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Topic X Problem-

Solving
Strategies

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1."

Describe how problem solving can be conceptualised;

2."

Describe the problem decomposition or subgoaling approach in

problem solving;

3."

Explain the working backwards and hill climbing approach in

problem solving;

4."

Describe the means-end analysis and forward chaining strategies in

problem solving ;

5."

Describe the other problem-solving methods such as use of analogy,

specialisation and generalisation; and

6."

Explain the use of extreme cases method for problem solving.

X" INTRODUCTION
In Topic 1, we have seen two different guidelines in solving a problem (refer subtopic 1.4). These guidelines are based on existing concepts. We will explore other
forms of conceptualisation before looking at a number of strategies in problem
solving. These strategies are meant for the most important step in the problemsolving process; and concerns your action plan. This is an interesting topic that
can be very useful in your personal life as well.

TOPIC 7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

137

7.1 CONCEPTUALISATION IN PROBLEM

SOLVING
In general, most authors have conceptualised problem solving as a stepwise
process. Plya (1957) identified four important steps in the method by which
problem solving should be done:
(a)

Understanding the problem;

(b)

Devising a plan;

(c)

Carrying out the plan; and

(d)

Looking back.

Subsequently, Hayes (1981) extended this conceptualisation by adding a specific

reference to representation and by further breaking down looking back into
two parts where one stressed on assessing the immediate problem-solving effort
and the second one on learning something that may be important in the future.
Figure 7.1 illustrates these six steps.

Figure 7.1: Stepwise conceptions of problem solving (Hayes, 1981)

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PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

Bransford and Stein (1984) proposed another conceptualisation that is based on

the acronym below:
I : Identify the problem
D : Define and represent the problem
E : Explore possible strategies
A : Act on the strategies
L : Look back and evaluate the effects of your activities
However, many other authors have come up with comparable stepwise
conceptualisations of the problem-solving process which are variations of the
original proposal by Plya (1954).

ACTIVITY 7.1
Make an Internet search and briefly explain George Plya's list of
mental operations involved in problem solving called PUPILS.

7.2

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

Evidence suggests that there are many strategies that are specific to a particular
field. However, there are also some that can be effective in all fields as well. In
general, there appears to be a trade-off between range of applicability and power.
The more widely applicable a particular strategy is, the less field dependent it
will be. It is important to know strategies that can be employed to a certain
advantage across domains. In the following sub-topics, we will look into some of
the experiential methods that have been discovered by several researchers:
(a)"

Problem decomposition or subgoaling;

(b)" Working backwards;

(c)"

Hill climbing;

(d)" Means-end analysis;

(e)"

Forward chaining;

(f)"

Considering analogous problems;

(g)" Specialisation and generalisation;

(h)" Considering extreme cases; and
(i)"

Mixing strategies.

TOPIC 7

7.2.1

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

139

Decomposition or Subgoaling

At certain times, a problem may be too large to be solved. Another suitable

alternative would be to break a complex problem into a set of sequences of
simpler problems first. Then, solve the complex problem by combining the
solutions to the simpler sub-problems (Figure 7.2).

"
Figure 7.2: Hierarchy and decomposition of a problem into sub-problems
Adapted from: http://ccs.njit.edu/fadi/public/books/dissert.htm

This application is widely used by computer programmers where complex

programs can be considered as a collection of simpler programs. Thus, the
process of decomposition can be performed at several levels. When a big problem
is broken to smaller components, both the identification of solution becomes
simpler and furthermore an individual can understand a problem better (Plya,
1957; Hayes, 1981). Nevertheless, a risk that may be faced in this approach is that
the nature of the problem may be changed perhaps by eliminating a critical
aspect of it, either while breaking the problem down or combining the subproblem solutions.

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PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

ACTIVITY 7.2
There are several ways to do problem decompositions, the most wellknown probably being recursive decomposition, data decomposition,
functional decomposition, exploratory decomposition and speculative
decomposition. Carry out an Internet search and briefly explain the
various strategies.

7.2.2

Working Backwards

Some researchers believe that a problem should be characterised in terms of a

journey where one begins at point A (the initial state) and makes an attempt to
arrive at point B (the goal). The main challenge in this approach is to locate a
path that can bring the individual from the starting point to the end point.
There are two ways in solving the problem here:
(a)"

Find your way from point A to B; or

(b)" Work out the journey backwards, from point B to A (as illustrated in
Figure 7.3).
In addition, one can work backwards not only from the final goal but also from
an intermediate goal state, especially in circumstances where there is a way to
identify these intermediate states.

"
Figure 7.3: Working backwards strategy in problem solving
Adapted from: http://www.1000ventures. com/business_guide/
crosscuttings/problem_solving_workback.html

TOPIC 7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

141

SELF-CHECK 7.1
Joe forgot to check how much money he began the day with. During the
day, he spent $8.00 on breakfast, withdrew $40.00 from the ATM, got his
dry cleaning for $12.00, and bought 5 shirts for $22.00 a piece (plus 8%
sales tax). At the end of the day, he had $100.00, how much did he start
the day with? Use the working backwards strategy to solve this problem.

7.2.3

Hill Climbing

Climbing a hill is another approach in problem solving especially in cases where

ones intention is to get to the top of a hill, but there is no apparent marked path
to follow. Hence, a strategy that can be employed is to move in such a way that
an individual is always moving upwards. The moment the individual realises
that the steps are descending in nature, one turns around and takes the opposite
path. In other words, when applied in problem solving, one is always taking
steps that bring one nearer to the particular goal. The main disadvantage of the
hill climbing approach is that one may get stranded on the top of a small hill in
the vicinity or sometimes on the slope of the large hill that the individual hopes
to climb. At times, it may be necessary to take a few steps downhill in order to
reach the final destination, the peak (Figure 7.4). In the same way, in problem
solving, it is sometimes essential to take steps that appear far from the goal in
order to finally reach the goal. However, in a real life scenario, many individuals
find this difficult to carry out (Anderson, 1990).

"
"

Figure 7.4: Hill climbing strategy

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PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

SELF-CHECK 7.2
You are required to use the hill climbing strategy in the river crossing
problem. There are a number of predators and prey on one side of the
river and there is a boat with a limited capacity. The goal state is to
have everyone on the opposite side of the river. Explain how you will
employ this strategy. You must be able to identify the initial state, the
goal and the fact that the boat used has a limited capacity for
transporting individuals. Will the downhill step be necessary in
solving this problem?

7.2.4

Means-end Analysis

In general, this approach is rather similar to hill climbing, however, it is more

flexible and adaptable to various types of problem solving. Newell & Simon
(1972) explained it thoroughly and used it widely in the development of
problem-solving computer programs. The first thing an individual should do
when employing this strategy is to identify the goal state followed by a thorough
listing of the differences between it and the current state. Finally, one should
identify a promising procedure in order to reduce the differences between the
current state and goal. Two main actions can be taken to reduce the distance
between the current state and goal:
(a)"

By taking a step that will cause the current state to be as similar to the goal;
or

(b)" By working backward where one will bring the goal closer to the current
state.
One can be stranded if one sticks too obsessively to the rule of not taking a step
that decreases the disparity between the current state and the goal. According to
Anderson (1993), means-end analysis is a natural component of the thinking
machinery for both human beings as well as primates. Means-end analysis is
vital to solve daily problems such as getting the right train connection. Basically,
first of all, you have to figure out where you catch the first train and where you
want to arrive. Then you have to look for possible changes just in case you do not
get a direct connection. Finally, you have to figure out what are the most suitable
times of departure and arrival, on which platforms you leave and arrive and
make it all fit together.

TOPIC 7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

143

ACTIVITY 7.3
Carry out a search in the Internet on the ability of infants to employ
simple forms of means-ends analysis in the second half of the first year.
Briefly explain this phenomenon.

7.2.5

Forward Chaining

In this strategy, one starts with the task and works directly towards the goal
(Figure 7.5). Forward chaining begins with the available data and uses inference
rules to extract more data until a goal is attained. However, forward chaining can
only be applied by an individual with adequate and thorough understanding of a
problem in order to be able to come up with its correct concrete representation
from the problem statement (Simon & Simon, 1978).

"
Figure 7.5: Forward chaining strategy
Source: http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~mmk/Teaching/AI/l2.html

This strategy is usually used by experts and not beginners who are more inclined
to employ strategies such as means-end analysis and working backwards (Larkin
et al., 1980a, 1980b). This is due to the fact that experts have the ability to
categorise problems in terms of basic principles and their knowledge of strategies
that work for specific problem types that makes this possible. However, when
individuals were provided with more practice with problems of a particular type,
they were inclined to change spontaneously from a means-end strategy that they
were using to the forward-chaining strategy.

144 X
"

7.3

TOPIC 7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

OTHER PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

Apart from the five strategies you have learnt in the previous section, there
several other strategies that are based on some common concepts: anology,
specialisation and generalisation. Extremes cases could also be used as a strategy
in problem solving. We shall discovers more about these strategies in the
following sub-topic.

7.3.1

Analogy in Problem Solving

There are certain times when an individual may be able to obtain a solution for
an analogous but simpler problem. The analogous problem may be naturally
easier due to the fact that the problem solver may have solved a similar problem
in the past. The following example demonstrates this strategy.
Six people are in an elevator. Can you demonstrate that it must be the case that
either at least three of them are mutual acquaintances or at least three are
complete strangers to one another?
[Adapted from: Poundstone (1990)]

"
Figure 7.6: Poundstone's graphical analogue

Poundstone uses a graphical analogue (Figure 7.6) to solve the above problem
that may look logically difficult at a first glance. According to his analogy, let the
six people in the elevator be represented by six different dots on a piece of paper.
These dots can be located in any fashion, except that no three of them should be
on the same line. Allow a solid line between any two dots to symbolise
acquaintance between the people represented by those dots, and let a dashed line
indicate that the individuals are strangers. Using this system, a solid triangle
represents three mutual acquaintances whereas a dashed triangle symbolises a
trio of strangers. The main question at this instance is, using either a solid or
dashed line between any given pairs of dots, is it possible to connect every dot
with every other dot in such a fashion that no solid triangles and no dashed
triangles appear in the result? Basically, this particular problem is indeed similar

TOPIC 7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

145

to the elevator problem and that the solution to one will automatically reveal the
solution to the other.
Thus, it can be clearly observed that the dot-connecting problem is much easier
to solve than the elevator problem, and this is the main principal of this strategy
where the former is a helpful analogue of the latter. The main disadvantage in
using this strategy lies in the fact that identification of an analogue to the
problem one wishes to solve in certain cases may seem to be analogous in the
correct way(s) but in actual fact it is not.

SELF-CHECK 7.3
1."

State the three important features of a good analogy.

2."

Analogies make it easier to grasp the underlying idea behind

anything. The pattern of understood things in our minds is like a
jigsaw puzzle. Analogies help in filling these pieces to make things
clear. Provide a suitable answer(s) to the following analogies:
(a)" Just
as
the
Earth
revolves
around
the
Sun,
________________________________.
(b)" A
doctor's
diagnostic
method
is
similar
to
________________________________.
(c)" Just as sword is the weapon of a warrior,
________________________________.

7.3.2

Specialisation and Generalisation

According to Mason et al. (1985), specialisation can be defined as considering a

concrete example of an abstract problem. In other words, if one is attempting to
solve a problem that has to do with the properties of parallelograms, then one
may find it important to start by considering a particular parallelogram, or
several particular parallelograms. On the other hand, these researchers stated
that generalisation reasoning involves focusing on certain aspects common to
many examples, and ignoring other aspects. They further elaborated that the
process of generalising is that of moving from a few instances to making
informed guesses about a wide class of cases.

146 X
"

TOPIC 7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

SELF-CHECK 7.4
Two different descriptions are provided below. Identify which
description explains the concept of generalisation and specialisation
respectively.
(a)

This particular concept is an important way to generate

propositional knowledge, by applying general knowledge, such
as the theory of gravity, to specific instances, such as when I
release this apple, it will fall to the floor.

(b)

It is a foundational element of logic and human reasoning and is

the essential basis of all valid deductive inferences. The process
of verification is necessary to determine whether this particular
concept holds true for any given situation.

"

7.3.3

Use of Extreme Cases

This approach is an example of specialisation and is explained well by Plya

(1954). The traditional view of the method in which extreme cases contribute to
thinking is as a check on a problem solution where when the answer to a
problem is stated in the form of a mathematical function, the accuracy of the
function can be verified by putting in extreme values such as zero or infinity, for
the independent variable (Plya, 1954). In most of the situations, one can deduce
from the physical situation what the answer should be in this case and see
whether the function provides the same prediction.
The comparison of the two lever situations shown in Figure 7.7 explains this
point. Generally, students based on their intuition, very well know that it will be
much simpler to lift the load in Case A as compared to Case B. Hence, it can be
concluded that as the distance from the load to the fulcrum decreases, the force
required to carry the load will also decrease.

TOPIC 7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

147

"
Figure 7.7: Extreme cases providing data points
Source: Zietsman and Clement, 1997

It is believed that the extreme case can furnish one of the data points required
to deduce the more general direction of change relation. This function should be
more useful in mastering the basic ideas in science, in which such relations are
often present. In addition, it can be debated that such relations also give an
intuitive foundation for the understanding of mathematical relations in science.

ACTIVITY 7.4
Dave goes to a museum and meets a lovely lady. Wasting no time, Dave
asks the lady for her phone number. He copies the number down. But
on the walk home, the paper flies from Dave's pocket, blowing the
phone number, along with his hopes, into the East River. Dave ponders
his situation on the train ride home and manages to remember all seven
digits (4, 3, 7, 8, 2, 6, 5) of the woman's phone number. However, he
does not remember the sequence of the numbers. Dave is determined
to sit in front of the phone all night if necessary to contact this lovely
lady. How many telephone numbers must Dave dial?

"
Besides the strategies presented in this topic, there are various other strategies
that have been developed for problem solving. However, the ones mentioned
here are among those that have received the most amount of attention. Various
writers have emphasised on the importance of a particular strategy but none of
them have proposed that one specific strategy is sufficient to ensure successful
problem solving. In certain cases, it would be more beneficial if one could
employ a combination of strategies in problem solving. The following are
examples of combinations that complement one another:

148 X
"
(a)"

TOPIC 7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

Working backward with means-end analysis; and

(b)" Problem decomposition or subgoaling with any other problem-solving

strategy.

SELF-CHECK 7.5
1."

State the risks that may be faced in the problem decomposition or

subgoaling approach.

2."

Define the working backwards approach in problem solving.

3."

What is the main disadvantage of the hill climbing approach?

4."

Identify the two main actions that can be taken to reduce the
distance between the current state and goal in the means-end
analysis method.

5."

State the main disadvantage of the considering analogous problem

approach.

6."

Define the terms specialisation and generalisation in problem

solving.

x" The more widely applicable a particular strategy, the less field dependent the
strategy is.
x" Problem decomposition or subgoaling involves breaking a complex problem
into a set of sequence of simpler problems and then solving the complex
problem by combining the solutions to the simpler sub-problems.
x" Working backwards involves solving a problem from the goal to the initial
state.
x" Climbing a hill is an approach in problem solving where an individual is
always moving upwards.
x" In means-end analysis, an individual identifies the goal state followed by a
thorough listing of the differences between it and the current state, and
finally, employs a promising procedure in order to reduce the differences
between the current state and goal.

TOPIC 7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

149

x" In considering analogous problems, the problem may be naturally easier due
to the fact that the problem solver may have solved a similar problem in the
past.
x" Specialisation can be defined as considering a concrete example of an abstract
problem whereas generalisation reasoning involves focusing on certain
aspects common to many examples, and ignoring other aspects.
x" Considering extreme cases is a heuristic approach that is frequently used to
advantage in both mathematical and non-mathematical problem solving.
x" In certain cases of problem solving, it is best to employ a combination of
mixing strategies rather than using a single approach in solving the problem.

Analogous problems

Means-end analysis

Conceptions

Problem decomposition

Extreme cases

Specialisation

Forward chaining

Subgoaling

Generalisation

Theories

Hill climbing

Working backwards

1." Discuss various concepts that can be used in problem solving.

2." Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the following problem-solving
strategies:
(a)"

Decomposition

(b)" Working Backwards

(c)"

Hill Climbing

(d)" Means-end Analysis

(e)"

Forward Chaining

3." Discuss the use of mixed strategies using an example.

150 X
"

TOPIC 7

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES

Anderson, J. R. (1990). Cognitive psychology and its implications (3rd ed.).

New York: Freeman.
Anderson, J. R. (1993). Problem solving and learning. American Psychologist, 48:
35-44.
Bransford, J. D., & Stein, B. S. (1984). The ideal problem solver: A guider for
improving thinking, learning and creativity. New York: Freeman.
Hayes, J. R. (1981). The complete problem solver. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute
Press.

Introduction
to
AI.
Retrieved
Kerber,
M.
(2004).
http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~mmk/Teaching/AI/l2.html

from

Larkin, J. H., McDermott, J., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980a). Expert and
novice performance in solving physics problems. Science, 208: 1335-1342.
Larkin, J. H., McDermott, J., Simon, D. P. & Simon, H. A. (1980b). Modes of
competence in solving physics problems. Cognitive Science, 4: 317-345.
Mason, J., Burton, L. & Stacey, K. (1985). Thinking mathematically. Menlo Park,
CA: Addison-Wesley Publishers.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Eaglewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice hall.
Plya, G. (1954). Mathematics and plausible reasoning: Vol. 1. Induction and
analogy in mathematics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Plya, G. (1957). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. Garden
City, NY: Doubleday.
Poundstone, W. (1990). Labyrinths of reason. New York: Doubleday.
Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1978). Individual differences in solving problems.
In R. S. Siegler (Ed.), Childrens thinking: What develop? Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Zietsman, A., & Clement, J. (1997). The role of extreme case reasoning in
instruction for conceptual change. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 6(1):
61-89. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

"