Professional Documents
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POROSITY
PE 2090-505
RESERVOIR POROSITY
Definition: Porosity is the fraction of the bulk volume of
a material (rock) that is occupied by pores (voids).
Or can be defined as: storage capacity of a rock, void
space available for fluids.
Discussion Topics
Origins and descriptions
Factors that effect porosity
Methods of determination
Dr. Hassan Alkandari
PE 2090-505
Geologist - Rock
matrix is the grains
of sandstone,
limestone,
dolomite, and/or
shale that do not
make up the
supporting
structure.
Engineer - Matrix is
the non-pore space
Rock matrix
Pore space
PE 2090-505
V
V
where:
= porosity, fraction
Vb = bulk volume, cm 3 , ft 3
Vg = grain volume, cm 3 , ft3
Vp = pore volume, cm 3, ft3
Vf = fluid volume, cm 3 , ft 3
V
V
f
b
PE 2090-505
Water
PE 2090-505
To provide an understanding of
The
PE 2090-505
Rock-forming Source of
process
m aterial
IGNEOUS
SEDIMENTARY
METAMORPHIC
Molten materials in
deep crust and
upper mantle
Weathering and
erosion of rocks
exposed at surface
Crystallization
(Solidification of melt)
Sedimentation, burial
and lithification
Recrystallization due to
heat, pressure, or
chemically active fluids
PE 2090-505
IGNEOUS
SEDIMENTARY
METAMORPHIC
PE 2090-505
Clastics
Carbonates
PE 2090-505
Carbonate Rocks
Fossils
Sand
Grains
Allochemical Pelloids
Oolites
Grains
Quartz
Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Intractlasts
Av erage
Sandstone
Av erage
Mudrock
(Shale)
Av erage
Micritic
Limestone
Clay
Matrix
Chemical
Cement
Illite
Kaolinite
Smectite
Quartz
Calcite
Hematite
Av erage
Sparry
Limestone
Microcrystalline
Matrix
Calcite
Chemical
Cement
Calcite
10
PE 2090-505
Millimeters
Boulder
Cobble
Pebble
Granule
Very Coarse Sand
Coarse Sand
Medium Sand
Fine Sand
Very Fine Sand
Coarse Silt
Medium Silt
Fine Silt
Very Fine Silt
Clay
Micrometers
4,096
256
64
4
2
1
0.5
0.25
0.125
0.062
0.031
0.016
0.008
0.004
500
250
125
62
31
16
8
4
PE 2090-505
11
Shale
Sandstone
Clay Minerals
60 (%)
Quartz
30
65
10-15
<5
15
<1
<3
<1
Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Carbonate
Organic Matter,
Hematite, and
Other Minerals
5 (%)
12
PE 2090-505
SANDSTONE CLASSIFICATION
Quartz + Chert
5
Quartzarenite
Subarkose
Sublitharenite
25
25
Lithic
Subarkose
50
25
Feldspar
50
Lithic
Arkose
10
25
Felspathic
Litharenite
50
25
25
10
Unstable
Rock
Fragments
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13
Matrix
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material
Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components
14
PE 2090-505
Framew ork
Matrix
Cement
Pores
Engineering
m atrix
PORE
FRAMEWORK
MATRIX
(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)
0.25 m m
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15
Primary (original)
Secondary (induced)
(Generally more complex than
primary porosity)
16
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17
18
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2.
19
20
10
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2.
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2.
21
22
11
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2.
(Moldic porosity)
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2.
23
(Moldic, Vuggy)
24
12
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2.
(Vug porosity)
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2.
25
26
13
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2.
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27
Dissolution
Fractures
28
14
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PRIMARY
Packing
SECONDARY (diagenetic)
Cementing materials
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29
Porosity
High
Low
Very
Angular
Angular
SubSubWellRounded
Angular Rounded
Rounded
ROUNDNESS
Porosity
Dr. Hassan Alkandari
30
15
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31
PRIMARY
Packing
SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
Cementing materials
32
16
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Sutured Contact
Long Contact
Packing Density
Tangential Contact
Cement
Matrix
(clays, etc.)
This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
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33
34
17
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Bulk volume =
Matrix volume =
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35
PoreVolume
BulkVolume
BulkVolume MatrixVolume
=
BulkVolume
=
Porosity=
36
18
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37
38
19
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i.
Grain size
BV
GV=[BV(1-
)]
PV=Bv-Vg
container
Cubical
Rhombohedral
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PRIMARY
Packing
SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
Cementing materials
40
20
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Very Well
Sorted
Well
Sorted
Moderately
Sorted
Poorly
Sorted
Very Poorly
Sorted
SORTING
Dr. Hassan Alkandari
PE 2090-505
41
Fluvial
sediment is
deposited by
rivers.
Sand
Shale
Slow Current
Fast Current
Change of Composition
Eolian
sediment is
deposited by
wind (example:
desert sand
dunes)
Change of Size
River
Eolian
Beach
Fluvial
Change of Shape
Change of Orientation
Change of Packing
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PE 2090-505
T he intensity of
bioturbation varies
greatly.
Many bioturbated
rocks appear mottled
(that is, they have
patches of rock that are
lightly colored and
patches that are more
darkly colored.
Intense bioturbation
can completely destroy
bedding.
Some rocks that have
been completely
bioturbated appear
structureless. In these
rocks, bioturbation can
be proven by X-rays.
Regular
Layers
Mottles
(Distinct)
Irregular
Layers
Bioturbated Sandstone
(Whole Core)
Mottles
Homogeneous
(Indistinct)
Deposits
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43
PRIMARY
Packing
SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
Cementing materials
44
22
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DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the PostDepositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Carbonate
Cemented
Oil
Stained
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela
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45
Framew ork
Matrix
Cement
Pores
1.
2.
FRACTURE
DISSOLUTION
PORE
PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT
(QUARTZ)
MATRIX
FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)
0.25 m m
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PE 2090-505
DISSOLUTION POROSITY
Dissolution of
Framew ork Grains
(Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Enhance the
Interconnected
Pore System
Partially
Dissolved
Feldspar
Pore
This is Secondary
Porosity
Quartz Detrital
Grain
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47
0-1%
Micrite &
Dismicrite
10-50%
Over
50%
Poorly
FossiliSparse Packed Washed Unsorted Sorted Rounded
ferous
Biomicrite Biomicrite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite
Micrite
Claystone
Sandy
Clayey or
SubClaystone Immature Sandstone mature SS
Mature
SS
Supermature SS
Depositional Texture
Not Recognizable
48
24
PE 2090-505
>10 %
Grains
Grain
Lacks Mud,
Grain-
Original Components
Bound Together
During Deposition
Depositional
Texture
Not Recognizable
Supported
Supported
Grainstone
Boundstone
Crystalline
Carbonate
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49
Intraparticle
Intercrystal
Moldic
Fenestral
Fracture
Vug
50
25
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Intraparticle
Intercrystal
Moldic
Fabric
Selective
Fenestral
Shelter
Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture
Channel
Vug
Breccia
Boring
Burrow
Shrinkage
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51
Due to dissolution
and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)
Isolated pores
Moldic
Pore
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Moldic
Pore
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53
54
27
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Effective porosity, e =
Interconne
cted Pore Space
Bulk Volume
Effective porosity
of great importance;
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56
28
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I.
II.
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57
V Shale
Quartz
Clay
Clay Surfaces
Small
Pores
Large, Interconnected
Pores
Isolated
Pores
Capillary
Water
Hydration or
Bound Water
Hydrocarbon
Pore Volume
Irreducible or
Immobile Water
(modified from Eslinger and Pev ear, 1988)
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29
PE 2090-505
Standard Analysis
Porosity
Horizontal
permeability to air
Relative permeability
Capillary pressure
Grain density
Cementation exponent
(m) and saturation
exponent (n)
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59
Drill collar
connection
PDC Cutters
Thrust bearing
Outer barrel
Inner barrel
Core retaining
ring
Fluid
vent
Core bit
Dr. Hassan Alkandari
60
30
PE 2090-505
Drill collar
Once the core is
connection
retrieved from the
well, it is common
to do a lithologic
description at the Thrust bearing
well site. In
addition, to keep
Outer barrel
the core from
drying out, it is
Inner barrel
sometimes sealed
in a coating of hot
Core retaining
wax and foil.
ring
PDC Cutters
Fluid
vent
Core bit
Dr. Hassan Alkandari
PE 2090-505
61
Drill collar
At the laboratory,
connection
the core is
photographed
under normal and
Thrust bearing
ultraviolet light.
(UV light will
reveal the presence
Outer barrel
of hydrocarbons.)
Inner barrel
Routine and special
core analysis may
then be conducted. Core retaining
ring
PDC Cutters
Fluid
vent
Core bit
Dr. Hassan Alkandari
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PE 2090-505
Whole Core
Photograph,
Misoa C
Sandstone,
Venezuela
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63
Core bullets
Formation rock
Core sample
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Core bullets
Formation rock
Core sample
PE 2090-505
A newer wireline
tool actually drills a
plug out of the
borehole wall, thus
avoiding crushing of
the sample. Up to
20 samples can be
individually cut and
are stored inside the
tool.
65
Coring bit
Samples
66
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67
68
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RESERVOIR PETROPHYSICS
LABORATORY DETERMINATION
OF POROSITY
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69
V Vm
=
= b
Vb
Vb
Vp
Vb
Vm
Vp
Vb
=
=
=
=
=
35
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matrix
pore space
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1.
71
2.
72
36
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73
=V m+
Fraction of volume
consisting of
pores or voids
Fraction of volume consisting
of matrix
74
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PE 2090-505
Lithology
Matrix Density
(g/cm3)
Sandstone(SS)
Limestone(LS)
Dolomite(Dol)
These values are important for core and log analysis. Commit them to memory.
Unfortunately, few rocks consist of pure components but exist as a mixture of
numerous minerals of varying sizes and compositions. Therefore, one can
rarely assume the matrix density and get an accurate estimate of matrix volume.
PE 2090-505
75
Gravimetric
76
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PE 2090-505
Vb =
d2 L
4
Vb
d
L
=
=
=
Bulk volume
Diameter
Length
Most core analyses are conducted on core plugs that are cut from the whole
core and are right circular cylinders. Special saws are used to cut the core
plugs and their faces, so they are ready for special core analyses.
Irregularly shaped cores require a different measurement.
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77
Volumetric in pycnometer
78
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PE 2090-505
1) Mass is a measurement of
Introduction To Petroleum Engineering
the amount of matter
something contains, while
Weight is the measurement of
the pull of gravity on an object.
Archimedes principle:
buoyant force is equal to the
weight of the fluid
displaced.
W dry
W sat
Vp =
W sat - W dry
fluid
Vm =
W dry - W sub
fluid
Vb =
W sat - W sub
fluid
W sat - W dry
W sat - W sub
W sub
2) Mass is measured by
using a balance comparing
a known amount of matter
to an unknown amount of
matter. Weight is measured
on a scale.
3) The Mass of an object
doesn't change when an
object's location changes.
Weight, on the otherhand
does change with location.
PE 2090-505
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80
40
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81
Set pycnometer in empty beaker (step 1), set clean sample in pycnometer,
press down top, Hg spills into beaker, brush Hg of pycnometer, & remove
from beaker.
Electric pycnometer
Dr. Hassan Alkandari
Stevens porosimeter
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PE 2090-505
ii) Saturating the rock with the fluid into which it is to be immersed
PE 2090-505
83
We can calculate
Weight of dry sample + Weight of pycnometer with mercury, WA +W P = WA +
W P = 20 + 350 = 370 g
Weight of displaced mercury, W Hg = WA +W P W p&S = 370 235.9 = 134.1 g
Volume of displaced mercury VHg = 134.1/13.546 = 9.9 cm3
VB = 9.9 cm3 .
84
42
PE 2090-505
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85
Matrix (Vm)
1.
Displacement methods
volumetric
gravimetric (see previous description)
Boyles Law:
p1 V1 = p2 V2
86
43
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Vm =
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87
88
44
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89
90
45
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Given:
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91
92
46
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93
p 1 V1 = p 2 V 2
p1
p2
V1
V2
=
=
=
=
94
47
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Open valve
PE 2090-505
95
P1
Initial conditions
Core
V1
Cell 1
Valve
closed
Evacuate
Cell 2
48
PE 2090-505
Final conditions
P1
P2
Core
Valve
open
Cell 1
PE 2090-505
Cell 2
Vm = Vt - Vf
This method assumes that the core becomes saturated with the gas. Incomplete
saturation would lead to an overestimate of the matrix volume.
98
49
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99
100
50
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101
Boyles Law:p1 V1 = p2
V2 (Gas expansion)
102
51
PE 2090-505
Pore volume,
V
sat
dry
Vp
W sa
wdry
f
=
=
=
=
Pore volume, cm 3
Weight of core saturated with fluid, g
Weight of dry core, g
Density of saturated fluid, gm/cm 3
PE 2090-505
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104
52
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105
106
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Boyles Law:
p1 V1 = p 2 V2
(Gas expansion)
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107
Initial conditions
P1
Core
V1
Cell 1
Valve
closed
Cell 2
The core plug is placed in a Hassler sleeve, making the volume of Cell 2 equal to the bulk
volume.
This method is a continuation of the measurement of the matrix volume and uses Boyles law.
The experiment is set up differently to measure pore volume.
Boyles law:
Initial cell conditions: measure V1 in Cell 1
Put core in Hassler sleeve, evacuate
108
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PE 2090-505
Final conditions
P1
P2
Core
Cell 1
Valve
open
Cell 2
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109
110
55
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111
SUMMARY
To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3
basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume
2. Matrix volume
3. Pore volume
112
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113
Porosity
= =
Vp
Vb
V b V ma
Vb
V =V +V
V = (V )
V = (1 )(V )
m = ( )(V )
b
114
57
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POROSITY DETERMINATION
FROM LOGS
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115
Wireline logs or
know as well logging
or formation
evaluation (Sonic
travel time), where
electronic & nuclear
tools are lowered to
bottom of the well &
pulled slowly back
up the hole
116
58
PE 2090-505
Well Log
SP
Resistiv ity
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117
Shale
Oil sand
Shale
Gamma
ray
Resisitivity Porosity
118
59
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Bulk density
Sonic (acoustic)
Compensated neutron
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119
120
60
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121
0
6
6
GR
API
CALIX
IN
CALIY
IN
200
16
RHOB
G/C3
-0.25
3
DRHO
G/C3
0.25
16
4100
4200
122
61
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123
Mud cake
(
m c + hm c)
Formation (
b)
Long spacing
detector
Short spacing
detector
Source
124
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PE 2090-505
b = ma (1 ) + f
Matrix
Measures electron density of a formation
Strong function of formation bulk density
Fluids in
flushed zone
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125
The bulk density log is a pad device. This means that the
log must be in constant contact with the borehole wall.
This is accomplished through the use of a caliper arm on
the back side of the density de vice.
ma
b
When the pad loses contact with the formation e ither
through washouts, the bulk de nsity reading is affected.
The re ading from the density log is always too low in the
ma
f
pre sence of washout.
This re sults in a calculated porosity that is much too
high, because the density log is reading in essence the
porosity of the washout or the gap between the porosity,
f
mf xo
h
xo
pad, and the borehole wall.
Although density logs are compensated for the presence
of mudcake, this compensation is often inadequate to
account for all of the e ffects of borehole breakouts, and
washouts
We usually assume the fluid density ( f) is betw een 1.0 and 1.1. If gas is
present, the actual f w ill be < 1.0 and the calculated porosity w ill be too high.
Porosity equation
+ (1 S
mf
h
Sxo
126
63
PE 2090-505
g b
1.1
1.0
2.65
2.71
2.87
13.54
g/cc
g/cc
g/cc
g/cc
g/cc
g/cc
Example:
Example Calculate the porosity of s ands tone with a bulk
density ( b) = 2.16 g/cc
Solution:
PE 2090-505
127
b = S xo mf + (1 S xo ) hc
+ V sh sh + (1 Vsh ) ma
Sxo mf =
(1 - Sxo) hc =
Vsh sh =
1 - - Vsh =
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If hc mf f, then
b = f - (1 - ) ma
= d =
ma b
ma f
PE 2090-505
001) BON AN ZA 1
GRC
0
150
SPC
-160 MV
40
ACAL
6
16
129
ILDC
0.2
200
SNC
0.2
200
RHOC
1.95
2.95
CNLLC
0.45
-0.15
DT
150 us/f 50
MLLCF
0.2
200
10700
10800
10900
130
65
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131
132
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N
Sxo Nmf
(1 - Sxo ) Nhc
Vsh Nsh
(1 - - Vsh ) Nhc
where
=
=
=
=
=
Recorded parameter
Mud filtrate portion
Hydrocarbon portion
Shale portion
Matrix portion
N
Nma
Nhc
Nmf
Vsh
Sxo
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
PE 2090-505
001) BONANZA 1
GRC
0
150
SPC
-160 MV
40
ACAL
6
16
133
200
SNC
0.2
200
RHOC
1.95
2.95
CNLLC
0.45
-0.15
DT
150 us/f 50
MLLCF
0.2
200
10700
10800
10900
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Upper
transmitter
R1
R2
R3
R4
Lower
transmitter
Dr. Hassan Alkandari
PE 2090-505
Compressional
waves
Rayleigh
waves
Mud waves
E3
E1
E2
T0
50
sec
136
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tma ( s/ft)
Sandstone
55.5
Limestone
47.5
Dolomite
43.5
Anhydrite
50.0
Salt
67.0
Casing
57.0
Fluid
190
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137
Working equation
tL = S xo t mf + (1 S xo ) t hc
t L
Sxo t mf
M ud filtrate portion
(1 - Sxo) t hc
Hydrocarbon portion
Vsh t sh
Shale portion
(1 - - Vsh) t ma
M atrix portion
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s = =
tL t ma
t f t ma
where:
s = Porosity calculated from sonic log reading, fraction
tlog = formation time from well log (s/ft).
tma = matrix travel time.
tf = fluid travel time.
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139
t log = t ma (1 ) + t f ( )
Solution:
140
70
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GR
API
200
140
DT
USFT
40
CALIX
IN
16
30
SPHI
%
10
4100
4200
Caliper
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141
tlog = t ma (1 ) + t f
t log t ma
t f t ma
142
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001) BONANZA 1
GRC
0
150
SPC
-160 MV
40
ACAL
6
16
ILDC
0.2
200
SNC
0.2
200
RHOC
1.95
2.95
CNLLC
0.45
-0.15
DT
150 us/f 50
MLLCF
0.2
200
10700
10800
10900
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143
Unconsolidated formations
144
72
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145
Remember that the density log, the neutron log, and the sonic logs do not measure porosity. Rather,
porosity is calculated from measurements such as electron density, hydrogen index and sonic travel
time. The calculated density porosity is too high only because in the calculation we typically dont
account for the fluid density change. In other words, we assume the fluid density is 1 (or completely
liquid filled) even though with gas that value is lower, which causes the calculated porosity to be too
high.
T he neutron porosity is too low because the hydrogen index or the hydrogen density of gas is lower;
therefore, the liquid-filled porosity is what the neutron log sees. So when gas is present, that value is
lower than the actual porosity.
And finally, the sonic log is not significantly affected by gas because it reads very near the wellbore
and small gas saturations do not impact the overall travel time significantly.
146
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147
Pore-lining
Pore-bridging
Clay
Minerals
Detrital Quartz
Grains
e
e
Clay Lamination
Structural Clay
(Rock Fragm ents,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)
ee
148
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PE 2090-505
Petrophysical
Core Pore
Core Lithofacies
analyses of
Plugs Types
core samples
are used to
identify
reservoir flow
units and nonflow units.
T he results
are used to
calibrate well
logs, after
which well
logs can be
used to map
flow units
throughout a
field.
Petrophysical
Data
vs k Capillary
Pressure
5
4
3
1
149
75