h e o d j a k was t h e m o s t - p o w e r f u l group i n t h e c i t y , b u t b e c a u s e

of i t s i n a b i l i t y t o compromise w i t h o t h e r power s o u r c e s , became concerned
o n l y w i t h a f f a i r s r e l a t i n g t o i t s own members and thus d e t e r i o r a t e d
i n t o a p o c k e t of a n a r c h y w i t h i n t h e c i t y .

It i s important t o n o t e t h a t

w h i l e t h i s d i s o r d e r was t a k i n g p l a c e around t h e d e y s and t h e . o d j a k ,

t h e r e s t of t h e c i t y was e s s z n t i a l l y unconcerned w i t h t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s
b e c a u s e t h e y d i d n o t a f f e c t o t h e r groups w i t h i n t h e c i t y t o any g r e a t
extent.

However, when European o b s e r v e r s t o o 7 t h e i r n o t e s , t h e y tended

t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e h i g h e s t o f f i c e and t o i n t e r p r e t t h e s t a t e of a f f a i r s
based on t h i s one f a c t o r , n o t r e g a r d i n g t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c i t y c o n t i n u e d
t o f u n c t i o n around t h e s e e v e n t s , h a r d l y concerned w i t h t h e changes a t
the top.

Thus, when S h a l e r w r o t e h i s commentary, o b s e r v i n g t h a t a member

of t h e . o d j a k c o u l d n o t r e f u s e t h e p o s i t i o n of dey i f chosen; t h a t t h e
d i v a n "may b e r e g a r d e d a s a dead l e t t e r i n t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n ' ; "
t h a t "it is by mere a c c i d e n t i f

26.

S k e t c h e s , pp. 16-19.

[the ded d i e s a n a t u r a l d e a t e ; "

-.

and

26

he

was wrong on a l l t h r e e c o u n t s b e c a u s e h e e v a l u a t e d - t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e
of government w i t h i n t h e c i t y on t h e b a s i s of h i s p e r c e p t i o n s of

a. F u r t h e r ,

s i n c e t h e government was i n a p e r i o d f t r a n s i t i o n
1
4
'
i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e l a s t y e a r s of Ottoman r u l e i n

r o l e of t h e

A l g i e r s c a n n o t b e e v a l u a t e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e d i s o r d e r caused by s h i f t i n g
power s o u r c e s o v e r a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d of t i m e .
The d i s o r d e r d i d , on a t l e a s t one o c c a s i o n , s p i l l o v e r i n t o
t h e c i t y , and h a s been t h e t o p i c of a g r e a t d e a l of d i s c u s s i o n

usually

a s an example of t h e d e c l i n i n g a b i l i t y of t h e dey t o govern t h e c i t y .

I n 1798 t h e dey ~ u s t a ~ h anamed
,
a Jew, N a p h t a l i Busnach, a s h i s Khamadar
( s u p e r v i s o r of t h e t r e a s u r y ) .

27

T h i s move was t a k e n b e c a u s e t h e L i y o r n e s e

a g e n t s , Busnach and J o s e p h B a c r i h a d , t h r o u g h t h e i r commercial c o n n e c t i o n s

w i t h F r a n c e , s o l d many t o n s of g r a i n - t o t h e French and had become major
b r o k e r s and s o u r c e s of e x p o r t revenue t o A l g i e r s .

28

By 1800 t h e monopoly

on e x p o r t s of g r a i n , t r a d i t i o n a l l y a n e p l u s i v e domain of t h e dey, was

c o n t r o l l e d by t h i s J e w i s h c o n n e c t i o n , and i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e income,
the

& allowed

t h e s i t u a t i o n t o continu%*even though t h e r e was a g e n e r a l

o u t c r y a g a i n s t t h i s c o n d i t i o n on t h e p a r t of o t h e r s e c t o r s of t h e r u l i n g
I

27.
28.

De Grammont, H i s t o i r e , p. 355.
I
The Bacri-Busnach c o a l i t i o n a r o u s e d a g r e a t d e a l of c o n s t e r n a t i o n
i n t h e B r i t i s h Consuls a t A l g i e r s b e c a u s e t h e Jews were s e e n t o
be p a r t i a l t o t h e French a t t h e expense of t h e B r i t i s h . Consul
F a l c o n (FO 3 / 1 0 , u n d a t e d , pp. 73-79) w r o t e a n e s s a y i n 1803 i n
which h e cfdarges t h a t B a c r i and Busnach a r e " c a p a b l e of a i d i n g
t h e French i n g e t t i n g p o s s e s s i o n of t h e c o u n t r y .
without
f i r i n g a gun." The most comprehensive t r e a t m e n t of B a c r i and
Busnach from a French p o i n t of view 2s b y P a u l Hasson, "A l a v e i f l e
d ' u n e c o n q u e t e , c o n c e s s i o n s e t compagne'es d l # f r i q u e - 1800-1830,"
.(I%),
pp. 48-4-24;
especia-f-fypages
B u l l e t i n d e ee'ographie
48-60.
Wolf (Barbary
C
o
a
s
t
,
pp.
328-30)
a
l
s
o
summarizes
the situation.
-

..

...

classes

n o t so much b e c a u s e of t h e change i n t r a d i t i o n , b u t b e c a u s e

t h e main b e n e f i c i a r i e s appeared t o b e t h e Jews. . I n 1801 a n u n s u c c e s s u l

t

r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e dey o c c u r r e d , l e d by d i s i l l u s i o n e d members of t h e
o d j a k ; i n 1804 t h e dey was a t t a c k e d by two J a n i s s a r i e s , b u t e s c a p e d ;
however, on 28 J u n e 1805, Busnach was a s s a s s i n a t e d and t h e J e w i s h q u a r t e r
of t h e c i t y was p i l l a g e d , w i t h f o r t y - t w o d e a t h s .

E v e n t u a l l y , on 30

August 1805, t h e dey and h i s Khaznadar were b o t h s t r a n g l e d .

T h i s began

t h e t e n y e a r s of power s t r u g g l k which preceded t h e ascendency of a new

(

b a l a n c e between t h e r u l i n g g r o u p s .
T h i s new b a l a n c e i n v o l v e d t h e d e c l 3 n e i n power of t h e o d j a k ,
t h e c o n t i n u e d l o w p r e s t i g e of r h e t a i f a of r a , i s , and t h e emergence of
a c o a l i t i o n of n o t a b l e s a s t h e c o u n t e r v a i l i n g f o r c e . - The s h i f t t o o k
p l a c e i n 1816 when A l i Khodja became

-.

He must h'ave had some i n d i c a t i o n

t h a t he was t o be s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e h e c e r t a i n l y was p r e p a r e d
n o t t o s u f f e r t h e f a t e of h i s six immediate p r e d e c e s s o r s .

and determined

It i s even

p o s s i b l e t h a t some members of t h e o d j a k were becoming aware of t h e impossi'

b i l i t y of a l l o w i n g t h e d i s o r d e r t o c o n t i n u e w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e
b e n e f i t s of t h e i r p o s i t i o n .

R e g a r d l e s s , when t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e new

dey was announced, A l i Khodja was p r e p a r e d w i t h 2,000 Kabyle t r o o p s

t o make s u r e t h a t r e c a l c i t r a n t members of t h e o d j a k would n o t b e a b l e
t o depose him.

~ e ' t h e n s e t o u t t o a l t e r t h e c i t y ' s p o l i t i c a l systems

and t o r e f o r m some of t h e more obvious a b u s e s .

He began by moving t h e

p u b l i c t r e a s u r y and i t s c o n t e n t s t o t h e c a s b a h where i t would b e more

s e c u r e ; h e t h e n i m p r i s a n e d and e x e c u t e d t h o s e members of t h e o d j a k who

were b

w t o~ b e agitators or m l ~ m t e n t s . 3j.x f t r s t power-s3arlng

move occured when h e armed t h e K o u l o u g h l i s ( o f f s p r i n g of m a r r i a g e s between

t h e Ottomans and A l g e r i a n s )

p r e v i o u s l y n o t a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e system

and allowed t h o s e members of t h e o d j a k who c o u l d n o t b e l o y a l t o him

f r e e p a s s a g e b a c k t o t h e Levant.

S o c i a l reforms i n c l u d e d t h e e x p u l s i o n

of women from t h e o d j a k b a r r a c k s and t h e c l o s u r e of t h e t a v e r n s .

~ 1 1

of t h e s e items caused c o n c e r n among some members of t h e m i l i t k r y , and

s e v e r a l of them escaped t o zmalas where t h e y began t o o r g a n i z e t h e
d e p o s i t i o n of t h e new

a. A l i

s e n t e m i s s a r i e s t o t h e Kabyles a s k i n g

them t o h i n d e r t h e p a s s a g e of t r o o p s t o A l g i e r s , b u t i t was n o t u n t i l

29 November 1816 t h a t t h e a n t i - 9 f o r c e s a r r i v e d o u t s i d e Bab Azoun.

t i s obvious t h a t i n o r d e r t o g a i n t h e r e s p e c t and l o y a l t y

of t h e K a y l e s , A l i must have o f f e r e d them something, and p e r h a p s i t

i s no a c c i d e n t t h a t t h e Kabyle r e v o l t s of 1815 c o n t i n u e d , . a n d i n some
c a s e s , s p r e a d d u r i n g 1816.

It i s most p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e

dey o f f e r e d

t o a l l e v i a t e t h e food s h o r t a g e s which were c u r r e n t l y c a u s i n g havoc i n

the l e s s productive regicns.

It i s a l s o l i k e l y t h a t t h e w i t h d r a w a l

of t r o o p s t o A l g i e r s and t h e c o n c o m i t a n t weakness of t h e b e y s allowed

t h o s e r e g i o n s which were more v o l a t i l e a chance t o ' d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i r
unhappiness w i t h t h e c u r r e n t r e g i m e s . " I n any c a s e , C o n s t a n t i n e and
i t s r e g i o n were s u f f e r i n g from Kabyle a t t a c k s and poor a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,

b u t i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t w h i l e t h e b e y l i k system was under c o n s i d e r a b l e

p r e s s u r e a t t h i s t i m e , i t d i d n o t d i s i n t e g r a t e , b u t i t a c t u a l l y became

more a c c e p t a b l e and in'some c a s e s , even s t r o n g e r , a f t e r t h e d i f f i c u l t

y e a r s were o v e r .

It must a l s o b e r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e r e were o t h e r s e r i o u s

problems c o n f r o n t i n g A l g i e r s a t t h i s t i m e : i n August 1816, t h e town had

been a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y d e v a s t e d by t h e m i l i t a r y a c t i o n s of Exmouth a n 2

Van C a p e l l a n ; war w i t h T u n i s c o n t i n u e d from time t o t i m e ; poor h a r v e s t s

i n 1815-16,

combined w i t h s e v e r e l o c u s t a t t a c k s b r

t h e country

c l o s e t o famine; and f i n a l l y , a new o u t b r e a k of t h e p l a g u e s t r u c k d u r i n g

t h e w i n t e r of 1816-17.
Y

M i l i t a r i l y , t h e war w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and

t h e s u b s e q u e n t l b s s of a l a r g e p a r t of t h e A l g e r i a n f l e e t , a l o n g w i t h

t h e d e a t h of r a i s Hamidou, t h e most s u c c e s s f u l of t h e l a t e r c o r s a i r s ,
d i d n o t h i n g t o h e l p t h e a i l i n g economy.

I f e v e r t h e r e was a t i m a w h e n

t h e government of A l g i e r s was i n a p o s i t i o n of weakness, u n d e r d u r e s s

from s o many d i r e c t i o n s , i t was d u r i n g t h e days of t h e " v 6 r i t a b l e r e v o l u t i o ~
d u r i n g 1816-17; y e t once a g a i n t h e r e s i l i e n c e and f l e x i b i l i t y of t h e
system allowed i t t~ bend and change a s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s proceeded.

A l i Khodja's d i f f i c u l t i e s were a p p a r e n t , however, a s h e was

-.,---- .".

c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e o d j a k t r o o p s from t h e i n t e r i o r who were n o t p l e a s e d

w i t h t h e new d e y ' s h a n d l i n g of h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
He had 6,000 l o y a l t.roops composed of Kouloughlis
L

A l i was p r e p a r e d .

, loyal

o d j a k members,

Kabyles, and Arabs w a i t i n g i n s i d e Bab Azoun, w h i l e t h e a r t i l l e r y of

t h e F o r t 1'Empereur and Bab Azoun were l o a d e d .

When t h e l e a d e r s of

t h e o d j a k t r o o p s r e f u s e d t o withdraw, t h e a r t i l l e r y opened f i r e , t h e n
t h e g a t e s opened a&

t h e dey's troops charged.

When i t was o v e r 1,20@

o d j a k s o l d i e r s and 150 of t h e i r l e a d e r s had been k i l l e d ; many b t h e r s

were e x e c u t e d l a t e r , w h i l e t h e remainder were s e n t back t o t h e L e v a n t .
t

A l i t h e n allowed t h e c i t y t o c e l e b r a t e by f i n a n c i n g t h r e e days of p u b l i c
rejoicing.
,
/
+

A l i Khodja h a s h o t been accorded t h e r o l e of r e f o r m e r o r

r e b u i l d e r of t h e p o l i t i c a l system a t A l g i e r s .

I n f a c t , h e h a s been

s e e n a s " t h e g r e a t e s t t y r a n t and l i b e r t i n e , "

29

and "as f o u l a monster

a s had e v e r s o i l e d t h e e a r t h , " who d u r i n g h i s " s h o r t b u t h o r r i b l e and

3

awful r e i g n , "

30

d i d l i t t l e t o h e l p t h e c a u s e of t h e p e o p l e of A l g i e r s .

T h i s , however, was a European r e a c t i o n , caused m o s t l y by a n i n c i d e n t i n v o l v i n g

two young European g i r l s who had somehow found t h e i r way t o ~ l ~ i e r s , '

tb

only
b

be i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e d e y ' s harem.

The i n c i d e n t was r e s o l v e d

w i t h o u t d e s t r o y i n g t h e honour of e i t h e r t h e dey o r t h e g i r l s , b u t t h e
E u r o p e a n 2 p u b l i c was n o t t o f o r g e t o r f o r g i v e t h e e v e n t .

On t h e o t h e r

S h a l e r c r e d i t s A l i w i t h b e i n g "a man of i n t e l l i g e n c e and good

hand:

natural a b i l i t i e s , but

. . . principally

and temperance of c h a r a c t e r . ' ' 31

remarkable f o r h i s presumption

Some of t h e d e c r e e s s i g n e d by him d e m o n s t r a t e

t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s of h i s c h a r a c t e r : d u r i n g t h e t i m e of f a m i n e * h e imposed
I

an a r b i t r a r y t a x on t h e wheat s o l d i n t h e m a r k e t s ; h e k e p t a l a r g e s e r a g l i o
.

f o r himsel,f, b u t h e i n t e n d e d "de j e t e r
joie.

I'

32

2 l a mer t o u t e s l e s f i l l e s d e

O v e r a l l , h i s i n t e n t i o n s a p p e a r t o have been t o c o n t r o l t h e

e x c e s s e s of t h e u n d i s c i p l i n e d o d j a k ; r e b u i l d t h e c i t y ' s d e f e n c e s ;
restore
33
some measure of s e c u r i t y t o t h e p o s i t i o n of dey; and m a i n t a i n a r e a s o n a b l e
d e g r e e of f i n a n c i a l c o n t r o l w i t h i n h i s o f f i c e .

Whatever h i s p l a n s f o r

.the f u t u r e were, t h e n ended- on 1 March 1818, when h e d i e d of t h 6 p l a g u e .

29.
30.
31.

32.
33.

P l a y f a i r , S c o u r g e , p. 281.
FO 3 / 2 3 , 8 F e b r u a r y 1821, ~ c ~ d n e' tlol F.O.
S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , p. 156. S h a l e r a l s o r e p o r t s t h a t some f o r e i g n
c o n s u l s had t o "stumble o v e r s c o r e s of murdered c a r c a s s e s i n
t h e i r way t o t h e h a l l of a u d i e n c e , " b u t t h e r e i s l i t t l e f i r s t
hand e v i d e n c e which would s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s b l o o d - t h i r s t y d e p i c t i ' o n
of the dey i s e n t i r e l y a c c u r a t e .
De Grammont, H i s t o i r e , p . 382.
Completed on 2 Xarch 1817, six months a f t e r t h e Exmouth a t t a c k .
P l a y f a i r , S c o u r g e , p . 281.

H i s successor

chosen by h i m s e l f , n o t t h e o d j a k

- was

h i s Khodja e l -

k h e i l Y g 4 H u s s e i n , who immediately proclaimed a g e n e r a l amnesty and w i t h drew some of t h e m o r e 7 u n p o p u l a r d e c r e e s of h i s p r e d e c e s s o r .

was t h e l a s t dey.

Hussein

He was n o t s i m i l a r t o A l i i n e i t h e r s t y l e o r temperament

He d e s i r e d t o remain i n t h e c a s b a h , p e r h a p s o u t of f e a y , b u @ a l s o o u t
of c h o i c e ; he d i d e x p e r i e n c e one u n s u c c e s s f u l a s s a s s i n a t i o n a t t e m p t
e a r l y i n h i s term of o f f i c e , b u t a f t e r t h a t h e was f r e e from t h e t h r e a t
of u n t i m e l y d e a t h .

The B r i t i s h c o n s u l Thomas d e s c r i b e d him a s d i g n i f i e d ,

c

w i t h a "mild c h a r a c t e r f o r which h e was remarkable."

35

I f t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of A l g i e r s was b a s e d on a h i e r dey was t h e d i v a n .

a r c h i c a l model, i m m e d h t e l y below t h e p o s i t i o n of During A l i ' s t e n u r e i t c o n s i s t e d of f o u r t e e n " m i n i s t e r s " and t h e dey,
each p o s i t i o n w i t h v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s ' r e l a t i n g t o t h e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s
of l i f e ; Omar (1815-16) had a d i v a n of f i f t e e n w h i l e i n 1809 t h e d i v a n
included approximately tventy-five i n d i v i d u a l s .

It always seemed t o

have a f l e x i b l e number of p o s i t i o n s , w i t h members b e i n g s e l e c t e d on

t h e b a s i s of s k i l l i n s p e c i a l t y a r e a s and c u r r e n t n e e d s .

The p o r t r a y a l

of t h e two hundred member d i v a n d e s c r i b e d by some e a r l i e r o b s e r v e r s

r

was a g a t h e r i n g f o r show, n o t a working a d m i n i s t r a t i v e group.

The f i v e

o r six p r i n c i p a l " m i n i s t e r s " were u s u a l q y chosen by t h e dey, b u t t h e r e

C

i s no e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h o s e r e p l a c e d were harmed i n any way,

e x c e p t on t h e r a r e s t o c c a s i o n s when mob v i o l e n c e o v e r t o o k more p e o p l e

34.

35.

T h i s p o s i t i o n seemed t o combine some a s p e c t s of j u s t i $ ? ( J u l i e * ,

H i s t o i r e , p. 6 ) , f i n a n c e , and m i l i t a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y - e s p e c i a l l y
regarding t h e cavalry (spahis].
O u b o i s - T h a i n v i l Z e , T u r AIger ,"
p. 1 2 8 ) . I n sum, p r o b a b l y t h e second o r t h i r d " m i n i s t e r " i n t h e
d i v a n , r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s e v e r a l key a r e a s .
FO 3/29, 21 May 1827.

than usual.

I t was more common t h a t t h e r e t i r e d o f f i c i a l s moved t o

t h e i r c o u n t r y h o u s e s , took o t h e r j o b s i n t h e a d m i n i e r a t i o n , o r i n some
,*

c a s e s , ret'urned t o t h e p l a c e of t h e i r b i r t h .

I n most c a s e s i t seems

t h a t t h e d i v a n remained r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e from dey t o dey w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n

of t h e p r i n c i p a l m i n i s t e r s from t i m e t o time.

The a c t u a l r o l e of t h e

d i v a n n e e d s c l a r i f i c a t i o n a l s o : some o b s e r v e r s n o t e t h a t t h e d e y s

4
envahi t o u t e l a puissance;"

36

"ont

o r t h a t " t h e dey was an a u t o c r a t , f o r

it was o n l y i n t h e o r y t h a t h i s a u t h o r i t y wa's l i m i t e d b y h i s

. . . d i v a n ; " 37

b u t t h i s was o b v i o u s l y i m p o s s i b l e g i v e n t h e compl i c a t e d ~tsr u c t u r e ' of

government and t h e m u l t i t u d e of d u t i e s i m p l i c i t i n r u n n i n g t h e c i t y
and i t s b e y l i k s .

It i s n o t r e a l i s t i c to, assume a u t o c r a c y g i v e n t h e

d i v e r s i t y of t h e p e o p l e , t h e slowness of communication, t h e d i f f u s e d
n a t u r e .of t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e , and t h e s h e e r numbers of o f f i c i a l s
each of whom had some power o r i n f l u e n c e

between t h e governed and

t h e government.

The c h a r g e of t y r a n n y was u s u a l l y a l a b e l a p p l i e d by
'
i
t h o s e o b s e r v e r s who c o u l d n o t g e t c l o s e enough t o t h e system - o r who
did n o t r e a l l y c a r e t o i n v e s t i g a t e it - t o decipher i t s complications.

It i s p o s s i b l e t o d i s c e r n some a s p e c t s of t,he r o l e and f u n c t i o n s , of t h e d i v a n by examining i t s membership and comparing i t s d u t i e s b e f o r e

and a f t e r t h e " r e v o l u t i o n " of 1816.

Both Omar and A l i w r o t e l e t t e r s

t o t h e s u l t a n , Mahmd I1 (1808-39), whi,ch were s i g n e d by t h e i r e n t i r e

divans.

36.
37.
38.

38

A comparison of t h e s e two documents a l o n g w i t h a c o r r e l a t i o n

D u b o i s - T h a i n v i l l e , "Sur A l g e r , ' I p . 130.

J u l i e n , H i s t o r y , p p . 321-322.
Tememi, Documents, pp. 229-233 and pp. 237-239.
-

w i t h e a r l i e r a n a l y s e s , such a s t h a t - by Dubois-Thainvil-le i n 1809 h e l p s

t o demonstkate t h a t . t h e d i v a n d i d f u n c t i o n b o t h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y and
a s a c o n t r o l and m a n a g e m t body, f u l f i l l i n g i t s major r o l e : r e g u l a t i n g
and d i r e c t i n g t h e a f f a i r s of. t h e gobernment b o t h l o c a l l y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y .
The f i r s t i t e m of i n t e r e s t c o n c e r n s t h e r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e
s i z e of t h e v a r i o u s d i v a n s .

- -

Secondly, each of t h e d i v a n s u n d e r con-

s i d e r a t i o n had a common c o r e of s i x m i n i s t e r s , e x c l u s i v e of t h e dey;

a Khaznadar ( t r e a s u r e r ) ; t h e Khodja e l - k h e i l
( m i l i t a r y l e a d e r ) ; o u k i l el-khardj
b e i t el-maldji

( r e c e i v e r - g e n e r a l ) ; agha

(port-, o r marine r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ) ;

( i n c h a r g e of f i l l i n g v a c a n t p o s i t i o n s ) ; and a t l e a s t
1

one c a d i (Muslim j v d g e ) .

O t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s seemed t o b e a d m i t t e d

a s t h e r e was a need o r d e s i r e .

For example, p r i o r t o 1817 t h e r e was

a second agha from t h e o d j a k ; and d u r i n g t h e t i m e s when t h e t a i f a of

r a i s was an i m p o r t a n t economic c o n t r i b u t o r , t h i s group was r e p r e s e n t e d
also.

Other members who p a r t i c i p a t e d from t i m e t o t i m e , b u t whose p o s i t i o n s

were n o t &mmon t o t h e t h r e e examples were a c c o u n t a n t s ( r a k a m d j i ) ; envoys

>
t o o r from t h e P o r t e ; a member i n c h a r g e of habous (goods o r l a n d s l e f t
t o r e l i g i o u s foundations) usually c a l l e d a nakib-el-ashraf'
(iki-el-aghasi);

chief j u w i c e s

m u f t i s , t h a t i s , e i t h e r one o r two i n t e r p r e t e r s of
b

I s l a m i c law; and s e v e r a l o t h e r s whose t i t l e s seem t o b e u n t r a n s l a t a b l e .

Along w i t h t h e i n n e r d i v a n t h e r e were s e v e r a l o t h e r l e v e l s
of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n which demonstrated ,the,
a b i l i t y of t h e Ottoman system
+.
.

t o r e l a t e t o i t s governed, and t o l o o k a f t e r i t s own.

S e c r e t a r i e s and

b u r e a u c r a t s communicated b o t h ways, and most of t h e r o u t i n e a f f a i r s

--- -

were h a n d l e d w i t h o u t t h e .advice or. i n t e r f e r e n c e of t h e d i v a n .

39.

Temeni, Documents, pp. 127-131-

One

39

of t h e most important secondary l e v e l s of t h e divan concerned t h e r o l e

of Rhodjas (Deputy M i n i s t e r s ) who "f orment I 'aristocratic de c e t t e
adminfstration."

40

These b u r e a u c r a t s , along with t h e caids'and

others

formed t h e a c t u a l connection between t h e governing c l a s s e s and t h e people.

They.could, a p p a r e n t l y , a t t e n d some meetings o f - t h e d i v a n , and were
reported t o be i n a very l u c r a t i v e p o s i t i o n regarding t h e e x p . l o i t a t i o n
of t h e c o u n t r y ' s resources a s they were, i n some c a s e s , t h e middle-men
between t h e taxpayers and t h e government.

Their p o s i t i o n s were granted

t o them on t h e payment of a f i x e d sum t o t h e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y , and most

of them were Ottomans i n t h e high echelons, with Kouloughlis and Arabs ,
forming t h e l e s s e r ranks i n both t h e b e y l i k s and th;

c i t y of A l g i e r s .

Boyer l i s t s s e v e r a l of t h e s e p o s i t i o n s a t A l g i e r s .
'41

1.

Khodja makhzan e l - z r a

who received t h e t a x e s on

g r a i n from t h e i n t e r i o r ;

2. Khodja el-aibun

who was i n charge of f r e s h water s u p p l i e s

t o t h e c i t y and t h e habous which financed

most of them;

3.

Khodja el-rahba

who received t h e t a x from g r a i n brought

t o t h e urban markets;

and

4.

Khodja e l - m e l h

5.

Khodja e l - d j s l d

6.

Khodja el-goumerek

c o n t r o l l e r of t h e s a l t monopoly;

c o n t r o l l e r of t h e l e a t h e r monopoly;

t h e customs agent i n ,charge of

imports from Muslim c o u n t r i e s .

40.
41.

Wer, La vie, p, 98.

Boyer , La v i e , p., 98

72
He then o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e r e were s e v e r a l o t h e r Khodjas who performed
o t h e r t a s k s f o r t h e r i g h t t o withhold one-tenth of t h e i r c o l l e c t i o n s
f o r t h e i r own u s e .
The n e x t rank of b u r e a u c r a t s
positions

who a l s o purchased t h e i r

were t h e c a i d s , of whom i t h a s been s a i d : " ~ ' A r a b e e s t un

c o f f r e dont l e c a i d e s t l a c l e f . "

It h a s a l r e a d y been noted how t h e s e

f u n c t i o n a r i e s f i l l e d r o l e s i n t h e b e y l i k s and among t h e t r i b e s , and

t h e r e f o r e i t i s n e c e s s a r y a t t h i s p o i n t t o d i s c u s s t h e urban c a i d s and
their duties.

I n A l g i e r s t h e c a i d s were i n c h a r g e of d a i l y o p e r a t i o n s

w i t h i n t h e c i t y : t h e c a i d e l - f a h s was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e l o c a l p o l i c i n g ;
t h e c a i d e l - z e b e l was i n charge of c l e a n i n g t h e c i t y ; t h e c a i d el-chouara
was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r o p e r f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e sewage system; t h e
c a i d e l - a i o u n was a c c o u n t a b l e f o r t h e d e l i v e r y of f r e s h w a t e r s u p p l i e s
t o t h e f o u n t a i n s and hammams and a p p a r e n t l y t h e r e were o t h e r c a i d s who
performed o t h e r d u t i e s .

42

Caids d i d
-

n o t a t t e n d meetings of t h e d i v a n ,

b u t were an important i n t e r m e d i a r y between t h e p e o p l e of A l g i e r s and

the upper-level bureaucrats.

It i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e Khodjas were

r e s p o n s i b l e mostly f o r r e c e i v i n g t a x e s and d u t i e s on monopoly items

w h i l e t h e c a i d s were i n charge of t h e a c t u a l s e r v i c e s

delivering those

f a c e t s of urban l i f e which were n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e peace and s e c u r i t y

of t h e c i t y .
Thus, f a r from b e i n g a "dead l e t t e r , " t h e d i v a n and i t s
bureaucracy were an i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e system of government which
was

f l e x i b l e enough t o a l l o w changes t o t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n t h e system

42.

Boyer, La v i e , p. 99; and Lespzs, A l g e r , p. 177.

without t h e d i s r u p t i o n s which would be t h e r e s u l t of massive purges.

That i s , t h e government of A l g i e r s had t h e a b i l i t y t o f u n c t i o n c o n t i n u o u s l y ,
t o monitor and a d j u s t a s c i r c u m s t a n c e s d i c t a t e d , w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o
t h e sometimes c h a o t i c r e s u l t s of i n t e r f e r e n c e by s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t groups.
When n e c e s s a r y , however, p r a c t i c a l i t y could p r e v a i l : a f t e r t h e d e a t h
of Omar i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e e n t i r e d i v a n was changed

n o t one " m i n i s t e r " remained on t h e d i v a n who had been involved w i t h

d e c i s i o n s made d u r i n g t h e more t u r b u l e n t y e a r s , and t h i s i s a n o t h e r
i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e was a d e f i n i t e d e s i r e t o a l t e r t h e d i r e c t i o n and
s t y l e of government.

Obviously, t h e government should n o t be p o r t r a y e d

a s a model of decency and e f f i c i e n c y b u t n e i t h e r should i t b e condemned

a s t o t a l l y i n c a p a b l e of reform o r p o s i t i v e a c t i o n s .

Some a u t h o r s have

a p p r e c i a t e d t h e r e s p o n s e s of t h e government t o t h e d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n s :
It i s n o t s o much t h a t t h e T u r k i s h r u l e r s c r e a t e d
o r encouraged a n a r c h y , a s t h a t t h e y themselves were
caught up i n t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s of indigenous p o l i t i c s
and were compelled t o t a k e account of t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s .
And i t must b e n o t i c e d t h a t once Turkish
r u l e was removed by t h e French t h e r e was n o d i m i n u t i o n
of t r i b a l u n r e s t . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e
of T u r k i s h r u l e was followed by a p e r i o d which
could w e l l d e s e r v e t h e t i t l e of anarchy.43

...

P i e r r e Boyer, n o t an a d v o c a t e of any a s p e c t of Ottoman r u l e , h a s admitted

t h a t t h e r e may have been a c e r t a i n v a l i d i t y and d i r e c t i o n t o t h e e f f o r t s
of t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s :
Le r&gne du d e r n i e r dey semble a v o i r 6 t & c e l u i
d ' u n e l e n t e mais s u r e remise en p l a c e d e l ' k t a t .
~ ' a r r i v g ed e F r a n c a i s en 1830 a l l a i t m e t t r e f i n
pr6rnatursment 3 une e v o l u t i o n q u i e u t , p e u t - e t r e ,
abouti
l a c o n s t i t u t i o n d'un E t a t " n a t i o n a l "
semblable 5 c e l u i d e Tunis.
44
43.
44.

Johnson, "Problems", p. 228.

11
I n t r o d u c t i o n 5 une H i s t o i r e i n t e r i e u r e d e l a ~ k g e n c ed'Alger,"
Revue H i s t o r i q u e , t . 235, no. 2 ( l 9 6 6 ) , p. 311.

Tke n e x t t a s k i s t o a t t e m p t te a n a l y z e t h e way * - & Y

i+seU

was a d m i n i s t e r e d g i v e n t h e n a t u r e of t h e s e n i o r l e v e l s of government.
There h a s been v e r y l i t t l e s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h done on A l g i e r s , and t h e r e
a r e v e r y few s o u r c e s which c a n b e drawn upon by t h o s e n o t c a p a b l e of
examining t h e Ottoman a r c h i v e s , b u t t h e r e h a s been enough g e n e r a l
examination of t h e s u b j e c t t o a l l o w t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o n of s e v e r a l m i s conceptions.

The f i r s t c o n c e r n s t h e r o l e of t h e dey and d i v a n i n t h e

a f f a i r s of t h e c i t y : i t i s a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t t h e y n e v e r i n t e r f e r e d
o r i n any way a t t e m p t e d t o " r u l e 1 ' t h e c i t y .

The p e r s o n on t h e d i v a n

who was, r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e u r b a n a s p e c t s of p o l i t i c s was t h e a g h a - o f

Arabs, whose urban f u n c t i o n s e e m e d . t o b e t o make s u r e t h a t t h e lower
The c a i d s were t h e a c t u a l

l e v e l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n s were f i l l e d .

l i n k s between t h e c i t y and t h e d i v a n , through t h e Khodjas who d i d n o t

r e a l l y a f f e c t t h e o r d i n a r y o p e r a t i o n s of t h e c i t y .
As h a s a l r e a d y heen n o t e d , t h e c i t y was d i v i d e d i n t o - t h r e e

main r e g i o n s : t h e c a s b a h , t h e upper town ( e l - D j e b e l ) ,

town (el-Outhan).

and t h e lower

~ f t G r181'6 t h e casbah c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d t o be

a p a r t of t h e town f b r normal
.a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s , s i n c e i t was
almost e n t i r e l y c u t off

--

except- f a r government o f f i c i a l s and t h e m i l i t a r y

from o t h e r a r e a s , and became a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e q u a r t e r .

Each o f - t h e o t h e r s e c t i o n s was sub-divided i n t o h a r a h , and t h e s e were

the most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e development of a s t a b l e m u n i c i p a l

-

government.

--

- --

p o l i c i e s , * b u t & t h e r r e f l e c t t h e T s l a r n i c n a t u r e of t h e t o v p - and i t s
people.

Obviously t h e s e q u a r t e r s were n o t t h e result of Ottoman

They do show, however, t h a t t h e Ot-toman rulers were not a t t e m p t i n g

t o overcome t h e i n h e r e n t n a t u r e of t h e s o c i e t y , b u t were p r e p a r e d t o
b u i l d on a b a s i s of I s l a m i c c u l t u r a l v a l u e s , and were a l l o w i n g t h e p e o p l e
t o develop t h e i r l o c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s on g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d I s l a m i c
p r i n c i p l e s , a s f r e e from e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s a s was p o s s i b l e .

ri

One of t h e key i n d i v i d u a l s i

t h e system of urban govimme,nt

a t A I g i e r s was t h e amin, a c i v i c n o t a b l e who was u s u a l l y one of t h e

i
most r e s p e c t e d men i n h i s r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , a s w e l l a s a s k i l l k d worker
i n h i s c r a f t o r an i n l u e n t i a l merchant.

It i s i n e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t

t h e amin was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y chosen f o r h i s w e a l t h , b u t f o r t h e g e n e r a l

l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s h e possessed.

H e g e n e r a l l y had r e s p o n s i b i l i t i P s

on t h r e e l e v e l s : s o c i a l l y , h e was expected t o c o n s i d e r t h e w e l f a r e of
f a m i l i e s i n h i s harah who might. b e i n f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t y ; commercially,
h e could a c t a s an i n t e r m e d i a r y between h i s c r a f t o r t r a d e and

people

the

t o ensure f a i r n e s s and a r b i t r a t e d i s p u t e s ; and p o l i t i c a l l y ,

he w a s a l i a s o n between t h e h a r a h , i t s concerns and problems, and t h e

caids'who were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s p e c i f i c d u t i e s .

45

I n o t h e r p a r t s of

t h e Yaghrib t h e r e i s evidence f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e of c o u n c i l s of amins

which met p e r i o d i c a l l y t o d i s c u s s m a t t e r s of common i n t e r e s t , b u t i n
s p i t e of r e p e a t e d r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s body, t h e r e i s np evidgnce t o s u g g e s t
t h a c t h i s was t h e c a s e a t A l g i e r s .
e x i s t e n c e of c r a Q o r t r a d e g u i l d s

Another r e l a t e d a r e a cpncerns t h e

c o r p o r a t i o n s of a l l i e d workers

m d e r t n e - c o n t r o l o r l e a d e r s h i p of a muhtasib who mediated between c l i e n t s

5 .

R:Le

Tournaau, Les v i l l e s msulmanes d e 1 ' ~ f r i q u edu nor$ (Alger,

19.571, pp. 51-52.

measures , w i t h i n h i s c o r p o r a t i o n .

U n t i l f y r t h e r r e s e a r c h h a s been completed'

it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s t a t e d e f i n i t i v e l y t h e p o l i t i c a l r o l e which c o r p o r a t i o n s

may have p l a y e d i n p r e - c o l o n i a l

A l g i e r s , b u t it does appear t o b e l i k e l y

d
t h a t t h e i r r o l e was m o s t l y s o c i a l and economic, n o t p o l i t i c a l ; and t h a t
t h e r e were more i m p o r t a n t c o l l e c t i v i t i e s which need t o b e examined i n
greater detail also.
I f t h e p o l i t i c a l system a t A l g i e r s w a s t o b e summarized, t h e
c o n c l u s i o n once a g a i n would b e t h a t t h e b a s i c u n i t of t h e s o c i e t y was
the family

urban o r r u r a l ; a g r i c u l t u r a l o r c r a f t ; Arab o r B e r b e r ;

Ottoman o r Kouloughli; o r o t h e r w i s e .

T h i s u n i t d i f f e r e d i n s p a c e and

p r e s t i g e w i t h i n t h e v a r i o u s h a r a h o r d o u a r , b u t can r i g h t l y b e termed
!

t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e s o c i e t y .

These g r o u p s p a i d f o r t h e i r s e c u r i t y

through t a x e s and a low d e g r e e of p o l i t i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , b u t i n r e t u r n

t h e y were g e n e r a l l y f r e e from d i s r u p t i o n

u n l e s s t h e e x t r a c t i o n of

w e a l t h by t a x a t i o n c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a d i s r u p t i o n .
harah, amins played
-

Within t h e s e v e r a l

t h e major a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r o l e , r e p o r t i n g t o t h e

* ~ a i d is f t h e r e were s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s , b u t were u s u a l l y
the l o c a l r e l i g i o u s hierarchy

along with

c a p a b l e of m a i n t a i n i n g l a w , o r d e r , j u s t l c e ,
A s t h i s network extended

s e c u r i t y , and p u b l i c s e r v i c e s i n t h e i r q u a f t e r s .

t h r o u g h o u t t h e c i t y , t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e v a r i o u s h a t a h
4,

were r e g u l a t e d by t h e c a i d s , who i n - t u r n were r e s p o n s i b l e t o t h e Khodjas

f o r t h e p r o p e r f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e i r d u t i e s .

Once a g a i n , t h e s y s t e m

tended t o d i f f u s e power so t h a t within t h e w a l l s auLhority n a s p r e s e n t

but r e l a t i v e l y unobtrusive t o the c i t i z e n s , with the w
--

e c l o s e l y supervised

a r e a s b e i n g t h e souks , f unduqs, t h e p o r t , and o t h e r n o n - r e s i d e n t i a l

--

77
a r e a s where p e o p l e f r o m o u t s i d e t h e c i t y t e n d e d ' t o c o n g r e g a t e ./The
-

r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e s e v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s of t h e c i t y , t h e i r p e o p l e ,
\

and t h e i r r o l e s w i l l

?e

d e a l t with . l a t e r .

O u t s i d e t h e w a l l s t h e same

p h i l o s o p h y a p p l i e d : govern t h e c o u n t r y w i t h a s l i t t l e i n t e r f e r e n c e a s
p o s s i b l e ; a t t e m p t t o adminfister j u s t i c e , c o l l e c t t a x e s , a n d p r o v i d e

\'

s e c u r i t y w i t h i n t h e t r i b a l f;amework

which

d exisied before the

p'.

Ottomans took o v e r ; and m a i n t a i n t h e economic and s o c i a l s y s t e m s w i t h

t h e i r Islamic values i n t a c t .

A t prksent the task i s t o s t r e s s the

is la mi^

n a t u r e of t h e c i t y s i n c e i t was n o t e n t i r e l y u n l i k e o t h e r Muslim towns;

\

t h e d l f f u s e d n a t u r e of the puwer s t r u c t u r e which a 1lowed l o e a l e f t a r a c t e r i s t i c s

t o d e v e l o p w i t h i n r e a s o n a b l e g u i d e l i n e s ; and t h e u n i q u e a t t r i b u t e s ,
t h e r e s u l t of t h e Ottoman i n f l u e n c e s which c r e a t e d a d i s t i n c t i v e
environment.

A l g i e r s did n o t f u n c t i o n l i k e e i t h e r Fes o r Tunis; i t s

q u a l i t y of l i f e and p a r t i c u l s r s t y l e w e r e , t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , caused
by t h e Ottoman p r e s e n c e acd gave t h e c i t y a f l a v o u r which i s l a c k i n g

in o t h e r S o r t h A f r i c a n c o m u n i t i e s .
The Ottoman government a t A l g i e r s was b a s e d on m i l i t a r y power,
and was e s s e n t i a l l y a f o r e i g n p r e s e n c e , b u t t h i s d i d n o t make i t t h e
o l i g a r c h i c , d e s p o t i c government d e d i c a t e d o n l y t o p i r a c y , e x t o r t i o n
and c r u e l t y d e s c r i b e d by s o many.

When t h e r o l e of t h e c i t y a s t h e
\

w e s t e r n e x t r e m i t y of t h e j i h a d , i n t e r f a c i n g t h e Muslim e a s t w i t h t h e
C ' n r i s t i a n w e s t , i s c o n s i d e r e d ; when comparison w i t h o t h e r governmental
J

attitudes and s t y l e s i n E u r o ~ a ne e u r t t r i e s is made; and w h e r acconnt

is taken Q the p a l i t i c d t pasi-BI&2~ia--w

h A l g e r i a ' t; t b e e w s
,'

s v i d e n t t h a t t h e system a c t u a l l y p r o v i d e d a s r e a s o n a b l e a p o l i t i c a l

--

p r e s e n c e a,s e x i s t e d a l m o s t anywhere e l s e . , It i s t r u e t h a t t h e r e a r e
many r e p o r t s of c r u e l t y , p r e j u d i c e , h a r a s s m e n t ,

and g e n e r a l obnoxious

beh'aviour on t h e p a r t of t h e Ottoman r u l i n g c l a s s , b u t c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t

PP

.in' Europe d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d t h e r e a r e a l s o many examples of t h e

same i n t o l e r a n c e and i n j u s t i c e , i t should b e d i f f i c u l t t o b e too. judgemental.

A t t h i s p o i n t i t becomes n e c e s s a r y t o i n v e s t i g a t e one of t h e

o t h e r - t h r e % & which c o n n e c t e d t h e v a r i o u s c i r c l e s of A l g e r i a n s o c i e t y
P

t h e economic system.

While d i s c u s s i n g economic and commercial c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c s i t i s a g a i n e s s e n t i a l t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t A l g i e r s was n o t i n dependent from t h e r e s t of t h e s o c i e t y , b u t i t was t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

c e n t r e where most of t h e economic a c t i v i t y - a s f a r a s produ%on,
'e

m a n u f a c t u r i n g , d i s t r i b u t i o n of a l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g b u t a g r i c u l t u r e
place.

'took

It was a l s o t h e major e x p o r t i n g and i m p o r t i n g l o c a t i o n f o r t h e

B

c o u n t r y and t h u s i t was t h e p l a c e where most of t h y r e l a t i o n s between

Europe and A l g e r i a were d e v e l o p e d .

A l g i e r s was an i m p o r t a n t , M e d i t e r r a n e a n
-

c i t y which had- a s p e c i f i c economic l i f e which complemented t h e p o l i t i c a l

framework o u t l i n e d above.

CHAPTER I V

TIE ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

3,

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e c r e a t e t h e economic environment i n and

around A l g i e r s from t h e s o u r c e s which a r e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e .

This

i s one of t h e major academic problems d i s c u s s e d i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n .

I t i s n e c e s s a r y , t h e r e f o r e , t o a t t e m p t t o draw t o g e t h e r e v i d e n c e from

d i v e r s e and wide-spread
a s c o u l d b e wished.

saurces

some of which may n o t b e a s r e l i a b l e

The problem i s n o t w i t h t h e a u t h o r s of t h e e v i d e n c e

b u t w i t h t h e s c a r c i t y of b o t h primary and secondary s o u r c e s .

One of

the more i m p q r t a n t s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s r e l a t i n g t o the economic s i t u a t i o n

i n A l g e r i a p r i o r t o t h e Conquest was w r i t t e n by Marcel Emerit i n 1952.

His summary

j u s t o v e r t h r e e pages long

b a s i s f o r most of t h e l a t e r s c h o l a r s h i p .
of t h e " i n d o l e n c e du gou&rnement

seems t o have become t h e

His t h e s i s i s t h a t b e c a u s e

. . .

r;

t u r c l ' and t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n t r o l l i n g

o r d e v e l o p i n g t r a d e , t h e c o u n t r y was "condamn6e
mis&re

une v i v r e d a n s l a .

L ' i m p r e s s i o n q u i domine e s t c e l l e d'une r o u t i n e e t d ' u n e

pauvrete' que l e gouvernement ne s e s o u c i e jamais d e cornbattre."

Emerit

a r r i v e d a t t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s w i t h o u t r e v e a l i n g how h e determined t h e .
economic h e a l t h of t h e Regency o r t h e b a s i s f o r t h e comparison which

1.

2.

"La s i t u a t i o n gconomique d e l a ~ & e n c e en 1830"

Nov. /Dec. (1952),, p- p- . 169-172.
E m e r i t , " ~ as i t u a t i o n , " p. 170.

Information Historiqus,

he must have had in mind g a n d , s i n c e h e h a s n o t g i v e n the s o u r c e s on'

which h e based h i s t h e s i s , t h e y a r e o b v i o u s l y open t o question..

P i e r r e Boyer, a n o t h e r of t e f o r e m o s t s c h o l a r s i n North
A f r i c a n h i s t o r y , h a s a l s o s p e n t a g r e a t d e a l of t i m e and e f f o r t a t t e m p t i n g
t o prove a b a s i c h y p o t h e s i s : t h a t A l g e r i a i n 1 30 was i n a s t a t e of

d e c l i n e i n a l l a r e a s , t h a t t h e economic s p h e r e

a s t h e most d e b i l i t a t e d ,

and s i n c e i t was a l s o t h e most i m p o r t a n t , i t t h e r e f o r e s t a n d s t o r e a s o n

t h a t t h e e n t i r e s o c i e t y was becoming l e s s and l e s s v i a b l e a s t h e y e a r s
progressed

- mostly

b e c a u s e of t h e Ottoman p r e s e n c e .

F u r t h e r , Boyer
k

n o t e s t h a t t h e c i t i e s of A l g e r i a "ne s o n t p a s profondement i n t e g r &

dans l t & o n o m i e g 6 n 6 r a l e du p a y s , q u i p e u t f o n c t i o n n e r s a n s e l l e s , "
and t h a t s i n c e t h e c i t i e s c o n t a i n e d o n l y seven t o t e n p e r c e n t of t h e
t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , more a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d d b e p a i d t o t h e r u r a l p e o p l e
than t h e c i t y - d w e l l e r s .

This l a s t point c e r t a i n l y deserves i n t e n s i v e

, s t u d y , b u t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i g n o r e A l g i e r s a s a c o m p l e t e l y unimportant
--

f a c t o r - i n pre-co,lanial

Algeria

'5

.d4

I n o r d e r t o b u i l d a overview of t h e economic s t r u c t u r e s of
A l g i e r s and i t s h i n t e r l a n d i t i s f i r s t n e c e s s a r y t o examine t h e p r o d u c t i o n

i
of goods and s e r v i c e s ; the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between A l g i e r s and i t s b e y l i k s ;
t h e commercial c o n n e c t i o n s between A l g y e r s and Europe; t h e v a r i o u s s o u r c e s
of r e v e n u e ; and t h e a l t e r a t i o n s which were t a k i n g p l a c e a s t h e government
6

a t t e m p t e d t o compensate f o r changes i n income and o u t l o o k .

The f i r s t
---

chazge concerned t h e facr that t h e t a i f a of ' r a i s was no l o n g e r a b l e

t

c o t a k e p r i z e s where i t u i s h e d .

3.

Boyer, ~ ' ; v o l u t i o n , p. 61.

h e r e a s o n f o r t k i s ~changewas hat

--

81
European technology, developed by n a v i e s which had been f i g h t i n g l a r g e
s c a l e n a v a l b a t t l e s d u r i n g t h e Napoleonic Wars, f o r c e d t h e A l g e r i a n s
t o withdraw from t h e A t l a n t i c and even t h e European s h o r e s of t h e
Mediterranean.

T h i s s e v e r e l y reduced t h e revenues which f o r m e r l y came

from t h e s a l e o r u s e of c a p t u r e d v e s s e l s , t h e redemption of c a p t i v e s ,
t h e s k i l l s of s a i l o r s , and t h e d i s p o s a l of merchandise.

A t t h i s point,

a n o t h e r d i s c u s s i o n b e g i n s : how n e c e s s a r y t o t h e c i t y were t h e revenues

from " l a c h a s e ? "

During t h e h e i g h t of A l g e r i a n power, t h e r e i s n o doubt

t h a t t h e income from t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e r a i s was c o n s i d e r a b l e , s o

much s o t h a t i t was p o s s i b l e f o r t h e government of t h e c i t y t o m a i n t a i n
an i n c r e d i b l y l a r g e t r e a s u r y even a f t e r b u i l d i n g new e d i f i c e s , improving
d e f e n c e s , m a i n t a i n i n g armed f o r c e s , and a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e sometimes
expensive t a s t e s of some of t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s .

T h i s t r e a s u r y was n o t

seen a s t h e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y of t h e dey and h i s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , b u t

was k e p t i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e f o r r e c u r r i n g d e f i c i t s d u r i n g t h e y e a r s
when t h e c o r s a i r a c t i v i t i e s were u n s u c c e s s f u l .

The t o t a l sum was enormous,

and even a f t e r y e a r s of d e f i c i t s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e A l g e r i a n
t r e a s u r y amounted t o over one hundred m i l l i o n f r a n c s when i t was t r a n s f e r r e d
t o P a r i s a f t e r t h e Conquest.

Thus, w h i l e t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c o r s a i r

a c t i v i t i e s were s u b s t a n t i a l , t h e i r r e d u c t i o n d i d n o t mean t h a t t h e c i t y

4.

J u l i e n , H i s t o i r e , p. 57. S h a l e r ( S k e t c h e s , pp. 79-80) n o t e s t h a t

i n 1822 t h e d e f i c i t between imports and e x p o r t s was approximately
$1,000,000 and t h a t t h e d e f i c i t was p a i d a n n u a l l y o u t - bf t h e p ~ b i i c
t r e a s u r y w i t h gold and s i l v e r . Danziger (Abd a l - Q a d i r , p. 27)
o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e 1829 d e f i c i t was about F r . 700,000. Danziger
h a s c o n v e r t e d t h e amounts i n t o 1975 U.S. d o l l a r s : t h e 1822 d e f i c i t
would have been e q u a l t o about $4,500,000, w h i l e t h e 1829 amount
would have been approximately $600,000. He a l s o c a l c u l a t e s t h e
v a l u e of t h e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y i n 1830 t o b e e q u i v a l e n t t o $117,000,000.

82

was r i p e f o r economic d i s a s t e r .
The a c t i v i t i e s of t h e A l g e r i a n c o r s a i r s have been a major
s u b j e c t i n almost every work on t h e r e g i o n .

T h e i r p r a c t i c e s have been

d e s c r i b e d , t h e r e s u l t s of " l a chase" have been examined, and they have

been compared and e v a l u a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o European p r i v a t e e r s and
o t h e r Muslim groups.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e key t o t h e i r r o l e a t A l g i e r s

h a s n o t u s u a l l y been emphasized.

The t a i f a of r a i s was n o t an i n t e g r a l

p a r t of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y c i t y .

They e x i s t e d on t h e f r i n g e s ,

p r o v i d i n g some s k i l l e d l a b o u r e r s and f o r e i g n merchandise through t h e i r

s e i z u r e s , b u t t h e y were n o t i n t e g r a t e d i n t o c i v i c l i f e .

They l i v e d

c l o s e t o t h e p o r t , s e p a r a t e d from t h e c i t y t o a g r e a t e x t e n t ; were a
mixture of Muslims and renegade C h r i s t i a n s ; they were allowed t o f u n c t i o n
o u t s i d e of I s l a m i c codes of behaviour because of t h e i r p o s i t i o n ; and
they seemed t o be i n r e g u l a r c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e members of t h e o d j a k
which provided t r o o p s f o r t h e s h i p s .

They c o n t i n u e d t o e x i s t because

they were n e c e s s a r y : a s long a s Europe c o n t r o l l e d t h e t r a d e r o u t e s and

k e p t s i t s p o r t s c l o s e d t o Muslim s h i p s , t h e o n l y way t h e A l g e r i a n s could
r e c e i v e t h e n e c e s s a r y goods was t o e i t h e r t a k e them by f o r c e o r a t t a i n
them through t r e a t i e s .

Thus, when Stephen Decatur d e f e a t e d t h e r a i s

Hamidou i n 1815, t h e r e s u l t was n o t continued w a r f a r e , b u t a peace which

allowed f o r a l l "the advantages r e s u l t i n g from a f r i e n d l y i n t e r c o u r s e
with a r i s i n g nation."

These advantages were t r a d e f o r t h e A l g e r i a n s ,

and a f r i e n d l y Mediterranean p o r t f o r t h e Americans.

I n s h o r t by t h e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e t a i f a of r a i s a t A l g i e r s had d e c l i n e d i n power

5.

S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , Appendix D , James Madison t o t h e Dey of A l g i e r s ,

12 A p r i l 1815.

and s i g n i f i c a n c e .

T r e a t i e s w i t h t h e major powers, many n o r t h e r n European

s t a t e s , and t h e United S t a t e s p r o v i d e d A l g i e r s w i t h m s t of i t s i m p o r t s
w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o " l a c h a s e , " and t h e r a i s became e x p e n d a b l e .

No

doubt t h e r e was l o s s t o t h e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y , b u t t h e b e n e f i t s were

i m p o r t a n t enough t o r e n d e r t h i s l o s s s e c o n d a r y .
economic dec)ine

Thus, t h e r e was an

a t A l g i e r s , b u t t h e r e s u l t s of d i m i n i s h e d c o r s a i r a c t i v i t y

were n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r .

The new d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e a l i n g w i t h

t h e l o s s i n revenue were r e s o l v e d by a t t e m p t i n g t o r e v i s e t h e c i v i c
life-style,

b u t a f a r g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y was d e a l i n g w i t h Europ an powers

who had f o r m e r l y been u s i n g t h e i r m i l i t a r y c a p a b i l i t i e s a g a i n s t one

a n o t h e r , b u t who now were t u r n i n g t h i s same energy towards p l a c e s l i k e
Algiers.

I m p e r i a l i s m d i d n o t d i e w i t h t h e Emperor.
I n many ways, i n c r e a s i n g r e v e n u e s by c o l l e c t i n g more i n t a x e s

fr'om t h e i n t e r i o r was j u s t a s d i f f i c u l t a s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e d e c l i n i n g
sea-based revenue, b u t on l a n d t h e r e were c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s h e l d by
the government. , F i r s t , a l m o s t a l l manufactured i m p o r t s came through

A l g i e r s and were l i a b l e f o r import d u t y b e f o r e b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d t o

i n t e r i o r o r c i v i c markets.

These i m p o r t s were u s u a l l y of e i t h e r t h e

" l u x u r y 1 ' . o r mass-produced v a r i e t y , w i t h F r a n c e and B r i t a i n b e i n g t h e

evo major s u p p l i e r s .

Second, d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e i t e m s n e c e s s i t a t e d

r h e u s e of r o a d s , and caused t h e t r i b e s t o c o n s i d e r c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h

t h e p o l ? l t i c a l power s t r u c t u r e t o b e r e a s o n a b l y w o r t h w h i l e b e c a u s e of

6.

F o r a n a n a l y s i s of the t a i f a of r a i s s e e : Wolf fBarbary*st,

w.
113-150) f o r t h e "Golden Age" d e s c r i p t i o n ; P e t e r E a r l e , C o r s a i r s
uf *fta &
{Lordon, *>
I
k~ a
-6
i t e r r a n e a n " p i r a t e s ; " and V a l e n s i , (On t h e Eve of C o l o n i a l i s m ,
47-55) f o r a s h o r t b u t b a l a n c e d a c c o u n t .
4

- - -

- ---

84

t h e e n s u i n g a v a i l a b i l i t y of goods i n t h e i r m a r k e t s .

T h i r d , and p r o b a b l y
-

most i m p o r t a n t t o t h e b e y l i k s and t r i b e s , t h e i n t e r c h a n g e s which o c c u r r e d

a s t h e y b r o u g h t t h e i r p r o d u c t s t o market were n o t c o m p l e t e l y one-sided a s
t h e r e were t h e u s u a l b e n e f i t s from t r a d i n g .

It would b e i n c o r r e c t ,

however, t o e x t r a p o l a t e from t h e s e a d v a n t a g e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e
r u r a l p e o p l e were l i n i n g up t o s e e k m a t e r i a l s from Europe.

I n most

c a s e s t h e e v i d e n c e l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e European l y x u r y
goods were mostly purchased i n A l g i e r s , w h i l e some of t h e more p r a c t i c a l
items were i n some demand i n t h e i n t e r i o r , b u t t h a t g e n e r a l l y , t h e c o u n t r y
was self-sufficient.

The most i m p o r t a n t economic a c t i v i t y i n t h e c o u n t r y was

agriculture.

T h i s s t a t e m e n t would n o doubt b e c h a l l e n g e d by t h e s u p p o r t e r s

of t h e " p i r a t e s and p l u n d e r " a l l i a n c e , b u t t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s c o u l d n o t

change t h e f a c t s .

Except i n t h e i n f r e q u e n t y e a r s of d r o u g h t , o r a f t e r

t h e o c c a s i o n a l l o c u s t p l a g u e , A l g e r i a was n o t o n l y c a p a b l e of f e e d i n g
i t s own m i l l i o n s b u t a l s o of e x p o r t i n g l a r g e amounts t o Europe.

This

f a c t i s a t t e s t e d t o by t h e d e b t which was b u i l t up by F r a n c e d u r i n g
t h e Yapoleonic Wars, and which e v e n t u a l l y caused t h e dey t o l o s e h i s
temper when Deval was i n c a p a b l e of s o r t i n g o u t t h e problem, e v e n t u a l l y

7.

S h a l e r ( S k e t c h e s , p. 12) e s t i m a t e s t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n of A l g e r i a
a t " r a t h e r under t h a n o v e r a m i E l i o n , " b u t o t h e r e s t i m a t e s have
ranged a s h i g h a s f i v e m i l l i o n . X. Yacono ("Peut-on 6 v a l u e r l a
p o p u l a t i o n de 1 1 A l g 6 r i e v e r s 1830?" Revue A f r i c a i n e , 3eme Trim.
( 1 9 5 4 ) , pp. 277-307) n o t e s t h a t a more r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e would
be closer t o t h r e e m i l l i o n . H e aZsommmerts wn t h e t l r b a n - m r a 3
breakdown of p o p u l a t i o n , o b s e r v i n g t h a t a 1:10 r a t i o was q u i t e
realistic fsr &e perid
iR 4LLge-ziaT
&a&
*Lsewhere+
% s t a u t h o r i t i e s now
of A l g i e r s ' t o have
been a p p r o x j m a t e l y 50,000 b e f o r e t h e Conquest.

- -

l e a d i n g t o t h e blockade of A l g i e r s and t h e Conquest.

The problem was

-

t h a t A l g i e r s had s o l d over e i g h t m i l l i o n f r a n c s worth of wheat t o France

'7

through t h e b r o k e r s , B a c r i and Busnach.

Dey Mustapha (1798-1805) wrote

t o Napoleon, a s k i n g him t o r e s o l v e t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s : "J: vous p r i e en

grgce de donner l e s o r d r e s n g c e s s a i r e s pour qu'on termine l e s a f f a i r s
d e B a c r i e t d e Busnach," b u t t h e r e was no a c t i o n u n t i l 1819 when t h e
French government f i n a l l y approved i n p r i n c i p a l t h e sum of seven m i l l i o n
francs

which was n e v e r p a i d because of s e v e r e o p p o s i t i o n w i t h i n France.

The p o i n t of a l l t h i s i s simply t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a g r i c u l t

in A l g e r i a was n o t a s u b s i s t e n c e i n d u s t r y , b u t o n e w i t h e x p o r t b o t e n t i a l

--

which r e g u l a r l y produced s u r p l u s e s .
4

The major a g r i c u l t u r a l r e g i o n s i n A l g e r i a were t h e a r e a s known

a s t h e Sahel and M i t i d j a , b o t h i n t h e Dar e l - S u l t a n .

It i s obvious

t h a t t h e Ottoman government was aware of t h e p o t e n t i a l i n t h i s r e g i o n

because they k e p t it under t h e d i r e c t c o n t r o l of A l g i e r s .

The most

important p r o d u c t s i n t h e ~ e g i o nfrom t h e government's p o i n t of view

were wheat and b a r l e y , b u t o t h e r f r u i t and v e g e t a b l e c r o p s were j u s t
The l i s t of p r o d u c t s and t h e e x t e n t

a s important t o t h e l o c a l people.

of production noted by b o t h Shaw (1738) and S h a l e r (1826) a r e impressive

in v a r i e t y and value.

Other a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s which were l e s s p r o d u c t i v e

were i n Kabylia and t h e n o r t h e r n

dges and o a s e s of t h e S a h a r a .

In

-C

Kabylia, t h e main p r o d u c t s were o l i v e s and f i g s , and s i n c e t h e s e were

n o t s u b s t a n t i a l meugh tu pr-ovide a w u l a r die*?, i t - - w a s - n e c - e s s a r +

- -- - -

ta trade

8.

surphses far the

Xasson, "Concessions",

p. 61.

grain frm Lhe D a r e l -S u l t a n

n the

--

s o u t h , t h e p r o d u c t s were e i t h e r l i v e s t a c k

gaats, camels, &sheep

o r d a t e s , and t h e r e f o r e t h e s o u t h e r n t r i b e s needed t o exchange p r o d u c t s

with the coastal regions a s well.

Once a g a i n t h e importance of t h e

market p l a c e i s made e v i d e n t .
Rene G a l l i s s o t h a s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e r u r a l l i f e i n A l g e r i a a s
b e i n g p a r t of a p r e - c a p i t a l i s t

s o c i e t y b u i l t on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of

0p e a s a n t c l a s s e s by a . m i l i t a r y and s o c i a l a r i s t o c r a c y based a t
' ~ l ~ i e r bs u, t e x t e n d i n g throughout t h e country by means of t h e adminis t r a t i v e devices described e a r l i e r .

9'

He n o t e s t h a t t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s

were a l s o s u b j e c t e d t o e x p l o i t a t i o n on t h e b a s i s of l a n d t e n u r e .

The

e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e of land u s e and p o s s e s s i o n needs t o b e examined b e f o r e

i t is p o s s i b l e t o comment on G a l l i s s o t ' s theory.

I,

I n p r e - c o l o n i a l A l g e r i a t h e r e were f i v e broad c a t e g o r i e s of
land.

The n e a r e q u i v a l e n t t o p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y was known a s m i l k , of

which t h e r e was about 4 . 5 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s .

The p u b l i c domain, t h a t

i s t h e land under t h e c o n t r o l of t h e dey o r beys, c a l l e d b e y l i k l a n d ,

w a s f u r t h e r subdivided i n t o f o u r c a t e g o r i e s : apanage -.lan'd g r a n t e d

t o o f f i c i a l s i n r e t u r n f o r s e r v i c e s ; khamisat

--

o f f i c i a l s , but l e t t o tenant farmers; a z e l

l a n d owned by t h e s e

land l e t o u t t o t r i b e s

i n exchange f o r payment of t h e hukr tax; and tuwiza

corve'es.

l a n d worked by

There were about one m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s of b e y l i k l a n d .

The/

t h i r d c a t e g o r y , m k h z a n l a n d , was t h e land g r a n t e d t o t h o s e t r i b e s who

--

chose t o s e r v e t h e dey and his a

i n some c a p a c i t y .

- -

--

one-half mTIIion hectares of rnaEiEi5 TGGi. AFZhwaStTZbaflFinds

9.

"Precolonial

418-$4j,

, IV,

--- -

There w a s about

4 (1975), pp.

--

-.

& i c h w e r e h e r d by T h e ~

~oni t hte %%is

y

of h i s t o r i c a l rights.

Cf

There were about f i v e m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s o f a r s h , i n c l u d i n g t h e mawat

sub-category which was t r a d i t i o n a l l y used f o r c o l l e c t i v e g r a z i n g of
h e r d s and f l o c k s .

The f i n a l c a t e g o r y was habous, which was l a n d which

had been donated t o a Muslim f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e purpose of e i t h e r

e s c a p i n g coni s c a t i o n ' o r t a x a t i o n , o r f o r s p i r i t u a l r e a s o n s , t o b e n e f i t
t h e ummah.

Habous'were g e n e r a l l y more urban tha't r u r a l , and many of

t h e marabouts, mosques, and f o u n t a i n s of - A l g i e r s were o p e r a t e d by them.

10

Therefore, when G a l l i s s o t d e s c r i b e s t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e
+ I -

p e a s a n t s of A l g e r i a by t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s , h e i s mostly concerned w i t h
m k h z a n and b e y l i k l a n d s

t h a t i s about one and a h a l f m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s

of land under t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e

&,

granted t o o f f i c i a l s o r t o a l l i e d

F1.

tribes.

These same t r i b e s aLso possessed a r s h l a n d s of t h e i r own t o

a f a r h i g h e r d e g r e e , and t h u s it seems u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e deys could

a b s o l u t e l y c o n t r o l makhzan t r i b e s simply throttgh t h e a l l o c a t i o n of

r e l a t i v e l y small amounts. of land and immunity from some forms of t a x a t i o n .
It needs t o be r e i t e r a t e d t h a t some of t h e t a x e s were i n t h e domain
L

of I s l a m , n o t t h e dey

t h a t i s , they were seen a s p a r t of- t h e whole

. i d e a of submiksion - t h e k h a r a d j and u s h r t a x e s f i t t h i s c a t e g o r y , and

w h i l e i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t some of t h e s e funds found t h e i r way i n t o t e e
p u b l i c t r e a s u r y , they were n o t p a i d because of land g r a n t s o r s e r v i c e s ,
b u t because*of Islamic t r a d i t i o n .

G a l l i s s o t , from h i s Marxist p e r s p e c t i v e ,

--

- - -

-- --

--

-- -- -

d e n i e s t h e r e a l i t y of a s p i r i t u a l .dimension, and f a i l s t o s e e t h a t

10.

From Reudy, Land P o l i c y , pp. 4-12.

He s t a t e s , f o r example, t h a t habous, were " c o l l e c t i v e f o m s (of ownert

s h i p which) a c t u a l l y m y s t i f i e d t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n which o p e r a t e d from

i n s i d e by monopolising t h e product of t h e l a b o u r of group members.''

11

Disagreement w i t h G a l l i s s o t i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o be a d e n i a l
of e x p l o i t a t i o n , b u t i t i s meant t o u n d e r l i n e t h e n e c e s s i t y of examining
c l o s e l y t h e economic s t r u c t u r e s and of a n a l y z i n g them,withoat preconceived
o p i n i o n s about t h e i r e r f e c t on t h e people who l i v e w i t h i n t h e system.
I n s p i t e of e x p l o i t a t i o n , a r c h a i c means of p r o d u c t i o n , and f e u d a l
techniques of whatever v a r i e t y , l i f e i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r of
With a ainimum of t e c h n o l o g i c a l development,

A l g e r i a ' s economy continued.

a c e r t a i n amount of e x p l o i t a t i o n , and u n c e r t a i n h a r v e s t s due t o geo-

g r a p h i c a l , s o c i a l , o r p o l i t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s , t h i s s e c t o r wa's s t i l l
c a p a b l e of producing a l l t h e requirements of t h e c o u n t r y

and more.

F u r t h e r , t h e f e u d a l dimension i s d i f f i c u l t to-countenance s i n c e t h e r e

were few l a n d l e s s t e n a n t f a r m e r s , few l a r g e e s t a t e s , and no r e a l r u r a l ,

m i l i t a r y a r i s t o c r a c y which. took on t h e l e a d e r s h i p a t t h e expense of
other local e l i t e s .

When G a l l i s s o t s t a t e s t h a t t h e "Turkish regime

r e s e r v e d , i n s o f a r a s i t was a b l e , t h e p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s and f i s c a l
powers t o a new m i l i t a r y c a s t e which was superimposed on o t h e r a r i s t o c r a t i c bodies

...

(and) r i g i d i f i e d command f e u d a l i s m i n t o a ranked

system of h i e r a r c h i e s , however d i s c o n t i n u o u s , o p p r e s s i n g t h e country-

-+

- - L

- - -

s i d e , " he i s o v e r s t a t i n g t h e c a s e on a t l e a s t two p o i n t s .
-

11.
12.

>

--

G a l l i s s o t , " P r e c o l o n i a l Algeria,'' pp. 422-423'.

G a l l i s s o t , " P r e c o l o n i a l A l g e r i a , " pp. 437-438

One concerns

12
-

rr

pragmatic model d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r ; t h e second concerns t h e l e v e l of

o p p r e s s i o n , which seems t o have been much l e s s t h a n t h a t d e s c r i b e d by
Gallissot.
It would be a s g r e a t a mistake t o d e s c r i b e t h e h g r i c u l t u r a l

s e c t o r of A l g e r i a ' s economy a s an i d y l l i c mix of Ottoman p o l i c i e s ,

I s l a m i c v a l u e s , and unconcerned r u r a l r e s i d e n t s h a p p i l y producing t h e
n e c e s s a r y commodities t o keep t h e whole o p e r a t i o n f u n c t i o n i n g .
'

The

o b j e c t i v e i s t o f i n d a balanced view which a c c u r a t e l y a s s e s s e s t h e

situation.

The evidence l e a d s t o some r e a s o q a b l e c o n c l u s i o n s .

First,

s i n c e p r o d u c t i o n was g e n e r a l l y h i g h even w i t h t h e low l e v e l of technology, t h e r e must have been some d e g r e e of e f f i c i e n c y i n t h e system.

Oppressed and e x p l o i t e d p e a s a n t 3 could d i s r u p t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s e s
i n a v a r i e t y of ways, b u t they u s u a l l y chose n o t t o do s o .

Second,

t h e r u r a l people had a c c e s s t o markets, and t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e

was probably some chance of p r o f i t i n g by s e l l i n g o r . t r a d i n g s u r p l u s

products.

I n most f e u d a l systems t h e f i r s t o b j e c t i v e was p r o d u c t i o n

L

f o r t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s , then p r o d u c t i o n f o r e x i s t e n c e
n o t given f r e e a c c e s s ' t o markets.

p e a s a n t s were

T h i r d , t h e r e was t r i b a l ( a r s h ) , p r i v a t e

( m i l k ) , and c o l l e c t i v e (mawat) l a n d s a v a i l a b l e , which provided t h e farmer

w i t h t h e s e c u r i t y t o meet t h e b a s i c needs of h i s f a m i l y w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e
t o t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y , and it was the. f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e s e b a s i c
r

---

needs which enabled t h e r u r a l c o l l e c t i v e t o e x i s t w i t h o u t undue con--

sideration f o r that authority.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e land and

2
.'

t h e people could n o t b e c o n t r o l l e d o r l e g i s l a t e d by a c e n t r a l power:

~~

The bond which u n i t e s t h e f e l l a h t o h i s l a n d i s

mystical r a t h e r than u t i l i t a r i a n . H e belongs t o
h i s f i e l d s much p o r e t h a n h i s f i e l d s b e l o n g t o him.
H e i s a t t a c h e d t o h i s l a n d by d e e p l y a f f e c t i v e
ties
'1 3

...

F i n a l l y , d u r i n g t h e t i m e s of r e v o l t , p l a g u e , d r o u g h t o r p e s t i l e n c e ,
t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r looked t o t h e c e n t r a l
authority f o r help i n alleviating the distress.

I n 1819, f o r example,

50,000 b u s h e l s of wheat w e r e imported t o A l g i e r s ; a t o t h e r t i m e s ,

government t r o o p s would b e , s e n t t o h e l p p r o t e c t t h o s e d o u a r s which were
under a t t a c k . l 4
Thus, t h a t s e c t o r of t h e A l g e r i a n economy which p r o v i d e d a l l
c l a s s e s w i t h food and which b r o u g h t c u r r e n c y i n t o t h e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y
through e x p o r t s , was f u n c t i o n i n g v e r y we21 p r i o r t o t h e Conquest.

The

Ottomans d i d n o t t r y t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r , b u t r a t h e r
a d a p t e d t h e i r methods of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y .
A s DouglasaJohnson h a s n o t e d

I'

.- . . t h e r e w a s

a p a t t e r n of l a n d h o l d i n g ,

which'corresponded t o h i s t o r i c a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l i n f l u e n c e , which c o u l d

n o t e a s i l y b e overthrown o r d i s r e g a r d e d , and which f i t t e d i n t o t h e rhythm
of economic 1i f e

."15

P a r t of t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l s o c i e t y involved

t h e f a m i l y u n i t a s t h e most b a s i c e l e m e n t , and t h i s f a c t o r h a s t o b e
c o n s i d e r e d when examihing t h e r u r a l economy which c a n o n l y b e undersfdod w i t h " r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s p e c i f i c mode of r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t i n g
between man and t h e s o i l .

Indeed, i f t h i s c i v i l i z a t i o n i s i n s e p a r a b l e
---

from a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of economy
-

13.
14.

15.

. . . the

economy i t s e l f c a n b e
-

P i e r r e Bourdieu, The A l g e r i a n s (Boston, 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 103.

S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , pp. 78-79.
Johnson, "Problems," p. 227.

91
understood o n l y i n terms of t h i s c i v i l i z a t i o n , because of t h e f a c t t h a t

it i s c l o s e l y t i e d t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s whose c o h e s i o n more o r l e s s
g u a r a n t e e s a b a l a n c e between man and h i s n a t u r a l environment."

16

The

n a t u r a l environment of A l g e r i a provided t h e p e o p l e w i t h t h e i r n e e d s ;
t h e p o l i t i c a l environment provided cohesion and s e c u r i t y t o a r e a s o n a b l e
d e g r e e ; t h e economic environment provided t h e means by which t h e f a m i l i e s
could s u r v i v e and grow w i t h i n t h e i r t e n t s , d o u a r s , towns, o r c i t i e s .
However, t h e r e were more a s p e c t s t o t h e economic environment t h a n
agriculture.
A l g e r i a was n o t b l e s s e d w i t h l a r g e amounts of o t h e r r e s o u r c e s
which t h e p e o p l e and government c o u l d u s e t o s u p p o r t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
sector.

Some timber was produced from l o c a l f o r e s t s , b u t i t was n o t

s u f f i c i e n t t o meet t h e needs of t h e c i t y and t h e p o r t , t h e r e f o r e much

e s p e c i a l l y l a r g e timbers

had t o b e imported.

I r o n and l e a d were mined

and r e f i n e d i n Kabylia, and t h e p r o d u c t s were c a r r i e d t o A l g i e r s i n

t h e form of s m a l l b a r s .
t r i b e s ; and s a l t - p e t r e ,

17

S a l t was mined and used t o t r a d e w i t h Saharan

t h e b a s i s f o r t h e gun-powder i n d u s t r y , was a l s o

a v a i l a b l e i n considerable q u a n t i t i e s .
q u a n t i t i e s of o t h e r m i n e r a l s

18

There may have been some small

s i l v e r , c o p p e r , and gold

since the

mint a t A l g i e r s used t h e s e i n i t s p r o c e s s e s , and t h e r e i s no evidence

t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e m e t a l s were imported.

16.
17.
18.
19.

19

Other t h a n t h e s e , t h e r e

Bourdieu, A l g e r i a n s , p. 102.
J a c k s o n , A l g i e r s , p. 3 .
FO 3/7, 21 October 1790
Rosenstock,"Economic and S o c i a l C o n d i t i o n s , " p. 4 . Boutin
("Reconnaissance," p. 77) n o t e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of g o l d , s i l v e r ,
l e a d , t i n , and copper.

--

-- -

w e r e no abundant r e s o u r c e s t o a s s i s t t h e government i n augmenting i t s

income.

S;s

--

This was a major d e f i c i e n c y which no government of A l g e r i a

had been a b l e t o overcome u n t i l t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y when o i l began

t o add a new dimension t o A l g e r i a ' s r e s o u r c e economy.
When s h i p s e n t e r e d t h e p o r t of A l g i e r s t h e.--c h a r a c t e r of t h e
c i t y was immediately e v i d e n t .

The m i l i t a r y a s p e c t s were conf inned by

t h e w a l l s and armaments which almost surrounded t h e p o r t ; t h e n a t u r e

of t h e government was revealed by t h e customs a g e n t ( c a i d el-marsa)

who a s s e s s e d t a x e s on a l l i m p o r t s , and t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e ~ d i e n - b a s h i

(Captain of t h e p o r t ) ; and n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y , t h e

would

be *in a t t e n d a n c e a l s o , w i t h t h e c o n t i n g e n t s of t r o o p s o r workers, planning

o r re-building.
-

The i n d u s t r y of t h e c i t y w a s a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e

form of s h i p b u i l d i n g .

A t t h e docks and a l o n g t h e beaches underneath

t h e w a l l s , s h i p s weregbeing r e p a i r e d , c o n s t r u c t e d o r launched,
3

e x p o r t s were being t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e c i t y t o t h e s h i p s by
usually Biskris

(Bab e l - J i h a d )

21

and imports were moving through t h e Marine Gate

i n t o t h e warehouses o r souks.

S h i p b u i l d i n g was one

of t h e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n d u s t r i e s a t A l g i e r s , u t i l i z i n g t h e s k i l l s
of m n y of t h e c a p t i v e seamen, e s p e c i a l l y b e f o r e 1816.

In the e a r l i e r

d a y s , European tradesmen who had s k i l l s i n any of t h e marine a r t s were

considered t o be very v a l u a b l e , and i f they s o d e s i r e d , they could j o i n

20.
21.'-

S h a l e S k s t e h e s , p. 44) n o t i c e d t h r e e schooners b e i n g b u i t t
a t t h e same time d u r i n g 1825.
Most of
porters in t h e city w e = =frm % s k a 4% ke
of A l g i e r s ) . B i s k r i s a l s o o p e r a t e d most of t h e b a k e r i e s and
served a s household s e r v a n t s . They had t h e i r own amin.
S k e t c h e s , pp. 86-87).

----

--

93
- -

t h e r a n k s of renegades who tended t o assume l e a d e r s h i p r o l e s i n t h e

marine o r t h e r a i s , a f t e r t h e y had proved t h e i r a b i l i t i e s by working
on t h e docks of t h e

dey. Many of t h e dockyard s u p e r v i s o r s were

Europeans who worked w i t h b o t h A l g e r i a n and c a p t u r e d l a b o u r e r s , a l though a s t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e h t u r y advanced, fewer and f e w e r c a p t i v e s

were t a k e n .

22

The marine y a r d s and t h e r e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s

s a i l makers, b l a c k s m i t h s , c o o p e r s , and s o f o r t h

- rope

and

encompassed p a r t of

t h e docks and most of t h e b e a c h e s , and were c a p a b l e of working on many

f

s h i p s a t t h e same t i m e .

The p o r t was a l s o s h a r e d w i t h t h e f i s h e r m e n

who p u l l e d t h e i r b o a t s up o n t o t h e beach below t h e F i s h Gate

Hout - where
seconda*

European c a r g o e s had t o p a s s through customs.

23

Bab e l -

Other

i n d u s t r i e s c?nnected t o t h e p o r t and i t s f u n c t i o n s were t h e

Dar el-Nehas and t h e s t o n e q u a r r y , b o t h c l o s e t o Bab e l - 0 u e d .

a l s o s u p e r v i s e d by Europeans

The foundry

produced most of t h e l a r g e weapons and

s h o t f0.r t h e m a r i n e , w h i l e t h e q u a r r y produced t h e r o c k s f o r t h e w a l l s
The q u a r r y had been t h e p r i n c i p a l working a r e a f o r u n s k i l l e d

and docks;

c a p t i v e s , b u t w i t h t h e d e c l i n e of " l a c h a s e , " t h e dey tended t o commute

d e a t h s e n t e n c e s o r o t h e r h a r s h punishments t o l a b o u r i n t h e s t o n e
works.

24

I n s i d e t h e w a l l s m a n u f a c t u r i n g and-commerce were t h e two ways

22.

For t h e p e r i o d under s t u d y , Boyer (La v i e , pp. 184-185). l i s t s

a Malte
e n g i n e e r who had worked i n t h e French Naval Pa& a t
Toulon Geof f r o y , a Frenchman " m i s 5 l a d i s p o s i t i o n d 'Hassan"
(1791- 8 ) ; a S p a n i a r d , Maestro Antonio, who c o n s t r u c t e d two
f r i g a t e s ; and, i
n 1815, Gozel, an e n g i n e e r f r o m % r s e i l l e s .
Lesp&, A l g e r , p. 120112.
Boyer, La v i e , p. 185.

23.
24.

- -

--

--

open t o most urban groups t o e a r n thsir l i v i n g .

25

These o c c u p a t i o n s

were organised on t h e b a s i s of c o r p o r a t i o n s of workers, usua1:ly known

a s guilds

'

'26 which c o n t r o l l e d a c c e s s t o t h e market p l a c e , e s t a b l i s h e d

f a i r p r i c e s , media ed d i s p u t e s , and s e t s t a n d a r d s of workmanship w i t h i n

the particular c r a f t .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y very l i t t l e r e s e a r c h h a s been done

on t h i s s u b j e c t w i t h i n A l g i e r s , and i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o make d e f i n i t i v e
s t a t e m e n t s about t h e e x t e n t of t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e s p e r a t i o n s a t t h i s time.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , some forms of c r a f t o r g a n i z a t i o n s d i d e x i s t , b u t because
of t h e n a t u r e of t h e government, i t seems t h a t they n e v e r a t t a i n e d t h e
independent r o l e of o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n o t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n s .
The c i t y was c a p a b l e of producing almost e v e r y t h i n g i t needed
f o r s u r v i v a l and development w i t h i n t h e p r e - i n d u s t r i a l w o t l d .

Along

t h e Souk e l - K e b i r , around t h e two main g a t e s , and e v e n w i t h i n some of

t h e harah t h e r e were p l a c e s where manufacturing took p l a c e .
industry

a s i n most North A f r i c a n towns

was t e x t i l e s .

The major

Raw wool

from t h e i n t e r i o r e n t e r e d t h e c i t y through Bab Azoun, c l o s e t o where

25.

26.

Manufacturing, i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e , i n c l u d e s a l l t h e s k i l l e d
c r a f t s which implied t h e u s e of t h e hands - t h u s , w r i t e r s and
o t h e r " p r o f e s s i o n a l " groups a r e included. Commerce i n c l u d e s a l l
t h e v a r i e t i e s of buying and s e l l i n g which took p l a c e w i t h i n t h e
c i t y , t h e Regency, and t h e Mediterranean.
Ottoman g u i l d s d i d n o t f y n c t i o n t h e same way a s European g u i l d s
d i d . There was no g u i l d h a l l and t h e r e f o r e , u n l i k e Europe, Q e
g u i l d h a l l could n o t become t h e town h a l l . There was no open
p o l i t i c a l r o l e f o r the guild within the administrative structures
of A l g i e r s . This was d i f f e r e n t from t h e r o l e s o f - t h e g u i l d s i n
I s t a n b u l , which had a s t h e i t p r i n c i p l e dut-ies t h e e s t a b E s t M e n t
of "an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l i n k between t h e r u l i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s and
t k e t#n pep&&,
and
a meef mzpe-rvhien q + m ~ x W k
of t h i s d
- o-p u l a t i o n by t h e rulers.!' (Gabriel Baer, " A d m i n i s t r a t i v e ,
Economic, and s o c i a l - F u n c t i o n s of ,Turkish Guilds , I 1 I n t e r n a t i o n a l
J o u r n a l of Middle E a s t S t u d i e s , I , 1 (19701, p. 49.)

...

--

most of t h e s p i n n i n g and dyeing were done; then t h e wool was s e n t

-to

- - - - -

t h e v a r i o u s markets o r funduqs where i t was r e s o l d t o merchants, woven

i n t o whatever f a b r i c was needed, o r converted i n t o t a p e s t r i e s o r c a r p e t s .

A l g e r i a n c a r p e t s w e r e exported
they were known-for t h e i r b e a u t y and
>.
softness
- and s o l d i n t h e souks, a l o n g w i t h t h e l e a t h e r goods, embroidered
27
c l o t h and t a p e s t r i e s which were a l s o made i n t h e c i t y .
manufactures of t h e c i t y were i n t h e t e x t i l e s e c t o r
and s i l k (imported from t h e Levant)

28

The major

wool, l i n e n , l e a t h e r ,

b u t a l l of t h e c r a f t s m a n s h i p was
I)

n o t f o r export o r t r a d e w i t h t h e i n t e r i o r .

Each household tended t o

p r o v i d e t h e t e x t i l e needs f o r i t s e l f , and looms were a common o b j e c t

of f u r n i t u r e i n t h e houses where t h e women wove t h e f a b r i c f o r t h e h a i k s ,
&

d j e l l a b a s , , t a p e s t r i e s , and o t K e r items which were t o b e used by t h e

family

.
The f a b r i c a t i o n of l e a t h e r i n t o shoes, b e l t s , s u i t c a s e s , and
Tanning and dyeing

t a c k f o r animals was a l s o a major urban i n d u s t r y .

took p l a c e c l o s e t o Bab Azoun, n e a r t h e meat markets.

L e a t h e r was a l s o

a major e x p o r t i n d u s t r y t o Europe and t h e Ottoman Empire, a s l e a t h e r

'

from A l g i e r s "d+ressed and coloured i n t h e Morocco s t y l e , a p p e a r ( s ) t o

approach v e r y n e a r t o t h e p e r f e c t i o n of t h e a r t . "

k
L

29

The c o r p o r a t i o n

of shoe makers was i 'luded i n t h e ranks of " l e s m g t i e r s l e s p l u s estimgs

dans c e pays" along w i t h j e w e l l e r s , d r u g g i s t s , perfumers, b o o k s e l l e r s ,
and t h e c h e c h i a manufacturers.

27.
28.
29.

These h a t s , common a p p a r e l i n most of

Renaudot, A l g e r , p . 158.
Crombet, "Alger ," p . 83.
FO 3 / 9 , 3 J u l y 1802, r e p o r t s "4 o r 5 Cargoes of Wool, a s many of
Hydes" exported from A l g i e r s , and "30,000 hydes" exported a n n u a l l y
"as n e a r l y a s can be a s c e r t a i n e d " from Bona; and S h a l c r , S k e t c h e s ,
p. 71.
~

t h e Islamic world, were mad e by means of a s o p h i s t i ca t e d m a n u f a c t u r i n g

p r o c e s s which d i v i d e d t h e o p e r a t i o n s i n t o s p e c i f i c t a s k s , and were e x p o r t e d
throughout t h e Ottoman Empire: "La q u a n t i t k d e b o n n e t s qu'on e n v o i e
dans l e Levant e s t extr8mement consid6rabJe."

30

Other urban t r a d e s such a s c a r p e n t r y , masonry, b r i c k l a y i n g ,

and p o t t e r y f u l f i l l e d t h e n e c e s s a r y f u n c t i o n s i n t h e lower c i t y , b u t
t h e s e workers n e v e r a t t a i n e d t h e s t a t u s of t h e h i g h e r p r o f i l e c o r p o r a t i o n s
which had t h e i r souks c l o s e r t o t h e c e n t r e of t h e tbwn.

makers, mostly Europeans, w e r e ' a l s o in t h i s a r e a .

Watch and c l o c k -

Ln t h i s l o c a t i o n

seaAen from t h e p o r t , c o n s u l s , European m e r c h a n t s , And o t h e r v i s i t o r s

c o u l d p u r c h a s e t h e i r a r t i c l e s , "see. t h e town," and d r i n k c o f f e e o r wine
w i t h o u t coming c l o s e t o t h e r e a l c e n t r e of t h e c i t y

the residential

E l ~ j ' e b e l - o r t h e more p r o s a i c b u t f u n c t i o n a l working a r e a s n e a r t h e

gates.

I t i s a l m o s t p o s s i b l e t o d i s c e r n t h e a r e a which e a r l y o b s e r v e r s

3 i t e d by r e a d i n g t h e a c c o n t s of t h e i r i m p r e s s i o n s : some d e s c r i b e
t h e a r e a s around Bab el-0ue

d\

o r Bab Azoun, w h i l e most tended t o s e e

t h e maydan around t h e D j e n i n a and t h e p o r t a s t y p i c a l of a c t i v i t i e s

within the c i t y .
lower town)

Thus, w i t h o u t a c c e s s t o t h e a r e a above e l - 0 u t h a ( t h e

- and

t h e r e a r e v e r y few r e p o r t s of Europeans i n t h i s a r e a

t h e i m p r e s s i o n of t h e c i t y would b e f a r d i f f e r e n t t o t h a t i n t h e q u i e t e r ,
more d o m e s t i c , c l e a n e r h a r a h of t h e upper town.
-

30.

This single f a c t
-

Renaudot, A l g e r , p. 157. A document i n V a l e n s i (On t h e Eve of

C o l o n i a l i s m , pp. 98-100) - a c a r g o m a n i f e s t of a ~ e s s db a n d
f o r Smyrna - n o t e s t h e importance of t h i s p r o d u c t t o H o r t h
A f r i c a n c i t i e s . She a l s o c i t e s t h e " a c u t e d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r "
which c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of t h i s commodity - a n example
of " e a r l y i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m . " (pp. 40-41).

i s one of t h e most important r e a s o n s why t h e c i t y was s o misunderstood

by Europeans: they could s e e t h e p o r t , t h e w a l l s , t h e a r s e n a l ; they
could experience t h e souks; t h e y observed t h e v a r i e t y of p e o p l e ; tl-fey ,
heard t h e muezzin; they thought they had d e t e c t e d t h e h e a r t of t h e c i t y
w-hen they had only seen t h e arms and l e g s .

The g e n e r a l overview of t h e North A f r i c a n c i t y

in i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o economic l i f e

a t 1-east

p r e s e n t e d by Le Tourneau seems

t o f i t t h e s i t u a t i o n a t A l g i e r s when s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d .
He observes t h a t t h e c i t y i s composed of v a r i o u s groups
p r o f e s s i o n o r t r a d e , o t h e r s - o n e t h n i c background.

31

some based on

In Algiers there

were some c o r p o r a t i o n s of workers w i t h i n a t r a d e , and t h e r e were some

e t h n i c groups who looked a f t e r t h e more d i s t a s t e f u l j o b s : B i s k r i s were
p o r t e r s , Kabyles o r i t i n e r a n t workers cleaned s t r e e t s o r sewers.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , each group had a n amin who looked a t e r t h e i n t e r e s t s
of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n no m a t t e r what t h e s t a t u s of t h e work.

L e Tourneau

d e s c r i b e s t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a s a f o c u s of i d e n t i t y f o r t h e worker

there

was n e i t h e r memployment n o r i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e o u t s i d e of t h e
c o l l e c t i v e - . a n d t h e d i g n i t y of t h e worker.

: - ,

...

L ' a r t i s a n maghr6bin a s i peu l ' i m p r e s s i o n d'une

inf h r i o r i t g quelconque qu 'au c o n t r a i r e il gprouve
un c e r t a i n e f i e r t e ' d ' g t r e un h o m e compe'tent
en quelque chose: il a l e sentiment d e t e n i r une
p l a c e dans l a c i t 6 ou l e t r a v a i l manuel n ' e s t pas
consid&& c o m e une a c t i v i t g i n f e r i e u r e , mais b i e n
c o m e une a c t i v i t g s u r l e mgme p l a n moral que
l e s autres.
32
-

Le Tourneau a I s o d e s c r i b e s t h e s t r u c t u r e of the c o r p o r a t i o n : a - p a t r o n

31.
32.

Le Tourneau, Les v i l l e s , pp. 47-67.

Le Tourneau, Les v i l f e s , p . 6 6 .

(m'allem)

, whose

"position sociale- e s t sup&ieure

s a s i t u a t i o n pe/cuniaire;"

workers who were s i m i l a r = t o journeymen; and a p p r e n t i c e s who had t o

,,

d e m o n s t r a t e s k i l l s b e f o r e advancing.

A l l of t h e m'allem w i t h i n a c o r -

p o r a t i o n c o u l d meet w i t h t h e amin when o r i f n e c e s s a r y , and t h e m u h t a s i b

p a t r o l l e d t h e souks making s u r e t h a t t h e m a r k e t p l a c e s were--"functioning
a s intended.

He c o u l d s e n t e n c e s e r i o u s c r i m i n a l s t o punishment l i k e

t h e b a s t i n a d o , Qr f o r minor o f f e n s e s h e c o u l d have t h e o f f e n d e r paraded

'.

around t h e s t r e e t s f a c i n g backwards on a donkey w h i l e c r i e r s t o l d t h e

? .- '
.
population about h i s - a c t i v i t i e s .
33
1

Economic l i f e a t A l g i e r s i n v o l v e d many d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r s :
c o r p o r a t i o n s of w o r k e r s baked b r e a d , m i l l e d wheat, swept s t r e e t s , a t t e n d e d
v.

a t t h e hammams, and performed a l l o t h e r f u n c t i o n s which were n e c e s s a r y

^

in a c i t y of 50,000.

A t n i g h t t h e w e a l t h y and middle c l a s s e s went t o

+
t h e i r s e c u r e homes i n . t h e u p p e r town where a t sundown, heavy d o o r s made
t h e i r h a r a h even more remote f r o m t h e lower town.

I t i n e r a n t workers-

went t o c a r a x a n s e r i e s o r funduqs c l o s e t o Bab Azoun; and i n e a r l i e r

d a y s , s l a v e s went t o t h e b a g n i o s c l o s e t o t h e p o r t .

A f t e r t h e morning

c a l l t o ~ r a y e ' r , t h e c i t y s t a r t e d a g a i n ; g a t e s and shops opened, and

b u s i n e s s began - h o u r s f i x e d by custom, n o t t h e c l o c k .

Le rythme d e l a v i e 6conomique e s t tr6s l e n t

e t c a l m : l e terme d e p r o d u c t i v i t 6 n ' a p o i n t
d e s e n s dans c e t t e 6conomie q u i c h e r c h e a
l e s crger
s a t i s f a i r e l e s b e s o i n s , mais p o i n t
ou
l e s d6velopper.
34
Slow and p e a c e f u l i t may have b e e n , b u t European o b s e r v e r s h a v e had
-

33.
34.

Boyer, La v i e , p . 125.
L e Tourneau, Les v i l l e s , p. 55.

. d i f f i c u l t y u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e whole concept of economic l i f e i n an I s l a m i c

pre-industrial c a p i t a l i s t society.

To t h e Europeans

especially i n

t h e " l i b e r a l age," when many a n a l y s e s of Muslim communities were w r i t t e n

t h e l l a c k . o f p r o g r e s s which they observed was a t t r i b u t e d t o o v e r a l l backb

wardness and a l a c k of i n i t i a t i v e .

To t h e Muslims of A l g i e r s t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l l i f e was f a r more i n v i t i n g than t h e chaos which seemed t o

t y p i f y European s o c - i e t y .

Progress

a t l e a s t i n the "liberal" sense

'4

was an a l i e n a t t i t u d e t o t h o s e who were m o r e ' o r l e s s c o n t e n t w i t h most

-

a s p e c t s of l i f e t h e w a y it was.

Another a s p e c t of economic l i f e a t A l g i e r s was t h e t r a d e whi,ch

took p l a c e between t h e c i t y and Europe, t h e Ottoman Empire, and t h e
interior.

The most prominent s e t of import and e x p o r t f i g u r e s was

compiled by S h a l e r i n 1822, and has been picked up by s e v e r a l o t h e r

a u t h o r s a s b e i n g "made up from a u t h e n t i c documents ( g i v i n g ) a f a i r view
of

. . . trade,"

a s Shaler stated.

35

T h i s i s i n s p i t e of t h e obvious

d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e s t a t i s t i c s ; they only i n c l u d e e x p o r t s t o Europe,

aod they do n o t i n c l u d e g r a i n .

Paret re-established

I t was i n 1822 when t h e French Maison

c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h A l g i e r s and began t o e x p o r t

from Bona under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of a manager (probably a Khodja c r e a t e d

f o r t h e p o s i t i o n ) s e l e c t e d by t h e

35.
TI

36

This agreement obviously

S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , p. 79. Other a u t h o r s who u s e S h a l e r ' s f i g u r e s

i n c l u d e Boyer, Renaudor, ZespPs, an-anzigetl-J u l i e n , H i s t o i r e , p. 18. -The most thorough study of t h e r e l a t i o n -.
in +eeernsmie--spkere
i s lkssm's
&
"Concessions e t compagnies d 'Afrique (1800-1830)
This a r t i c l e
reviews t h e stormy commercial arrangements which preceded t h e
Conquest. The s p e c i f i c r o l e of H a r s e i l l e s i n t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p
is o u t l i n e d by dullen i n " M a r s e i l l e s eC l a Question d1A1ger 2
l a v e i l l e de l a ~ o n ~ u ; t e , "Revue A f r i c a i n e , l e r t r i m . (19191,
pp. 16-61.
-

36.

&.

."

Danziger e v a l u a t e s the t r a d e of A l g i e r s and comes t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n

&en

t h a t "it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e Regency of A l g i e r s was i n a p o s i t i o n t o s u s t a i n

even l a r g e r d e f i c i t s far y e a r s t o come,"

37

h e i s missing t h e e s s e n t i a l

p o i n t : i t may 6ery w e l l have been t h e c a s e t h a t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e m i s s i n g

elements i n S h a l e r ' s f i g u r e s , t h e r e was n o d e f i c i t a t a l l i n 1822.

This

should n o t d i s g u i s e t h e o t h e r obvious t r a d e d i f f i c u l t y : A l g i e r s had

no merchant f l e e t , and t h e r e f o r e a l l e x p o r t s were c a r r i e d i n " C h r i s t i a n "
s h i p s , b u t t h i s problem has n o t been s u f f i c i e n t l y r e s e a r c h e d a t t h i s
time.

.---,and
-. -.
>

It i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n j e c t u r e about t h e e f f e c t s of t h i s s i t u a t i o n

t h e f a c t t h a t the % r s e i l l e s '

Chamber of Commerce made

p i t

very d i f f i c u l t

f :

='

f o r Xuslims t o s e t up warehouses or brokerage f i r m s t h e r e , b u t u n t i l

more b a s i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s h a s been u n d e r t a k e n ,
no c o n c l u s i v e hypotheses can be formed.
was a v i t a l

and l e g i t i m a t e
-

N e v e r t h e l e s s , European t r a d e

source of revenue f o r A l g i e r s , and t h e

- -

" t r i b u t e " paid by some n a t i o n s w a s e s s e n t i a l l y a two l e v e l committment:

-6

one, t h a t t h e s h i p s of t r e a t i e d c o u n t r i e s would b e f r e e from a t t a c k s

by t h e r a i s ; and two, t h a t t h e t r e a t i e d n a t i o n s had a c c e s s t o t h e p o r t

of A l g i e r s f o r b o t h p r o v i s i o n s and t r a d e goods.

Sweden, Denmark, Venice,

and Holland u s u a l l y p a i d t h e i r " t r i b u t e " i n t h e form of m i l i t a r y o r

n a v a l s u p p l i e s ; P o r t u e a l was r e q u i r e d t o pay " n e a r l y h a l f a m i l l i o n
d o l l a r s , an annual t r i b u t e of $24,000, and t h e u s u a l b i e n n i a l c o n s u l a r

t r e a t i e s on s e p a r a t e terns.

37.
38.

- -

&se

Danziger, Abd a l - Q a d i r , p . 27.

P l a y f a i r , Scourge, p . 248.

- -

- --

--

sums d e c l i n e d somewhat i n t h e y e a r s

j u s t p r i o r to &e ompest b e e a w e of the d e s k r u e t i o n & &-A&+

--

%A.

f l e e t by Exmouth and Van Capellan i n 1816, and t h e r e s u r g e n t t r a d e

p a t t e r n s i n t h e Mediterranean a f t e r t h e Napoleonic Wars.
Trade w i t h t h e Ottoman Empire i s a n o t h e r p o o r l y documented
field.

There was r e g u l a r passage of s h i p s t o t h e Levant c a r r y i n g t r a d e 'c

goods and passengers involved in t h e h a d j , b u t t h e l a c k of documentation

in t h i s a r e a i s lamentable.
the pflgrimage

Some independent e n t r e p r e n e u r s combined

w i t h commerce, buying goods i n C a i r o and Alexandria

f o r r e - s a l e a t A l g i e r s , and t h i s could h a r d l y be c o n s i d a d a n i s o l a t e d
c a s e given t h e s i z e of t h e caravans t r a v e r s i n g t h e North A f r i c a n r o u t e s
sometimes a s many a s t h r e e thousand people w i t h more than t e n thousand
camels

.3 9

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e was n o t a s important

t o t h e A l g i e r ? ' economy a s t h e t r a d e i n o l i v e o i l , h i d e s , c h e c h i a s ,

and o t h e r merchandise would have been.

It i s known t h a t t h e r e were

t w a major c a r a v n s headed f o r t h e e a s t e r n Empir-e each y e a r : t h e h a d j ,

t,

which l e f t Taza i n Morocco and passed through s o u t h e r n A l g e r i a bef&e

heading towards Mecca; and t h e "caravanes d e s Maghrgbines" which l e f t .
~ a l 6 ,f o l l o w i n g a c o a s t a l r o u t e through A l g i e r s and Tunis.

The former

was p r i m a r i l y r e l i g i o u s , w i t h secondary commercial a s p e c t s ; t h e l a t t e r

#

w a s a p u r e l y commercial caravan.

40

There seems t o be no d a t a a v a i l a b l e

on t h e e x t e n t and v a l u e of t h e s e caravans.

It i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t

the North A f r i c a n s g o t around t h e European c o n t r o l of t h e Mediterranean

3 . Andrg Raymond, "Tunisiens e t Mathzr6-s

$0.

a u C a i r e au-dix-huit i-me
s i g c l e , " C a h i e r s d e T u n i s i e , n o s . 26/27 (19591, pp. 337 and 340
R.L. Lawless and G.H. Blake, Tlemcen: C o n t i n u i t y and Change i n
an Algerian and I s l a m i c Town (London, l 9 7 6 ) , p. 6 0 .

through u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e i r own c u l t u r a l k i & w y ,

kepi*

wag fmm

European i n t e r f e r e n c e , by " d e s e r t i n g " t h e Mediterranean r o u t e s .

Trans-

/
,Saharan c a r a v a n s w e r e a l s o a source of same t r a d e , b u t A l g i e r s was n o t
and a p p a r e n t l y never had been

a major depdt of n o r t h - s o u t h commerce.

A l g i e r s was l i n k e d t o t h e major r o u t e s (which s e p a r a t e d a t In-Salah

and went towards e i t h e r Tunis o r - F e s ) through Ourgla, b u t d i d n o t b e n e f i t
a g r e a t d e a l from t h e proceeds of t h e African caravans.

41

I t a l s o needs

t o be r e c a l l e d that' t h e Saharan caravans s u f f e r e d from t h e a r r i v a l of

.+

European merchants.

It was f a r s i m p l e r t o s h i p merchandise from t h e

newer d e p o t s i n western A f r i c a n by s e a than by caravan.

i

journey by caravan could be halved by t h e c a r a v e l .

The two month

One o t h e r problem

seems t o be t h a t s i n c e t h e s h i p s which d i d c a r r y t h e metchandise a c r o s s

t h e Mediterranean were n e i t h e r Ottoman n o r A l g e r i a n , t h e t r a d e d a t a

k
'

has been l o s t i n t h e g r e a t e r amount of commerce flowing between Europe

and t h e Ottoman Empire.
of A l g i e r s

I t i s important t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e problems

no merchant f l e e t , no co-operation from European merchants

r e g a r d i n g s e t t i n g up f i r m s and "houses'& i n Europe, and n o i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n

%-

were even more of a problem t o t h e Ottoman Empire which was even f u r t h e r

r e s t r i c t e d by t h e usce of " c a p i t u l a t i o n s " and e x c e s s i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n
on t h e p a r t of t h e "Great Powers."
Within A l g e r i a , t r a d e p a t t e r n s remained r e l a t i v e l y c o n s i s t e n t
over t h e y e a r s , w i t h A l g i e r s a s a f o c u s f o r most commerce i n manufactured
t r a d e goods from Europe and l o c a l a r t i s a n s .

There i s g e n e r a l c o n s e n t

among t h e academics about t h e p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s of t h i s t r a d e : J u l i e n

\ I .

E.W. B o v i l l , Golden Trade of thgMobrs

238.

(Oxford, 1970), pp. 236-

.+

103

n o t e s t h a t "Algiefs had a c t i v e l o c a l i n d u s t r i e s tjfiicTi ?Estr5buted t h e i r

p r o d u c t s in t h e p r o v i n c e s and were s t i l l i n o p e r a t i o n i n 1830.1'42

Never-

t h e l e s s , w i t h i n North A f r i c a , A l g i e r s n e v e r approached t h e c i t y of Tunis

a s a n e n t r e p 8 t f o r t r a d e , and Europe had t o o much commercial s t r e n g t h .
to challenge.

Thus, i n t e r n a l l y , A l g e r i a had a r a t h e r l i m i t e d market,

and t h i s , combined w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t most t r i b e s were r e l a t i v e l y s e l f s u f f i c i e n t , allowed t h e b a l a n c e between producers and consumers t o remain
c o n s t a n t : t h e r e was l i t t l e growth, and c o n v e r s e l y , the*

i m p o r t a t i o n of manufactured goods from Europe.

no massive

When goods d i d a r r i v e

a t A l g i e r s they were s e n t t o t h e markets where they were e i t h e r purchased

f o r u s e w i t h i n t h e c i t y , o r bought by t r a d e r s f o r s a l e i n t h e i n t e r i o r
or along the c o a s t .

...

made i n t o
The P r i n c i p a l I m p o r t a t i o n s a r e
t h e P o r t of A l g i e r . ' ~ e r c h a n d i s e i s a f t e r w a r d s
conveyed along t h e c o a s t by means of s m a l l
Trading V e s s e l s
The i n t e r i o r i s s u p p l i e d
by small Caravans o r companies of Moors, who
come t o A l g i e r i n o r d e r t o make t h e i r p u r c h a s e s .

43

S h a l e r n o t e s t h a t t h e r e was a "very d o u b t f u l " i n t e r n a l t r a d e p a t t e r n

and t h a t A l g i e r s had " l e s s c u l t i v a t e d an i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h t h e i n t e r i o r
C

...

than any o t h e r of t h e Barbary s t a t e s , " b u t h e then goes on t o

O

d e s c r i b e t h e funduq o u t s i d e Bab Azoun where t h e c a r a v a n s from t h e i n t e r i o r

arrive=

44

It i s mdst l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e small c a r a v a n s a r r i v e d and

d e p a r t e d A l g i e r s a t reasonably r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s , s t o p p i n g a t t h e towns

and p e r i o d i c markets ia t h e i r r e g i m s

$2.
$3.
44.

EO

t r a d e wieh t-he l-oeal p o p u h t i c m s .

J u l i e n , H i s t o r y , p. 321.
FO 3 / 9 , 3 J u l y 1802, Consul Falcon t o F.O.
S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , p. 30.
-

It i s a l s o l i k e l y t h a t t h e mahallah,

the m i l i t a y y c o l u m senLfmrn_Algiers

p e r i o d i c a l l y , was more t h a n j u s t a n e x p e d i t i o n d e s i g n s d t o e x t r a c t w e a l t h
by f o r c e .

S h a l e r , i n h i s " ~ c c o u n t of t h e R e c e i p t s i n t o t h e T r e a s u r y

in 1822"45 does n o t even i n c l u d e t h e - e x t r a c t i o n s

t h e r e v e n u e , w h i l e Robin

46

of t h e mahallah i n

d e s c r i b e s a c a r a v a n i n c l u d i n g s i x hundred

mules loaded w i t h f i g s and o l i v e o i l h e a d i n g o u t , and r e t u r n i n g w i t h

g r a i n and l i v e s t o c k a s p a r t of t h e mahallah.
than a m i l i t a r y expedition.

Obviously t h i s was more

I n s p i t e of t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s , t h e r e i s

no s o l i d e v i d e n c e which would p e r m i t a n e v a l u a t i o n of t h e r o l e and v a l u e

o f i n t e r n a l - t r a d e t o t h e c i t y of ~1-s.

Once a g a i n , t h e r e i s t h e

s p a c e in s c h o l a r s h i p which c a n o n l y b e f i l l e d w i t h t h e e fbf o r t s of s c h o l a r s
who a r e p r e p a r e d t o s e a r c h t h e a r c h i v e s and s o u r c e s i n F r a n c e and A l g e r i a

f o r the necessary information.

a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e was some

perhaps

revenue d i r i v e d from t r a d e i n a l l i t s f a c e t s ,

and t h e works of S h a l e r , B o u t i n , and Danziger seem t o have overlooked

some of t h e more i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s of revenue t o t h e government, r e l y i n g
i n s t e a d on European t r a d e and o b v i o u s i t e m s such a s t r e a t i e s , b e y l i c a l
t r i b u t e s , customs d u t i e s , r e t u r n s f ram " l a c h a s e , ' ' and more p r o s a i c
d e t a i l s l i k e taxation.
The o r d i n a r y r e v e n u e s of t h e Regency i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l forms
of t a x a t i o n on v a r i o u s groups.

From o u t s i d e t h e c i t y , t h e t o t a l t a x e s

on t h e p o p u l a t i o n (gherama) amounted t o a b o u t f o r t y - s i x p e r c e n t of t h e
-

h5.
6 .

S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , pp. 34-35.
HLforganisation m i l i t a h e e t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e des t u r c s d a n s l a
Grande K a b y l i e , " Revue M r i c a i n e , n o s . 98/99 (1873), pp. 201-202.

105
t o t a l revenue r e p o r t e d b y S h a l e r .

These t a x e s would i n c l u d e t h e ushr

and k h a r a d j on l a n d , u s u a l l y p a i d i n produce t o t h e bey who c o u l d t h e n

--

pay. A l g i e r s t h e c a s h ; t h e z a k a t (alms t a x ) which was a l s o b a s e d on p r o p e r t y ,

b u t was a l s o an o b l i g a t i o n w i t h i n I s l a m p a i d t o t h e s t a t e ; and whatever
d j i z y a ( p o l l t a x ) was l e v i e d b y t h e government.

Most of t h e u r b a n t a x e s

were c o l l e c t e d by t h e amins of t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p s .

Julien notes that

"Les c i t a d i n s g t a i e n t r e d e v a b l e s d e t a x e s v a r i a b l e s applique/es a u x me'tiers

que v e r s a i e n t l e s amin d e s c o r p o r a t i o n s s o u s forme d e t a x e s ou d e p r o d u i t s 7

a r t isanaux

."4 7

The remainder of i n t e r n a l revenue came from customs

d u t i e s , r e n t s on b e y f i k Iand w i t h i n t h e c i t y , and r e t u r n s from e x p o r t s

and monopolies.

E x t e r n a l revenues from " t r i b u t a r y n a t i o n s " and t h e

connected e x p o r t monopolies accounted f o r a b o u t f o r t y p e r c e n t of t o t a l

revenues

.4 8

I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t i n t h e f i s c a l arrangement a t ~ l ~ i e trh es r e

is a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of r e s e a r c h t o b e done b e f o r e d e f i n i t i v e conI

c l u s i o n s can be r e a c h e d .
discrimination

The system tended t o a l l o w some measure of

t h e Jews were f o r c e d t o pay double import d u t i e s and

a regular poll tax

49

and u n f a i r n e s s , s i n c e

it was based on t h e " t a x

*

farming" method, whereby i m p o r t a n t f i s c a l p o s t s were purchased from

t h e government.

$7.
48.

A9.

Boyer s t a t e s t h a t : "Le syst&me f i s c a l d e l a ~ e / ~ e n c e

J u l i e n , H i s t o i r e , p . 14.
These f i g u r e s a r e t a k e n from S h a l e r ( S k e t c h e s , p . 3 4 ) who h a s
d i v i d e d t h e revenue of A l g i e r s i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s : i n t e r n a l and
e x t e r n a l . The percent f i g u r e s a r e b a s e b o n T h e internal sums-.
'Vhile i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e sums p r o v i d e a c o m p l e t e l y a c c u r a t e
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e e x t e n t of t a x a t i o n a t t h i s t i m e .
Rosenstock, " E c o n ~ m i c a d S o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , " p . 4 ; and S h a l e r ,
S k e t c h e s , p. 65.

apparait b

p e u t - & t r e p a r l e s a b u s q u ' i l e n t r a i n e que p a r l e s somrnes,exigkes 2 l a

b a s e ; en t o u t c a s il est profondgment i n j u s t e . "

50

Nevertheless, c r i t i c i s m

of t h e f i s c a l system must b e b a l a n c e d a g a i n s t a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s
of o t h e r domains i f " f a i r n e s s " and " j u s t i c e " a r e t o b e judged.

In t h i s

r e s p e c t i t would a p p e a r t h a t A l g i e r s w a s no more d i s c r i m i n a t o r y t h a n ,
f o r example, England, where customs d u t i e s "along w i t h t h e a s s e s s e d
t a x e s , f e l l on a l l s e c t i o n s of t h e community, b u t

..

. . . hit

t h e poor

f a r h a r d e r t h a n they h i t thk consumers of l u x u r i e s ; " where P e t e r l o o

followed Waterloo; where c h i l d l a b o u r was s t i l l endemic i n t h e mines

and f a c t o r i e s ; and where some Manchester m a g i s t r a t e s b e l i e v e d t h a t
11

c u t t i n g down and t r a m p l i n g down t h e p e o p l e was n o d i f f e r e n t from c u t t i n g

and t r a m p l i n g f u r z e b u s h e s on a common."

51

The economic system f u n c t i o n i n g i n A l g e r i a was b a s e d i n A l g i e r s

on a p h i l o s o p h y of u t i l i z i n g t h e s t r e n g t h s of t h e c o u n t r y w i t h o u ~ ~ e x c e s s i v e
interference in social a f f a i r s .

The secondary p o l i c y of k e e p i n g a d i s t a n c e

from t h e r u r a l t a x F a y e r s e n a b l e d t h e government t o withdraw revenue

without completely a l i e n a t i n g t h e people.

Furthermore, t h e b e n e f i t s

of t r a d e allowed t h e government t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t c o - o p e r a t i o n c o u l d
be h e l p f u l t o b o t h p a r t i e s and t h a t a c c e s s t o open m a r k e t s c o u l d p r o v i d e
f o r n e e d s which t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i u r a l p e o p l e co-uld n o t f u l f i l l on t h e i r
om.

50.
51.

I n t h e c i t y , t h e c o l l e c t i o n of t a x e s was t h e d u t y of t h e amin,

Boyer, L a v i e , p . 115.
From Asa B r i g g s , The %king of Modem England (New York, 1 9 5 8 ) ,
pp. 170 and 213.
-

107
whose r o l e was n o t p r i m a r i l y f i s c a l b u t s o c i a l .

I n t h e s e ways t h e c e- n t-r a- l

a u t h o r i t y i n A l g i e r s c o l l e c t e d t h e r e v e n u e s of government which were

"

t h e n r e t d i s t r i b u t e d on v a r i o u s p r o j e c t s : t h e maintenance of t h e p o r t ,
1

p r e p a r a t i o n of d e f e n s i v e works, payment of t h e o d j a k , s h i p b u i l d i n g ,
o t h e r p u b l i c works l i k e mosques and f o u n t a i n s , and t h e b u i l d i n g - of
individual fortunes within the administration.

There i s n o doubt t h a t

a more e q u i t a b l e system c o u l d be f o u n d , b u t a comparison w i t h o t h e r

regimes i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e government a t A l g i e r s was p r o b a b l y n o b e t t e r
and no worse a t i t s f i s c a l p o l i c y t h a n most o t h e r s of i t s -a

and p o s i t i o n .

Danziger st?ites t h a t "tk heavy tax burden had q i s a s t r o u s consequences,"

e

and t h e n goes on t o b l a m e , t h i s ' s y s t e m f o r r u r a l d e p o p u l a t i o n , t h e d e c l i n e

of towns, and o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s :

"A v i c i o u s c i r c l e r e s u l t e d from t h e

need f o r more u p p r e s s i o n i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e e v e r - l a r g e r amounts of

t a x e s from t h e d w i n d l i n g p o p u l a t i o n and d e t e r i o r a t i n g economy."

He

52

does n o t t r e a t t h e o t h e r p o s s i b l e c a u s e s of p o p u l a t i o n movgment s e r i o u s l y
p l a g u e , i n f e r t i l i t y of t h e s o i l , t r a d i t i o n a l trans-humance

and a s c r i b e s

t o t h e Ottoman government t h e z same v i c e s d e s c r i b e d by t h e French when

t h e y were a t t e m p t i n g t o j u s t i f y t h e Conquest t o a c u r i o u s w o r l d .

It

i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t r e p e t i t i o n s of t r a d i t i o n a l arguments a r e s t i l l '
c o n t i n u i n g i n modem scholarship.:

Douglas Johnson c r i t i c i z e d t h i s approach

in 1962, when h e w r o t e c o n c e r n i n g p r e - c o l o n i a l ~ l ~ e r i a : *
There i s e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t a x a t i o n was
f a r from c r i p p l i n g , and a l t h o u g h g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s
a r e d i f f i c d t b e c a u s e c o n d i t i o n s varied g r e a t *
from p l a c e t o p l a c e , y e t t h e r e was a c e r t a i n

52.

70

D a n z i g e r , Abd a l - Q u a d i r , p .

p r o s p e r i t y . Both t h e economy and the' s o c i e t y

of A l g e r i a under t h e Turks possessed t h e i r own
harmony, which could be d i s t u r b e d i d y e a r s of
c r i s i s b u t which normally r e t u r n e d . The French
c o n q u e s t , however, d e i t r o y e d t h a t harmony
completely.
53
-

- -

It i s t h e r e f o r e very important t o a n a l y z e t h e p o l i t i c a l , economic, and

s o c i a l a s p e c t s of A l g i e r s a s they r e l a t e d over time

neither i n the

p e r i o d i c y e a r s of c r i s i s nor i n t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y y e a r s of abundance.
a

The balanced p i c t u r e of A l g i e r s ' s o c i e t y demonstrates p r e v a i l i n g harmony.

53.

Johnson, "Problems

,"p .

230.

-----

THE SOCIAL NE

ORK

Compare A l g i e r s t o an incomplete t a p e s t r y .

The loom could

symbolize t h e Ottoman a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e ; t h e warp could be emblematic

of t h e economic nexus & i e h

and t h e f a b r i c .

l i n k e d t h e v a r i o u s s e c t o r s t o b o t h - t h e loom

Together, t h e s e elements form t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e

s o c i e t y , p r o v i d i n g i t w i t h s t a b i l i t y , s t r e n g t h , and f l e x i b i l i t y .

The

v i s i b l e s u r f a c e of t h e c a r p e t i s t h e r e s u l t of i n t e r a c t i v e craftsmans h i p on t h e p a r t of t h e v a r i o u s s o c i a l groups, each c o n t r i b u t i n g some

d i f f e r e n t colowred o r t e x t u r e d wool.

The e n t i r e "coup d e m i t r e , " b u i l t

up over a .few hundi-ed y e a r s , b u t r e l y i n g on t r a d i t i o n s which go beyond

t h o s e y e a r s , i s i n t h e p r o c e s s of becoming a b e a u t i f u l and u t i l i t a r i a n
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s o c i e t y which c r e a t e d i t .

I t would be c o u n t e r -

p r o d u c t i v e t o pursue t h i s analogy t o o f a r , b u t t h e u s e of a n Algerian

c a r p e t a s a symbol of t h e s o c i e t y , i s q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e .

Jacques Berque

has s t a t e d t h a t " e n t r e la p l e i n e n a t u r e e t l a v i e f a m i l i a l e , l e t a p i s

-,

i n t e r p o s a i t 1161e/gance humaine e t s e s b l a s o n s d i s t i n c t i f s , " ' and t h i s

r'

combination of d t s t m c t i c m and e l e g a n c e f i t s p r e - c o l o n i a l

1.

A-lger-kam s o c i e y

"Remarques s u r l e s t a p i s Maghr6bin ," 6 t u d e s Maghr6bi.s ( P a r i s ,

1964) p. 14.

r,

s t y l i s t i c f e a t u r e was t h e diamond, which seemed t o f i n d i t s way i n t o

almost every t a p i s i n soma way.

I f " l e losange e s t r o i d e c e style',"

i t would.be a p p r o p r i a t e t o u s e t h i s f e a t u r e

a s i n d i c a t i v e of t h e r o l e

of Islam i n ,Algerian s o c i e t y .
A s i n I s l a m i c c i t i e s throughout t h e ,Middle ' E a s t and North
A f r i c a , a t ~ l ~ g e Irs lsa m dominated t h e s t r u c t u r e and o r g a n i z a t i o n of
t h e p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l elements w i t h i n t h e c i t y , then t i e d t h e c i t y
r o t h e . immediate h i n t e r l a n d and t h e g r e a t e r umrnah.

The p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s

of A l g i e r s have a l r e a d y been c i t e d , s o a t t h i s p o i n t i t i s . n e c e s s a r y
t o c o n s i d e r t h e s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f 2 1 s l a m . A t A l g i e r s , t h e r e were
two s e p a r a t e b u t g e n e r a l l y p a r a l l e l t h r e a d s forming t h e.. s p i r i t u a l dimension
.of t h e s o c i e t y : t h e f i r s t was t h e " o f f i c i a l " Islam of t h e mosques,' q a d i s ,

and k h o t b a s ; t h e second was t h e more p o p u l i s t Islam of s a i n t s , marabouts,

and brotherhoods.

These were n o t s i n g l e - s t r a n d t h r e a d s , b u t m u l t i -

- p l i e d combinations of r e l i g i o u s e x p r e s s i o n s which i n t e r a c t e d and were

o n e v e r coBpletely s e p a r a t e , d i s t i n c t , o r unified.
The f i r s t of t h e " o f f i c i a l " I s l a m i c a s p e c t s concerned t h e
major r o l e of t h e M a l i k i madhhab ( r i t e , school of law) i n A l g i e r s .

This

r i t e had been dominant i n North A f r i c a e v e r s i n c e t h e end of t h e e l e v e n t h

c e n t u r y when t h e Almoravids s u b j e c t e d t h e western Maghrib t o a s i n g l e
r e l i g i o u s and p o l i - t i c a l a u t h o r i t y .

M a l i k i t e theology i n v o l v e d , a

east

t h r e e elements i n - t h e l i v e s of Muslims: t h e "preaching of moral re orm

and a s c e t i s m

. . . dogmatic

t e a c h i n g which opposed over-exclusive Ide~-f~oggles

a s p e c t bf - t h e i r work, t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of p u b l i c

life."

Thus, b e f o r e t h e Ottoman p r e s e n c e was i n t r o d u c e d t o ~ l g i g r s ,

t h e I s l a m of b o t h t h e c i t y a n d t h e i n t e r i o r was s i m i l a r , b u t w i t h t h e
a r r i v a l of t h e m i l i t a r y power from A n a t o l i a , a new element was i n t r o duced i n t o c i v i c l i f e , t h e - H a n a f i madhhab.

The r e l i g i o u s l i f e of t h e

H a n a f i s h a s been c a l l e d i n t o qi7estion by a u t h o r s who, o b s e r v i n g t h e

b e h a v i o u r of some of t h e Ottoman r e s i d e n t s , d e c i d e d t h a t " t h e A n a t o l i a n
p e a s a n t s and t h e r e n e g a d e s of v a r i o u s o r i g i n s who made up t h e g r e a t e r

p a r t of t h e T u r k i s h o c c u p i e r s were n o t z e a l o t s i n r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s ,
f

i f t h e y even p r a c t i c e d t h e f a i t h a t a l l
between t h e two madhhabs.

. . ." and

t h e r e f o r e , saw c o n f l i c t

There i s evidence f o r t h i s c o n f l i c t i n o t h e r

I s l a m i c c i t i e s , b u t t h e r e h a s been n o documentation which would s u g g e s t

a

t h a t t h i s was t h e c a s e a t A l g i e r s .

I n f a c t , a l l t h e evidence p o i n t s

t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e two r i t e s c o e x i s t e d w i t h a minimum of c o n f l i c t .
Within t h e c i t y t h e r e were two m u f t i s (most e m i n e n t s c h o l a r ; c h i e f j u s t & c e ) ,
one f o r each madhhab, each w i t h j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r h i s own r i t e , b u t
t h e H a n a f i m u f t i was c o n s i d e r e d t o b e s u p e r i o r i n p o s i t i o n o v e r t h e
o t h e r , p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e t h i s was t h e c a s e t h r o u g h o u t t h e Ottoman Empire
&en

two o r more s c h o o l s e x i s t e d ~ b i n c i d e n t a l l ~ .The Hanaf i mut i was

a p p a r e n t l y s e l e c t e d by t h e P o r t e b u t a s y e t , t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t o
s u g g e s t how t h e M a l i k i m u f t i was chosen, a l t h o u g h i t i s , m o s t p r o b a b l e
,
t h a t h e was s e l e c t e d by t h e

2.
3.

t
4.
5.

&. 5

f!

Indeed, t h e r e i s a s t r i k i n g l a c k

L a r o u i , H i s t o r y , pp. 164-1'65.
Le Tournsau, "Norm A f r i c a : Rigorism and B e ~ i l d e n i e n t , ' e~d . , G,E.
von G r u n e b a u m , p i t y and V a r i e t y i n Muslim C i v i l i z a t i o n (Chicago,
I % f ) , p. 235..
See Lapidus, "Muslim C i t i e s , " p. 54.
V a l e n s i , On t h e Eve of C o l o n i a l i s m , p . 78.
- -

+&

of i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e r o l e of I s l a m i n A l g i e r s .

Laroui h a s n o t e d

thdt

" t h e r e i s n o t a s i n g l e book about t h e development of Malikism i n North

A f r i c a , " and t h i s complaint i s even more e v i d e n t a t A l g i e r s where t h e
s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s have been l a r g e l y ignored, e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e
Ottoman p e r i 6 d .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e f o l l o w i n g p r a c t i c e seems t o have

p r e v a i l e d : w i t h i n t h e c i t i - e s , t h e m u f t i s p r e s i d e d over t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n s on a r e g u l a r b a s i s , i s s u i n g f a t w a s concerned w i t h j u r i s p r u d e n c e
and th'e o v e r a l l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of I s l a m i c law a s r e l a t e d t o t h e members
of t h e i r naadhhab.
law

The more p r o s a i c d a i l y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n * of I s l a m i c

and the normal c a s e s of c i v i l and c r i m i n a l law

- were

left to

t h e two Qadis ( j u d g e s ) , who "hear and d e c i d e upon a l l c a s e s of law and

e q u i t y t h a t may be brqught b e f o r e them."

The q u a l i t y of s p i r i t u a l l i f e i n any community cannot be quant i f i e d by e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s , y e t t h e s e same f a c t o r s can g i v e a n i n d i c a t i o n

'

of some a s p e c t s of t h e s p i r i t u a l dimension.' Thus, a t A l g i e r s , t h e numbers

of marabouts and mosques may n o t determine t h e q u a l i t y , b u t can h e l p

t o d e f i n e t h e e x i s t e n c e and e x t e n t of Muslim s p i r i t u a l i t y .

In a l l ,

many 'mosques and koubas (tombs of s a i n t s ) e x i s t e d f o r t h e d i r i t u a l

b e n e f i t of t h e people and t h e r e l i g i o u s e l i t e were among t h e most

.
.

L a r o u i , H i s t o r y , p. 106 n3.
S h a l e r , Sketches, p. 2 2 . S h a l e r n o t e s t h a t t h e m u f t i s h e l d c o u r t s
twice a week, w h i l e q a d i s met d a i l y , except F r i d a y s . Most Europeans
s p e n t a g r e a t d e a l of time o u t l i n i n g t h e " b a r b a r i c " r e s u l t s of
t h i s j u d i c i a l system. N e v e r t h e l e s s , most c a s e s were decided
with- o u t m u t i l a t i o n o r d e a t h s e n t e n c e s . The r e a s o n why ETropeans thought
t h a t t h e system was s o savage was t h a t i t was both q u i c k and p u b l i c .
B e y d2& nut see t h e ather cases, a& IXJX?OE
seemea toZsSiiEt h e r e were none.
-

---

t h i s i s an a r e a where t h e r e i s ' n o documented e v i d e n c e a b o u t t h o s e who

--

formed t h e ulama (recognized s c h o l a r s ) o r t h e r o l e s they p l a y e d , b u t

i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e i r p r e s t i g e and s o c i a l s t a n d i n g were s i m i l a r t o
--.

t h e ulama a t T u n i s , where " t h e i r a d v i c e was a c c e p t e d w i t h due r e s p e c t

o r a t l e a s t not openly f l o u t e d .

me

ulama were deemed models of p r o p e r

s o c i a l behaviour.

Their h a b i t s of speech, d r e s s , and behaviour were

accepted a s t h e i d e a l e s p e c i a l l y by t h e nongovernmental c l a s s e s . "

The

. 9

ulama, however, were n o t t h e only g u i d e s t o proper s o c i a l behaviour,

-

s i n c e t h e e n t i r e c i t y was r e g u l a t e d by t h e p r a c g i c e s of Islam.

--

Five

d a i l y p r a y e r s organized t h e h o u r s of waking, working, and f a m i l y l i f e ;

f e s t i v a l s brought t h e e n t i r e c o r n u n i t y t o g e t h e r on r e g u l a r o c c a s i o n s ;
1

f a s t s and o t h e r r e l i g i o u s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s were seen a s d o t i e s t o b e

performed by a l l Huslims; and t h e khotba (sermon), s a i d i n t h e name
of t h e S u l t a n , was a n e x p r e s s i o n of t h e i d e n t i t y which A l g e r i a n s had
w i t h t h e ummah.

Snus, tihen i t was t h e f o r t h e s a l a t el-djamala(Friday

w

p r a y e r s ) , t h e c i t y g a t e s were l o c k e d , a l l t h e souks c l o s e d , and every

1

male Yuslim "who has reached y e a r s of d i s c r e t i o n " goes t o h i s own mosque.

A f t e r performing a b l u t i o n s , he e n t e r s t h e mosque, r e p e a t s t h e s a l a t
with ,the i m a m and t h e n h e a r s t h e k h o t b a , a f t e r which t h e g a t e s and

8.

S h a l s r (Sketches, p. 75) noted n i n e l a r g e mosques and "a g r e a t

number of minor p l a c e s of worship;" Renaudot ( A l g a , p . 1 5 ) s t a t e s
that there Mere ten large masques a n h f i f t y s m a l l -on= ,whileep
Boyer (La v i e , p. 7 4 ) rrates "13 g r a d e s e t 109 p e t i t e s . " Whatever t h e number, t h e f a c t remains t h a t w i t h i n A l g i e r s , Islam
played a, dominant r o l e in t h e d a i l y l i f e of t h e people.
L. C. Brown, "The R e l i g i o u s ~ s t a bishment
l
i n Husainid ~ u n i s i a , "
ed., Y.R. Keddie, S c h o l a r s , S a i n t s and S u f i s (Berkeley, 19721,
p. 51.
-

9.

--

shops open and commercial l i f e recommences.

This s p i r i t u a l exercise,

r e p e a t e d c o n s i s t e n t l y over t h e y e a r s , becomes a f o c a l p o i n t

for t h e week, b u t f o r t h e purpose of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

- not

just

a l l Muslims w h e t h e

they prayed a t t h e Hanafi Djama'a D j e d i d , t h e M a l i k i Djama'a K e b i r ,

o r one of t h e " p e t i t e s mosquBes d t A l g e r s e r g v g l e n t d e pauvres g d i f i c e s ,
nus e t f r o i d s , a w murs pass6s au l a i t d e c h a w , e t dont l e s n a t t e s
f

c o n s t i t u e n t l e s e u l l u x e , " were u n i t e d i n t h e i r r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e .

10

Over a l l t h i s a c t i v i t y , ; t h e ulama p r e s i d e d , r e c 0 g n i z e d . b ~t h e c e n t r a l
.

a u t h o r i t y , acknowledged by t h e people:

by g e n e r a l consensus.

and a s s u r e d of t h e i r p o s i t i o n

Did they p l a y a r o l e i n government?

of Andalusian, Arab, o r Ottoman e x t r a c t i o n ?

where were they e d u c a t e d ?

Were t h e y

How many were t h e r e , and

A l l t h e s e q u e s t i o n s cannot b e answered y e t .

Even i n Tunis, where B i n Diyaf d e s c r i b e d t h e people and e v e n t s s o e s s e n t i a l

h

t o understanding t h i s p e r i o d , L.C. Brown h a s w r i t t e n t h a t "the i s s u e

-

w i l l n o t be r e s o l v e d u n t i l muro c i r c u m s c r i b e d s t u d i e s of t h e r e l i g i o u s l y
t r a i n e d and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with-government f o r s p e c i f i c t i m e s and p l a c e s
a r e forthcoming

." 11

X e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e a r e some g e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e s

~ h i c hcan be :stated r e g a r d i n g t h e s o l e of t h e ulama a t A l g i e r s .

The

f i r s t i s t h a t they were among t h e most p r e s t i g i o u s of t h e ayan, r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r economic s t a t u s .

Secondly, they were n o t p a r o c h i a l i n

t h e i r background: t h a t i s , many r e c e i v e d t h e i r e d u c a t i o n i n I s l a m i c
L

law and p r i n c i p l e s n o t only i n A l g i e r s , b u t a l s o i n o t h e r Middle E a s t e r n

c e n t r e s , such a s t h e Al-Azhar,
-

I .
If.

where many Maghribi s c h o l a r s s t u d i e d

- - -- -- - --

Boyer, La v l e , p. 77.
The T u n i s i a of ithmed Bey ( P r i n c e t o n , 1974), p . 168.

I s l a m i c law.

12

F i n a l l y , t h e ulama a t A l g i e r s , a l o n g w i t h t h e c i v i c
-

marabouts, r e f l e c t e d t h e f l e x i b i l i t y of Ottoman p o l i c i e s :

"Les Turcs

a d a p t e r o n t en e f f e t l e u r p o l i t i q u e r e l i g i e u s e 2 l a c s i t u a t i o n .

Dans

l e s zones soumises e t p a r t i c u l i s r e m e n t dans l e s v i l l e s , Oulema e t

Marabouts j o u i r o n t d l u n e s i t u a t i o n c o n f o r t a b l e en 6change d e l e u r
neutralit&.

11s n e s e melent p l u s d ' a f f a i r e s p u b l i q u e s , s i n o n pour

approuver l e gouvernenent."

13

The exchange of comfort f o r compliance

i s probably t o o s i m p l i s t i c t o f i t t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; i t would undoutedly

be more a c c u r a t e t o d e s c r i b e t h e s i t u a t i o n i n terms of mutual r e s p e c t

than i n terms of m a t e r i a l t r a d e - o f f s .
hierarchy

m u f t i s , q a d i s , and ulama

Thus, w i t h i n A l g i e r s , t h e r e l i g i o u s

worked along w i t h t h 6 c e n t r a l

a u t h o r i t y t o provide t h e people w i t h s o c i a l and s p i r i t u a l g u i d e l i n e s

-a=---

which were c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e g o a l s of t h e p o l i t i c a l e l i t e and I s l a m L

generally

.
The second a s p e c t of I s l a m i c l i f e was t h e " u n o f f i c i a l " r e l i g i o u s

e x p r e s s i o n of s p i r i t u a l i t y a s p r a c t i c e d by marabout;

and brotherhoods.

The f i r s t of t h e s e movements, maraboutism, concerns t h e r o l e of h o l y

1

men and t h e tombs where w a l i s ( s a i n t s ) were b u r i e d .

These tombs were

p l a c e s of p r a y e r and p i l g r i m a g e , and were found throughout A l g e r i a .

The brotherhoods were groups of p e o p l e organized under t h e d i r e c t i o n
of a s h a r i f (descendent of t h e p r o p h e t ) o r h i s s u c c e s s o r .

These s u f i

o r d e r s were well-known throughout t h e Muslim world and have been t h e

subject of many volumes,

I n r e l - a t i o n s h i p to- A l g i e r s d ~ r i n gt h e immediate
/

12.
13.

See Andre -Raymond " X g h r k b i n e s a u C a i r e , " pp. 351-357.

P i e r r e Boyer, " ~ o n t r i b u t i o n3 l ' g t u d e d e l a p o l i t i q u e r e l i g i ~ u s e
d e s Turcs dans l a Re'genee d'Alger," Revue d e l l O c c i d e n t Musalman
e t de l a ~ e d i t e r r a n g e ,no. 1 (19661, p . 27.

116
pre-colonial

e r a i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o make two s p e c i f i c p o i n t s r e g a r d i n g

their roles:

t h e f i r s t i s t h a t t h e r e was a d e f i n i t e d i v i s i o n - i n i m -

p o r t a n c e between t h e r u r a l and urban a s p e c t s of t h e i r i n f l u e n c e ; t h e

second i s t h a t o v e r most of t h e p e r i o d under Ottoman r u l e t h e c e n t r a l
a u t h o r i t y and t h e . s u f i o r d e r s c o - e x i s t e d p e a c e f u l l y t o a g r e a t e x t e n t .
I

Concerning t h e f i r s t p o i n t , w i t h i n A l g i e r s , t h e marabouts and b r o t h e r h o o d s

were p a r t of t h e normal c i v i c l i f e , and a h i g h l e v e l of c o - o p e r a t i o n
e x i s t e d between t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y and b o t h the' " o f f i c i a l " and
It

u n o f f i c i a l " a s p e c t s of I s l a m .

This co-operation i s e v i d e n t i n t h e

c a s e of S i d i Abd-a1 Rahman a l - T h a ' a l i b i ,

t h e p a t r o n s a i n t of A l g i e r s ,

whose tomb became a n o b j e c t of p i l g r i m a g e .

His kouba was j u s t o u s i d e

Bab al-Oued, where " l e Dey r g g n a n t , Hassan P a s h a , s'empressa d e l u i f a i r e

c o n s t r u i r e un m a g n i f i q u e mausol6e."
of c o - o p e r a t i o n

14

Other evidence f o r t h e high l e v e l

i n c l u d e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of za;iyas

( l o d g e s o p e r a t e d by

b r o t h e r h o o d s ) w i t h i n and around t h e c i t y ; habous of many t y p e s a d m i n i s t e r e d

by t h e r e l i g i o u s h i e r a r c h y ; ulama who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e b r o t h e r h o o d s

a l o n g w i t h some of t h e Ottoman r u l i n g c l a s s , and t h e f a c t t h a t many

members of t h e ulama were a l s o a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n t h e c i v i c a s p e c t s of
government

.15

Given, t h e r e f o r e , t h e h i g h l e v e l of c e - o r d i n a t i o n between

r e l i g i o n and p o l i t i c s a t A l g i e r s , t h e r e i s a n e v i d e n t paradox between

t h e governmental p o l i c i e s i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e c i t y : g e n e r a l c o - o p e r a t i o n

14.

Boyer, " c o n t r i b u t i o n , " p. 40. A 1 ' T h a l a l i b i was known a s "Bou Qubrin"

t h e man w i t h two tombs - s i n c e a second kouba a t t r i b u t e d t o him
i s l o c a t e d a t kit Smail i n K a b y l i a .
Reudy , Land P o l i c y , p 7. L. C. Brown (The T u n i s i a of Ahmed Bey,
p, 28) m a t e s that " m a s t members ~f
a f a v o u r a b l e eye upon Sufism and were themselves members of one
o r more b r o t h e r h o o d s . "
See a l s o Boyer, " C o n t r i b u t i o n , " p . 28;
and Stambouli and Zghal, " ~ av i e u r b a i n e , " p. 205.
- -

f 5.

i n s i d e , w i t h some c o n f l i c t o u t s i d e .

This paradox h a s been used by many

o b s e r v e r s t o e x p l a i n t h a t t h e Ottomans n e v e r were a b l e t o c o n t r o l the

b

i n t e r i o r , and t h a t t h e r e was open h a t r e d between t h e t r i b e s and t h e

..

1 t - i s important t o seek an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

Ottomans.

which e x i s t e d .
R e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e Ottomans a t A l g i e r s and t h e t r i b e s
9

went through s e v e r a l s t a g e s .
t h e pre-Ottoman

The f i r s t s t a g e was ambivalence.

Du~ing

p e r i o d A l g e r i a w a s d i v i d e d i n t o many small t r i b a l o r

maraboutic " s t a t e s " which d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a g r e e w i t h t h e need f o r

an a g g r e s s i v e a n t i - C h r i s t i a n s t a n c e a s they were n o t g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d
by Spanish i n t r u s i o n s i n t o t h e i r t e r r i t o r y .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s some c o a s t a l

a r e a s were s u b j e c t e d t o Spanish a g g r e s s i o q , s e v e r a l marabouts a c t u a l l y

a s s i s t e d t h e Ottomans i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e y t of t h e i r hegemony o v e r A l g i e r s ,
and "dans l e s anne'es s u i v e r e n t l e s marabouts a l g e ' r o i s miront v o l o n t i e r s
l e u r s i n f l u e n c e a u s e r v i c e d e s Pachas."

16

This s e t t h e s t a g e f o r t h e

second p e r i o d , a l l i a n c e , when b o t h t h e ulama and marabouts worked t o g e t h e r t o b e n e f i t from t h e j i h a d .

T h i s was t h e p e r i o d when s e v e r a l

marabouts p a r t i c i p a t e d in f i n a n c i n g "la course" and e s t a b l i s h e d zawiyas

on t h e r e t u r n s of t h e i r investments.

I n some c a s e s marabouts a l s o

c o l l e c t e d t a x e s f o r t h e government and g e n e r a l l y supported i t s t r i b a l

policies.

17

By t h e end of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e r e was a d r a m a t i c

change i n t h i s poJicy of co-operation.

Frequent r e v o l t s by brotherhoods

a g a i n s t t h e Ottomans began t o o c c u r , and Ottoman beys began t o b e much

-

more demanding r e g a r d i n g t a x a t i o n .

16.
17.

Boyer, " C o n t r i b u t i o n , " p. 17.

Boyer , " C o n t r i b u t i o n ," p 3 1 .

Thus, t h e e r a of a l l i a n c e gave way

--

t o a p e r l o d 3f a n t i p a t h y which, w h i l e n e i t h e r complete n o r -overwhelming,

w a s e v i d e n t i n many t r i b a l a r e a s .

Thus, a t t h e - t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y

a h e n t h e Derkawi b r o t h e r h o o d , u n d e r i t s s h a r i f , Hadj Mohammed ben e l A r r a c h , a t t e m p t e d t o b e n e f i t from " l a c o u r s e " w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of

activity .
Several
18

A l g i e r s , R a i s Hamidou was s e n t ' t o D j i d j e l l i t o p u t an end t o t h i s

o t h e r b r o t h e r h o o d s and marabouts r e v o l t e d from

time t o t i m e , and even a-ttacked t h e m a h a l l a s w i t h some s u c c e s s .

These

i n s t a n c e s have been s e i z e d upon by t h e c o l o n i a l a p o l o g i s t s t o s u p p o r t

t h e i r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t A l g e r i a was i n a s t a t e of a n a r c h y and c h a o s p r i o r
t o t h e Conquest.

The a p o l o g i s t s a t t r i b u t e t h e r e v o l t s t o e x c e s s i v e

t a x a t i o n , h a t r e d of "Turks"

i n g e n e r a l , Berber-Arab d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e

d e c l i n e of p i r a c y a s a s o u r c e of income, and " o p p r e s s i v e and t y r a n n i c a l ' '

r u l e by t h e deys and b e y s .

Ln o t h e r words, a l l t h e s e f a c t o r s u n i t e d

t o a r o u s e t h e p o p u l a t i o n a g a i n s t Ottoman r u l e .

19

The r e a l e s s e n c e of

t h e paradox i s more p r o s a i c , b u t a l s o more r e a l i s t i c , and i n v o l v e s t h e

r

one a r e a where Ottoman p o l i c i e s d i d n o t r e f l e e t t h e $ m e v a l u e s of t h e

s o c i e t y i t governed

that is, i t s Islamic policy.

I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d Ottoman I s l a m i c p o l i t i c s i t i s n e c e s s a r y
t o go back t o t h e " f r o n t i e r h y p o t h e s i s "

18.
19.

t h a t i s , A l g i e r s was t h e

Bbyer, " C o n t r i b u t i o n , " p. 4 1 .

Even a s r e c e n t l y a s 1980 t h i s a t t i t u d e c o n t i n u e d : "By t h e end
of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l s t a g n a t i o n i n t h e
Xaghrib was s o advanced t h a t i t s e t t h e s t a g e f o r t h e f u l l - b l o w n
i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e European powers
." ( J . P . E n t e l i s , "The
Haghrib: An Overview," i n The Government and P o l i t i c s of t h e
Ificldle E a s t and North A f r i c a , ed. -by D.33 -tong m d 3 .-~rzkcfrf-Bog2der,
1 9 8 0 ) , p . 383). It a p p e a r s a s i f t h e " s t a g e hands" were t h e p e o p l e
sf W
k Africa, v h by &ir
s e e s affd & i & e A + e f k n s
not a r e a l i s t i c
i n v i t i n g t h e r e a l " s t a r s " t o a p p e a r on t h e i r s e t
interpretation.

...

119
western o u t p o s t of t h e jihad.

It was under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t t h e

A l g e r i a n p o p u l a t i o n a c c e p t e d Ottoman s u z e r a i n t y , and a s l o n g a s t h e
t h r e a t from Spain c o n t i n u e d , t h e p e o p l e of A l g e r i a tended t o s u p p o r t
Ottoman p o l i c i e s a s a n e c e s s a r y e x t e n s i o n of t h e war a g a i n s t S p a i n .
I n t h i s c o n t e x t , when Oran f e l l t o t h e dey of A l g i e r s i n 1791, t h e
immediate t h r e a t t o I s l a m was o v e r , and t h i s r e l e a s e d some of t h e more
t r u c u l e n t t r i b e s from t h e i r a l l e g i e n c e t o A l g i e r s .

There ensued a

s t r u g g l e f o r power and i d e n t i t y w i t h i n A l g e r i a which t h e Ottomans were

n o t prepared f o r .

I n f a c t , t h e y a c t e d i n ways which tended t o i n c r e a s e

t h e a l i e n a t i o n from t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y , and i n s t e a d of t h e i r u s u a l
p o l i c i e s of pragmatism and f l e x i b i l i t y , t h e y became dogmatic and r i g i d
i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e towards r e l i g i o u s p o l i t i c s .

It i s a s i f t h e Ottoman

r u l i n g c l a s s e s expected t h a t b e c a u s e a l l t h e p e o p l e were Muslims, t h e y

would concur w i t h t h e i r p o l i c i e s , y e t t h i s was o b v i o u s l y n o t t h e c a s e .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e paradox r e f e r r e d t o above

t h a t t h e r e was c o - o p e r a t i o n

w i t h i n A l g i e r s among t h e v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s f a c t i o n s , b u t c o n f l i c t o u t side the c i t y

demonstrated one major d e f i c i e n c y i n Ottoman p o l i t i c s

and came t o b e one of t h e more i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n s f o r t h e e v e n t u a l f a i l u r e

of Ottoman a u t h o r i t i e s t o r a l l y t h e t r i b e s around t h e d e f e n s e of A l g i e r s .
Although r e l i g i o u s v a r i a t i o n s were p r o b a b l y t h e most i m p o r t a n t
s o c i a l a s p e c t of l i f e a t A l g i e r s , t h e r e were o t h e r f a c t o r s which contributed t o the social fabric.

One of t h e s e f a c t o r s was e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y .

I n some c a s e s , e t h n i c d i f f e r e n c e s c o i n c i d e d w i t h r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s ,
b u t t h e r e were o t h e r g r e a t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e s o c i o - e t h n i c background
of t h e people of A l g i e r s .

The major groups can b e d i v i d e d i n t o s i x

broad c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s : t h o s e born i n A n a t o l i a o r t h e Levant

usually

r e f e r r e d t o a s Turks, a l t h o u g h many were of d i f f e r e n t e x t r a c t i o n ;

Kouloughlis; Arabs, t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e c i t y ' s p e p u l a t i o n ; B e r b e r s ;
Jews; f o r e i g n e r s , i n c l u d i n g renegades; and, p r i o r t o 1816, s l a v e s
" ?

both European and b l a c k .

Each of t h e s e s o c i a l groups h a s c o n t r i b u t e d

.
,

i n some way t o t h e development of t h e urban l i f e s t y l e and each community

had i t s r o l e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
Tho c h a r a c t e r - o f t h e Ottoman, r u l i n g c l a s s h a s been t h e t o p i c
of a g r e a t d e a l of d i s c u s s i o n and i n most c a s e s t h e r e h a s been l i t t l e
sympathy f o r i t s r o l e s .

It i s g e n e r a l l y assumed t o be t h e ' c a s e t h a t

t h e "Turks" were obnoxious, i g n o r a n t , and o v e r b e a r i n g r e g a r d l e s s of

i

t h e i r low s t a t u s background - w i t h n o t h i n g b u t i l l - f e e l i n g between them

and t h e o t h e r i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e c i t y .

I n s p i t e of t h i s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n ,

t h e r e a r e many i n s t a n c e s of k i n d n e s s , g e n e r o s i t y , and i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

20

and w h i l e t h e r e would be a c e r t a i n amount of t e n s i o n between t h e r u l i n g

!

e l i t e and t h e l o c a l a y a n , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e impression given by o b s e r v e r s ,

v

t h e f a c t remains t h a t in 1829, a f t e r two y e a r s of n a v a l blockade by

France, 3,661 armed 0 t t ~ m a nt r o o p s were a b l e t o m a i n t a i n power n o t only

i n A l g i e r s , b u t throughout a g r e a t d e a l of t h e i n t e r i o r a s w e l l .

"Et

cependant l a f a i b l e s s e num6rique d e s dominateurs prouve quo l e u r pouvoir

g t a i t d ' o r d i n a i r e a c c e p t 6 s a n s o p p o s i t i o n grave (sauf dans c e r t a i n s s

20.

See Barnby, P r i s o n e r s , pp. 7 , 28, and 80, f o r example, which g i v e

some p o s i t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e Ottomans a t A l g i e r s from
the viewpoint of American c a p t i v e s . F o r an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e
more t r a d i t i o n a l approach: "Les Turc s o n t f i e r s , h a u t a i n s ,
E & r m ~ s ,porte's an b r i g a d a g e , insotents s n r t o n t pumd i t s mrrt
c r a i n d r e , b a s e t ampants
glevgs en d i g n i t 6 ou q u ' i l s n ' o n t r i e n
(Dubois-Thainville, "Memo1 e s ,"
quand i l s tombent en d i s g r z c e . I '
p. 135.)

r e g i o n s montagneuses) par l'ensemble d e l a p o p u l a t i o n a r a b e d e 1'AlgPrie."21

-

Thus, i n s p i t e of t h e c o m p l a i n t s t h a t t h e Turks " n ' a v a i e n t aucune souche

I

dans l e pays"

22

and D u b o i s - T h a i n v i l l e ' s p r e d i c t i o n i n 1809 "que c e pays

u

e s t a u moment dT6prouve l a p l u s a f f r e u s e r & o l u t i o n ,

d e t o u s 14s t u r c s , odieux

d o n t 1e massacre

tous l e s indigenes, s e r a l a re/sultat,"

23

t h e Ottbman presence a t A l g i e r s remained u n t i l European i n t e r v e n t i o n

on a massive s c a l e f o r c e d t h e withdrawal of t h i s r u l i n g group.

Part.
-

.I

t_
-

--

of t h e problem w i t h t h e "Turkish" element a t A l g i e r s concerned t h e i r

d i s t a n c e from t h e " h e a r t " of t h e c i t y .

I t h a s a l r e a d y been shown h6w

f a m i l y l i f e in t h e r e s i d e n t i.a l h a r a h was t h e key p o i n t f o r

t h e s o c i e t y , y e t t h e odjak members d i d n o t f i t i n t o t h i s c a t e g o r y .

The

o d j a k , r e c r u i t e d a s s i n g l e men from v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e Ottoman Empire,

a r r i v e d a t A l g i e r s w i t h a low p o s i t i o n i n t h e h i e r a r c h y .

They l i v e d

a l i f e i n t h e c a s e r n e s ( b a r r a c k s ) which was e s s e n t i a l l y m i l i t a r y , without

in most c a s e s

family o r f r i e n d s i n the c i t y .

A s t h e y r o s e through

t h e ranks by s e n i o r i t y , t h e i r allowance and t h 8 i r 'chance f o r advancement

,

i n c r e a s e d ; many p a r t i c i p a t e d i n " l a c o u r s e ; " some became wea1thy;'but

most seemed t o l i v e t h e i r l i v e s w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of t h e lower town.
o r t h e p r o v i n c i a l zmala o r b e y l i k s .

Thus, t h e r e was l i t t l e i n d e n t i f i -

c a t i o n between t h e c o r p s of odjak and t h e people.

Language and r e l i g i o u s

d i f f e r e n c e s added t o t h e a l i e n a t i o n , and t h i s seems t o be t h e c a u s e

of most of t h e p r e v a i l i n g European o b s e r v a t i o n s .

S i n c e most a u t h o r s
-

21.
22.
23.

Marcel Emerit , " ~ e st r i b u s privilege'es,'l Annales: E.S.C., no. 1

(19661, p. 45.
d'Aubignosc, " ~ l g e r " (deuxi8me a r t i c l e ) , Revue d e P a r i s , t 23
(1831), p. 5.
~ u b o i s - ~ h a i n v i l l e "Sur
,
Alger , I t p. 132.

.+

o n l y saw t h e lower town, t h e i r a l i e n a t i o n was a s o b v i o u s as t h e i r

--

--

observati'ons of t h e o d j a k .

I n s p i t s of t h i s l i f e i n t h e c a s e r n e s , t a v e r n s ,

and m i l i t a r y e x e r c i s e s , some of t h e Ottomans d i d f i n d t h a t A l g i e r s was

a pleasant place t o l i v e .

W n y m & - i e d l o c a l women

f a m i l i e s w i t h a measure of added s e c u r i t y

- began

providing t h e i r

t o b u i l d h o u s e s and

r a i s e f a m i l i s i n v a r i o u s c e n t r e s around A l g e r i a , and i n t h i s way, were

integrated

Algerian s o c i e t y .

O t h e r s remained a t A l g i e r s u n t i l

c a p i t a l t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l homes, w h i l e some
remained i n t h e o d j a k u n t i l t h e y r e t i r e d .

i6

-.

It i s t h e r e f o r e , n o t t o o

s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e r e would b e some i n s t a n c e s of d i s t u r b i n g b e h a v i o u r

L
-

on t h e p a r t of t h r e e t o e i g h t thousand s i n g l e m i l i t a r y men, l i v i n g i n

b a r r a c k s a t t h e b a s e of a p o p u l ~ u sc i t y .

The most e v i d e n t s u r p r i s e ,

however, i s t h a t t h e r e were s o few i n s t a n c e s of r e v o l t a g g i n s t a u t h o r i t y ,

o r a t t a c k s a g a i n s t c i t i z e n s by t h i s group, and t h i s simply a d d s t o t h e
e v i d e n c e t h a t suppor'ts a n o r e b a l a n c e d c o n c l u s i o n : t h a t t h e Ottoman
p r e s e n c e a t A l g i e r s was n o t a n e g a t i v e , d e s p i s e d - o c c u p a t i o n , b u t a g e n e r a l l y
a c c e p t e d and a c c e p t a b l e f a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e c i t y .

In s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t when o d j a k members m a r r i e d t h e y
8

<

l o s t some of t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s , many d i d d e s i r e t o "fonder un f o y e r "

in t h e c i t y , and many of t h e Ottomans became o r i g i n a t o r s of r e s p e c t e d

families within Algiers.

The problem w i t h t h e development of t h i s

phenomenon was t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p were n e i t h e r "Turk"

nor members of A l g e r i a n s o c i a l g r o u p s , and t h e y t h e r e f o r e formed a s e p a r a t e

- -

s o c i a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ' - Kouloughlis'.

T h i s group n e v e r grew t o o l a r g e
-

no more t h a n f i f t e e n thousand i n a l l A l g e r i a i n 1830-A and b e c a u s e

- -

of r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e i r r o l e s a t A l g i e r s , most d i d n o r choose t o l i v e

>
-

in t h e c i t y .

24

However, i n t h e p r o v i n c e s , many a t t a i n e d h i g h admin-

i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n s i n t h e b e y l i c a l governments, some a s b e y s ,

25

others

a s i m p o r v n t o f f i c i a l s , and t h e i r p r e s e n c e was a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r f o r
t h e government of A l g i e r s t o c o n s i d e r :

It.

. . sans

l e s K o u l o u g h l i , il

e s t d i f f i c i l e aux Deys d e t e n i r l e s p r o v i n c e s , a v e c s e u l s 16,000 T u r c s ,

rassemb1;s

en m a j o r i t ;

2 Alger

. . . .".2h,

I n c i t i e s l i k e Tlemcen, t h e y

played a dominant r o l e i n b o t h t h e economic A d p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e s , w h i l e

>

m a i n t a i n i n g good r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e l o c a l t r i b e s , and a t A l g i e r s ,
t h o s e who d i d remain i n t h e c i t y , " j o u a i e n t , dans l l & o n o m i e en p a r t i c u l i e r ,

un r a l e pre'ponde'rant

."2 7

Kouloughlis helped t h e

With t h e " r e v o l u t i o n of 1817, when t h e

overcome t h e power of t h o~d j a k , and a g a i n

w i t h th'e French b l o c k a d e of A l g i e r s i n 1827, t h e r o l e of t h e K o u l o u g h l i s

was expanding, e s p e c i a l l y a t A l g i e r s .

tD
T

c i t y , they continued
,/J

Outside
t o be one of t h e more c o n s i s t e n t l y anti-Ottoman g r o u p s a p p a r e n t l y b e c a u s e

of t h e a l i e n a t i o n t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d s i n c e t h e y webe n e v e r c o m p l e t e l y a c c e p t e d
by the r u l i n g e l i t e : t h e y were a n t i - o t t o m a n , b u t when Abd al-Qadar became

t h e emir i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r y , t h e y d i d n o t work w i t h him e i t h e r .

Thus$

t h e ~ o u l o u ~ h l were
is
an i n t e r m e d i a r y group e s s e n t i a l t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n
of Ottoman power, b u t g e n e r a l l y c l o s e r t o t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n i n i n f l u e n c e
and c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
i

24.

25.

.
27.

P i e r r e Boyer, "Le problgme Kouloughli dans l a ~ g g e n c ed ' A l g e r , "

Revue d e l l O c c i d e n t Musalman, no. : s p e c i a l e (1970), p . 91.
During t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , R o u l o ~ g h l I i sbecame b e y s a t Dran
(1805-1812) and C o n s t a n t i n e (1803-1807, 1812-1815 and 1826-37).
3-a-r, "La p r o b f h , ' ' p. %I.
A . Adam, " ~ e sc l a s s e s s o c i a l g s u r b a i n e s d a n s l a s o c i 6 t 6 Musulmane
du Xaghreb," L I A f r i q u e e t L I A s i s Moderne, no. 1 3 7 f ( 1 9 7 3 ) , p . 25.

It i s much & r e

d i f f i c u l t t o e v a l u a t e t h e r o l e s and p o s i t i o n s
-

of t h e l o c a l A l g e r i a n groups who formed t h e r u l i n g e l i t e of t h e c i t y

b e f o r e t h e Ottoman assumption of power.

Very l i ~ t l eb a s i c r e s e a r c h
t

h a s been done on t h e s e groups, and t h e i r r o l e h a s g e n e r a l l y been overlooked because they seemed t o l a c k p o l i t i c a l power.

Nevertheless, these

c l a s s e s formed t h e most important s o c i a l group i n t h e c i t y : t h e i r l e a d e r s

were t h e ayan who a c t e d a s i n t e r m e d i a r i e s f o r t h e government; they were
t h e amins and muhtasibs who s e t t h e examples f o r and p o l i c e d t h e mores
of t h e s o c i e t y ; they formed t h e M a l i k i ulama who monitored t h e r e l i g i o u s
a s p e c t s of t h e c i t y ; they were t h e "middle c l a s s , " t h e a r t i s a n s , merc h a n t s , and o f f i c i a l s whose a c t i v i t i e s provided f o r most of t h e important
daily functions within-the c i t y .

E s s e n t i a l l y , t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was
1

subdivided i n t o two major groups: t h o s e who were more o r l e s s " n a t i v e "

4

t o A l g i e r s ; and t h o s e who were of Andalusian o r i g i n .

\

A l g i e r s , mostly from t h e a l - T h a ' a l i b i

28

The Arabs of

t r i b e , were pushed by Ottoman

p o l i c i e s i n t o t h e p o l i t i c a 1 , b a c k g r o u n d where they Eived more o r l e s s

unmolested by t h e government.

T h e i r q u a r t e r s of t h e c i t y were s e c u r e

and s e p a r a t e from o t h e r h a r a h , and t h e y , a l o n g w i t h t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s

of Andalusian e x t r a c t i o n , owned and o p e r a t e d most of t h e commercial
ventures i n the c i t y .

Some p a r t i c i p a t e d i n " l a course" d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d s

when i t was o p e r a t i v e , b u t g e n e r a l l y speaking they d i d n o t have much

4-

in t h e way of s o c i a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e Ottomans and t h e i r government,

except t h a t p e r i o d i c a l l y , they allowed t h e i r d a u g h t e r s t o marry one
-

28.

The Andal u s i a n popularicm was f u i m dl&&ea-imfxi

T a g a r i n s , depending on t h e i r Spanish background.
F o r g o t t e n F r o n t i e r , p. 174.

mudej;rre's a n 3

See Hess,
I

one of t h e o d j a k .

The A n d a l u s i a n q u a r t e r s w e r e - a l s o q e p a r a t e , b u t
-

t o g e t h e r t h e Arabs and A n d a l u s i a n s formed t h e major u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n

t h e most i m p o r t a n t , b u t a s y e t a l m o s t unknown f a c t o r of t h e c i t y .
Other p o p u l a t i o n s of A l g e r i a n s l i v e d w i t h i n and c l o s e t o t h e

c i t y , b u t t h e i r q u a r t e r s were n o t i n t h e upper town, and t h e i r commercial

L

r o l e s were g e n e r a l l y c o n f i n e d t o s m a l l f a m i l y o p e r a t i o n s .

Each group

had i t s own amin who was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e b e h a v i o u r of t h e p e o p l e ,

and t h e y g e n e r a l l y had t h e i r own mosque, hammam, and l e a d e r s h i p .

All

of t h e s e groups were Muslim, m o s t l y M a l i k i , and t h i s was t h e e s s e n t i a l

l i n k which a l l o w e d them a c c e s s t o t h e lower c i t y ' s economic l i f e .

It

seems t h a t each group was from a s p e c i f i c g e o g r a p h i c a r e a , and tended

*

t o b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a s p e c i f i c s e t of o c c u p a t i o n s .

One of t h e most

n o t a b l e of t h e s e groups was t h e M z a b i t e s , who c o n t r o l l e d and o p e r a t e d

many i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e c i t y i n c l u d i n g t h e p u b l i c b a t h s ,
b u t c h e r shops, m i l l s , and s m a l l v e g e t a b l e , o p e r a t i o n s .

They a l s o p l a y e d

29

an " i n t e l l i g e n c e " g a t h e r i n g r o l e f o r t h e d e y s , s i n c e t h e i r p e o p l e i n h a b i t e d
a l m o s t e v e r y c i t y i n A l g e r i a , and t h e y seem t o have had a n a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l
r e p u t a t i o n f o r h a r d work, f a i r n e s s and b u s i n e s s acumen.

30

I n most c a s e s ,

o n l y p l e M z a b i t e s e m i g r a t e d t o t h e n o r t h e r n towns, l i v i n g and working

1

t h e r e f o r p e r i o d s , of t i m e b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o t h e Mzab t o v i s i t f a m i l i e s
and I r i e n d s .

P e r h a p s t h e most n o t a b l e i s a t u r e s of t h e M z a b i t e s were

t h a t t h e y were Berber c i t y d w e l l e r s and were n o t M a l i k i , b u t I b b a d i

Muslims, and t h i s s t r i e ~ r, i g c d s e c t a r k a n i s m caused them t o b e somewhat

29.

30.

For a n a n a l y s i s of t h e r o l e of t h e Mzabites a t A l g i e r s s e e D.C.

H a l s i n g e r , W i g r a t i o n , Commerce and Community: The M i z a b i s i n
E i g h t e e n t h and N i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y A l g e r i a , " J o u r n a l of A f r i c a n
H i s t o r y , X X I , 1 (19801, pp. 61-74.
H a l s i n g e r , "The Mizabis," p. 69.

i s o l a t e d from t h e g e n e r a l s o c i e t y , a l t h o u g h i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t they
never r e a l l y wanted i n t o t h e mainstream i n any c a s e .

A l l Mzabites d e s i r e d

t o be b u r i e d i n t h e i r home cemetary, and most l e f t t h e n o r t h f o r t h e

Sahara when they " r e t i r e d " from t h e i r b u s i n e s s l i f e.31
Two o t h e r groups of i t i n e r a n t workers from t h e s o u t h who came
t o A l g i e r s i n o r d e r t o work were t h e B i s k r i s and Laghouatis.

Both t h e s e

groups l i v e d i n funduqs i n t h e lower c i t y o r c l o s e t o t h e souks i n which

they worked.

The p e o p l e from Laghouat had become t h e m a j o r i t y workers

a t t h e funduq e l - z i t ,

t h e o i l market, where they p u r i f i e d and s o l d t h e

product brought t o t h e c i t y by Kabyle countrymen; they a l s o worked i n

t h e souk el-Azara, where most of t h e l e a t h e r p r o d u c t s were manufactured.

32

As h a s a l r e a d y been n o t e d , B i s k r i s were p o r t e r s , w a t e r c a r r i e r s , and

watchmen

i n f a c t they seem t o have worked a t most of t h e l e a s t d e s i r a b l e

j o b s , a l t h o u g h they a l s o were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r some of t h e e s s e n t i a l

p u b l i c b a k e r i e s which s u p p l i e d t h e o d j a k and o t h e r groups w i t h t h e i r
d a i l y r a t i o n s of b r e a d .

Blind B i s k r i s were used a s n i g h t watchmen through-

o u t t h e c i t y , and were s u p e r v i s e d i n t h i s r o l e by a mezouar ( o v e r s e e r )

from t h e i r own c i t y .
the quarters.

These watchmen s l e p t n e a r t h e g a t e s t h a t s e p a r a t e d

Most of t h e B i s k r i s were temporary workers, b u t some,

by o r g a n i z i n g t r a d e w i t h t h e South

e s p e c i a l l y Ghadames

became a b l e

t o l i v e comfortably a t A l g i e r s o r r e t u r n t o B i s k r a w i t h s u f f i c i e n t

31.

32.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e s c r i b e d s t i l l apply - i n a l m o s t every a s p e c t

t o t h e Mzabites i n A l g e r i a today. E.F. G a u t i e r h a s s a i d t h a t
I1
The Mzabite i s a shrewd b u s i n e s s man from t h e T e l l who
a t ruinous
(Quoted i n E.A.
expense - keeps a c o u n t r y house i n t h e Sahara."
A l p o r t , "The Mzab," Arabs and B e r b e r s , ed. by E r n e s t G e l l n e r and
C h a r l e s Micaud (London, l 9 7 2 ) , p . 150).
Lespks, A l g e r , p. 181 and ~ u l i e n ,H i s t o i r e , p. 13.

capital t o r a i s e t h e i r families there.

33

--

It seems t h a t very few Kabyles s e t t l e d a t A l g i e r s .

-- --

Two q a s o n s

f o r t h i s a r e t h a t s i n c e t h e y were b a s i c a l l y mountain v i l l a g e p e o p l e ,
t h e y d i d n o t e n j o y c i t y l i f e ; and t h e Ottoman a u t h o r i t i e s would n o t
p e r m i t them t o l i v e w i t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s a t A l g i e r s .
Kabyles

I1

Shaler noted t h a t

a r e s t r o n g l y a t t a c h e 2 t o t h e i r n a t i v e homes: t h e y c a n r a r e l y

b e persuaded t o remain

kt

k l g i e r s ] six months a t a t i m e , w i t h o u t

r e v i s i t i n g t h e i r mountains."

34

They d i d n o t have an amin, and t h e y

were n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d , t h u s , t h e y had n o o f f i c i a l r i g h t t o s t a y in t h e
city.

.J"

Even so, many did become day l a b o u r e r s , d o m e s t i c seuzanrs, a n d

s m a l l produce m e r c h a n t s , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y were n o t a c c e p t e d members

of t h e c i t y ' s s o c i a l n e t w o r k , t h e y had t o l i v e i n funduqs c l o s e t o t h e
g a t e s o r o u t s i d e Bab Azoun i n temporary s h e l t e r s .
One o t h e r u n i n c o r p o r a t e d group was t h e b l a c k p o p u l a t i o n , which

6
tended t o l a b o u r a s s e r v a n t s , w h i t e - w a s h e r s

, and

Their

baske~weavers

r o l e in t h e s o c i e t y of t h e c i t y h a s n o t been s t u d i e d t o any e x t e n t ,
L

b u t it seems t h a t w h i l e t h e y o r i g i n a t e d a s s l a v e s from s o u t h of t h e
S a h a r a , t h e i r s i t u a t i o n was n o t f o r a l i f e t i m e .

Dubois-Thainville reported

t h a t " i l s s o n t en a s s e z grand nombro e t o b t i e n n e n t a s s e z o r d i n a i r e m e n t

leur l i b e r t e ' a p r & s un c e r t a i n temps de s e r v i c e , 2 l ' o c c a s i o n d ' u n e

n a i s s a n c e , d ' u n e %ariage ou d e quelque &e'nement
o r d i n a i r e a r r i v g d a n s l a f a m i l l e o;

i l s servent."

heureux ou e x t r a 35

Those b l a c k s who

*re

n o t d o m e s t i c s were r e q u i r e d La share r-he living acili~ies_of_

33.
34.
35.

S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , pp. 86-87.
S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , pp. 94-95.
D u b o i s - T h a i n v i l l e , "Sur A l g e r , " pp. 133-134.

--

o t h e r u n i n c o r p o r a t e d groups.

" P t r e J e v i s h cmmmity a t A l g i e r s was Wrfi n m e r o u ~ a t i d % i i i i i o r t a n t ,

numbering about 5,000 p e r s o n s whose major c o n t r i b u t i o n was i n t h e commercial

l i f e of t h e c i t y , a s i n t e r m e d i a r i e s between Europe and t h e A l g e r i a n

government, and a s b r o k e r s between t h e v a r i o u s wealthy c i v i c c l a s s e s
a d investment o p p o r ~ u n i t i e s .

36

of Mosaic laws i n no-1

The community was under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n

circumstances, while t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r

managing the harah w a s given to a q a d d e m nominated by t h e

It

'

This
9.

c h i e f of t h e Jews" was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o l l e c t i n g t h e d j i z y a and o t h e r

taxes, from which h e could e x t r a c t h i s own p e r c e n t a g e , b u t h e had no

i n f l u e n c e o u t s i d e t h e Jewish community i n normal c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

The

Jewish harah was l i k e a s e l f -contained town w i t h i n t h e c i t y , c o n t a i n i n g

houses, synagogues, shops, and every n e c e s s i t y f o r l i f e , a s t h e Jews

were n o t normally allowed i n t o t h e Muslim a r e a s of t h e c i t y , and were

01

s u b j e c t t o many p r e j u d i c i a l e x c e s s e s .

37

The Jews d i v i d e d themselves

i n t o two main groups: those who w e r e " o r i g i n a l n - o c c u p a n t s ; - a n d

18

~uropean"
0

Jews, g e n e r a l l y from Livorno; b u t t h e r e was a n even g r e a t e r d i v i s i o n

between t h e r i c h and poor;

36.
37.

The Jewish harah "was f a r from cleAin, and

S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , p. 65. Morton Rosenstock ("Jews of A l g e r i a , "

p. 16) s u g g e s t s t h a t about twenty p e r c e n t of t h e c i t y ' s p o p u l a t i o n
was Jewish - t h a t i s , about 6,000 people.
For example, Jews were r e q u i r e d t o wear b l a c k o r d a r k c l o t h e s
o u t s i d e t h e i r own q u a r t e r ; they could n o t r i d s h o r s e s o r c a r r y
weapons; they were ' h o t p e r m i t t e d t o r e s i s t any p e r s o n a l v i o l e n c e "
from a Huslim; and they could b e s u b j e c t t o c o d e w i t h i n t h e
c i t y . S h a l e r r e p o r t s t h a t i n 1815, w i t h a n " i n c r e d i b l e swarm
rrf l ~ ~ tsr
,"e; f ~ " e r & & - w - p ~ & s & ~ ~ s h & + r ~ - , - $1
where they were o b l i g e d t o watch .and t o i l day and n i g h t
(Sketches,n,-.m

....

--

--

i t s low houses
penetrated.

. . . lined

narrow s t r e e t s and a l l e y s where t h e sun n e v e r

The homes of t h e r i c h were c l e a n and e l e g a n t , b u t f o r t h e

g r e a t m a j o r i t y l i f e i n t h e Hara was t e r r i b l y overcrowded and unhealthy

."38

T h i s overcrowding was a n e g a t i v e f a c t o r i n t h e h e a l t h of t h e community

a l s o , s i n c e i t made them more s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e r e c u r r i n g p l a g u e s .
I n a l l , t h e Jewish community l i v e d a r e l a t i v e l y s e p a r a t e l i f e from t h e
r e s t of t h e c i t y : i t s upper c l a s s e s were c o n f i d a n t s of t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s ,
b u t t h e middle c l a s s merchants and a r t i s a n s performed t h e same f u n c t i o n s
a s t h e i r Muslim c o u n t e r p a r t s , w h i l e t h e poor worked f o r t h e wealthy.
T h e i r s k i l l s i n i n v e s t m e n t , a r t i s t r y and c r e a t i v i t y were well-known,
exceeding " t h e i r Muslim c o m p e t i t o r s b o t h i n i n d u s t r y and i n s k i l l , "
b u t i n s p i t e of t h e s e s k i l l s , " t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y of them l i v e d plunged
i n t h e utmost d e p t h s of poverty."

39

As f a r a s t h e community l i f e a t A l g i e r s i s concerned, t h e r e
a r e two g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s which c a n b e made.
t h e overwhelming r o l e of I s l a m i n t h e c i t y .

The f i r s t i s r e l a t e d t o
The second was t h e h i e r a r c h i c a - 1

s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e with t h e Ottoman r u l i n g e l i t e ( e l - k h a s s a ) a t t h e t o p
of t h e continuum; t h e l o c a l ulama, and wealthy Muslim merchants
ayan) i n t h e middle of t h e s o c i e t y ; t h e al-amma,

(el-

o r working c l a s s

a r t i s a n s and l a b o u r e r s c l o s e r t o t h e bottom, who formed t h e m a j o r i t y

of t h e c i v i c p o p u l a t i o n ; and f i n a l l y , t h e u n i n c o r p o r a t e d groups whose
r o l e was i n d e t e r m i n a t e b u t e s s e n t i a l t o t h e p r o p e r f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e
city.

38.
39.

Together t h e s e groups e x i s t e d i n a r e l a t i v e l y o r d e r l y and p e a c e f u l

Rosenstock, "Jews of A l g e r i a , " p. 17.

Rosenstock, "Jews of A l g e r i a , " p. 9 . See a l s o Boyer (La v i e ,
pp. 169-177) f o r an o v e r a l l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e Jewish community.

f a s h i o n , w i t h a p o l i t i c a l system which, while n e i t h e r r e s p o n s i v e n o r

recepeive t o ah-pt

change, was c a p a b l e of p r o d d i n g tk type of

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n which ensured t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e s o c i e t y .

There were

obvious f l a w s i n t h e c a r p e t : s l a v e r y , t h e t r e a t m e n t of Kabyles, b l a c k s ,
and Jews; and p r e j u d i c i a l a t t i t u d e s among t h e o d j a k c r e a t e d t e n s i o n s ;
b u t i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e t i m e , t h e s e f l a w s were n o t a s d r a m a t i c a s
some modem a u t h o r s would s u g g e s t .

Thus t h e r e was a c e r t a i n symbiosis

among t h e v a r i o u s groups which enabled t h e c i t y t o f u n c t i o n , develop,

and change t o some e x t e n t

t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s formed a r e l a t i v e l y

cohesive c i v i c s o c i e t y .
Other a s p e c t s of s o c i a l l i f e which need t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n c l u d e

-..

c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s , the r o l e of women, and o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s such a s

medersas which played s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e s i n t h e c i t y .

It i s d i f f i c u l t

t o develop a n a l y s e s of some of t h e s e i t e m s , however, because of a s e r i o u s

l a c k of evidence i n most c a s e s .

I s l a m i c a r t , a r c h i t e c t u r e , music and

t h e a t r e from t h e Ottoman p e r i o d of Algerian h i s t o r y i s very p o o r l y

t

documented, and i n most c a s e s , excluded from g e n e r a l s t u d i e s on t h e

area.

A r c h i t e c t u r e , f o r example, h a s been d

c r i b e d a s "mediocre,"

"5

40

and most a r c h i t e c t u r a l overviews of North A f r i c a show few examples of

s t r u c t u r e s from t h e Ottoman c i t y .

A l g e r i a n s were s a i d to:"a people

without l i t e r a t u r e , and w i t h o u t a r t s , I I
f l e c t i o n on t h e q u a l i t i e s of t h
arts.

40.
41.

41

y e t t h i s i s r e a l l y more a r e -

o b s e r v e r , than on t h e q u a l i t y of t h e

b
A s h a s a l r e a d y been n o t e d , very few Europeans every v i s i t e d

Lespes, A l g e r , p. 174n2.
S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , p. 64.

the

+.

homes of A l g e r i a n s , and were g e n e r a l l y n o t very i n t e r e s t e d i n I s l a m i c

c u l t u r e i n any c a s e .

Obviously i t would be d i f f i c u l t f o r most

42

o b s e r v e r s t o d e s c r i b e A l g e r i a n music, a l t h o u g h i t i s known t h a t a t l e a s t
one of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y deys had a twenty-seven p i e c e o r c h e s t r a
and t h e music produced was
de l ' e m p i r e ottoman."

43

peu p r & s semblable i c e l l e d e s grands

I n t h e t h e a t r i c a l a r t s , i t would b e n e c e s s a r y

t o i n c l u d e t h e p u b l i c s t o r y - t e l l e r s and p o e t s who e n t e r t a i n e d c i t i z e n s
i n t h e homes, zawiyas, and s t r e e t s of t h e c i t y , a s w e l l a s t h e j u g g l e r s
and w r e s t l e r s who e n t e r t a i n e d on t h e beaches o u t s i d e Bab el-Oued on
Friday afternoons.

44

Probably t h e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e a t r i c a l e v e n t

would have been t h e g a r a g u z , o r shadow t h e a t r e which had been i n t r o d u c e d

t o t h e Maghrib from t h e Ottoman Empire sometime i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h
century.

45

T h i s e n t e r t a i n m e n t was g e n e r a l l y c o n f i n e d t o t h e c i t i e s

c o n t r o l l e d by t h e Ottomans, and was performed a t t h e end of Ramadan

and d u r i n g o t h e r f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n s .

Other forms of amusement were a l s o

p r e s e n t i n p r e - c o l o n i a l A l g i e r s , b u t most of t h e o b s e r v e r s o n l y n o t i c e d
t h e more s e v e r e a s p e c t s of l i f e , and t h e A l g i e r s p r e s e n t e d by t h e s e
a u t h o r s r e f l e c t t h i s narrowness.
w a r l i k e c i t y " and "well-guarded

42.

43.
44.
45.

,"

Even though A l g i e r s was c a l l e d " t h e

it d i d n o t e n t i r e l y r u l e out laughter

Tn t h e p a s t few y e a r s A i r A l g g r i e h a s been producing c a l e n d a r s

c o n t a i n i n g r e p r i n t s of a r t and l i t e r a t u r e from A l g e r i a ' s p a s t ,
i n c l u d i n g t h e Ottoman p e r i o d . I n some c a s e s , a r t and l i t e r a t u r e
a r e combined i n p o e t i c forms. There h a s a l s o been i n t e r e s t on
t h e p a r t of A l g e r i a n a r t i s t s t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s
by producing "Turkish" m i n i a t u r e s and " i l l u m i n a t e d " pages from
t h e Quran.
Renaudot, A l g e r , p. 98.
J a c k s o n , A l g i e r s , pp: 160-162.
A r l e t t e Roth, Le T h e a t r e A l g g r i e n , ( P a r i s , 1967), pp. 13-15.

a s a t l e a s t a p a r t - t i m e pastime.
The r o l e of women a t A l g i e r s i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o imagine b u t

i s d i f f i c u l t t o document.
t h e "shadow-like

Most o b s e r v e r s n e v e r saw women e x c e p t a s

f i g u r e d i s a p p e a r i n g i n t o a doorway" and most l i k e l y

only g o t a chance t o meet t h o s e who were n o t t y p i c a l of t h e o v e r a l l s o c i e t y .

Yet, i n s p i t e of t h i s , every t r a v e l l e r h a s a n a c c o u n t of t h e v a r i o u s
c l o t h i n g , d u t i e s , and l i f e - s t y l e s

of t h e women.

It i s most l i k e l y t h a t

t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s of c l o t h i n g were g a t h e r e d by l o o k i n g around t h e s o u k s ,
a s i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o imagine a Muslim male i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y
A l g i e r s d e s c r i b i n g t o a f o r e i g n e r t h e h a b i t s of h i s w i f e .

It i s

probably most a c c u r a t e t o n o t e t h a t t h e r o l e of women i n A l g i e r s conformed t o t h e r o l e s of t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n o t h e r a r e a s of t h e I s l a m i c

w o r l d , b u t i t h a s only been r e c e n t l y t h a t s t u d i e s of t h i s n a t u r e have
been produced.

46

One of t h e more u n d e r e s t i m a t e d systems of p r e - c o l o n i a l A l g i e r s

was e d u c a t i o n .

To t h o s e o b s e r v e r s who d i d n o t have a c c e s s t o A l g e r i a n s ,

e d u c a t i o n was seen a s a very b a s i c , narrow program of memorization which

developed e l e m e n t a r y s k i l l s of r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g o n l y .

Renaudot

d e s c r i b e d a system t h a t ended when t h e s t u d e n t " e s t parvenue

46.

lire

See D.C. Gordon, Women of A l g e r i a : An Essay on Change, (Harvard,

1968) f o r an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e problem, w h i l e Amal Rassan,
("Unveiling Arab Women ," i n Middle E a s t J o u r n a l , XXXVI, 4
(1982), pp. 583-587) reviews some c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e which,
u n f o r t u n a t e l y , i s n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o A l g e r i a . She n o t e s
t h a t t h e sampling of new books i n h e r review " c o n s t i t u t e s a
f i r s t s t e p " i n t h e s t u d y of women i n I s l a m , and t h a t g e n e r a l l y ,
"we a r e s t i l l only a t t h e t h r e s h o l d " of p o s s i b l e comprehension.
(p. 587).

et

\a

rdpe/ter c i n q u a n t e op s o i x a n t e a p h o r i s m e s du Coran,"

47

while Shaler

s p e a k s of numerous common s c h o o l s w i t h a c o u r s e of s t u d i e s "confined

-

t o t h e Koran" which i s completed when, "having l e a r n t t o r e a d and w r i t e

t h e Koran, he i s d u l y i n s t r u c t e d by t h e same p r e c e p t o r i n t h e forms
and modes o f . p r a y e r . "
t h e above o b s e r v e r s .

48

T h i s sytem was n o t e x a c t l y a s d e s c r i b e d by

While i t would b e i n c o r r e c t t o r e a d t o o much i n t o

ri

t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e , t h e r e was a v i a b l e program which a l l o w e d f o r

t h e e d u c a t i o n of a S i g n i f i c a n t number of young A l g e r i a n s .

The s c h o o l s

were u s u a l l y provided t h r o u g h habous a s a p a r t of t h e i r p u b l i c f u n c t i o n ,

a n d I t h e f a c i l i t i e s were t r a d i t i o n a l l y a means of e n s u r i n g c o n t i n u e d
l e a r n i n g , a 1 though habuns a l s o s e r v e d o t h e r p u r p o s e s : "beaucoup d e f i d z l e s
prot6g&iient

...

l e u r s b i e n s en l e s r e n d a n t s a c r g s , i n a l i h n a b l e s ,

i n s a i s i s s a b l e s p'ar l ' a u t o r i t e ' d e s pachas."

49

Thus, a t t a c h e d t o every

mosque, marabout, o r h o l y p l a c e , t h e r e was a s c h o o l a t one of t h r e e

levels.

The f i r s t ' l e v e l

primary i n s t r u c t i o n .

was i n t e n d e d t o t e a c h

t h e s u b j e c t m a t e r i a l observed by S h a l e r and Renaudot a s w e l l a s b a s i c

computation s k i l l s .

Every male c h i l d could a t t e n d t h e s e msid which

were o p e r a t e d by mouadeb ( i n s t r u c t o r s ) who were p a i d by t h e p u p i l s '

family f o r the i n s t r u c t i o n offered.

Each msid comprised f i f t e e n t o

twenty p u p i l s , who u s u a l l y a t t e n d e d a t l e a s t f o u r y e a r s b e f o r e t h e y
were c o n s i d e r e d t o b e i n s t r u c t e d i n t h e b a s i c s of I s l a m and t h e n e c e s s a r y
.

47.
48.
49.

Renaudot, A l g e r , p. 18.
S h a l e r , S k e t c h e s , pp. -57-58.
Marcel E m e r i t , " L T 4 t a t i n t e l l e c t u a l e t moral d e l l b l g e / r i e en
1830," Revue d ' H i s t o i r e Moderne e t Conte-oraine,
No. 1, ( 1 9 5 4 1 ,
p. 200.

skills.

50

When t h e primary l e v e l was completed i t was p o s s i b l e f o r

s t u d e n t s t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a t t h e medersas.

There were s i x

of t h e s e secondary s c h o o l s a t A l g i e r s , and many more throughout t h e

c o u n t r y , where moudares i n s t r u c t e d t h e i r s t u d e n t s i n grammar and i n t r o duced them t o Quranic commentaries.

When t h i s l e v e l was completed,

s t u d e n t s were given an o r a l diploma ( i d j a z a ) which was an i n d i c a t i o n

t h a t they were now a t a l e b ( s c h o l a r ) who was competent t o read t h e
Quran i n t h e mosques o r become a Khodja o r mouadeb.

51

I f t h e teacher

of a secondary school was recognized a s a s u p e r i o r t e a c h e r w i t h ext e n s i v e knowledge, i t would b e p o s s i b l e f o r h i s s t u d e n t s t o become alem

when they completed t h e i r s t u d i e s i n nahou ( s y n t a x and comprehension
of holy b o o k s ) ; f i q h ( r e l i g i o u s , c i v i l , and c r i m i n a l l a w ) ; t a s f i r
( t h e o l o g y ) ; h a d i t h ( t r a d i t i o n s of t h e p r o p h e t s ) ; i l m e l - h i s a b and

i l m e l - F a l a k ( a r i t h m e t i c and astronomy); a s w e l l a s f a m i l i a r i z a t i o n w i t h
such a u t h o r s a s Ibn Khaldun and Avicenna.

52

Obviously, t h e number of

s t u d e n t s who p r o g r e s s e d beyond t h e msid was q u i t e s m a l l compared t o

t h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h e c i t y , and A l g i e r s n e v e r developed a c e n t r e f o r
l e a r n i n g l i k e Z a i t o u n a , Qarawiyan, o r Al-Azhar.

Even Tlemcen had a

h i g h e r r e p u t a t i o n f o r advanced l e a r n i n g than A l g i e r s .
c a u s e s of t h i s d e f i c i e n c y were t h e d u a l - r i t e

The p r o b a b l e

situation within the c i t y ,

whereby t h e t e n s i o n between t h e two madhhabs would n o t a l l o w t h e u n i t y

50.

51.
52.

E m e r i t , " L ' e t a t i n t e l l e c t u a l , " pp. 201-203.

Emerit n o t e s t h a t
t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n was n o t c o n f i n e d t o A l g i e r s : C o n s t a n t i n e had
e i g h t y - s i x primary s c h o o l s w i t h 1,350 p u p i l s ; Tlemcen had f i f t y
s c h o o l s ; and even t h e l a r g e d o u a r s had t h e i r s c h o o l s o p e r a t i n g
o u t of t e n t s ( c h e r i a ) .
Emerit, " ~ ' k t a t i n t e l l e c t u a l , " pp. 203-204.
Emerit, "L'Ctat i n t e l l e c t u a l , " pp. 204-205.

n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e development of a h i g h e r i n s t i t u t i o n ; and t h e - o v e r a l l
c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y of A l g i e r s .
f o r intellectualism.

Algiers

F u r t h e r , t h e c i t y d i d n o t have a r e p u t a t i o n

'

h i s t o r y was a f r o n t i e r h i s t o r f of j i h a d ;

A l g i e r s was a g g r e s s i v e , n o t academic.

Thus, when s t u d e n t s d e s i r e d l e a r n i n g

beyond t h a t a v a i l a b l e a t A l g i e r s , they had t o go elsewhere.

Many s t u d i e d

in p l a c e s l i k e C a i r o and T u n i s , while a few even went t o Europe: " J ' a i

vu 2 Alger, p l u s i e r s Maures q u i a v a i e n t r g e l l e m e n t d e l l i n s t r u c t i o n

. . . ils

g&graphie;
f a i t leu:

a .

p a r l a i e n t p l u s i e r s langues e t c o w a i s s a i e n t a s s e z b i e n l a

i l s a v a i e n t *&me g t u d i e 1' h i s t o i r e .

gtudes 2 P a r i s . ' '

.53

Quelques-uns a v a i e n t

There was no te.aching of t h e s c i e n c e s

a t A l g i e r s , b u t many o t h e r a r e a s were c o n s i d e r e d t o b e i m p o r t a n t , and

almost every male was i n s t r u c t e d i n some b a s i c a r e a s , e s p e c i a l l y I s l a m

and t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n r e i t e r a t e s t h e theme of t h e s o c i e t y .

Almost
rcJ

a l l of t h e s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s i n p l a c e a t A l g i e r s were based on I s l a m
and had l e g i t i m a c y because t h e people were aware of t h e i r c u l t u r e .

Most

European o b s e r v e r s d i d n o t know t h e c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y of A l g e r i a and

d e s c r i b e d t h e s o c i e t y i n terms of Europe.

When they a s c r i b e d . a l a c k

of c i v i l i z a t i o n t o A l g i e r s , they were comparing t h e c i t y t o t h e i r own

;dea

of c i v i l i z a t i o n ; when they d e s c r i b e d t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s of Algerian

s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e , t h e i r touchstone was a Europe of c u l t u r e d , c i v i l i z e d ,

middle-to-upper

c l a s s diplomacy and p o l i t i c s .

It i s unfortunate t h a t
f

most Europeans smelled t h e t a n n e r i e s , n o t t h e s p i c e s ; h e a r d t h e arguments,

not the story-tellers;

53.

C.A.

and saw t h e s q u a l o r , n o t t h e t a p e s t r i e s .

Rozet, (1830-1833) quoted i n J u l i e n , H i s t o i r e , p. 10.

~-

CONCLUSIONS

It was d u r i n g t h e t i m e of Ottoman r u l e t h a t A l g i e r s developed

from an i n s i g n i f i c a n t town i n t o a f u n c t i o n i n g c i t y .

It i s t h e r e f o r e

somewhat i r o n i c t h a t t h e T u r k i s h p e r i o d , w i t h i t s s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l
and economic networks i s n o t v e r y h i g h l y r e g a r d e d i n c u r r e n t A l g e r i a n
historical circles.

The Ottoman e r a of A l g i e r s ' h i s t o r y i s a p e r i o d

which v e r y few Muslim s c h o l a r s choose t o i d e n t i f y w i t h , and i t h a s a l s o

been l a r g e l y i g n o r e d o r d e n i g r a t e d by European s c h o l a r s .

It i s p r o b a b l e

t h a t t o A l g e r i a n s , t h e i d e a of t h e i r c a p i t a l c i t y b e i n g developed by
f o r e i g n powers, h a s a n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n , w h i l e t o Europeans, t h e r e
i s t h e c u l t u r a l b i a s which sometimes t e n d s t o o b s t r u c t r e a l i t y .

Never-

t h e l e s s , it i s i m p o s s i b l e to--deny h i s t o r y : A l g i e r s i s t h e c a p i t a l of
A l g e r i a , and t h i s r o l e h a s r e s u l t e d from t h e c i t y ' s p a s t .

A l g i e r s played

a major r o l e i n p r e - c o l o n i a l

and c o l o n i a l A l g e r i a ; i t c o n t i n u e s t o dominate

the country i n t h e present.

T h i s s t u d y h a s demonstrated t h a t t h e Ottoman
t

p e r i o d i n t h e h i s t o r y of A l g i e r s c o n t r i b u t e d a g r e a t d e a l t o t h e composition
of t h e c i t y .

The o v e r a l l p u r p o s e s have been t o show t h a t i t i s b o t h

k

p o s s i b l e and n e c e s s a r y t o r e - e v a l u a t e l i f e i n and around A l g i e r s i n

the halficentury

p r i o r t o t h e Conquest; t o c o n f i r m t h e p r e m i s e t h a t

the c i t y w a s a f u n c t i o n i n g emtity with a p a r t i c u k a r t d e n t i t y an&-

empathy and concern f o r h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y i t i s p o s s i b l e t o r e - a p p r a i s e

t h e evidence and draw some i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n s .

The f i r s t of t h e s e concerns t h e r o l e which A l g i e r s played

in t h e I s l a m i c world.

A s an I s l a m i c c i t y , A l g i e r s was'part of a w i d e r

community, b u t because of i t s d i v e r s e c h a r a c t e r , i t was n e i t h e r s i n g u l a r l y

Maghribi, Middle E a s t e r n , n o r Ottoman.

A l g i e r s was a d i s t i n c t i v e p l a c e

t.

which e x h i b i t e d p a t t e r n s which were u n l i k e o t h e r I s l a m i c c i t i e s , b u t

i n t h e o v e r a l l c o n t e x t , i t a l s o d i s p l a y e d a l l t h e f u n c t i o n s of a " t y p i c a l "

:
Islamic c i t y .

The attoman element was t h e f a c t o r which gave t h e p r e -

c o l o n i a l c i t y i t s unique c h a r a c t e r , b u t i t was a l s o t h e element which

k e p t t h e c i t y from developing a more North A f r i c a n o u t l o o k .

I t must

be r e c a l l e d t h a t A l g i e r s was t h e - m o s t important Muslim f r o n t i e r g a r r i s o n

i n t h e western Mediterranean, and t h a t a s such i t s purpose was n e i t h e r
e d u c a t i o n a l nor r e l i g i o u s .

A l g i e r s was b u i l t a s a defence a g a i n s t

C h r i s t i a n i t y , and it r e t a i n e d much of t h i s tendency through t h e c o l o n i a l

p e r i o d t o t h e p r e s e n t day.
A second c o n c l u s i o n which d e p a r t s from t r a d i t i o n a l s c h o l a r -

s h i p i s d e r i v e d from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e contemporary o b s e r v e r .

It

has been shown t h a t most European a u t h o r s have viewed t h e c i t y from

a p o i n t of view which a t b e s t i s narrow, and a t w o r s t , v e r g i n g on t h e
inaccurate.

The d i v i s i o n of t h e c i t y i n t o upper and lower r e g i o n s ,

s e p a r a t e i n f u n c t i o n and purpose was overlooked by t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y

of o b s e r v e r s who drew t h e i r c o n c l u s i o n s from a very r e s t r i c t e d d a t a
base, n e v e r e x p r e s s i n g t h e f a m i l y o r i e n t e d and g e n t l e r a s p e c t s of t h e

c i t y ' s i n h a b i t a n t s , p r e f e r r i n g t o dwell i n s t e a d on pub* i;e exeeatiens-,

ift~ef-fa$Cb ~ i v a A r y ~

cearser aspects Q -lover

I n the p o l i t i c a l a r e a , the pre-colonial

tovn.

--

government of A l g i e r s

- -

138
h a s been d e s c r i b e d a s t y r a n n i c a l , a v a r i c i o u s , and c r u e l ; a s b i n g d e s p i s e d

by t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n b o t h t h e c i t y and t h e c o u n t r y s i d e ;
and a s i n e p t , i n e f f i c i e n t and a r c h a i c ,

i n the traditional literature.

While i t would b e i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o s u g g e s t t h a t a l l t h e above c h a r g e s

a r e c o m p l e t e l y w i t h o u t ~ f o u n d a t i o n , t h e r e was a c t u a l l y a much b r o a d e r
p o s i t i v e c o n s e n s u s w i t h i n A l g i e r s r e g a r d i n g t h e r o l e of government t h a n
h a s p r e v i o u s l y been e x p r e s s e d .

Evidence p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s t u d y c o n f i r m s

t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s of A l g . i e r s were a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e m a j o r i t y
of t h e p o p u l a t i o n ; were p r o f i c i e n t a t a c h i e v i n g t h e g o a l s of t h e r u l i n g
c l a s s e s ; a n d . w e r e c a p a b l e of p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e n e e d s of o t h e r c l a s s e s .
It h a s a l s o been shown t h a t t h e p r a g m a t i c n a t u r e of t h e government allowed
-

59

f o r a wide d i v e r s i t y i n b o t h r e s p o n s e and a t t i t u d e towards v a r i o u s provocations or difficulties.

able

I n t h i s way, r e l a t i v e l y few Ottomans were

w i t h thG c o n s i s t e n t a i d of n a t i v e A l g e r i a n s

t o govern a d i v e r s e

p h y s i c a l and c u l t u r a l r e g i o ~w i t h a minimum of o v e r t a g g r e s s i o n , somet h i n g which t h e c o l o n i a l power was n e v e r a b l e t o a c h i e v e .

However,

it h a s been s u g g e s t e d by s e v e r a l c o l o n i a l a p o l o g i s t s t h a t t h e government
was on t h e v e r g e of c o l l a p s e when t h e French a r r i v e d , and t h e s e a u t h o r s
p o i n t t o t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n between, some b r o t h e r h o o d s and t h e F r e n c h ,
and t h e l a c k of c o h e s i v e r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e Conquest a s e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t
t h e i r c o n t e n t i o n : ' t h a t even Muslims were p r e p a r e d t o s t r u g g l e f o r a
new p o l i t i c a l o r d e r i n A l g e r i a b e c a u s e of t h e i r i n t e n s e h a t r e d of t h e
Turks.

A more v i a b l e c o n c l u s i o n would t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e c u l t u r a l

h i s t o r y of t h e a r e a .

It i s q u i t e c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e A l g e r i a n s o u t F i L E

of A l g i e r s and Oran had n o . i a e a that he e e n c h - w

e
r
e
m
i
8
to~Xii&

139
-

t h e i r r u l e i n t o the i n t e r i o r . ' I n i t i a l l y , the Algerians f e l t t h a t t h e

French were e s s e n t i a l l y a n t i - T u r k and a n t i - A l g i e r s ,

and- tkai t h y ixxtended--~

t o u s e A l g i e r s i n muchithe same way-as t h e S p a n i s h had u s e d t h e i r p r e s i d i o s

i n North A f r i c a .

T h i s a t t i t u d e would e x p l a i n why t h e Arabs and B e r b e r s

o u t s i d e of A l g i e r s d i d n o t c o n c e n t r a t e on d e f e a t i n g t h e French immediately
a f t e r A l g i e r s was a t t a c k e d , and why i t t o o k u n t i l 1.832 b e f o r e o r g a n i z e d
r e s i s t a n c e developed. - Thus, t h e immediate r e a c t i o n t o t h e French t a k e o v e r was n o t a c c e p t a n c e , b u t d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , based o n - t h e removal of
4

t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s which had been p u t i n p l a c e by t h e Ottomans

and which had a l s o been w i d e l y a c c e p t e d by t h e p o p u l a t i o n .

The power

s t r u g g l e which o c c u r r e d between Abd al-Qadar and t h e T l j a n i b r o t h e r hood was n o t based on anti-Ottoman o r pro-French

sentimen$

b u t was

r a t h e r an a t t e m p t t o f i l l t h e vacuum which was l e f t when t h e power

s t r u c t u r e was d e s t r o y e d by t h e French.
,

The economic systems b u i l t by t h e Ottomans were a l s o d e s i g n e d

t o f i t the soc'ety.

#$

Markets, t a x - g a t h e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s , m a n u f a c t u r i n g ,

i n d u s t r i e s , and a g r i c u l t u r e

a l l f u n c t i o n e d remarkably smoothly under

t h e Ottoman system which adlowed f o r d i v e r s i t y w i t h i n t h e economic s t r u c t u r e s .

It h a s been shown t h a t A l g i e r s was n o t simply t h e c e B t r e of p l r a t i c a l

a c t i v i t y i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , b u t an economically d i v e r s e u r b a n a r e a
w i t h i n a productive a g r i c u l t u r a l region.

Thus t h e c o n n e c t i o n between

t h e p o l i t i c a l and economic s p h e r e s was q u i t e h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d , and showed

a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g f o r t h e n e e d s of t h e p e o p l e b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e
1

the c i t y .

Europe was n o t a n o v e r l y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n c e t h e r e was

l i t t l e i m p o r t a t i o n of ~ u r ~ p e agoods,
n
a l t h o u g h t h e r e was consl-ra61ii
e x p o r t of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s .

It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e c i t y was n o t

c l o s e t o economic c o l l a p s e , b u t t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s which were e v i d e n t throughout t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d were a r e s u l t of t h e &cstructL~-nof av i a b l e economy.

- -

--

It was n e i t h e r t h e Turks, p i r a c y , n o r backwardness

which devas.ted t h e A l g e r i a n economy, h u t t h e e f f e c t s of c o l o n i a l i s m

which d i d away w i t h t h e former c u l t u r a l l y l o g i c a l economic arrangements.
F i n a l l y , Isl-wa-s

t h e dominant s o c i a l f a r c e a t A l g i e r s , y e t

u n l i k e most o t h e r I s l a m i c c i t i e s , t h e r e was no c e n t r a l i z e d r e l i g i o u s
hierarchy.

A t A l g i e r s , t h e dichotomy between t h e two r i t e s combined

w i t h t h e v a r i o u s marabouts and brotherhoods produced a d i v e r s i t y which

was f a r more pronounced than i n most o t h e r I s l a m i c urban c e n t r e s .

This

d i v e r s i t y permeated t h e s o c i a l c l a s s e s and r e l a t e d s t r u c t u r e s .

In the

" t y p i c a l " Middle E a s t e r n c i t y , t h e r e were two l e v e l s of urban s o c i e t y :

t h e e l i t e , and t h e masses; b u t i n A l s i e r s t h e Ottoman d l i t e was e s s e n t i a l l y ,
p o l A i c a 1 , t h e lower c l a s s e s performed t h e i r u s u a l r o l e s , b u t t h e r e
was a l s o a middle group of urban n o t a b l e s who l e d i n b o t h t h e economic
ahd s o c i a l spheres.
f

These t h r e e g r o u p s worked t o g e t h e r t o p r o v i d e a

d i f f e r e n t , e x c i t i n g , b u t r e l a t i v e l y unknown environment w i t h i n North

A f r i c a which h a s been very p o o r l y understood.
The people of A l g i e r s
cultural differences

d e s p i t e t h e i r r a c i a l , r e l i g i o u s and

were i n t h e p r o c e s s of c r e a t i n g a c i t y - s t a t e
\

It is apparent t h a t

based on mutually shared concerns and i n t e r e s t s .

t h e t r e n d towards power-sharing

and reform wduld have continued i f t h e r e

The r e s i s t a n c e

had n o t been t h e massive d i s r u p t i o n s of t h e Conquest.

-

--

l e d by Abd al-Qadar showed t h e i n h e r e n t u n i t y of t h e p e o p l e w h i l e t h e

-

long s t r u g g l e t o r e g a i n independence demonstrated t h e o v e r a l l d e s i r e

of A l g e r i a n s t o develop t h e i r own i n s t i t u t i o n s .

The r o o t s of A l g e r i a n

--

1 41

n a t i o n a l i s m draw from the p r e r o l o n i a +

past

as w e l l 2 s f r o m mare-recent

e r a s , and an understanding of t h e Ottogan p e r i o d i s an e s s h t i a l element

i n t h e comprehension of Algeria today.

5-

Books and A r t i c l e s .

Anon.

"Alger en 1830 d S a p r k s . u n contemporain."

29 (l96O), pp. 38-50.

Abun-Nasr,

J a m i l M. A H i s t o r y of t h e Maghrib.
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1975.

The T i j a n i y y a .

Revue LibGrale, v o l .

Cambridge: Cambridge

London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , '1965.

7 s'

"Les c l a s s e s s o c i a l e s u r b a i n e s dans-le30cie/t6
Mu~ulmane~
Adam, And&.
d u Maghreb. I' L'Af r i q u e e t 1'Asie moderne, no . 1 3 7 - ( 1 9 8 3 ) ,
pp. 23-40.
- --

- -

."

A l p o r t , E.A. "The Mzab

Arabs and Berbers. E d i t e d by E r n e s t G e l l n e r
and Charles'Xicaud. London: Duckworth, 1973, pp. 141-152.

'

Andrews, G.F.
"Islam and t h e C o n f r a t e r n i t i e s i n French North A f r i c a . "
Geographical J o u r n a l , Vol. 47, No. 2.(1916), pp. 116-130.
Aubignosc,

(D ' )

"Alger."
Revue d e P a r i s , t 22 ( l 8 3 l ) , pp. 209-215;
23 (1831), pp. 5-12, 166-175; t . 24 ( l 8 3 1 ) , pp. 69-75:
-

- -

-- -

Baer, G a b r i e l . "Administrative, Economic and S o c i a l F u n c t i o n s of

Turkish Guilds."
I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of Middle E a s t S t u d i e s ,
Vol. 1, Nu. 1 (19701, pp. 28-50.
Barnaby, H.G. The P r i s o n e r s of A l g i e r s .
P r e s s , 1966.

London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y

B e l , A l f r e d . " C a r a c t e r ; ~ e t d&sloppement d s 1 ' I s l a m en ~ e r b e ' r i ee t

p l u s sp6cialement en ~ l g e ' r i e . " B i s t o i r e e t h i s t o r i e n s d e
I'AlgGrie. P a r i s : Alcan, 1931, pp. 177-206.

"Rewrques s u r l e t a p i s maghrgbin " k t u d e s Maghrgbines

Berque , Ja-iques
P a r i s : P r e s s e s U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de France, 1964, pp. 13-24.
-

--

--

- - -- -------

p
-

--

- -

B l a k e , G.Bt and Lawless, R.L.

Tlerscen: C o n t i n u i t y and Change i n a n
A l g e r i a n and I s l a m i c Town. London: Bowker, 1976.

.
"

>

Boyer, P i e r r e . I I C o n t r i b u t i o n
1' 6 t u d e d e l a p o l i t i q u e r e l i g i e u s e
d e s Turcs d E s lKRe'gefice dfAIger ( X P T - X T X S ~ C Z ~ S T . ~ ~ ~ - ~
Revue d e l ' o c c i d e n t Musulman e t d e l a ~ e d i t e r r a d e ,no. 1
(19661, pp. 11-49.

"Introduction
une H i s t o i r e i n t e ' r i e u r e d e l a Rggence d ' ~ 1 g e r . I '
Revue H i s t o r i q u e , v o l . 235, no. 2 (1966), pp. 297-316.

~ ' B / v o l u t i o nd e 1' ~ l g e ' r i emgdiane (ancien dgpartment d 'Alger)

de 1830 B 1956. P a r i s : Adrien Maisonneuve, 1960.

"Le problhme Kouloughli dans l a R6gence d l A l g e r . " Revue d e

l f O c c i d e n t Musalman, no. S p e c i a l e (1970), pp. 79-94.

La v i e q u o t i d i e n n e ?
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