High Efficiency Permanent Magnet Drive Systems for Electric Vehicles

D. J. Patterson
Centre or Energy Studies, Northern Territory University, Darwin NT 0909 Australia
Phone +61 8 89 466389, Fax +61 8 89 466993, e-mail:- patterson@darwin.ntu.edu.au
Abstract - This paper discusses the recent history of the
development of Electric Vehicles (EVs), and the range of
traction systems in use. A case is made for permanent magnet
machines (PMs), particularly those using axial flux geometry.
The speed limitation of PMs is addressed, and two simple
methods of surmounting this limitation are presented. Issues in
axial flux machine design relevant to the pursuit of very high
efficiency are presented. The development of a very high
efficiency hard switched controller is discussed, where the
specific requirements of the drive system allow substantial
reduction of switching rates, thus allowing stringent control of
switching losses.

I INTRODUCTION
A. E V Background

The first phase of recent research into electric vehicles

(EVs) began in the 70s prompted by sudden increases in oil
prices. This phase waned gradually as the most pessimistic
projections of ultimate price and depletion of known
resources did not eventuate.
The second phase, driven by urban air pollution concerns,
began with the California Air Resources Board 1990 mandate
which has now also been adopted by three north eastem
states in the USA. This phase has already resulted in the
recent availability of the General Motors EV1 for lease in the
states of California and Arizona. Several other large
manufacturers are about to enter the market. Whilst the
mandate has been modified in some areas, the 2003 targets
remain.
Urban air pollution concerns are now moving out of the
United States. The Northern Territory Universitys own small
Indonesian Vehicle project, in association with the
Indonesian government Agency for the Assessment of
Technology (BPPT), aimed at use in central Jakarta, is but
one example of small project work going on in many of the
huge population centres of the world such as Cairo, New
Delhi, and Bangkok.
The significant problem with these vehicles is that in
attempting to mimic the range performance of competing
internal combustion engine technology in conventional
vehicles (CVs), very large, expensive, heavy and short lived
battery packs have resulted, whilst still not achieving genuine
comparability with CVs. This has resulted in considerable
research in to hybrid vehicles, which have both a heat engine
and an electric motor, and a lesser amount of storage.
Such hybrids, in their many configurations promise the
most likely solutions for completely acceptable general
transportation in the near future. [l], [2], [3].
Third and fourth phases are now gathering momentum.
The third is driven by global warming concerns, since road

transport, mainly cars, is the fastest growing and otherwise

most intractable source of carbon dioxide releases [4]. Where
electricity is generated from natural gas, as it is in the
Northern Territory, Australia, significant greenhouse gas
reductions are possible by using EVs in place of CVs [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] .
The fourth phase is driven by power supply authorities
word wide, who are seeing EVs as an opportunity to sell
more product, and to do so when the major loads on supply
are not present, ie in the evening.

B. Traction System Background

There are now three types of machine under consideration
for EVs; induction machines (IMs), permanent magnet
machines (PMs), and to a lesser extent switched reluctance
machines (SRs) [7], [SI. IMs have been chosen for their
reliability, long history of industrial operation, and low cost
by, for instance, General Motors or the GM EVl and by
Ford [9], [lo]. However the lower weight and higher
efficiency of PMs, together with substantial reductions in the
cost of rare earth magnets, is attracting a large proportion of
current research activity [ I l l , [12], [13], [14], [l5], [16],
~ 1~ 9, 1 .
This paper, while covering EV issues in general will
discuss as an example an in the wheel permanent magnet
brushless axial flux drive system or a solar powered vehicle
for an international race [20]. Whilst solar powered vehicles
will never come into general use because of the very low
power available (approximately 1 kW), the design pressures
on weight, efficiency, and reliability are producing
theoretical analyses, power electronic processing systems,
motors and drives with wide applicability in the general area
of electric and hybrid vehicles.
Fig. 1 shows the Northern Territory University entry on
the road during the 1996 World Solar Challenge in Australia.
SRs are under consideration or a range of auxiliary
machines, generators, starters, power steering drives, etc and
are discussed as possibly producing similar efficiencies
compared with PMs at less cost. Whilst many researchers are

Fig 1 The Fuji - Xerox Desert Rose on the road during the 1996 World
Solar Challenge

0-7803-3932-0
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aware of the benefits of SRs [4], as yet little has been

published on their use for traction.
The single significant problem with PMs is their speed
limitation, determined by battery voltage. For a given supply
voltage the machine has a rectangular torque speed
characteristic as sketched in Fig. 2, which is considerably
different from that generally considered as desirable fix
traction and EV work.
Most vehicle drive systems (eg automobiles, diesel electric
trains) have an instantaneous power limitation not present in
electric vehicles. This implies a reduction in the achievable
torque as speed increases, known as operation in the constant
horsepower region. This is extended over the very large
speed range required of vehicles by gearboxes or automatic
transmissions, allowing considerably higher speeds at lowier
torques. That this characteristic is desirable is in part
simply due to experience, since the concept of a vehicle
which slows up for gradients, but can negotiate very steep
inclines at low speeds is very much imprinted on human
experience. However much research in this area has
highlighted the reduction in torque expected at higher speed,
in terms of required profiles, and the high acceleration
required at low speeds in urban travel [21].
Much research has been aimed at extending the speed
range of PMs into the so called flux weakening regime.
[141,[151.
Two novel approaches addressing this specific concern
will be presented in this paper.
C. Signijkance of System Eficiency
There is a substantial difference between the peak or rated
system efficiency of a traction system as recorded in the
laboratory, and that achieved under normal driving
conditions.
Recent work has reported on an EV with a
motor/controller systec. ith an efficiency at rated speed and
power of 92%. In simulations, this vehicle was put cyclically
through a four mode operation, (i) 12.5 km/h for 20 sec, (li)
acceleration to 52 k m k over 11 sec, (iii) hold for 30 sec., (iv)
then braking, ( using regeneration), to the low speed over 19
sec. The simulation showed that over 60% of the energy used
was consumed by motor and controller losses [ 181.
Attempts to build totally electric vehicles quite rapidly
focus the mind on the efficiency of the all parts of the
vehicle, including the rapidly proliferating subsidiary

l/Continuous capability,
Brushless DC motor

Desirable
characteristic for

Torque

Speed
Fig. 2. Torque-speed characteristics for various drives.
-~

electrical
systems,
from
entertainment
through
airconditioning to active suspension [22]. The pressures on
such systems to achieve very high efficiencies are
dramatically increased when the only source of energy is on
board electrical storage.
D. Race Background
The World Solar Challenge is a race for solar powered
vehicles across the continent of Australia from the northern
shore to the southern shore, a distance of some 3000 km.
This race was first held in November 1987, and was repeated
in 1990, 1993 and again in 1996. Universities provide a
suostantial number of the entrants, however participation by
the research arms of the automotive industry has increased
significantly since the first race was won by the General
Motors Sunraycer [23]. The race is proving to be an
important test bed for developing EV technology, and is
attracting increasing attention for this aspect [24], [ 2 5 ] . The
1996 race had 48 starters including the vehicle shown in Fig.
1

11 PERMANENT MAGNET DRIVESYSTEMS

In traditional brushed dc machines the required speed
extension, or operation in constant horsepower region, has
been achieved by direct control of the field. Flux weakening
is also applied in typical induction motor variable speed
drives operating above rated speed.
Control of the flux in a permanent magnet machine is
possible in machines designed with large armature reaction
effects. Much research has gone into the interior permanent
magnet machine in an attempt to address this issue, however
the large circulating currents involved significantly degrade
the efficiency [ 141, [ 151, [ 161. In the most efficient format for
BDCMs, using surface permanent magnets, and given the
magnetic properties of the Neodymium Iron Boron magnet
material commonly used, armature reaction effects are
minimal, and controlling the flux by electrical means is very
difficult.
A . Benefits of Axial Flux Geometry
Axial flux geometry, where in its simplest form the
machine is made from two opposing disks, one fixed and one
rotating, has two substantial advantages over the more
common radial flux geometry, where a drum rotates inside a
cylinder. [ l l ] , [12], [17], [19], [26], [27].
Firstly there are significant volume savings over the more
usual radial flux geometry, for which much of the internal
volume of the rotor does not contribute to power output. This
volumetric efficiency, as well as details of design trade-offs
between the two geometries is addressed by Millner [l 11.
Secondly and more importantly a very simple technique
for flux weakening relying on mechanical adjustment of the
air-gap, which does not impinge significantly on the
efficiency, becomes possible. Within a surprisingly broad
band, increasing the airgap increases the copper loss as the
torque constant decreases, but decreases the iron loss as the

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flux density reducLs, keeping the overall efficiency relatively

constant.
Axial flux machines can have a stator disk with rotor disks
either side, [26], [ 171, a single rotor sandwiched between two
stator disks, [1 11 or simply a single sided arrangement with
one stationary and one rotating disk, as discussed here.
Whilst it is tempting to use the intemal stator version,
particularly in an ironless configuration, the thermal
management advantage of an iron stator in broadlheavy duty
traction applications is not insignificant.
Similarly the single rotor double sided machine appears
very attractive, however its construction is rather more
difficult and the ability to adjust the airgap is made
considerably more complicated. There is a strong attractive
force between the disks in the single sided version, but it is
not unmanageable with a dedicated thrust bearing or deep
groove ball bearings. The work reported in this paper is on
single sided axial flux machines, although some of the results
would have more general applicability. It should be noted
that not all axial flux machine applications are for in - wheel
drives, where the added unsprung weight can provide a
substantial mechanical design challenge.
B. The Specific Machine Developed
This motor used in the race in 1993 is shown in Fig 3 and
has been reported earlier.
The motor for the 1996 race involved several
improvements, so that system efficiencies have risen from
about 91% at rated conditions to over 94%.[28]. These
machines can be readily dismantled and reassembled with a
range of spacers on the shaft, providing different air gaps, for
expected race conditions, Production versions of this
machine were used by 6 other competitors in the 1996 race in
Australia, and 19 out of 36 competitors used the traction
system in the USA Sunrayce in June of 1997.
Construction wc.:; is currently progressing at Northem
Territory University on a prototype system providing such
adjustment without the need for dismantling, so that
adjustment can be made during operation.
Genesis the Sunrayce 97 entry from Messiah College,
Grantham, Pennsylvania featured a production motor with an
added fully automated servo driven gap variation system, put
to good effect during the race to fine tune the efficiency of
the motor, under operating conditions.
C. Managing the Loss Mechanisms
Whilst much of the control of the loss mechanisms in axial
flux machines follow relatively standard procedures, there
are two aspects of the machines discussed here that are
worthy of mention, flux distribution within an axial flux
machine of this particular type, and cogging torque in
machines with iron stators.
I ) Flux distribution: The accurate solution of flux
distribution in axial flux machines is complicated by two
issues, firstly lines of flux do not remain in a single plane as
they do in radial flux machines, typically travelling on

Fig 3 . An early version of the motor, disassembled

cylindrical surfaces across the airgap, and radially in the

circuit before returning across the air gap. Two dimensional
finite element analysis gives reasonable approximations,
when sections of such cylinders are flattened out.
Secondly the sides of slots are parallel, and therefore not
radial, so that less iron area is available for flux at the inner
radius of the toroid. Accurate analysis, and the imperatives of
section I. C. above highlighting the importance of loss
control, indicate that three dimensional finite element
analysis is essential for complete understanding of flux
distribution., and machine optimisation.
2) Cogging torque: Cogging torque, indicated by the
tendency of the rotor to index, or align with the slot pattern is
invariably present in permanent magnet machines, and is
very strong in concentrated winding situations as in this
machine, where the slot number of 36 is a simple multiple of
the pole number of 12.
The first versions of this machine, with a normal running
torque at 1 kW, 72 kph of 15 Nm, exhibited a cogging torque
of 10 Nm. Whilst this is in itself not a loss mechanism, since
energy stored in the magnetic spring is returned, and given
the inertia of the vehicle such cogging is never noticed in
operation, it is nevertheless a very interesting diagnostic.
The existence of preferred rotor positions is an indication
that at those positions, the magnetic circuit reluctance is
lowest, and therefore the flux density will be at its highest. If
there is a cogging torque then movement away from the
preferred position must imply increasing reluctance and thus
decreasing flux density, implying a flux ripple at the slot
frequency. Whilst in normal operation, the main flux pattern
has a frequency of close to 60 Hz the slot induced ripple will
be at 180 Hz, and thus can contribute significantly to iron
loss, not only in the stator, but also in the rotor.
Cogging torque is a well known phenomenon, however the
usual techniques to control it such as skewing the magnets,
simply reduce the cogging torque at any angle by averaging
it across the skew angle [29]. Whilst this can be effective in
reducing torque ripple, it does not remove the flux ripple at
the slot frequency, and the associated loss. The torque simply
occurs at different times in different places to give a net
average cogging torque of zero.

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For a typical six step controller, the minimum magnet pole

width is 120 electrical degrees, leaving 60 electrical degrees
between poles. However machines constructed with this
minimum magnet width will usually exhibit very hig,h
cogging torque.
Widening the magnet will significantly impact on this. Thle
principle has been reported for radial flux machines, wifh
general solutions given for some formats [30]. Individual
researchers have reported adjustment of magnet cross section
as well as width to minimise cogging torque [ 181.
The results of the optimisation process for an axial flux
machine designed for application in direct driving the rear
wheel of a bicycle are shown below in fig. 4.
This machine stator has an outer diameter of 160 mm and
an inside diameter of 100 mm. The machine has been
designed with 16 poles, one slot per pole per phase, thus at
the inner radius the slot pitch is 6.5 mm, and the minimum
magnet width is thus 13 mm. The plots show the force on a
magnet (and hence on a rotor) as the magnet is displaced
from its central position (centred over one slot) to a position
of one half a slot pitch. The parameter is the magnet width as
it is gradually increased from the minimum. The reduction in
cogging torque is clear, as is the return of cogging torque as
the width is increased past the minimum. Thus the flux ripple
can be reduced, and hence iron loss reduced although the
resultant at the minimum cogging torque, optimising only
magnet width, still results is some higher order flux ripple.
It should also be noted that the back emf waveform for the
windings is not unaffected by the magnet width adjustment,
and good design will include analysis of the impact on back
emf waveform, since this will impact on controller
efficiency, and the average torque constant of the motor [3 11.

I11 THEPOWERELECTRONIC
CONTROLLER
The requirements for vehicular drives are very different
from those often considered under the topic of advanced
drives. Whilst accurate control of average torque is essential,
accurate control of the instantaneous torque is not, neither is
torque control response in very short times, because of the
inertia of the vehicle, and power limitations in the prime
mover.
The dominant requirement is that of maximising
efficiency. This is true not only for the racing vehicle but for
L

6
2

::

200

100

..

+ + +

-200

'

xm

+
f_

Min+O5mm
Min+l Omm

Min+l 5 m m

Min+2Omm

x Min+2 5 m m

Displacement, mm
Fig. 4 Cogging force vs tangential displacement of magnet from central
position, with magnet width as the parameter.

EVs in general as discussed in section I. C., not because of

the cost of energy, but because of the cost of carrying the
energy in battery systems. Further, managing the heat load
from an inefficient controller can add significantly to the
required infrastructure.
Earlier work on such controllers has highlighted many of
the issues, including the difficulty of measuring very high
efficiencies. This has resulted in the development of a very
simple, accurate calorimetric technique. This entails
enclosing the complete controller in a thermally well
insulated container with all connections made, injecting
controlled amounts of heat via a load resistor mounted on the
controller heat sink, thus calibrating the enclosure
temperature above ambient against power injected. A small
fan inside the enclosure ensures evenness of temperature at
all points inside the enclosure, so that the internal volume can
be treated as a point source of heat. The motor is then driven
on load by the controller, and the internal temperature of the
enclosure above ambient is measured. This work is reported
elsewhere [32]. For the first generation controller, hard
switched at 15 ItHz, the controller losses at 1 kW, 72 kph
were 34.2 W.
This lead to the development of a second generation
controller discussed below.
A . Switching Loss Control
At the present time, since it is possible by the techniques
described below to dramatically limit switching losses
without compromising operation so that conduction loss is
dominant, soft switched inverters are not able to compete, at
least up to power levels of 10 - 20 kW.
Since reversing an EV is required only rarely, and then
under conditions of stopping, and conscious selection by the
driver, the motor control need only be two quadrant. This
implies that high levels of regenerative braking are not
available at low speeds. However since the energy of the
vehicle is proportional to the square of the velocity, little is
lost by using mechanical braking for determination of final
stopping position. Thus since only two phases are energised
at any one time by the controller, involving four switches,
one can be fully on , one fully off, and only two switches act
under PWM control to regulate the current. The flyback
current is conducted through the opposite FET, driven to
conduct in reverse after a dead time, since the drop of an ON
FET in the reverse direction is substantially lower than either
a body diode or a Schottky diode. A hysteresis band current
control scheme is used, with consequent very low switching
frequencies at both low and high speeds, the highest
switching frequency being at half speed. Very large current
ripples in such traction applications are not significant, and
the controller has a current ripple band of 10A superimposed
on an average current which is 30A under typical operating
conditions. This results in a switching frequency which is
below 6 kHz at all times, and for the solar car operation,
when operating in a band of the top 15% of speed, is never

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H a l l Po-

&&s

i"

Power

Fig. 5 Block diagram of the high performance controller.

above a few hundred Hz. This controller is shown in Fig 5,

and whilst the calorimetric procedures have yet to be applied,
all indications are that the losses at 1 kW, at a speed range
from 75 km/h to 90 k m h the losses are less than 10 W, of
which 8.5 W are conduction loss.
B. Body Diode Reverse Recovery
A major source of loss in well designed, low inductance
layout, high current I high switching speed hard switched
controllers results from the reverse recovery of the body
diode in the MOSFET, carrying current during flyback dead
times [33].
Careful use of parallel Schottky diodes, enables carrying
of the majority of the current during the dead time by the
Schottky diode. Figs 6 and 7 show the reverse recovery
phenomenon in a constructed controller, with and without the
Schottky diodes.

C. Layout Issues
Low inductance layout of high speed I high current
switching is important not only to prevent overvoltage
conditions resulting from high diidt s in the circuit, but also
to allow the current to commutate as rapidly as possible from
one switch to another, minimising switching loss [34].
D. General E V work
For general EV work, at power ranges from 10 kW to 100
kW, and where the vehicle is likely to spend a large amount
of time at a speed well below maximum speed, the benefits
of soft switching, in terms of device stress, machine stress,
and RFIIEMI control are very attractive. Much work is being
directed to this important area [35].

IV FURTHERWORK
Laboratory design work is currently being carried out on a
version of the controller with a boost converter on the DC
bus to provide occasional performance above a "rated"
(Battery voltage limited) speed. This is a second approach,

Fig 6 Measured reverse current in the lower FET body diode, carrying
forward current of 10 A as the upper FET is switched on.

Fig 7 Repeat of Fig 6 with paralleled Schottky diodes in place

being studied in parallel with the mechanical adjustment of

the air gap in the axial flux machine. Two versions are under
analysis, the first using a hard switched boost converter for a
Southeast Asian city street application, and a resonant link
version for high performance vehicles [36].

V CONCLUSIONS
The pressures / requirements for maximising efficiency in
EVs are substantial, and it is believed that the benefits of the
permanent magnet machine, particularly in its volumetrically
efficient axial flux form are significant. It is proposed that the
perceived limitation, that of not easily yielding to constant
horsepower operation, can be readily surmounted. In fact two
solutions, that of using the mechanical gap variation in the
motor, and that of the use of bus boosting, are simply and
effectively achievable. These could well be used in concert.
The use of gap variation is also important in optimising the
machines efficiency under operational conditions.

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VI ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge the value of the
substantial interaction with New Generation Motors
Corporation covering many discussions, ideas, arid
improvements The author is indebtedto Chris oKeefe, who
produced the data shown in fig. 4.

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