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Space Mechanics for Engineers

2nd Edition

Space Mechanics for Engineers

2nd Edition

Raed I. Kafafy
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia

Ossama O. Abdelkhalik
Department of Mechanical Engineering - Engineering Mechanics,
Michigan Tech University, USA

Copyright 2013, 2009 by Raed I. Kafafy and Ossama O. Abdelkhalik.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without any prior written
permission of the authors.

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data


Kafafy. Raed I., 1973- and Abdelkhalik, Ossama O., 1973Space Mechanics for Engineers
ISBN 978-983-2599-98-2

1. Space Mechanics Orbital Mechanics Astrodynamics. I. Title.

Printed and bound in Malaysia by Kaci Trading Sdn Bhd.

CONTENTS

Introduction .................................................................................. 1
1.1

What is Space Mechanics? ................................................................................................... 1

1.2

Historical Background ......................................................................................................... 2

1.2.1 Ancient Astronomy ................................................................................................................................ 2


1.2.2 Islamic Astronomy ................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2.3 Medieval European Astronomy ............................................................................................................. 5
1.2.4 Astrodynamics ....................................................................................................................................... 7

1.3

Our Celestial Residence ....................................................................................................... 7

1.3.1 What is Space? ....................................................................................................................................... 7


1.3.2 Earths Atmosphere ............................................................................................................................... 7
1.3.3 Space Thermal Environment .................................................................................................................. 9
1.3.4 Microgravity ........................................................................................................................................ 10
1.3.5 Near Earth Radiation Environment ...................................................................................................... 11
1.3.6 Solar Activity and Emissions ............................................................................................................... 11
1.3.7 Galactic Cosmic Rays .......................................................................................................................... 13
1.3.8 The Magnetosphere .............................................................................................................................. 13
1.3.1 The Van Allen Belts............................................................................................................................. 15
1.3.2 Environmental Impact on Spacecraft Design....................................................................................... 15
1.3.3 Spacecraft Electrostatic Charging ........................................................................................................ 16
1.3.4 Metroids and Micrometroids................................................................................................................ 17
1.3.5 Space Debris ........................................................................................................................................ 17
1.3.6 The Solar System ................................................................................................................................. 18

References ...................................................................................................................................... 18

Two Body Problem and Keplerian Motion............................ 21


2.1

Background ......................................................................................................................... 21

2.1.1 Particle Kinematics .............................................................................................................................. 21


2.1.2 Particle Dynamics ................................................................................................................................ 23

2.2

The Two-Body Problem ..................................................................................................... 24

2.2.1 Problem Description ............................................................................................................................ 24

2.2.2 Problem Formulation ........................................................................................................................... 24


2.2.3 Equation of Motion .............................................................................................................................. 25
2.2.4 Constants of Motion ............................................................................................................................. 26
2.2.5 Trajectory Equation ............................................................................................................................. 28
2.2.6 Orbital Elements .................................................................................................................................. 30
2.2.1 Orbit Equations .................................................................................................................................... 31
2.2.2 Characteristics of the Two-Body Problem ........................................................................................... 32

2.3

Keplerian Orbits ................................................................................................................. 32

2.3.1 Circular Orbits ..................................................................................................................................... 32


2.3.2 Elliptical Orbits .................................................................................................................................... 33
2.3.3 Parabolic Orbits ................................................................................................................................... 35
2.3.4 Hyperbolic Orbits................................................................................................................................. 36
2.3.5 Summary of Keplerian Orbits .............................................................................................................. 39

References ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 40

Coordinate Systems ...................................................................43


3.1

Introduction......................................................................................................................... 43

3.2

Classical Coordinate Systems ............................................................................................ 43

3.2.1 Geocentric-Equatorial Coordinate System........................................................................................... 43


3.2.2 Heliocentric-ecliptic Coordinate System ............................................................................................. 44
3.2.3 Right Ascension-declination Coordinate System................................................................................. 44

3.3

Classical Orbital Elements ................................................................................................. 45

3.3.1 Classical Orbital Elements ................................................................................................................... 45


3.3.2 Alternative Orbital Elements ............................................................................................................... 46
3.3.3 Ephemerides......................................................................................................................................... 47

3.4

Perifocal Coordinate System ............................................................................................. 47

3.5

Coordinate Transformations ............................................................................................. 48

3.5.1 Transformation from orbital elements to r and v ................................................................................. 48


3.5.2 Transformation from r and v to orbital elements ................................................................................. 49

References ...................................................................................................................................... 51
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 52

vi

Time Systems .............................................................................. 55


4.1

Solar Time ........................................................................................................................... 56

4.1.1 Julian Calendar..................................................................................................................................... 56


4.1.2 Gregorian Calendar .............................................................................................................................. 57

4.2

Terrestrial time ................................................................................................................... 57

4.3

International Atomic Time ................................................................................................ 57

4.4

Sidereal time ........................................................................................................................ 58

4.4.1 Universal Time..................................................................................................................................... 59


4.4.2 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) .................................................................................................... 60
4.4.3 Global Positioning System Time ......................................................................................................... 60

4.5

Summary of Time Systems ................................................................................................ 61

References ...................................................................................................................................... 61
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 62

Orbit Determination .................................................................63


5.1

Initial Orbit Determination ............................................................................................... 64

5.2

Two Position Vectors (Lamberts Problem)..................................................................... 64

5.2.1 Minimum Energy Solution................................................................................................................... 66

5.3

Three Position Vectors (Gibbs Method) ........................................................................... 69

References ...................................................................................................................................... 72
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 73

Orbit Perturbations .................................................................. 75


6.1

Atmospheric Drag ............................................................................................................... 77

6.2

Non-symmetric Earths Gravitational Field .................................................................... 78

vii

6.2.1 The J2 Perturbation ............................................................................................................................... 78


6.2.2 Regression of Line of Nodes................................................................................................................ 79
6.2.3 Precession of line of Apsides ............................................................................................................... 79
6.2.4 Triaxiality............................................................................................................................................. 80

6.3

Solar and Lunar Gravitation ............................................................................................. 80

6.4

Solar Radiation Pressure ................................................................................................... 80

6.5

Modeling Perturbations ..................................................................................................... 82

6.5.1 Special Perturbation Techniques:......................................................................................................... 82


6.5.2 General Perturbation Techniques: ........................................................................................................ 82

References ...................................................................................................................................... 82
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 83

Mission Analysis ......................................................................... 85


7.1

Spacecraft Coverage ........................................................................................................... 85

7.1.1 Ground Station Visibility ..................................................................................................................... 85


7.1.2 Elevation and Azimuth of Satellite ...................................................................................................... 86

7.2

Ground Track ..................................................................................................................... 87

7.2.1 Ground Track on a Non-rotating Earth ................................................................................................ 87


7.2.2 Effect of Earth Rotation on Ground Track........................................................................................... 87

7.3

Effect of Launch on Orbit Inclination .............................................................................. 88

7.4

Special Earth Orbits ........................................................................................................... 88

7.4.1 Polar Orbits .......................................................................................................................................... 89


7.4.2 Earth-Synchronous Orbits .................................................................................................................... 90
7.4.3 Geosynchronous Orbits ........................................................................................................................ 90
7.4.4 Geostationary Orbits ............................................................................................................................ 90
7.4.5 Molniya Orbit....................................................................................................................................... 91
7.4.1 Sun-Synchronous Orbit ........................................................................................................................ 91

References ...................................................................................................................................... 92
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 93

viii

Orbital Maneuvers..................................................................... 95
8.1

Basics of Orbital Maneuver ............................................................................................... 95

8.1.1 Orbital Energy ...................................................................................................................................... 95

8.2

Principles of Orbital Maneuvers ....................................................................................... 96

8.2.1 Satellite Launch ................................................................................................................................... 96


8.2.2 The DeltaV Budget ............................................................................................................................ 96

8.3

Coplanar Maneuvers .......................................................................................................... 97

8.3.1 Tangential-Orbit Maneuver.................................................................................................................. 98


8.3.2 Non-Tangential Coplanar Maneuver ................................................................................................... 98
8.3.3 Hohmann Transfer ............................................................................................................................... 98
8.3.4 Bi-elliptic Transfer ............................................................................................................................. 102
8.3.5 General Coplanar Transfer between Circular Orbits ......................................................................... 105
8.3.6 Phasing Maneuver .............................................................................................................................. 106

8.4

Out-of-Plane Orbit Maneuvers ..................................................................................... 107

8.4.1 Simple Plane Change ......................................................................................................................... 107


8.4.2 General Plane Change Maneuver ....................................................................................................... 108
8.4.3 Combined Maneuver .......................................................................................................................... 110

References .................................................................................................................................... 112


Problems ....................................................................................................................................... 113

Interplanetary Trajectories .................................................... 117


9.1

Trajectories ....................................................................................................................... 117

9.2

The Solar System .............................................................................................................. 118

9.2.1 Planets ................................................................................................................................................ 118


9.2.2 Asteroids ............................................................................................................................................ 119
9.2.3 Comets ............................................................................................................................................... 120

9.3

The Patched-Conics Method ............................................................................................ 121

9.3.1 Description of Method ....................................................................................................................... 121

9.4

Lagrange Liberation Points ............................................................................................. 126

ix

9.4.1 L1 (stable) .......................................................................................................................................... 126


9.4.2 L2 (stable) .......................................................................................................................................... 126
9.4.3 L3 (stable) .......................................................................................................................................... 127
9.4.4 L4 and L5 (unstable) .......................................................................................................................... 127

9.5

Aerobraking ...................................................................................................................... 127

9.6

Gravity Assist .................................................................................................................... 128

9.7

Aerogravity Assist ............................................................................................................. 128

References .................................................................................................................................... 130


Problems ....................................................................................................................................... 131

Relative Motion ........................................................................ 133


10.1

General Relative Motion ............................................................................................... 133

10.2

What does an Observer on one Spacecraft see? .......................................................... 136

10.3

Linearized Equations of Relative Motion .................................................................... 136

10.4

Clohessy-Wiltshire (CW) Equation .............................................................................. 139

10.4.1 Closed-form solution for near circular orbits ................................................................................... 140

References .................................................................................................................................... 144


Problems ....................................................................................................................................... 145

xi

Space Mechanics for Engineers


1st Edition

xii

Introduction

The Sun, with all the planets revolving around it, and depending on it, can still ripen a bunch
of grapes as though it had nothing else in the Universe to do.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Getting into space is tremendously expensive and associated with many


challenges and even risks 1. So why do humans bother the cost and take the
risk? The answer to this question is several folds. Space offers human kind
several compelling advantages which have been exploited in modern
societies. It provides a global perspective - Space provides the highest post for
surveillance and resource monitoring. Space also provides a universal
perspective - un-obscured view of the heavens above all metropolitan,
weather and pollution effects which obscure Earth telescopes. In addition,
space offers a unique environment - a free-fall environment which can be
used to perform unprecedented material and biological experiments. Space
has an abundant storage of resources which can be used to replace depleting
Earth resources. Human eminent curiosity and intrinsic longing for knowledge
has always been a strong drive for exploration in land, sea and space. Many
uses of space technology are inherently dual use capabilities having civil and
military uses. Therefore, space technology is inevitably a significant element of
national security which throws many obstacles in the international
collaboration road.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). Italian


natural Philosopher, Astronomer and
Mathematician who made fundamental
contributions to the development of
the scientific method and to the
sciences of motion, astronomy and
strength of materials.

1.1 What is Space Mechanics?


Space mechanics is the branch of mechanics, which studies the motion of
objects traveling into space subject to all possible forces. These objects may
be celestial or heavenly bodies created by God such as the Earth, the Sun, and
1 Recall, for instance, the tragedy of the most recent space shuttle accidents, in which the entire
crews of Challenger and Columbia were lost in 1998 and 2003 respectively.

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

the Moon; or vehicles made by man such as satellites, space shuttles and
space probes. The branch of the subject studying the former objects is usually
referred to as celestial mechanics, whereas the branch studying the latter is
usually referred to as astrodynamics (Vallado, 2007). Orbital mechanics may
be considered as a synonym for space mechanics.

The Hubble Space Telescope's


launched in 1990. Its position above the
atmosphere, which distorts and blocks
the light reaching Earth, gives it a view
of the universe that far surpasses that of
ground-based telescopes.

Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets,


comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's
atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with
the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial
objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe. Therefore,
in a correct sense, space mechanics may also be considered as a branch of
astronomy. Old or even ancient astronomy is not to be confused with
astrology, the belief system that claims that human affairs are correlated with
the positions of celestial objects. Although the two fields share a common
origin and a part of their methods (namely, the use of ephemerides), they are
clearly distinct 2.

1.2 Historical Background


As a child of astronomy, the historical roots of space mechanics may be traced
back in the history of astronomy and even tangled in some ancient periods
with the false science of astrology. In the following historical overview, we will
focus on the achievements made to astronomy with no mention to astrology
even if such achievements were in fact intended to serve the need for better
astrological prediction.
Claudius Ptolemaeus (83168), known
in English as Ptolemy. Greek-Egyptian
mathematician, astronomer, geographer
and astrologer. He was born, lived and
died in Roman Egypt. He was the
author of several scientific treatises,
which had great importance to later
Islamic and European science. His
most famous treastise on astronomy is
now known as the Almagest, or The
Great Treatise. The second is the
Geography, which is a thorough
discussion of the geographic knowledge
of the Greco-Roman world.

1.2.1 Ancient Astronomy


Nearly all early cultures identified celestial objects with gods and spirits.
Ancient peoples related these objects (and their movements) to climate and
weather changes either favorable or uninvited such as rain, drought, seasons,
tides, cyclones, and storms. Beside the belief in mighty heavens, ancient
civilizations also developed calendar systems based on the apparent motion of
the Sun or the Moon (the most brightest and noticeable celestial objects).
Many Egyptian gods were seen in the constellations or represented by actual
astronomical bodies. For instance, the Milky Way represented the sky goddess
Nut giving birth to the sun god Re. The sun itself was represented by several
gods, depending on its position within the sky. Other than mythology, the
Egyptian astronomers, who were actually priests, recognized the coincidence
of flooding of the Nile and the rise of the bright star Sirius before the sun.
They were subsequently able to predict the annual flooding, a considerable
powerful skill. They divided the year into 12 months of 30 days each in
addition to a five-day long feast. The Egyptians knew of the almost quarterday discrepancy between the Egyptian calendar and the actual tropical year,
but they maintained the 365 day calendar for ceremonial reasons. Many
2

Albert et al., 2001: through www.wikipedia.com

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Egyptian buildings, such as the Abu Simbel Temple and the infamous Pyramids
of Giza, were built with an astronomical orientation (Astronomy in ancient
Egypt). Babylonians invented a sexagesimal (base 60) number system which is
still used in the modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, of 60
minutes each, began with the Sumerians.
Egyptian and Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of the astronomical traditions that later developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in
classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanid, Byzantine and Syrian astronomy, in
medieval Islamic astronomy, and in Western European astronomy. Some
historians, even, goes to the extreme that most of the scientific and
philosophical body of knowledge unanimously accredited to the great Greek
philosophers such as Democritus, Aristotle and Socrates are in fact the mere
Greek translations of the original unpublished knowledge of the Egyptian
priests (James, 1954)!
Beginning around 600 BC, Greek philosophers and scientists developed a
number of important astronomical ideas. The early Greek astronomers knew
many of the geometrical relationships of the heavenly bodies. Pythagoras,
who lived during the 500s BC, argued that the earth was round. He also tried
to explain the nature and structure for the universe as a whole. He developed
an early system of cosmology. In about 370 BC, Euxodus of Cnidus had
developed a mechanical system to explain the motion s of the planets.
Euduxos taught that the planets, sun, the moon, and the stars revolved
around the earth. In 300s BC, Aristotle incorporated this earth centered or
geocentric, theory into his philosophic system.
Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises including the astronomical treatise, Almagest. His Planetary Hypotheses went beyond the
mathematical model of the Almagest to present a physical realization of the
universe as a set of nested spheres, in which he used the epicycles of his
planetary model to compute the dimensions of the universe. He estimated the
Sun was at an average distance of 1210 Earth radii while the radius of the
sphere of the fixed stars was 20,000 times the radius of the Earth.

Astrolabe is a sophisticated tool for


observing the position of the stars
which was invented in ancient Greece
and vastly improved in early Islam.
Through Islamic Spain, the new
astrolabe was introduced to Europe
(Astrolabe).

1.2.2 Islamic Astronomy


In the history of astronomy, Islamic astronomy or Arabic astronomy refers to
the astronomical developments made in the Islamic world, particularly during
the Islamic Golden Age (8th-16th centuries), and mostly written in the Arabic
language. These developments mostly took place in the Middle East, Central
Asia, Islamic Spain, North Africa, and later in China and India.
It closely parallels the genesis of other Islamic sciences in its assimilation of
foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that
material to create a science that was essentially Islamic. These included
Indian, Sassanid and Hellenistic works in particular, which were translated and
built upon. In turn, Islamic astronomy later had a significant influence on
Indian and European astronomy (see Latin translations of the 12th century) as
well as Chinese astronomy (Saliba).

Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Batani (858


929) Latinized as Albategnius,
Albategni or Albatenius. Arab astronomer, astrologer, and mathematician.
One of his best-known achievements in
astronomy was the determination of
the solar year as being 365 days, 5
hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds.

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

It is really interesting to note that Muslims were in fact the first to


differentiate and separate the science of Astronomy from the pseudo science
of astrology. A significant number of stars in the sky, such as Aldebaran and
Altair, and astronomical terms such as alhidade, azimuth, zenith, and
almucantar, are still today recognized with their Arabic names.
A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering
approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, many of
which have not been read or cataloged. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture
of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.
Nar al-Dn al-s, or Tusi (12011274). Persian astronomer, philosopher,
physician, mathematician, physician,
physicist, and theologian. Tusi made
very accurate tables of planetary
movements as depicted in his book Ziji ilkhani. Tusi invented a geometrical
technique called Tusi-couple, which
generates linear motion from the sum
of two circular motions. He used this
technique to replace Ptolemy's problematic equant.

An important area in Astronomy is optics. It is very relevant in the development of tools for observation like telescopes that employ lenses or mirrors.
Ibn al-Haytham (the Latin Alhazen) studied the property of lenses, discovered
the camera obscura, explained correctly the process of vision, studied the
structure of the eye, and explained for the first time why the sun and the
moon appear larger on the horizon (very simply put, it is because the thicker
layer of atmosphere at the horizon acts as magnifying lens compared to overhead).
Other Muslim mathematicians such as Khayyam and al-Tusi examined
Euclidean geometry that is the geometry of flat surfaces. The Muslim mathematicians, especially al-Battani, Abu'l-Wafa', Ibn Yunus and Ibn al-Haytham,
also developed spherical Astronomy. Euclidean and spherical geometry are
particularly useful in studying the overall geometry of the Universe in the
study of cosmology.
The Muslims also applied their astronomical knowledge to questions of timekeeping and the calendar in making almanacs, this word too being Arabic in
origin. The most exact solar calendar existing to this day is the Jalali calendar
which was developed under the direction of Omar Khayyam in the 12th century. This is still in use in Persia and Afghanistan.

Omar Khayyam (1048-1131). Persian


poet, mathematician, and astronomer.
Khayyam measured the length of the
year as 365.24219858156 days, which
shows an incredible confidence. For
comparison the length of the year at the
end of the 19th century was
365.242196 days, while today it is
365.242190 days.

Many people think that the Arabs gave us (the) zero. It is more appropriate
to look at the phenomenon of Islamic science within its own cultural context.
Then, if we want to compare, we discover that actually, as far as astronomy is
concerned, little was achieved in Europe until ca. 1550 that had not been
achieved previously by Muslim scholars at some time between the 9th and the
15th century.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.2.3 Medieval European Astronomy


Nicholas Copernicus (1473 1543)
Copernicus was the first astronomer to formulate a scientifically-based
heliocentric cosmology that displaced the Earth from the center of the
universe. His epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the
Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), is often regarded as the starting point of
modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the Scientific
Revolution. The book was published the year of Copernicus death, 1543,
though he had arrived at his theory several decades earlier.
Although Greek, Indian and Muslim savants had published heliocentric
hypotheses centuries before Copernicus, his publication of a scientific theory
of heliocentrism, demonstrating that the motions of celestial objects can be
explained without putting the Earth at rest in the center of the universe,
stimulated further scientific investigations and became a landmark in the
history of modern science that is known as the Copernican Revolution.

Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543).


Polish astronomer and mathematician.
He began to believe that the earth went
round the sun about 1507 and from
that time until his death worked, more
or less intermittently, on his exposition
of his theory. He delayed the
publication of this exposition because
of fear of being accused of heresy.

Galileo Galelei (1564-1642)


Galileo Galelei provided the crucial observations that proved the Copernican
hypothesis, and also laid the foundations for a correct understanding of how
objects moved on the surface of the earth (dynamics) and of gravity. (Valado,
2007)
Johanns Kepler (1571-1630)
The greatest achievement of Kepler was his discovery of the laws of planetary
motion. There were such three laws, but here we shall deal only with the first
two - those that govern the motion of an individual planet. These are found in
Astronomia Nova (New Astronomy, 1609), underpinned by important work in
Epitome (of Copernican Astronomy) Book V (1621). The laws are:
First Law:
The orbit of a planet/comet about the Sun is an ellipse
with the Sun's center of mass at one focus.
Second Law:
A line joining a planet/comet and the Sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal intervals of time.
Third Law:
The squares of the periods of the planets are
proportional to the cubes of their semimajor axes.
Isaac Newton (1643 1727)
According to the well-known story, it was on seeing an apple fall in his orchard
at some time during 1665 or 1666 that Newton conceived that the same force
governed the motion of the Moon and the apple. He calculated the force
needed to hold the Moon in its orbit, as compared with the force pulling an
object to the ground. He also calculated the centripetal force needed to hold a
stone in a sling, and the relation between the length of a pendulum and the

Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630).


German
mathematician
and
astronomer who discovered that the
Earth and planets travel about the sun
in elliptical orbits. He gave three
fundamental laws of planetary motion.
He also did important works in optics.

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

time of its swing. These early explorations were not soon exploited by
Newton, though he studied astronomy and the problems of planetary motion.
Correspondence with Hooke (1679-1680) redirected Newton to the problem
of the path of a body subjected to a centrally directed force that varies as the
inverse square of the distance; he determined it to be an ellipse, so informing
Edmond Halley in August 1684. Halley's interest led Newton to demonstrate
the relationship afresh, to compose a brief tract on mechanics, and finally to
write the Principia.
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). British
mathematician and physicist, one of the
foremost scientific intellects of all time.
He was elected a Fellow of Trinity
College in 1667 and Lucasian Professor
of Mathematics in 1669. During two to
three years of intense mental effort he
prepared Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy) commonly known as
the Principia, although this was not
published until 1687.

Book I of the Principia states the foundations of the science of mechanics,


developing upon them the mathematics of orbital motion round centers of
force. Newton identified gravitation as the fundamental force controlling the
motions of the celestial bodies. He never found its cause. To contemporaries
who found the idea of attractions across empty space unintelligible, he conceded that they might prove to be caused by the impacts of unseen particles.
The three laws of motion are stated below.
First Law of Motion:
Every object remains in its state of rest or
motion in a straight line unless a force is exerted upon which.
Second Law of Motion: The rate of change of (linear) momentum of a body
is proportional to the force exerted on which and is in the same direction.
Third Law of Motion:
opposite reaction.

To every action there is always an equal and

Book III shows the law of gravitation at work in the universe: Newton demonstrates it from the revolutions of the six known planets, including the Earth,
and their satellites. However, he could never quite perfect the difficult theory
of the Moon's motion. Comets were shown to obey the same law; in later
editions, Newton added conjectures on the possibility of their return. He
calculated the relative masses of heavenly bodies from their gravitational
forces, and the oblateness of Earth and Jupiter, already observed. He
explained tidal ebb and flow and the precession of the equinoxes from the
forces exerted by the Sun and Moon. All this was done by exact computation.
Universal Gravitational Law: Any two bodies attract one another with a
force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.2.4 Astrodynamics
The birth date of astrodynamics may be marked with the successful launch of
the first man-made Earth satellite known as Sputnik I by the former Soviet
Union on October 4, 1957. Only few months later, to be followed by the
launch of the second man-made satellite Explorer I on January 31, 1958 by the
United States. Thousands of satellites have been launched since then to serve
numerous applications ranging from purely civil to purely military. In addition
to Earth satellites missions, many interplanetary space exploration missions
have been successfully accomplished to the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Saturn and
other planets in the solar system. From Sputnik to Ulysses (the joint ESA/NASA
solar orbiter mission and one of the longest and most successful space
missions ever conducted, which has finally ended on June 30, 2009), space
utilization has become an integral and crucial part of the modern human life.
Due to the highly ambitious programs in NASA and ESA, in recent years, it has
become evident that there is piling interest innovative space missions which
require collaborative scientific and engineering efforts from different
disciplines. Recent advances in modern orbital mechanics, space propulsion
systems, and orbital and attitude control techniques paved the way to realize
missions which used to be unfeasible. New space mission concepts such as
formation flying have gained much of the space community interest. Such
progresses were supported by peer advances in orbital determination
methods and maneuver techniques which constitute what is referred as
modern astrodynamics (Gurfil, 2006).

1.3 Our Celestial Residence


Studying the space environment is important to understand how its characteristics will affect the design and operation of spacecraft and the possible crew
inside. What constitutes the space environment? Where space begins? How
does the space environment differ from that of Earth?

1.3.1 What is Space?


The question Where does space begin is complex. In fact, it depends not
only on physical properties, but also on international politics! A loose answer
which is serves our purposes is that space occurs beyond the Earths
protective atmosphere. However, higher segments of the atmosphere are
usually considered as part of the space environment where Low Earth
Satellites (LOE) and space shuttles are normally operating (Newman, 2002).

1.3.2 Earths Atmosphere


Earths atmosphere protects us from the hostile environment of space and
provides our life support. The atmosphere is mainly composed of molecular
nitrogen and oxygen with trace elements in the following proportions:
Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.97%), and Carbon dioxide/water
vapor (0.03%).

Sputnik I (which means traveling


companion) is the Earth's first artificial
satellite, which was launched by the
former Soviet Union on October 4,
1957. This launch of that 18-lb, 22inch-diameter sphere sent a dramatic
shockwave through the west, which
resulted in a series of ground-breaking
events including the establishment of
NASA itself.

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

The atmosphere itself is divided into five segments: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The thickness of each
segment is determined mainly by temperature gradients.
Troposphere [sea level 18 km]
The temperature in this region varies with altitude from about 290 K (17C) at
sea level to 220 K (53C) at 11 km. Nearly, all the weather effects we
experience on the surface of Earth, such as rain and snow, occur within the
troposphere. The tropopause is an extension of the troposphere where the
temperature remains relatively constant, and it extends from 11 to 18 km.
Stratosphere [18 km 50 km]

Fig. 1-1
The standard atmosphere.

Here, the temperature gradient reverses, and the air actually gets warmer. At
18 km, the temperature is about 220 K and rises to about 270 K (3C) at 50
km. At an altitude of 22 km, cabin pressurization is not economic due to low
atmospheric density and the threat of ozone poisoning (So, human flight
above this height requires a sealed environment with independent oxygen
and pressure supplies). For humans, 22 km might be a good altitude to denote
the beginning of the space environment.
At about 45 km, aircraft propulsion requires an independent supply of fuel
and oxidizer. So, essentially, for aircraft the space environment begins at 45
km. Astronauts who fly above the stratosphere receive wings for their
achievements, so we might define the beginning of space here.
The stratosphere is also the house of the ozone layer (Ozone = O3) which
screens out ultraviolet radiation (a radiation which would kill off all forms of
life) but transmits visible light (which is essential for life and photosynthesis).
High-altitude carbon dioxide allows visible energy from the sun to pass
through, and Earth absorbs it. When Earth reradiates that energy as longwavelength infrared energy, the CO2 will not let it back out.
Mesosphere [50 km 85 km]
The temperature in this region decreases with altitude from about 270 K at 50
km to 190 K (-83C) at 85 km (this is the coldest region of the atmosphere).
The mesosphere is essential for human survival on earth as it absorbs primary
cosmic radiation and deadly solar ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, and
vaporizes incoming meteorites entering from interplanetary space.
At 60 km altitude no atmosphere is present to scatter sunlight, making the sky
appear black and allowing the curvature of the earth to be discerned. This lack
of atmosphere also prevents sound and shock waves from permeating. It is
too low for spacecraft and can only be reached by very large high-altitude
balloons. The mesosphere is often thought of as a no-persons land.
Thermosphere [85 km 300 km]
Beyond the mesosphere the temperature gradient rapidly reverses and the
temperature rises from 190 K (83C) to 1,000 K (773C) at higher altitudes

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

where ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is absorbed. If the solar cycle is at
a maximum (many solar flares), the temperature can exceed 1,000 K due to
the higher number of energetic particles in the region, which results in an
inflation of the upper atmosphere and an increase in the density at a given
altitude
The same effectsinflation and variation of densityare observed to a lesser
extent in a daynight cycle. One way to think about it is to imagine the atmosphere breathing on a daynight basis, inflating during the day (or taking an
extremely large breath in) during solar maximum (7 years) and exhaling during
the night (or a large sigh during solar minimum) (4 years).
At 100 km, the Von Karmen line denotes the altitude where aerodynamic
forces (drag, viscosity, etc.) are minimal. (100 km is the height that the U.S. Air
Force Office of Aerospace Research defines as the beginning of space.)
Expososphere [300 km and beyond]
The temperature remains constant at 1,000 K with the exception of solar cycle
variations. Here, atomic oxygen is more abundant than molecular oxygen or
nitrogen due to UV radiation. Atomic oxygen is highly reactive and may cause
damage to satellite surfaces.
Upper atmosphere aerodynamic drag affects spacecraft design and operations. This drag is created by the impact of atmospheric particles on the
spacecraft surface. Although its magnitude is in no way comparable to aerodynamic drag encountered by aircraft, it is nevertheless present and below ~
600 km should be considered. (A satellite at 200 km cannot remain there for
more than several days based on the ballistic coefficient of the spacecraft).
More than an order of magnitude of variation in atmospheric density is
observed between solar minimum and solar maximum which should be
considered when designing a space system to be operated below 600 km.
Above the exosphere is the region known as hard space. While the idea of
space is usually accompanied by a thought of emptiness, hard space is by no
means empty. At 2,000 km altitude, the density is 108 particles per cubic
meter (the density at the surface of Earth is 1025 particles/m3) So, space is not
empty but, rather, is filled with electromagnetic radiation and particles.

1.3.3 Space Thermal Environment


There are limits to the temperature range that humans and equipment can
endure. The extreme thermal conditions in space require not only shielding
and insulation, but heat rejection capabilities as well. On Earth, heat can be
transferred by one or more of three modes: conduction, convection, and
radiation.
In the vacuum of space, an isolated body, such as a space-suited astronaut
during a spacewalk or a planet or a satellite, can transfer heat to or from
another body solely by radiation, provided the body is in a state of thermal
equilibrium.

10

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

The extent to which a body absorbs solar radiation is determined by the solar
absorption coefficient . Likewise, the amount of power a body emits also
depends on the emissivity. The physical phenomenon of radiation is governed
by Kirchhoffs law. Kirchhoffs law is satisfied when the amount of power absorbed is equal to the amount of power emitted.

= 4 2 2
(1-1)
4
2
Pemitted = T 4r
(1-2)
Pemitted = Pasborbed
(1-3)
Combining the above equations results in a solution for the equilibrium temperature for any object at a distance d from the Sun of
=

1
2

1
2

(1-4)

Where is the average surface temperature of the sun and is the average
radius of the sun.

1.3.4 Microgravity

When we hear astronauts describe the feeling of weightlessness while in


orbit, what they are actually referring to is the effect of microgravity. Microgravity can be simulated either by placing an object in an environment where
the force of gravity is naturally small (i.e., placing an object between two
gravitationally equal massive bodies) or by placing an object in free fall, such
as in low Earth orbit.
In a low Earth orbit, a spacecraft (and the astronauts inside) experiences a
radial gravity effect that is only one-tenth less than the standard 9.81 m/s2 (1
G) environment. While orbiting Earth, the spacecraft and astronauts
experience a constant state of free fall; and thus, they are considered to be in
a microgravity environment where the centripetal acceleration of the
spacecraft (acting tangentially) is responsible for the resulting microgravity
environment (10-6 G) onboard. The term microgravity (or mG) is used to
describe this very low-acceleration environment.
Working in a microgravity environment allows researchers to investigate
essential questions of fundamental physics, life science, materials science,
space science, earth observation, medicine, gravitational biology, and engineering technology. Microgravity allows scientists to observe phenomena
usually overshadowed by the effect of gravity on the surface of Earth.
Engineers explore new technologies and develop devices specifically designed
to function in microgravity, but the big payoff might be back down on Earth.
Research efforts in both aeronautics and space contribute immensely to the
benefit of everyone on Earth. Many disciplines have benefited from studies
conducted in microgravity by investigators all over the world. Medical professionals today use medicines developed in orbit; materials scientists and
engineers have a better understanding of how substances interact to form
various materials; and countless other areas of research have been developed
from our ventures into the microgravity environment. A major purpose of ISS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

11

is to provide a laboratory for long-duration microgravity experiments in the


life and physical sciences.

EXAMPLE 1-1
If the acceleration of gravity at the surface of Earth is 9.8 m/s2, what will be
the acceleration of gravity at an altitude of 600 km. Assume the average
radius of Earth = 6,378 km.

SOLUTION
The acceleration of gravity can be found from
=

=
2

( + )2

At sea level, the acceleration of gravity becomes


0 =

Then, we can write


= 0

2
1
= 0
2
( + )
(1 + / )2

At an altitude of 600 km, the acceleration of gravity will be


= 9.8

1
= 8.187 ms 2 83% g 0
(1 + 600/6378)2

Sun spot

Fig. 1-2
Sunspots are places where very intense
magnetic lines of force break through
the Suns surface. They are used to
measure the intensity of solar activities.
Solar flare

1.3.5 Near Earth Radiation Environment

The near Earth environment looks like a cavity in the interplanetary scene
under which the Earth surface is more or less protected from the hostile space
environment. The blue planet offers to its inhabitants a fragile shield that
consists of both its atmosphere and its magnetic field, without which, life on
Earth would be impossible. Outside this double protection, various types of
radiation are encountered, which are highly variable in nature, energy, origin,
and distribution.

1.3.6 Solar Activity and Emissions


The Sun is a modest star (one out of more than 100 billion stars in our galaxy).
It provides all the heat input to the solar system and dominates the gravitational field. The Sun contains 99.85% of the solar system mass. The gravity
of the Sun creates extreme pressures and temperatures within itself, which
makes it fundamentally a giant thermonuclear fusion reactor, fusing hydrogen
nuclei and producing helium. So, it produces a tremendous amount of energy.
The Sun has no distinct surface or discrete physical boundary (the apparent
surface is merely optical). The radius of the Sun is 5-96 105 km, or about 109

Fig. 1-3
Solar flares are associated with a violent
release of energy for a short time, from
an hour to a few days.

12

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

times the radius of Earth. The distance from Earth to the Sun is referred to as
an astronomical unit or AU (1 AU ~ 1.5x106 km).
Temperature, pressure, and density are highest at the core, or center, of the
Sun. The temperature reaches as high as 16 million Kelvin at the core then
decreases farther away from the sun to about 106 K at the highest point of the
atmosphere.
Solar Activity
The activity of the Sun is measured by the number of visible sunspots
(organized in groups). This activity presents a periodicity of approximately 11
years, with essentially 7 years of maximums (i.e., high solar activity levels
related to an increase in the number of sunspots, and associated with violent
emissions of particles), and 4 years of minimums.
Solar Wind
The external gaseous envelope of the Sun, the corona, has an extremely high
temperature, and thus it continuously ejects particles, mainly electrons and
protons. This continuous flux of charged particles constitutes the solar wind
which streams off the Sun in all directions at average speed of charged particles ranges from 400 to 1,000 km/s (1.44 to 3.6 million km/hr).
The solar windcharged particles, under the influence of the solar magnetic
field, diffuse in the entire interplanetary space. These particles originate from
two regions, the Suns equatorial and polar regions. The equatorial area emits
ions at ~400 km/s, which continuously affect the near-Earth environment. The
Suns polar region spits particles out at 1,000 km/s, but these only occasionally
affect our neighborhood (when these regions extend to lower latitudes). Now
we might ask, what happens when these energetic particles hit Earths
magnetic field (or shield)?
Sunspots and Solar Flares
The main features of our active star are best understood through the Suns
magnetism. The Suns magnetism, or magnetic field, is produced by the flow
of electrically charged ions and electrons.
Sunspots are places where very intense magnetic lines of force break through
the Suns surface. The sunspot cycle results from the recycling of magnetic
fields by the flow of material in the interior. Magnetic fields are at the root of
virtually all the features we see on and above the Sun without them the Sun
would be a rather boring star.
Sunspots are the most obvious dynamic phenomenon on the Sun. Large ones
can be seen from Earth with the unaided eye, and they may look like dark
objects passing in front of the Sun. Galileo was the first to show that sunspots
are actually on the Suns surface. In 1851, a German amateur astronomer,
Heinrich Schwabe, published a paper in which he concluded that the number
of sunspots was not constant, but went from a minimum to a maximum about
every 10 years (not too far off the actual 11-year cycle). The magnetic field of

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

the Sun forms vertical bands from the north magnetic pole to the south magnetic pole. From these active regions stem the solar flares that are associated
with a violent release of energy for a short time, from an hour to a few days.
This burst of energy produces various types of radiation, mainly X-rays and
gamma rays, and ejects particles that can have extremely high energy into the
interplanetary environment.

1.3.7 Galactic Cosmic Rays


Galactic cosmic rays are mainly protons, heavy ions, and particles with
extremely high energies. As their name indicates, they are of galactic and/or
extragalactic origin emitted by distant stars and even more distant galaxies,
GCRs diffuse through space and arrive at Earth from all directions. It has been
shown that outside the Earth magnetosphere, the GCR fluxes are isotropic.
Moreover, during solar maximums, the GCR fluxes are lower than during solar
minimums. One way to imagine this effect is to think about solar maximum
periods as a strengthening of the heliosphere, the Sun equivalent of the Earth
magnetosphere, that is, the magnetic shield of the Sun that extends throughout the entire solar system, and hence protects the planets from these
particles.
GCRs are a serious danger to spacecraft, and the humans inside, because a
single particle, since it is highly energetic, can damage any common electronic
component onboard. When a single particle causes such a malfunction, its
effect is called a single event effect (SEE).

1.3.8 The Magnetosphere


The magnetosphere is defined by the interaction of Earths magnetic field and
the solar wind. It is in the magnetosphere that Earths space environment
meets head on the effects of the Sun. Up to 4 or 5 Earth radii, the Earths
magnetic field resembles that of a simple magnetic dipole (a bar magnet),
with field lines originating from the magnetic North pole, curving around in a
symmetric arc, and entering at the magnetic South pole.
A clarification of the NorthSouth axis is needed because what is referred to
as the NorthSouth direction is the axis of the magnetic dipole that is tilted
~11 relative to the axis of rotation of Earth. Moreover, this dipole is offset
500 km toward the west Pacific (it is not at the exact center of Earth), and
hence is not truly symmetrical around Earth, even below 4 Earth radii.

13

14

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

Fig. 1-4
Earths magnetosphere and its
structure. Cosmic charged particles will
be either repelled (orange trajectories)
or trapped by the magnetosphere lines
as illustrated by the (yellow trajectories).

One noticeable effect of this offset is a weaker magnetic field over the south
Atlantic, which is called the south Atlantic anomaly (SAA). In the SAA,
radiation particles interfere with satellite, aircraft, and spacecraft communications. Usually, trapped particles are repelled by the strong magnetic field of
Earth. However, within the SAA the weaker field strength allows more
particles to reach lower altitudes, causing potential damage to spacecraft or
communications blackouts (i.e., no radio signals are received from a
spacecraft) when passing through the SAA because of the high concentration
of charged particles in the region.
These blackouts last about 15 to 30 min per orbit, and typical spacecraft pass
through the SAA approximately 9 to 15 times per day. The SAA is also responsible for exposing astronauts to high doses of radiation in space. The SAA traps
high-energy radiation from solar flares, solar wind, and GCRs. To avoid
unnecessary exposure to this radiation, extravehicular activity (EVA), or
spacewalks, is planned, as much as possible, for orbits that do not pass though
the SAA. At an altitude of 500 km above Earth the SAA ranges from 90 to 40
in geographic longitude and 50 to 0 in geographic latitude. The field lines
deviate substantially from those of a simple dipole.
As the solar wind hits Earths magnetosphere, the magnetic field is
compressed on the day side of the Earth. The region where the solar wind is
stopped (but not exactly) is called the magnetopause. The magnetopause is
situated around 10 Earth radii on the day side in the equatorial plane. However, during violent solar flares, this boundary could be as low as 6 Earth radii
[i.e., approximately geostationary earth orbit
Charged particles of solar or cosmic origin are deviated by Earths magnetic
field when they are not trapped in the Van Allen belts. Therefore, in order for

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

15

a charged particle to reach a given depth in the magnetosphere, it needs to


have certain energy. This energy is attenuated; hence so is its damaging
potential, as it passes through the magnetosphere. This effect is called
magnetosphere filtering, and it implies the shielding function of the
magnetosphere.
One implication of shielding is that an orbiting spacecraft in LEO has an
extremely small exposure to solar flares and GCRs, if its orbital inclination is
below 50. This is below the polar regions, which are areas that offer little
resistance to radiation since this is where magnetic field lines converge. The
following section further expands on the consequences of designing spacecraft for the harsh environment of space.

1.3.1 The Van Allen Belts


In addition to SCRs and GCRs, there is a radiation effect closer to home. The
third type of ionizing radiation is contained in the Van Allen belts, which are
doughnut-shaped (toroid) regions of trapped particles, mainly protons and
electrons, around Earth discovered on the Explorer 1 satellite mission on
January 31, 1958. Where do these charged particles come from and how do
they get trapped?
The sources of these high-energy particles are basically the same as those previously described. As the particles hit Earths magnetosphere, they undergo a
velocity modification (charged particle moving in a magnetic field). Under
certain conditions of incident angles and energy, the velocity modification
results in a relatively stable trajectory of the particle around Earth, hence the
particle gets trapped.

James Van Allen (September 7, 1914


August 9, 2006) was an American space
scientist at the University of Iowa. The
Van Allen radiation belts were named
after him, following the 1958 satellite
missions (Explorer 1 and Explorer 3) in
which Van Allen had argued that a
Geiger counter should be used to
detect charged particles.

As observations have shown, after detonation of nuclear weapons in space


(i.e., the Starfish program in 1962), particles may reside in the Van Allen belts
for periods of weeks to several years. Naturally, the particles energy,
structure, and temporal dimensions of the Van Allen belts and radiative environment are functions of the solar activity.
Two concentric regions of trapped electrons have been identified: The first
extends to about 2.4 Earth radii, and its radiation particle population is rather
stable; The second is an outer belt from 4 to 6 Earth radii whose electron
density is highly variable and very sensitive to solar activity. The doughnutshaped Van Allen belts are distributed nonuniformly within the magnetosphere, and extended stays in either could be fatal to humans.

1.3.2 Environmental Impact on Spacecraft Design


Energetic radiation can severely degrade the optical, mechanical, and
electrical properties of a spacecraft. Specifically, satellite degradation results
from ionization of atoms encountered the breakup of chemical liaison, and
displacement of atoms from crystal lattice sites.

Inner belt
Outer belt

Fig. 1-5
Van Allen belts.

16

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

The important parameters that aerospace engineers design for include


cumulative dose of radiation, transient effects that depend on the instantaneous flux of radiation, and electrostatic arcing due to the accumulation of
electric charges encountered
Cumulative Dose Effects
The absorbed dose is defined as the ratio of the average energy transferred to
a given volume of a material by the radiation, per mass of this volume The SI
unit for the absorbed dose is the Gray (Gy), defined as 1 joule absorbed in 1
kilogram of matter. An older unit that is still often used is the rad, where 100
rad = 1 Gy.
Note that the absorbed dose is a macroscopic cumulative parameter, and
therefore it cannot pretend to capture the entire range of radiation effects on
a spacecraft or material.
Single Event Effects
SEEs are radiation events caused by a single energetic particle (galactic cosmic
rays, solar protons, trapped particles in the Van Allen belts), which are most
damaging to electronic components.

Ulysses (named after the Latin


translation of Danties Odysseus) was a
robotic space probe designed to study
the Sun, launched on October 6, 1990
as a joint mission of NASA and ESA to
study the Sun at all latitudes. As one of
the longest and most successful space
missions ever, it has finally ended, with
ground shut-down commands on June
30, 2009.

As the particle plows through a chip, it creates along its path a localized
ionization. This ionization in turn can result in the following: If the electronic
component is a memory device, local ionization can result in a change of the
data point or state of the device (a change of 0 to 1 or vice versa). This
phenomenon is called a single event upset (SEU) and is often nondestructive.
Some electronic components undergo a single event latch-up (SEL). In this
case, a conduction path is created between the power input and a substrate
of the component power source, which can drag down the satellite bus
voltage. If the device is not being monitored (by a watchdog) and is not disconnected when a latch-up is detected, the excessive current may lead to the
destruction of the component, or burnout (single event burnout, SEB). SELs
and SEBs tend to be quite destructive SEEs. The SEE severity depends on the
specific type of event and the system criticality of the component. Shielding
the satellite and components has little effect against SEEs.

1.3.3 Spacecraft Electrostatic Charging


Electrostatic charging of a spacecraft on orbit always occurs. Some materials
accumulate charges on the day side of the orbit but discharge during eclipse,
maintaining a relatively low voltage (~1 kV for kapton or 3 kV for quartz),
depending on the duration of eclipse and Sun lighting. Other materials such as
Teflon continuously accumulate charges, regardless of the position of the
spacecraft on orbit; hence high voltage, 6,000 - more than 20 kV, can be
measured. These materials should not be used on the surface of a satellite.
However, the high voltage encountered on a satellite surfaces is not the main
danger of surface charging, but rather the differential charging (that is, if a

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

17

surface material is at 6,000 V while the next to it is at 1,000 V) which might


result in arc discharges.
Arcing induces severe perturbations to the onboard electronics, ranging from
clock resets and mode changes in instruments to complete loss of the
payload. The simplest way to prevent this is to use conductive surfaces (same
potential everywhere) whenever possible on the spacecraft. Highly energetic
particles can induce internal charging in a spacecraft as well as external, and
internal arcing is potentially more dangerous, but it is less probable.

1.3.4 Metroids and Micrometroids


The background interplanetary meteoroids are solid objects whose size and
mass vary over many orders of magnitude from very small to extremely large
(10-15 to 1013 kg). They are most likely of cometry or asteroidal origin. Micrometeoroids are usually solid particles with a mass range from 10-15 to 0.1 kg.
To the aerospace engineer, the primary concern with meteoroids is their
probability of collision with the spacecraft. Micrometeoroids near Earth often
have sufficient energy to penetrate protective satellite coatings and to
degrade surface thermal properties.
Technical solutions exist to harden satellites (e.g., through coatings, thermal
conditioning, extra outside material layers). Regardless, a meteoroid can be
fatal to a spacecraft, and nothing can be done to prevent it except to spot the
object prior to impact and maneuver the satellite out of its orbital path.

1.3.5 Space Debris


The space debris picture shown raises our concern and consciousness of the
problem, and the dangers posed by this human-made debris to operational
spacecraft (whether manned or unmanned).
A dramatic illustration of this fact is the recent impact of the mini satellite
Cerise with an Ariane 4 third stage. Ground controllers lost contact with
Cerise, a small British-built satellite, only to discover weeks later that the satellite was struck by a fragment from an Ariane rocket which had exploded
several years previous. During a recent Hubble Space Telescope repair
mission, astronauts found a small hole in the dish of one of the telescopes
antennas. The likely cause is space junk. To make matters worse, during the
same repair mission while Hubble was docked to the Shuttle payload bay, a
fragment from a Pegasus rocket that exploded several years ago came
dangerously close, causing an immediate action to fire the Shuttle
maneuvering jets to avoid this close encounter.
More recently, a US commercial Iridium communications satellite and a
defunct Russian satellite (Cosmos 2251, a communications relay station
launched in June 1993 and was non-operational for almost 10 years before)
ran into each other on 11 February 2009, creating a cloud of debris. The two
satellites collided at an altitude of 790 km over northern. US radar tracking
detected some 600 pieces of debris.

Fig. 1-6
This is how human-made spacecraft
objects occupying the near-Earth space
environment look like to an external
observer.

18

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

Fig. 1-7
The solar system. The well-known nine
planets in addition to the largest known
asteroids to-date. The planets shown
are of the correct scale and order from
the sun. Distances are not to scale.

1.3.6 The Solar System


Fig. 1-7 illustrates the relative sizes of the planets belonging to our solar
system. Jupiter is the largest and Ceres is the smallest.

REFERENCES
Hubble Telescope. (n.d.). Retrieved 2008, from
www.hubblesite.org/the_telescope/hubble_essentials/

Hubble

Site:

Ptolemy. (n.d.). Retrieved 2008, from History of Mathematicians: wwwgroups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Ptolemy.html


Astrolabe. (n.d.). Retrieved 2008, from www.metmuseum.org
Astronomy in ancient Egypt. (n.d.). Retrieved February 12, 2010, from
Egyptology Online: http://www.egyptologyonline.com/astronomy.htm
Doyle, S. E. (1994). Civil Space Systems: Implications for International Security.
United Nations Institute for Diarmament Research (UNDIR).
James, G. G. (1954). Stolen Legacy: Greek Philosophy is Stolen Egyptian
Philosophy. New York: Philosophical Library.
King, D. (n.d.). Astronomy in the Baghdad of the Caliphs. Institute of the
History of Science, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University.
Newman, D. (2002). Interactive Aerospace Engineering and Design (1st ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Newtons Life. (n.d.). Retrieved 2008, from www.newton.ac.uk/newtlife.html

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

19

Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University


Press.
Role
of
Islam.
(n.d.).
Retrieved
www.moonsighting.com/articles/roleofislam.html

2008,

from

Saliba, G. (n.d.). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?


Retrieved
2008,
from
www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html
Stephen Schneider and Thomas Arny. (2007). Pathways to Astronomy. New
York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Unsld, A., & Baschek, B. (2001). The New Cosmos: An Introduction to
Astronomy and Astrophysics. Berlin Springler.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
Walter, U. (2008). Astronautics: The Physics of Space Flight (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH.

20

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

Two Body Problem


and Keplerian Motion

I can calculate the motion of heavenly bodies, but not the madness of people!
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Earth orbiting spacecraft are attracted by the Earth as the main gravitational
force. The Earth gravitational force is not the only force affecting the
spacecraft; however, it is the dominating force on the spacecraft. In order to
obtain a good approximate description of spacecraft motion, we assume that
the spacecraft is attracted only by the central body (Earth for Earth orbiting
satellites.) If the central body is spherical with a homogenous mass
distribution, then we can assume the central body is a point mass. In this case,
the spacecraft motion is called two-body motion.
The motion of a spacecraft is usually described by its position and velocity
vectors, as functions of time, in a defined reference frame. In order to
understand the motion of a spacecraft, we will start by reviewing fundamental
kinematic and dynamic relations, in section 2.1. Section 2.2 derives the
governing equations of motion of a spacecraft, starting from Newtons
gravitational law. The geometrical solutions for the spacecraft equations of
motion, in a two-body problem frame, are discussed in section 2.3.

2.1 Background

This section provides a brief review of necessary concepts and definitions


from kinematics and dynamics of particles. We strongly recommend the
reader to go through this review material before proceeding to the two-body
problem.

The motion of any particle P (as shown in Fig. 2-1) can be tracked in
a Euclidian space with the help of a Cartesian coordinate system and a clock!
In the frame of reference XYZ, we can define the particle position r(t ) as

C
Z

2.1.1 Particle Kinematics

r
s

Fig. 2-1
Particle kinematics.
21

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

22

r(t) = x(t)i + y (t) j + z(t)k

(2-1)

where i , j , and k are unit vectors in the X, Y, and Z directions.

r = r = (r r )1/ 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2

(2-2)

Then, the particle velocity is

dr
= r = x i + y j + zk
dt
= vx i + v y j + vz k

v (t ) =

(2-3)

and its acceleration is

dv
= v = r
dt
= v x i + v y j + v z k

a (t ) =

(2-4)

= axi + a y j + azk
Particle Trajectory
The trajectory or path of a particle is the locus of points the particle occupies
as it moves through space. Since a velocity vector describes the direction of
motion (or the future position of the particle), it is always tangent to the
trajectory.
The velocity vector of a particle is always tangent to its trajectory.

V
ut

a
un

C
Z

O
X

Let us introduce the unit vectors u t and u n (as illustrated in Fig. 2-2) which
are the tangent and normal to the particle trajectory at its local position
respectively. Since the velocity is always tangent to the trajectory, then we
can write it as

r
s

(2-5)

v = v = vv

(2-6)

Where

Fig. 2-2
Particle trajectory and osculating plane.

v = vu t

The distance traveled by the particle along its trajectory, s is related to the
particle speed (magnitude of velocity) through

ds = v.dt
v = s
Note that s = v r , or

(2-7)

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

d
(r
dt

23

(2-8)

See Example 2-1 for illustration. The acceleration of the particle can be
expressed in the osculating plane (the plane of motion) in terms of the unit
vectors u t and u n as follows

a = a t u t + an u n

(2-9)

where

at = v = s, an =

v2

(2-10)

Fnet

and is the radius of curvature of the trajectory at the particle position,


which is the distance from the particle position to the center of curvature C as
illustrated in Fig. 2-2.
EXAMPLE 2-1

P
m

Take = 3 + 2 . Calculate
SOLUTION

d
() and
dt

compare it

d
todt .

Fig. 2-3
Particle kinetics.

= 3

= 3

= 9 2 + 4

=
=

9 2 + 4

Obviously, for all > > 0,

2.1.2 Particle Dynamics

Fg

4
1 + 2
9

Angular Momentum
The angular momentum of a particle about a point is the moment of
momentum (or more specifically, linear momentum) of the particle about that
point. For the particle P shown in Fig. 2-3, which has mass (m), the angular
momentum H about O is given by

Fg
r

Fig. 2-4
Earth and a rotating satellite is a good
approximation of two-body system.

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

24

(H )O = r (mv)

(2-11)

Then, for constant m, we can find the rate of change of angular momentum

(H )O = d [r (mv)]

dt
= r (mv) + r (ma )

Fg

Z
M
Z

The first term on the right hand side will cancel by vector identity (Note that
r v = v v = 0 ). If the net force acting on the particle is Fnet , then from
Newtons second law (conservation of linear momentum), we can write, for
constant m,

Fnet = ma

(2-13)

Therefore, equation (2-12) can be written as

(H )O = r Fnet

Y
X

(2-14)

Now, r Fnet is exactly the moment of the net force Fnet about O, or (M net )O .

Fig. 2-5
Formulation of the two-body problem.

Then, we can write

(H )O = (M net )O

(2-15)

The above equation is analogues to Newtons second law for linear motion,
and is called Newtons second law for angular motion or the conservation of
angular momentum.

r
Moving frame

(2-12)

X
Inertial frame
Fig. 2-6
Inertial frame and moving frame.

2.2 The Two-Body Problem


2.2.1 Problem Description
The two-body problem is the dynamic problem to find the trajectory of
motion of a system composed of two body masses M and m (see figure
Fig. 2-5), for instance, in the absence of any effect other than the mutual
gravitational force given some initial condition on the positions and
velocities of these body masses. From this description, we notice that an
actual two-body system does not exist in reality, but as we will see later, the
trajectory of motion of many body pairs in space can be approximated, to a
sufficiently high-degree of accuracy, by a two-body motion.

2.2.2 Problem Formulation


In order to mathematically formulate the problem, let us consider the system
of two body masses M and m (as shown in Fig. 2-5). Assume XYZ is an
inertial frame of reference (frame of reference which is neither accelerating

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

25

nor rotating as illustrated in Fig. 2-6). Let XYZ be a non-rotating frame of


reference parallel to XYZ with its origin O coincident with the center of mass
M.

Fg = G

Mm r
r2 r

(2-16)

2.2.3 Equation of Motion


The position vectors of M and m with respect to XYZ are rM and rm
respectively. Then, the position of m relative to M will be

r = rm rM

(2-17)

Applying Newtons second law of motion to m and M, we get

mrm = G

Mm r
r2 r

(2-18)

MrM = G

Mm r
r2 r

(2-19)

rm = G

Mr
r2 r

(2-20)

rM = G

mr
r2 r

(2-21)

Or

If we subtract (2-21) from (2-20), we get

rm rM = r = G

(M + m)
r
r3

(2-22)

Equation (2-22) is the vector differential equation of the relative motion of the
two-body system. Now, if we assume one of the masses is much smaller than
the other, specifically, m << M, then G(M + m) GM and equation (2-22)
becomes

GM
r = 3 r
r

(2-23)

If we compare equation (2-23) and equation (2-20), we notice that r and r


will measure the same magnitude and direction whether in XYZ or XYZ
(Recall that the frame XYZ is non-rotating and parallel to the inertial frame
XYZ). The quantity GM is called the gravitational parameter which can be

26

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

found from the astronomical data of most known celestial objects. Hence, the
equation of motion will become

r +

r=0
r3

(2-24)

We notice that the equation of motion (2-24) is a 2nd order differential


equation of position in time which needs to be integrated twice to obtain the
trajectory of a spacecraft for example. Then, two constant vectors are needed
for the solution of the equation of motion, which may be taken as the initial
position and velocity vectors.

2.2.4 Constants of Motion


If we take the dot product of the equation of motion (2-24) with r we get

r r +

r r = 0
r3

(2-25)

The first term can be mathematically manipulated as

r r =

d v2
1 d
1d
(r r ) =
( v v) =
dt 2
2 dt
2 dt

(2-26)

We know that

d
(r r) = 2r r
dt

(2-27)

d
d
(r r) = (r 2 ) = 2rr
dt
dt

(2-28)

But

Then, we get the important relation

r r = rr

(2-29)


, we get
r

We notice that, if we take the time derivative of

d
= 2 r = 3 (rr) = 3 r r
dt r r
r
r
Now, if we substitute from (2-26) and (2-30) into (2-25) to get

(2-30)

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

d v 2
=0

dt 2 r

27

(2-31)

By integration, the quantity in brackets will be a constant. This quantity is


also the total mechanical energy per unit mass of spacecraft, . The total
mechanical energy of spacecraft is the summation of the kinetic energy,
1 mv 2 and
2

potential energy, m . We know from dynamics that the


r

potential energy of an object depends upon the selection of the datum at


which the potential energy vanishes. Here, we opt to have the datum for
gravitational potential at infinity. For other selections of datum, at the center
of M, for example, a constant should be added to m
two-body motion, we can write

. Therefore, for the


r

v2
= const
2 r

(2-32)

Now, let us take the cross product of the equation of motion (2-24) with r
from left to get

rr = 0
r3

(2-33)

The second term on left hand side vanishes by vector identity, since r r = 0 .
So, we have

r r = 0

(2-34)

Now, if we take the time derivative of r r , we get

d
(r r) = r r + r r = r r = 0
dt

(2-35)

Note that r r = 0 . By integration, the quantity in brackets will be a constant.


This quantity is nothing but the angular momentum of spacecraft per unit
mass h about the center of the central body (O). So, we can write

h = r r = r v = constant

(2-36)

Z
Y

X
Fig. 2-7
Angular momentum.

Equation (2-32) is known as the energy equation which is also referred to as


the vis viva equation (vis viva, in Latin, means the living-force). This is the first
constant of motion which complies with the conservation of energy principle.
According to which, a body moving in a conservative field, such as the
gravitational field, has constant mechanical energy.

r r +

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

28

This is the second constant of motion which complies with the conservation of
angular momentum principle. According to equation (2-15), since the
gravitational force acting on spacecraft always passes through the center of
the central body (O), it will have zero moment about O. Hence, the angular
momentum of the particle about point O will be invariant. We also notice that
since h = r v = const , the plane of motion which contains r and v (the
osculating plane) will be fixed in space. For convenience, we will usually refer
to angular momentum per unit mass as angular momentum and mechanical
energy per unit mass as mechanical energy.

2.2.5 Trajectory Equation


To find the trajectory, we need to integrate the equation of motion. The
nonlinear equation of motion cannot be integrated directly. Instead, we will
use the following procedure to integrate the equation of motion indirectly.
First, let us take the cross product of equation (2-24) with h from right, we get

r h +

(2-37)

We can show that

m
M

rh = 0
r3

d
(r h ) = r h + r h = r h
dt

(2-38)

The term r h will vanish since h is constant. Also since

r h = r ( r v ) = r( r v ) v ( r r )

Fig. 2-8
True anomaly.

= r r r r 2 v

(2-39)

We also notice that

d r

r r
2
= 2 r = 3 r r r r v = 3 r h
dt r
r
r
r r

(2-40)

Now, if we substitute from (2-40) and (2-38) into (2-37), we get

r
d
r h = 0

r
dt

(2-41)

r
r h = B
r

(2-42)

By integration we get

Where B is a constant vector which can be determined from initial conditions


of the motion. Take the dot product of (2-42) with r , to get

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

r (r h ) =

rr + rB
r

29

(2-43)

By vector identity, we can write the left hand side as

r (r h ) =

rr + rB
r

(2-44)

Then,
h 2 = r + rB cos

(2-45)

Where is the angle between B and r (as shown in Error! Reference source
not found.The angle is called true anomaly. The true anomaly of spacecraft
may be considered as an angular coordinate of the spacecraft position
measured from a fixed direction in the plane of motion. Now, we can solve (245) for r

r=

h2 /
1 + (B / ) cos

(2-46)

So, the two-body motion is a planar motion which is described by the above
equation. But how does the trajectory look like? Let us have a look on the
equation of a conic section in polar coordinates, r and .

r=

p
1 + e cos

(2-47)

p and e are called the parameter 3 and eccentricity of the conic section,
respectively. If we compare the two-body trajectory equation and the
equation of a conic section in polar coordinates, we find that they will match
exactly, if we let
p = h2 /

(2-48)

e = B /

(2-49)

and

So, let us define

e=

(2-50)

Then, we can write the trajectory equation as

3 In many texts, it is also referred to as the semi-latus rectum. In this textbook, we will use the name
parameter throughout.

Fig. 2-9
A conic section is a curve obtained by
intersecting a circular cone with a plane.
The conic sections were named and
studied as early as 200 BC, when
Apollonius of Prego undertook a
systematic study of their properties.

30

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

r=

h2 /
1 + e cos

(2-51)

Since cosine is an even function, therefore the trajectory described by the


orbit equation is symmetric about the apse line (the line defined be vector ).

2.2.6 Orbital Elements

The position of a spacecraft can be specified using six parameters; for


example, the six scalar components of the position and velocity vectors r and
v at epoch t. Another set of six parameters which are commonly used in
specifying spacecraft positions in space are the classical orbital elements. In
order to specify a spacecraft position in space completely, we need to specify:
The Orbit Plane
In general a plane can be defined in space using two parameters. These two
parameters could be two components of a unit vector normal to the plane, or
two angles measured from a reference frame. In the standard orbital
elements, the orbit plane is defined using two angles:
inclination of the orbit plane to the fundamental plane (the equatorial
plane in an Earth orbit),

right ascension of ascending node, which is the angle measured from a


reference direction to the ascending node in the fundamental plane.

The Shape of Orbit

The shape of orbit is specified by any two of the following four parameters.
semi-major axis

semi-minor axis

eccentricity
parameter

In standard orbital elements, and are used to describe the shape of orbit.
Orientation of the Orbit in Plane

Once we have specified the orbit shape and plane, then we need to describe
how to place the ellipse in the plane. This is done by specifying the angle
argument of perigee, which is the angle measured from the ascending
node to the periapsis.
The Position of Spacecraft on the Orbit

Finally, the spacecraft position in orbit is l by the true anomaly angle .

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

31

true anomaly, which is the angle measured from periapsis to spacecraft


position.

2.2.1 Orbit Equations

Equation (2-51) is known as the orbit equation, which defines the path of
a spacecraft with respect to the central body. It gives the spacecraft position
as a function of true anomaly .
Velocity Vector Components

The spacecraft velocity components along and perpendicular to are


and , respectively.
= = =

1 + cos

(1 + cos )


2
sin

= =
=
=
1 + cos
(1 + cos )2 2
2
3
sin
2

=
sin

(1 + cos )2 1 + cos

(2-52)

(2-53)

Flight Path Angle

The spacecraft flight path angle can be calculated from

Energy of Orbital Motion

tan =

sin
=
1 + cos

(2-54)

From the orbital equation, is only minimum when = 0. This point is called
the periapsis of the orbit (which means the closest point in Greek). At
periapsis, we have
2 1
1 +

= 0 ; = (1 + )

At periapsis, the energy function becomes


=

But at periapsis, = 0. Therefore, = = . Then,


but

1 2

2 2

(2-55)
(2-56)

(2-57)

(2-58)

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

32

Substituting into the energy, we get


=

2 1
1 +

1 2

(1 2 ) = (1 2 )
2
2
2

(2-59)

(2-60)

2.2.2 Characteristics of the Two-Body Problem


The only possible path for an orbiting satellite in a two-body system is a conic
section (circle, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola). The focus of the conic orbit is
located at the center of the central body. The mechanical energy () of a
satellite (sum of kinetic and potential energies) does not change as the
satellite moves along its conic orbit. However, the kinetic and potential
energies may exchange. The orbital motion takes place in a plane which is
fixed in inertial space. The specific angular momentum (h) of a satellite about
the central body remains constant. Hence, as r and v changes, the flight path
angle () must change as well to keep h = r v constant.
V

2.3 Keplerian Orbits

Fig. 2-10
Circular orbit.

We have in the previous section that the solution of the two-body system
results in a planar trajectory which has the shape of a conic section. Since such
orbits agrees with the Keplers laws of planetary motion, the two-body orbits
are usually referred to as Keplerian orbits. A Keplerian orbit can be circular,
elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic.

2.3.1 Circular Orbits


If we let = 0 in the orbit equation,

2
=
constant

This proves that the orbit is circular. Since = 0, therefore = 0 and =


.

= =

2 ()2
=

(2-61)

(2-62)

The time, T required for one orbit is known as the period. Since speed is
constant,
=

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

circumference
2
=
speed

The specific energy becomes

2 3 2
2 =
;

2.3.2 Elliptical Orbits

33

(2-63)

1 2

=
2
2

(2-64)

(2-65)

If 0 < < 1, then the orbit equation is bounded. The initial orbit equation
describes an ellipse if it is bounded from 0 < < 1. The minimum value of
is
=

and its maximum value is

2 1
1 +

(2-66)

2 1
1

(2-67)

2 = +

2 =

(2-68)

1
1

1 1 +

2 1
2
=

= (1 2 )
1 2

(1 2 )
=
1 + cos

Projection of on apse line is .

(1 2 )
1 +

= cos(180 ) = cos =

(2-69)
apoapsis

(2-70)

(2-71)

(2-72)

(1 2 )
cos
1 + cos

(2-73)

Fig. 2-11
Elliptic orbit.

periapsis

34

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

rB

F
ae

Fig. 2-12
Geometry of an ellipse.

ra

Solving for ,

rp

= cos

(2-74)

2 = 2 ()2 = 2 (1 2 )

(2-76)

(2-75)

= 1 2

(2-77)

1 2
(1 2 )
2 2
But for an elliptic orbit, 2 = (1 2 )

=
2
=

=
2
2

(2-78)

(2-79)
(2-80)

The area swept by the position vector during time dt can be found from the
area of the triangle which side are r and r + dr as shown in Fig. 2-13. The
differential area is then

Fig. 2-13
Keplers law.

1
1

= ( + ) =
2
2
2

This gives the well known Keplers law



=
2
If we integrate over one full orbit, we get

=
2
The area of ellipse = . Then, we can write

(2-81)

(2-82)

(2-83)

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

or

(2-84)

(2-85)

2 2
1 2

But 2 = (1 2 ), then we can write


=

(2-86)

3 2
= 2 =

where

(2-87)

= 3

(2-88)

1
=
1 +

Solving for

35

(2-89)

Since + = 2, therefore is the average of and . The average value


for is:
2

1
1

=
() =
(1 2 )
2
2
1 +
= 1 2 = =

(2-90)
(2-91)

2.3.3 Parabolic Orbits


If = 1,

As 180, .

=
=

2
1
1 +

1 2
(1 2 ) = 0
2 2

2
=0
2
2
=

(2-92)

vr

(2-93)

periapsis

(2-94)
(2-95)
Fig. 2-14
Parabolic orbit.

36

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

If a spacecraft is on a parabolic orbit, it will reach with zero velocity.


Parabolic orbits are called escape trajectories. At a distance from Earth, the
2

escape velocity is = . If spacecraft is in a circular orbit,


= 2circ

(2-96)

This indicates a required velocity boost of 41.4%

From trigonometric identities,

tan =

sin
1 + cos

sin = 2 sin cos


2
2

cos = cos 2 sin2 = 2 cos2 1


2
2
2
tan = tan

2.3.4 Hyperbolic Orbits


If > 1, then the orbit equation

2
1
1 +

(2-97)

(2-98)
(2-99)
(2-100)
(2-101)

(2-102)

describes a hyperbola. Two symmetric curves, one is occupied by the


spacecraft and the other one is empty. The true anomaly of asymptotes,
1
= cos1 ;

90 < < 180

periapsis
empty focus

rp
Fig. 2-15
Hyperbolic orbit.

a
|ra|

(2-103)

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

Where corresponds to . From trigonometry,


sin =

2 1

37

(2-104)

For < < , spacecraft is in hyperbola I while for < < (360
), vacant orbit in hyperbola II is traced.

For = 0,

For = ,
=

2 1
1 +

2 1
; < 0
1

2 = | | =
=

2 1
2 1

( 2 1)
=
1 +

= ( 1); = ( + 1)
=

1 2
(1 2 )
2 2
=

(2-105)

(2-106)

(2-107)
(2-108)

(2-109)
(2-110)
(2-111)
(2-112)

Hyperbolic excess speed, occurs when spacecraft is at , given that:

2
=
2 =
+
2 2

Recall that = ,

2
2
2 = esc
+
2

(2-113)

(2-114)

The characteristic energy 3 =


where represents excess kinetic energy
over that which is required to simply escape from the center of attraction.

38

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

EXAMPLE 2-2
At a given point on a spacecraft geocentric trajectory, = , ,
= . / and = , show that the path is hyperbolic. Then,
calculate 3, , , , , and .
SOLUTION

2
= = 7.389 km/s

Since > , therefore it is hyperbolic.


a) Compute

= cos = 8.6 cos 50 = 5.528 km/s


= 80708.4 km2 /s

b) Compute

2
1 + cos

cos = 0.1193

= sin =

sin = 6.588 km/s

sin = 1.334

sin
= tan = 11.18
cos
= 84.89

c) Compute
d) Compute
e) Compute

= 1.339
=
=

2 1
= 6986 km
1 +

2 1
= 20609 km
2 1

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

2.3.5 Summary of Keplerian Orbits


The following table summarizes all the important relations for Keplerian
orbits. We notice that the parameters of a parabolic orbit can be obtained
from the parameters of an elliptic orbit if we let . The parameters of
hyperbolic orbit can be obtained from those of elliptic orbit if we replace each
with .

Circular

Elliptic

Parabolic

Hyperbolic

e=0

0<e<1

e=1

e>1

rp = a(1 e)

rp , ra

rp = ra = R

r a

2 3 / 2
R

2 3 / 2
a

2R

ra = a(1 + e)

2a

rp = p/2

2
r

rp = a(1 e)
ra = a(1 + e)

2
+
r
a

2a

REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.

39

40

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

PROBLEMS
P2-1

Search the web for the orbit radii and eccentricities of the following
satellites:
(a) Global Positioning System (GPS)
(b) MEASat - 5
(c) RazakSat
(d) Ofeq-5
(e) Molniya-1

P2-2

The position and velocity of a satellite at a given instant are described


respectively by

= 2 + 2 + 2 DU ,

= 0.5 + 0.3 + 0.4 DU/DT

where i,j,k is a non-rotating geocentric coordinate system.


(a) Find the specific angular momentum (h) and
(b) total specific mechanical energy () of the satellite.
P2-3

Show that the two-body motion is confined to a plane, which is fixed


in space.
[Hint: Start with the two-body equation of motion. Then, show that
the osculating plane (the plane of the position and velocity vectors) is
fixed in space].

P2-4

A certain Earth satellite orbit has a periapsis radius = 1,507 km and


apoapsis radius = 39,305 km.
(a) Find the orbit eccentricity.
(b) Find the specific energy of the trajectory.
(c) Find the semi-latus rectum or parameter (p) of the orbit.
(d) Find the height of the satellite at a true anomaly 100. Take
Earths radius as 6,378 km.

P2-5

Repeat problem P2-4, if the Earth satellite orbit has a semi-major axis,
a, of 10,000 km and eccentricity, e, of 0.3.

P2-6

A spacecraft has the following position vector as a function of time (t)


in canonical units
= 1.5 cos cos + 1.5 sin 1.5 cos sin

where i,j,k are the unit vectors of a non-rotating geocentricequatorial coordinate system.
(a) Find the velocity vector of the spacecraft as a function of time
and its magnitude.
(b) Find the angular momentum vector of the spacecraft as
a function of time and its magnitude.

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

(c) Find the total mechanical energy of the spacecraft.


(d) Find the inclination of the spacecraft orbit.
P2-7

Show that for any Keplerian orbit, the velocity is given by

= 1 + 2 cos + 2

P2-8

The United States BMEWS (Ballistic Missile Early Warning System)


detects a UFO (Unidentified Flying Object) with the following
parameters:
Altitude = 0.5 DU, Speed = 0.8164965809 DU/TU, and Flight-path
angle = 30. May this object be a space probe intended to escape the
Earth, an Earth satellite or a ballistic missile?

P2-9

Determine the true anomaly of the point(s) on an elliptic orbit at


which the speed is equal to the speed of a circular orbit with the same
radius, i.e., = circ.

vellip

vcirc

Fig. P2-9

[Answer: cos1()]

P2-10 A flying object has been observed from the Earth. The object was
determined to be travelling at an altitude of 300 km and velocity of
7.5 km/s with a flight path angle of 20.
(a) Calculate the angular momentum of the object about the
center of Earth.
(b) Calculate the total mechanical energy of the object.
(c) Determine the eccentricity of the object trajectory and specify
its shape.
(d) Calculate the true anomaly of the object at epoch.

41

42

CHAPTER 2 TWO BODY PROBLEM AND KEPLERIAN MOTION

Coordinate Systems

I can calculate the motion of heavenly bodies, but not the madness of people!
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

3.1 Introduction

(North pole)

Coordinate system is a reference system that is used to represent the


trajectories of artificial objects or natural celestial bodies in three-dimensional
space. It is classified by:
Being inertial or non-inertial,
Location of the origin, and
Orientation of two axes or the fundamental plane.
Inertial systems are used for the integration of the equation of motion
whereas non-inertial systems are used for observation of space objects which
is needed for orbit determination. Orbit determination will be discussed in
details in a later chapter.

3.2 Classical Coordinate Systems

Equatorial plane

(Vernal equinox)
Fig. 3-1.
Geocentric-equatorial
system.

coordinate

3.2.1 Geocentric-Equatorial Coordinate System


Vernal equinox is the line of intersection between the Earths equatorial
plane and the ecliptic plane. On the first day of spring in the northern
hemisphere, when the noontime sun crosses the equator from South to
North, the position of the Sun at that time defines the direction of
vernal equinox, . This coordinate system has these characteristics:

Origin: Center of the Earth

Fundamental Plane: The equatorial plane

X-axis: Vernal equinox direction from the center of the Earth


Usage: Earth orbiting objects (satellites)

43

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

44

3.2.2 Heliocentric-ecliptic Coordinate System


The heliocentric-ecliptic coordinate system has these characteristics:
Origin: Center of the sun

Z (Celestial north pole)


Y
Ecliptic plane

(Vernal equinox)

Fundamental Plane: Coincides with the ecliptic (plane of the earths


revolution around the sun).
X-axis: Vernal equinox direction , pointing from the sun towards center of
Earth on the first day of autumn
Usage: Planets, asteroids, comets, some space probes

3.2.3 Right Ascension-declination Coordinate System


The right ascension-declination coordinate system has these characteristics:

Fig. 3-2.
Heliocentric-equatorial coordinate
system.

Fundamental Plane: Celestial equator (extension of earths equator to a


fictitious infinite radius sphere called the celestial sphere)
Right ascension, : Measured eastward in the plane of the celestial equator
from the vernal equinox direction
Declination, : Measured northward from the celestial equator to the line-ofsight.
Origin: Center of the earth (geocenteric), or a point on the surface of the earth
(topocenteric), or anywhere else.
Usage: Observation of celestial bodies and space vehicles
We can write as:

Fig. 3-3.
Right ascension-declination system.

Where

r
= r

(3-1)

r = cos cos + cos sin + sin

(3-2)

EXAMPLE 3-1
Given
= 5368 + 1784 + 3691

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

45

Find and .
SOLUTION
r =

= 0.7947 0.2642 + 0.5464

= sin1 0.5464 = 33.12


cos cos = 0.7947
cos sin = 0.2642
cos = 0.9489

= 161.6 or 198.4

Since < 0, = .

3.3 Classical Orbital Elements

Earths north polar axis


e
S/C

Perigee

v
r

Equatorial
plane

Y
Ascending node

Node line

Solution of the two-body problem requires the knowledge of two vector


constants (position and velocity) at some instant, such that the spacecraft
position and velocity can be predicted at any subsequent instant. Vector
description of motion is suitable for computational work, but helps a little to
understand the orbit itself.

Fig. 3-4.
Orbit orientation in space.

Long time ago, astronomers developed orbital elements which easily express
the orbit size, shape and orientation. Orbital elements (sometimes referred to
as Keplerian elements) are five scalar quantities to describe orbit size, shape
and orientation and a six scalar quantity to locate the spacecraft in its orbit. In
a two-body motion (Keplerian orbit), the five elements determining the shape,
size and orientation of the orbit remain fixed with time, whereas the sixth
scalar quantity progresses with time.
Fig. 3-5.
Alternative orbital elements.

3.3.1 Classical Orbital Elements


1. a, semi-major axis
Semi-major axis is a constant defining the size of the conic orbit.
2. e, eccentricity
Eccentricity is a constant defining the shape of the conic orbit.
3. i, inclination

46

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Inclination is the angle between the angular momentum vector, h


and the K unit vector.
4. , longitude of the ascending node
Longitude of the ascending node is the angle between the I unit
vector and the satellite crossing through fundamental plane
northward (ascending node) measured counterclockwise in
fundamental plane when viewed from north of fundamental plane.
5. , argument of periapsis
Argument of periapsis is the angle in the plane of the satellites
orbit, between the ascending node and the periapsis point,
measured in the direction of the satellites motion.
6. 0, true anomaly at epoch
True anomaly is the angle in orbital plane, from periapsis to satellite
position at a particular time, to, called epoch.

3.3.2 Alternative Orbital Elements


1. p, parameter
The orbit parameter can be substituted for semi-major axis, a.
2. , longitude of periapsis
Longitude of periapsis is the angle from I to periapsis measured
eastward to the ascending node, and then in the orbital plane to
periapsis to replace and .
=+

(3-3)

3. u0, argument of latitude at epoch


Argument of latitude at epoch is the angle in the orbital plane,
from the ascending node (if exists) to the position of the
satellite at t0.
4. 0, true longitude at epoch
True longitude at epoch is the angle between I and ro (radius
vector of the satellite at t0) measured eastward to the

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

47

ascending node, then, in the orbital plane, to satellite position


at t0.
o = + o

(3-4)

o = + + o = + o = + o

(3-5)

5. T, time of periapsis passage

Time of periapsis passage is the time when the satellite passed


through the periapsis.

3.3.3 Ephemerides
An ephemeris 4 (plural: ephemerides) was, traditionally, a table giving the
coordinates (in a Cartesian coordinate system, or in right ascensiondeclination system), of the Sun, the Moon, and the planets in the sky at a
given time. A modern planetary ephemeris is software which generates the
coordinates of the planets and often of their satellites, or of asteroids or
comets at virtually any time provided by the user. Typically, such ephemerides
cover very long period of time (several centuries) past and future. The biggest
uncertainties are due to the perturbations on the planets of numerous
asteroids, most of whose masses are poorly known, rendering their effect a bit
uncertain. Solar system ephemerides are essential for the navigation of
spacecraft and for all kinds of space observations of the planets, their natural
satellites, stars and galaxies. 5
Fig. 3-6
Perifocal coordinate system

3.4 Perifocal Coordinate System


is shown in Fig. 3-6. plane is the orbit plane
The perifocal frame
frame centered at focus of orbit.

Origin: Focus of orbit Center of the central body (Earth for example), which is
the focus of the

Fundamental Plane: The orbital plane


-axis: Direction of periapsis from focus with unit vector =

-axis: is at = 90

-axis: is normal to orbit plane in direction of , with a unit vector

Usage: Earth orbiting objects (satellites)


4

From the Greek word ephemeros which means daily.

http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Ephemerides

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

48

3.5 Coordinate Transformations


The position of a spacecraft may be described in many coordinate systems.
The selection of the appropriate coordinate system depends on the source of
position measurements, i.e. the sensor used for determination of the
spacecraft position. The position of the sensor itself is usually given in another
coordinate system. Neither of these coordinate systems is inertial; hence not
suitable for integration of the spacecraft equations of motion. Transformation
from one coordinate system to the other is necessary such as the satellite
position data will be clearly specified in an inertial coordinate system for orbit
determination or propagation.
In the following sections, we will discuss some of the most important
coordinate transformations used.

3.5.1 Transformation from orbital elements to r and v


Q
V

Fig. 3-7.
Transformation
from
elements to r and v.

Transformation from r and v to orbital elements is an interesting and practical


astrodynamic problem. It can be used to update the position and velocity of a
spacecraft to some future time. If 0 and 0 are known at some time 0 , we can
find , , , , , and 0 . Under the two-body assumptions, the elements:
, , , , and are fixed. Only true anomaly changes with time. Having the
new set of orbital elements , , , , , and at a subsequent instant of
time , we can find and in perifocal coordinates; then, transform and
to geocentric-equatorial coordinates.
= +

orbital

where

But

and

= cos + sin

2
1
( + )
1 +
= = +

= cos sin
= sin + cos
= =
= =

(1 + )

(3-6)
(3-7)
(3-8)
(3-9)

(3-10)

(3-11)

(3-12)

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

= ; = ( + )

v = [ sin p + (e + cos )q]


h

49

(3-13)
(3-14)

3.5.2 Transformation from r and v to orbital elements


Assume a radar site on the Earth provides the position vector, r and the
velocity vector, v of a satellite relative to geocentric-equatorial coordinate
system at a particular time (t0). How can we find the six orbital elements
describing the satellite motion?
First, we form the three vectors: angular momentum h, nodal vector n, and
eccentricity vector e. The angular momentum vector is simply formed as
=

(3-15)

(3-16)

The node vector or (nodal vector) is the vector pointing from the center of
earth to the ascending node, which is calculated from (n is perpendicular to
both K (normal to equatorial plane) and h (normal to orbital plane)).

The eccentricity vector e is the vector pointing from the center of the Earth
(focus of orbit) toward perigee with magnitude equal to orbit eccentricity, e.
We can calculate e from
1

= 2 (. )

(3-17)

K
I
n
Fig. 3-8
Transformation r and v to orbital
elements.

50

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Now we solve for the orbital elements according to the following procedure:
= 2 /
=

cos =

cos =

cos =

(3-18)
(3-19)
(3-20)
(3-21)
(3-22)


(3-23)

The inverse of the cosine function gives an angle between 0 and 180 (See
Fig. 3-9.). For inclination, this is not a problem since the correct range of
inclination is already between 0 and 180. However, attention should be
given to the angles , , , and u0 which all range from 0 to 360. Since cos
= cos (360 ), the value of the cosine is not enough to determine the correct
value of , , , and u0.
cos 0 =

By inspection of figure (orbit figure below), we notice that the ascending node
will be east of vernal equinox direction, if 0 < < 180 and west of the vernal
equinox direction otherwise. Therefore, if n.J > 0 (or ny > 0), the ascending
node will be east of the vernal equinox direction, hence 0 < < 180.
Otherwise, 180 < < 360. Also, by inspection of the same figure, we notice
that the periapsis of the orbit will be north to the fundamental plane (the
equatorial plane in case of an Earth satellite), if 0 < < 180 and south to the
fundamental plane otherwise. The eccentricity vector e can be considered as
the position vector of the periapsis in the XYZ coordinate system. Therefore, if
e.K > 0 (or ez > 0), the periapsis will be north to the fundamental plane, hence
0 < < 180. Otherwise, 180 < < 360. Similarly, we can show that if r.K > 0
(or rz > 0), the satellite will be north to the fundamental plane, hence 0 <
u0 < 180. Otherwise, 180 < u0 < 360.

Fig. 3-9.
Cosine function.

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
Walter, U. (2008). Astronautics: The Physics of Space Flight (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH.

51

52

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

PROBLEMS
P3-1

Given the orbital elements for objects A, B, C and D, fill in the blanks
to correctly complete the following statements:
Object

undefined

210

114

180

260

63.4

90

110

23

60

260

0
30
90
140
160

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

Object is in retrograde motion.


Object has a true anomaly at epoch of 180.
Object has its apogee north of the equatorial plane.
Object has a line of nodes coinciding with the vernal
equinox direction.
(i) Object has an argument of perigee of 20.

P3-2

The position and velocity of a satellite at a given instant are given,


respectively, in canonical units by
r = 2.0 i + 3.0 j + 4.0 k DU,
v = 0.2 i 0.2 k DU/TU
where i, j, and k are the unit vectors of non-rotating geocentricequatorial coordinate system.
(a) Find the satellite specific angular momentum, .
(b) What is the eccentricity, and type of the orbit?
(c) Determine orbit inclination, .
(d) Calculate the orbit semi-parameter, .
(e) Find the true anomaly of the satellite,

P3-3

Show that for any Keplerian orbit, the velocity is given by

= 1 + 2 cos + 2

P3-4

The United States BMEWS (Ballistic Missile Early Warning System)


detects a UFO (Unidentified Flying Object) with the following
parameters:
Altitude = 0.5 DU, Speed = 0.8164965809 DU/TU, and Flight-path
angle = 30. May this object be a space probe intended to escape the
Earth, an Earth satellite or a ballistic missile?

P3-5

Determine the true anomaly of the point(s) on an elliptic orbit at


which the speed is equal to the speed of a circular orbit with the same

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

53

radius, i.e., = circ.

vellip

vcirc

Fig. P2-9

P3-6

[Answer: cos1()]

A flying object has been observed from the Earth. The object was
determined to be travelling at an altitude of 300 km and velocity of
7.5 km/s with a flight path angle of 20.
(e) Calculate the angular momentum of the object about the
center of Earth.
(f) Calculate the total mechanical energy of the object.
(g) Determine the eccentricity of the object trajectory and specify
its shape.
(h) Calculate the true anomaly of the object at epoch.

54

CHAPTER 3 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Time Systems

Time and space are modes by which we think and not conditions in which we live.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Time may be defined as the measurement of the interval between two


successive events. It is a fundamental dimension or, at least, a vital element in
every science. When a scientist or layman uses the terms hours, minutes or
seconds he is understood to mean units of mean solar time, which is the time
kept by ordinary clocks. Details of this time scale will be elaborated later.
Many time systems have been utilized to increase the accuracy of time
measurements. There has to be a standard primary epoch 6 from which we
count intervals. In engineering and science, four time systems are employed
to keep time. They are the sidereal time, solar (universal time), dynamical
time, and atomic time. The foundation for the sidereal time and solar time is
the Earths rotation whereas the dynamical and atomic times are not; they are
independent.
In astrodynamics, the precision of time measurements is severely crucial. This
can be observed in several space applications. For example, Earth satellites
have velocities as high as 7 km/s. Therefore, to determine a satellite position,
maybe in a satellite formation, to 5 - 10 cm precision, we need time
measurement to be as precise as 7 - 15 s. In another example, spacecraft
observations information, which are essentially electromagnetic waves,
travels at the speed of light (~ 3105 km/s). So, if we seek a precision in
position of 10 cm, we need a precision of 0.3 ns in. In the following, we will
introduce some of the time systems that were used or are being used for
calculation of time.

Epoch: an instant in time that is arbitrarily selected as a point of reference.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955). GermanSwiss-American theoretical physicist.


Einstein realized the inadequacies of
Newtonian mechanics and his special
theory of relativity stemmed from an
attempt to reconcile the laws of
mechanics with the laws of the
electromagnetic field. He dealt with
classical problems of statistical
mechanics and problems in which they
were merged with quantum theory. He
investigated the thermal properties of
light with a low radiation density and
his observations laid the foundation of
the photon theory of light. Einstein
received Nobel prize in physics in 1921.

55

56

CHAPTER 4TIME SYSTEMS

4.1 Solar Time


Solar time is the ordinary time which is reckoned by the sun. The combination
of the Earths rotation about its axis and the motion about the Sun leads to
the Suns apparent motion. Apparent solar time is the interval between
successive transits which is observed from a certain longitude (So, apparent
solar day will be time between two successive upper transits of the sun across
the local meridian, i.e. from noon to noon). The projection of the solar motion
along the ecliptic onto the celestial equator leads to varying motion along the
celestial equator. So, the apparent solar day varies in length over the year. The
average of the apparent solar day is called the mean solar day.

4.1.1 Julian Calendar


The Julian Date, or JD is defined as the interval of time measured in days from
the epoch at 12:00:00 on January 1, 4713 B.C. This was determined by Joseph
Scalinger 7 in 1582. He used the combination of the solar cycle (28 years), the
Metonic cycle (19 years), and the Roman indication (15 years) to produce a
Julian period which is made of 7980 Julian years (365.25 days). In Julian
calendar, each year consists of 12 months and includes 365 days, unless it is
divisible by 4 (e.g. 2008/4 = 502), then it becomes a leap year and includes 366
days. Therefore, the average Julian year = 365.2500 days. Tropical year is the
time taken by the Earth to travel from equinox back to equinox which is
365.2422 days. Therefore, Julian year > Tropical year.

Fig. 4-1.
Tropical year.

Celestial observations are measured in Julian Day Numbers which are the
number of Julian days (noon to noon) from epoch of noon at Greenwich on 1
January 4713 BC (e.g. 1 Jan 2004 = 2,453,006 JD). The JD enables astronomers
to conduct all their observations in one day. Julian day numbers for any given
day is provided in the Astronomical Almanac which is published yearly.
Table 4-1 can be used to find the Julian date equivalent of Gregorian dates.
There are also various conversion programs which are available over the
internet. The Julian date is an integer and decimal that accounts for the
fraction of day since last noon. A fraction of 0.1 is equivalent to 2.4 hours.
Astronomical observations when specified by JD are denoted by prefix J.
Therefore, J2000 = 12:00:00 Universal Time (UT) on 0 Jan 2000 (31 Dec 1999).

The Julian period was named after Scalingers father and not Julius Caesar as commonly perceived!

CHAPTER 4TIME SYSTEMS

Year

Jan 0

2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016

2453371
3736
4101
4466
4832
5197
5562
5927
6293
6658
7023
7388

57

Feb 0 Mar 0 Apr 0 May 0 Jun 0


3402
3767
4132
4497
4863
5228
5593
5958
6324
6689
7054
7419

3430
3795
4160
4526
4891
5256
5621
5987
6352
6717
7082
7448

3461
3826
4191
4557
4922
5287
5652
6018
6383
6748
7113
7479

3491
3856
4221
4587
4952
5317
5682
6048
6413
6778
7143
7509

3522
3887
4252
4618
4983
5348
5713
6079
6444
6809
7174
7540

Jul 0
3552
3917
4282
4648
5013
5378
5743
6109
6474
6839
7204
7570

Aug 0 Sep 0
3583
3948
4313
4679
5044
5409
5774
6140
6505
6870
7235
7601

3614
3979
4344
4710
5075
5440
5805
6171
6536
6901
7266
7632

Oct 0 Nov 0 Dec 0


3644
4009
4374
4740
5105
5470
5835
6201
6566
6931
7296
7662

3675
4040
4405
4771
5136
5501
5866
6232
6597
6962
7327
7693

3705
4070
4435
4801
5166
5531
5896
6262
6627
6992
7357
7723

4.1.2 Gregorian Calendar


The average Julian year is longer than the Tropical year by approximately 11
min per year. And by the 16th century, Easter (a feast which occurs in spring)
had already occurred in the summer! To resolve this, Pope Gregory XIII issued
the Gregorian calendar in 1582 in which 10 days were omitted from the
calendar and the leap rule was modified. A leap year is divisible by 4, unless it
is a century year then is should be divisible by 400. For example, 2000 is a leap
year, but 2200 is not. Then, the average year becomes 365.2425 days, which
differs from the tropical year by one day every 3300 years! Gregorian calendar
is relevant in that it forms the time basis for western civilization which is also
adopted worldwide. Besides the Gregorian calendar, other calendars are also
adopted in non-western nations such as the Hijri calendar in Muslim countries
and the Chinese calendar in China and south-east Asia.
Julian Date Converter
To convert from Calendar date to Julian date and vice versa, you can use the
following link to the Julian Date Converter maintained by the US Navy.

4.2 Terrestrial time


According to Siedelmann (1992), terrestrial time TT is the theoretical
timescale of apparent geocentric ephemerides of bodies in the solar system.
It is the independent argument in the apparent geocentric ephemerides and
uses the SI second as the primary interval. It is the uniform time that would be
measured by an ideal clock on the surface of the Earth and measures in
86,400 SI seconds per day. TT is independent of the variations in the rotation
of the Earth, polar motion, and nutation and precession. It is also more
uniform than astronomical times.

Precession

Nutation

Earths
rotation

4.3 International Atomic Time


Table 4-1
Conversion from Gregorian dates to
Julian dates.

It is a time system which is independent of the average


rotation of the Earth. It is also known as Temps
Atomique International or TAI and is defined in terms
of vibrations of a cesium133 atom and is measured in
SI seconds. One SI second equals the duration of

Fig. 4-2.
Precession and nutation of the
Earth's Polar Axis

CHAPTER 4TIME SYSTEMS

58

9,192,631,770 cycles of radiation emitted between two hyperfine ground


states of cesium133 at 0K. TAI was developed by the Bureau International
des Poids et Mesures in Svres, France.
TAI achieves a precision that permits the observation of relativistic effects for
clocks in motion or accelerated by a local gravitational field. TAI is not
explicitly tied to the Earth's rotation, although that was precisely the
motivation for the original definition of the second. The epoch of TAI was
arbitrarily defined to be an offset of 32.184 s from Terrestrial Time (TT) for 1
January 1997 (Pisacane, 2005). Therefore,
Fig. 4-3.
Mean solar day versus sidereal day.

TT = TAI + 32.184 s

(4-1)

4.4 Sidereal time

Sidereal time is a direct measure of the Earths rotation about the celestial
pole with respect to the equinox. Vernal equinox is always on the equator.
Hence, sidereal time is defined as the hour angle of the vernal equinox relative
to the local meridian. During one sidereal day, the Earth has to turn slightly
more than one complete rotation on its axis relative to the fixed stars as
shown in Fig. 4-3. This is because the Earth travels about 1/365.24 of the way
around its orbit in one mean solar day. Since the vernal equinox is the
reference point, the sidereal time related to the Greenwich meridian is
termed Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time, GMST. The sidereal time at
a particular longitude is called Local Sidereal Time, LST. LMST stands for Local
Mean Sidereal Time. Thus, the following relationships can be obtained:
1 mean solar day

= 1.0027379093 mean sidereal day


= 24:03:56.55536 of sidereal time
= 86636.55536 mean sidereal seconds

Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time (GAST) is the hour angle of the apparent
or true vernal equinox of date with the hour angle measured west from
Greenwich meridian to the equinox. Greenwich mean sidereal day begins
when the Greenwich meridian coincides with the vernal equinox. Greenwich
Mean Sidereal Time (GMST) is the hour angle of the mean vernal equinox of
date with the hour angle measured west from Greenwich meridian to the
equinox. The difference between GAST and GMST lies in the nutation of the
equinox. Illustrations of GMST, LMST, GAST and LAST are shown in Fig. 4-4.

Fig. 4-4.
Difference between mean
apparent sidereal times.

and

CHAPTER 4TIME SYSTEMS

59

4.4.1 Universal Time


Universal Time (UT) is the number of hours, minutes, and seconds which have
elapsed since midnight (when the Sun is at a longitude of 180) in the
Greenwich time zone. The Mean Solar Time equals the Universal Time. There
are three distinct categories of UT. UT0, UT1, UT2 need to be distinguished for
precise applications. UT0 is found by reducing the observations of stars form
many ground stations. UT0 is also known as the Greenwich Mean Time GMT.
It is a local approximation of the universal time which is often used and not
corrected for polar motion. In UT0, 24 universal hours are defined as mean
solar day. To obtain UT1 or UT, the UTO is corrected for polar motion so time
is independent of station location. The actual universal time (UT) or (UT1) is
tied to the rotation of the Earth. Because the Earth's rotation rate is rather
irregular and unpredictable to 0.1 s, Universal Time can only be deduced from
observations of star transits. The expressions for GMST (0h UT1) at a desired
time in seconds and degrees are:
(0h UT1)
= 24110.54841 + 8640184.812866 ()
+ 0.093104 ()2 6.2106 ()3
=

2 451545.0
36525

= [(0h UT1) + UT1]

360
s
86400

(4-2)

(4-3)
(4-4)

We can convert between GMST and LMST at a particular longitude, using


= +

(4-5)

The above formula needs a designation for east and west longitudes. The
designation that is used here is positive for east longitudes and negative for
west longitudes.
EXAMPLE 4-1

60

CHAPTER 4TIME SYSTEMS

Determine the GMST and right ascension of Greenwich at 0h UT on 1


January 2010.
SOLUTION
At 0h UT on 1 January 2010,
JD = 2 455 166 + 31 + 0.5 = 2 455 197.5
JD of 12h UT 31 days of
on 0 Dec 2009 December
(30 Nov 2009)

Shift from
12h UT to
0h UT

JD of 0h UT
on 1 Jan 2010

TU = (2 455 197.5 2 451 545.0) / 36 525 = 0.1

GMST (0h UT on 1 Jan 2010) = 24,110.548 41 + 8,640,184.812866 (0.1) +


0.093104 (0.1)2 6.2 106 (0.1)3 = 8.881290306276 105 s

30 Dec 2009

31 Dec 2009

1 Jan 2010

1 Jan 2010

2 Jan 2010

2 Jan 2010

Gregorian
Julian Date

Noon
0 Jan 2010

30 Dec 2009

31 Dec 2009

Mid-night
New Year

GMST (0h UT) = 8.881290306276 105 (360/86400s)


= 100.537 627615 deg

4.4.2 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)


Fig. 4-5.
Comparison between various time
systems adapted from (Pisacane,
2005).

The coordinated universal time (UTC) is an approximation of the UT which


differs from TAI by an integer of seconds. It is the basis of most radio time
systems and worldwide legal time systems. UTC is the time standard provided
by the world-wide web and other time broadcast services.
A step adjustment (leap seconds) is usually inserted after the 60th second of
the last minute of December 31 or June 30 such that the following inequality
is always satisfied.
|UT1 UTC| < 0.9 s

(4-6)

4.4.3 Global Positioning System Time

The Global Positioning System GPS is a constellation of 18 operational


satellites which are used to provide worldwide navigation information such as
longitude, latitude, altitude, and time. The GPS time is an estimate of the UTC.
The GPS time has a fixed shift from the TAI.

CHAPTER 4TIME SYSTEMS

GPS = TAI 19 s

61

(4-7)

4.5 Summary of Time Systems


We have introduced many time systems which are involved in the analysis and design of a space
mission. To better understand the relation among all these time systems we refer to the time
chart in Fig. 4-5.

From the time systems chart, we recognize the regularity of the GPS, TAI and
TT time systems which all differ by fixed time shifts. The irregularity of the UT1
is also evident. We also notice from the chart the coordination of the UTC to
satisfy the condition on difference with UT1.

REFERENCES
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
Walter, U. (2008). Astronautics: The Physics of Space Flight (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH.

62

CHAPTER 4TIME SYSTEMS

PROBLEMS
P4-1

Which takes longer, a solar day or a sidereal day? Explain.

P4-2

Why the universal time (UT) does not measure the same seconds as
terrestrial time (TT)?

P4-3

What is the local sidereal time (degrees) of Greenwich, England


(GMST), at 02:00 AM on 15 August 2009?

P4-4

What is the local sidereal time (degrees) of Kuala Lumpur (10142 E


longitude) at 03:30 PM (local time) on 15 August 2009?

P4-5

How many significant digits of decimal degrees are required to match


the accuracy of 12h 41m 37.4567s? Convert your answer for units of
degrees, arc-minutes and arc-seconds.

P4-6

What calendar date corresponds to the following Julian dates?


2,363,592.5, 2,391,598.5, 2,418,781.5, 2,446,470.5, 2,474,033.5. Are
these dates significant?

Orbit Determination

We must admit with humility that, while number is purely a product of our minds, space has a
reality outside our minds, so that we cannot completely prescribe its properties a priori.
Johann C. F. Gauss (1777 1855)

The determination of the orbits of celestial bodies has been a long lasting
scientific interest which possessed most of the greatest minds in mathematics
and physics over the centuries. Tens of most accurate mathematical
techniques have been used and even invented purposely for the sake of orbit
determination. Below is a list of the mathematicians who primarily
contributed to the problem of orbit determination and their major
contributions.

Newton (1642 1727) introduced the first method of orbit


determination from observations, which was a semi-graphical
method, in his Principa
Halley (1656 1742) used the method to calculate the orbits of 24
comets, discover a new comet (Halley comet) in 1705 and foresee its
return in 1758.
Euler (1707 1783) introduced the first completely analytical method
to solve the same problem in his Theory of the Motion of Planets and
Comets
Lambert (1728 1777) gave a general formulation of the problem for
the case of elliptic and hyperbolic orbits
Lagrange (1736 1813) put all incomplete theories in a general
mathematical form.
Laplace (1749 1827) introduced a new method for orbit
determination.
Gauss (1777 1855) invented the method of Least Squares to fit the
best orbit to large number of observations.

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777


1855). German mathematician and
scientist who contributed significantly
to many fields, including number
theory, statistics, analysis, differential
geometry,
geodesy,
geophysics,
electrostatics, astronomy and optics.

63

64

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

5.1 Initial Orbit Determination


The orbit determination means finding the orbit of a spacecraft based on
some observations. Usually the observations are collected on the ground
using equipments like telescopes or radars. An observation is a measurement
for the spacecraft position or direction at a certain time. With few
observations collected over a period of time, it is possible to determine the
orbit of the spacecraft. The determination of the orbit means calculating the
six orbital elements at any point in the orbit, or equivalently calculating the
position and velocity vectors of the spacecraft at any point on the orbit.
When a telescope detects a spacecraft in its field of view, it provides the
direction to the spacecraft at the time of observation. A measurement for the
direction is composed of two angles (e.g. azimuth and elevation). A telescope
cannot provide the distance to the spacecraft (sometimes called the range to
the spacecraft). Radar on the other hand provides the range to the spacecraft
as well as the two direction angles to the spacecraft at each observation time.
One observation (either from radar or a telescope) is not enough to determine
the orbit of the spacecraft. Few observations collected over a period of time
can be processed together to determine the spacecraft orbit. Several methods
have been developed over time for orbit determination. The selection of the
most suitable method to use depends on the available set of observations and
the times at which these observations were collected.
This chapter is not meant to detail all available orbit determination methods,
but rather the a sample of the most common methods will be presented to
acquaint the reader about the type of problem and the methods of orbit
determination.
Fig. 5-1.
Short way and long way.

The observations that have only direction are called Angles Only
Observations. One of the effective methods for orbit determination given
angular measurements is Laplaces method, which requires 3 sets of angular
measurements. It can process data collected from different sites at different
times. Gauss technique is another method for orbit determination from
angular measurements. It is primarily useful if the measurements are
separated by less than 10 deg.
If we have observations for the positions of the spacecraft at two different
locations, then we can implement a Lambert problem solution to determine
the orbit as will be detailed in the next section. If we have three position
vectors available, then Gibbs method can be implemented.

5.2 Two Position Vectors (Lamberts


Problem)
In this section we discuss the problem of orbit determination given that the
observations are two position vectors for the spacecraft at two different
times. This problem is known in the literature as Lambert Problem and it has

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

65

several applications beyond the orbit determination problem including orbit


design and optimal maneuver planning.
We will discuss Lamberts original geometrical formulation developed in 1761.
However, it worth mentioning that there have been several other methods for
solving the Lambert problem developed since then, the latest of them was
developed by Giulio Avanzini and is published in the AIAA Journal of Guidance,
Control, and Dynamics in 2008.
In this section, we assume that the spacecraft is moving on an ellipse. We can
measure the position of the spacecraft at different locations. The position
vectors are and . As can be seen from Figure 5-2, for an orbit that includes
the two measured position vectors, the spacecraft could be moving in two
possible directions. We distinguish between the two directions using the
difference in true anomaly between the two positions of the spacecraft. If is
the true anomaly of the spacecraft at and is the true anomaly of the
spacecraft at , then = . If > 180 then the spacecraft is moving
along the long way and the discrete variable = 1. If < 180 then the
spacecraft is moving along the short way and the discrete variable = 1.
Now, how do we know the value of in the first place? The answer to this
question is simple since we know and
cos() = cos() =

sin() = 1 cos 2 ()

(5-1)
(5-2)

The two vectors, in fact, identify the orbit plane (any two vectors define a
plane). If = 180 , then there are infinite orbit planes. The special case of
= 180 will not be considered here.

Fig. 5-2.
Minimum energy solution.

66

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

There are infinite number of orbits that include the two known vectors and
. All of them are in the same plane. For an ellipse, the sum of the distances
from any point on the ellipse to the two fuci is always constant and is equal to
twice the semi major axis of the orbit. Hence, the semi major axis of any orbit
that includes the two vectors and should satisfy the following relation:
2 = + (2 ) = + (2 )

(5-3)

5.2.1 Minimum Energy Solution

As eluded to in section 5.2, there is infinite number of orbits that include the
two measured vectors. In order to fix one of these orbits, we need an
additional piece of information. For instance, we can select the time of
spacecraft flight between the two vectors. This way we will be able to
determine a finite number of orbits. In this section, we will show how to
compute the particular orbit that has the minimum possible value of semi
major axis (the minimum energy orbit).
Lamberts theorem: The orbit transfer time depends only upon the semi
major axis, the sum of the distances of the initial and final points of the arc
from the centre of force and the length of the chord joining these points.
The length of the cord can be geometrically computed as follows:

= 2 + 2 2 ()

(5-4)

Define the semi perimeter as:

1
= ( + + )
2

(5-5)

Recall that sum of the distances from any point on the ellipse to foci is
constant and is equal to 2. So, the secondary focus F is the intersection of
the two circles, as shown in Figure 5-3. The first circle is centered at the first
point and has a radius of 2 . The second circle is centered at the second
point and has a radius of 2 . So, in order for a solution to exist (in order
for F to exist) the two circles must intersect. On the other hand, the radius of
each of them is proportional to . Since we are interested in the minimum
energy solution, then the circles touch. Show that the touch point is located
on the cord. Lets denote the semi major axis of the minimum energy orbit by
. Then we can write:
(2 ) + (2 ) =

(5-6)

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

+ +
=
4
2

67

(5-7)

Note: If we are looking for the orbit that has minimum eccentricity, we can
show that in that case the major axis of the ellipse will be parallel to the
chord. This particular ellipse is called the fundamental ellipse.
To find the eccentricity of the minimum energy orbit, note that:

2 =

+ +
+
=
=
2
2

(5-8)

Consider the blue triangle, and recall that the distance between the two foci is
2amin emin , then we can write the following identity:
(2 )2 = {( ) }2 + { ( ) }2
2
2
4

= ( )2 (1 2 ) + 2 + ( )2 2

2( )

But,

2 = 2 + 2 2 cos

And note that:

2( ) = 2

2 + 2 02
2

+ + + +


2
2

2 + 2 + 2
=
2

(5-9)

(5-10)

(5-11)

(5-12)

(5-13)

(5-14)

Compare Equation 5-12 and Equation 5-13:

2(1 )
1

Substitute for cos in Equation 5-10,

(5-15)

68

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

2
2
4

= 2

We can then solve for .

4
( 0 )( )

(5-16)

Exercise: show that

2
2
4

= 2 2

And show that:

= ( )( ) =
(1 )

= 1

(5-17)

(5-18)

(5-19)

To calculate the time, the following parameters are introduced:

+ +

=
=
2
4
2

+ +

=
=
2
4
2

(
(

+ +

)=
=
2
4
2

+

)=
=
2
4
2

(5-20)

(5-21)

(5-22)

(5-23)

Kaplan shows that the general time of flight is:


3

= [2 + ( )]
3
[

( )]

(5-24)

(5-25)

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

69

5.3 Three Position Vectors (Gibbs


Method)
If we have three position vectors for the spacecraft then we can use Gibbs
method to determine the orbit. Although the mathematical derivation for the
method may seem lengthy, the Gibbs algorithm is very simple and easy to
implement.
Given three position vectors for the spacecraft , , and . Define the unit

vector in the direction of :

(5-26)

Also define a unit vector perpendicular to the orbit plane:


23 =

r and C 23 are perpendicular to each other.


Both U
1

(5-27)

r . C 23 = 0
U
1

(5-28)

= 1 + 3

(5-29)

The three position vectors have to be in the same plane (the orbit plane), so
we can write the following identity which is valid for any three coplanar
vectors:

From the kinematics of the orbit motion described in Chapter two, It is easy to
show that for any :

= +

Left cross both sides of the equation with , we get:

( ) = +
r

(5-30)

(5-31)

Using the mathematical identity below, we get:

( ) = (. ) (. ) = 2 0 = 2

(5-32)

70

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

Recall the p q w
coordinate system, which is defined as:
= ep ; = hw
; w
p = q
w

=
+ eq
h
r

(5-33)

(5-34)

(5-35)

The above identity is valid at each of the three given positions of the
spacecraft. From Equation 5-29, we can write:

. = . (C1 + C3 )

(5-36)

Also, From the orbit equation, we can write for each position vector:
. =

2
1 ;

Substitute into equation 5-36:

. =

2
2
2 ; . =
3

2
2
2
2 = 1 1 + 3 3

(5-37)

(5-38)

Recall the orbit equation:

It can be rearranged to be:

1 =

2
1
1 +

1 + 1 =

But

1 =

2
1

. e = r1 e cos

(5-39)

(5-40)

(5-41)

(5-42)

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

. e =

Now, note the following identities:

71

h2
r1

(5-43)

( = 1 + 3 ) = 3 ( )

(5-44)

( = 1 + 3 ) = 1 ( )

(5-45)

Eliminate the constants 3 and 1 from Equation 5-38, we get:

2
( + + )

(5-46)
= 1 ( ) + 2 ( ) + 3 ( )

Define the following vectors:

= 1 ( ) + 2 ( ) + 3 ( )

(5-47)

= ( + + )

(5-48)

Note that both vectors, N and D, are functions only in the known three
position vectors. From equation (5-46) we can write:
=

h2

(5-49)

(5-50)

Note: is perpendicular to the orbit plane.

Exercise: show that

Where,

(5-51)

(5-52)

72

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

= 1 ( ) + 2 ( ) + 3 ( )

(5-53)

Recall Equation (5-35):

Substitute for w
, q , and h

(5-54)

(5-55)

Despite the lengthy derivation of the method, the algorithm becomes very
simple and short as follows:

Gibbs Algorithm:
Given , ,

Calculate 1 , 2, 3 , 23
. 23 = 0
Verify:
1

Calculate , , ,

The computation of V2 along with the known r2 completes the orbit


determination!

REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

PROBLEMS
P5-1

Given the following position vectors of a satellite


1 = 0.51 + 0.93 + 0.4 DU,
21 = 0.2
2 = 0.37 + 1.0 + 0.35 DU

where I,J,K are unit vectors of geocentric-equatorial coordinate


system. Find the minimum energy orbit.
P5-2

Given the following position vectors of a satellite


1 = 0.51 + 0.93 + 0.4 DU,
21 = 0.1
2 = 0.43 + 0.98 + 0.38 DU,
32 = 0.1
3 = 0.37 + 1.0 + 0.35 DU

where I,J,K are unit vectors of geocentric-equatorial coordinate


system. Find 2 using the Gibbs Method

73

74

CHAPTER 5ORBIT DETERMINATION

Orbit Perturbations

Absolute true, and mathematical time, in and of itself and of its own nature, without reference
to anything external, flows uniformly Absolute space, of its own nature, without reference to
anything external, always remains homogeneous and immovable.
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

Perturbations are movements away from a normal or undisturbed motion. It is


common to view the universe as being regular and predictable. However,
accurate observational data often shows and clarifies the irregularities of
motion superimposed on the more regular motions of the celestial bodies.
The actual motion will vary from the theoretical two-body path due to
perturbations caused by other bodies (such as the Sun and Moon) and
additional forces not considered in Keplerian motion (such as a non-spherical
central body and drag). Perturbations can occur due to predictable or
unpredictable effects.
The usual perturbing forces we consider for the orbit problem are both
random and predictable. The spherically symmetric gravitational field of the
central body (e.g. Earth) is not the only force field acting on the spacecraft.
Other forces are mainly due to asphericity (not being a perfect sphere) of the
central body, atmospheric drag and lift, third body effects, solar-radiation
pressure, thrust, magnetic fields, solid-Earth and ocean tides, Earth reradiation (albedo), relativistic effects, and others. Examples are atmospheric
drag during reentry and the third body in the restricted three-body problem.
Perturbating effects need to be considered to ensure that interplanetary
missions hit their target and to accurately predict the orbit of the Moon about
the Earth. Ignoring the effects of the central body's oblateness on any satellite
keeps us from accurately predicting its position over a long time. These
secondary effects, or perturbations, were not considered in the two-body
problem formulation. To be considered, we may write the equation of motion
of spacecraft as

r = U + b
U = gravitational potential
b = force vector per unit mass of spacecraft

(6-1)

75

76

CHAPTER 6ORBIT PERTURBATIONS

Source

Table 6-1
Relative magnitudes of perturbing
accelerations.

Acceleration (m/s)
500 km

Geostationary orbit
(35786 km)

Air drag*

6E-5 A/m

1.8E-13 A/m

Radiation
pressure

4.7E-6 A/m

4.7E-6 A/m

Sun(mean)

5.6E-7

3.5E-6 A/m

Moon(mean)

1.2E-6

7.3E-6

Jupiter(max)

8.5E-12

5.2E-11

* Dependent on the level of solar activity


A = spacecraft surface area or frontal area, m = spacecraft mass
Perturbations are usually classified by astrodynamicists into secular
perturbations and periodic perturbations. Secular perturbations cause steady
divergence of orbital elements over time. Periodic perturbations cause
sinusoidal variation of orbital elements over time. The main perturbations on
orbits will be considered in further details.

Long term effects on orbital elements for various types of perturbations


9

short-term
priodic

secular

(arbitrary units)

Orbital element variation

7
6
5
4
3

long-term
periodic

2
1
0
0

Orbit Periods

Fig. 6-1.
Secular and periodic perturbations.

CHAPTER 6 ORBIT PERTURBATIONS

77

6.1 Atmospheric Drag


Next to the oblateness of the Earth, atmospheric drag most strongly
influences the motion of a satellite near Earth and thus cannot be neglected;
in fact during the last few revolutions of the satellite's life, drag effects can be
more dominant than those from the Earth's oblateness. Atmospheric acts with
a force which may be decomposed as drag and lift. Drag can be simply
expressed as

1
FD = ACDV 2
2

= local atmospheric density

= spacecraft frontal area

(6-2)
Successive
orbits

C D = drag coefficient
V

V
drag

= spacecraft velocity relative to the atmosphere

For more distant satellites, third-body effects and solar-radiation pressure


dominate more than oblateness and drag. Investigations of aerobraking and
satellite tethers require accurate atmospheric models. Many references
describe the effects and various analytical procedures to model the drag
effect, but models are still incomplete.

Original
orbit

Earths
atmosphere

The study of drag usually is diveived into three areas:


Fig. 6-2.
Geocentric-equatorial
system.

(1) determining orbits under the influence of drag


(2) estimating a satellite's lifetime
(3) determining physical properties of the upper atmosphere
Lift is usually neglected unless high precision of orbit determination is needed.
The dominant influence of drag is to shrink and circularize orbits leading
eventually to re-entry.
For a small change of orbit radius, the increment of orbit period due to
atmospheric drag is approximated by

3 r / B

= m/AC D = ballistic coefficient of the spacecraft

m = spacecraft mass

( 6-3 )

coordinate

CHAPTER 6ORBIT PERTURBATIONS

78

6.2 Non-symmetric Earths Gravitational


Field
It is convenient to describe the Earths gravitational field using spherical
harmonic expansion

R n

1 + E J n Pn 0 cos
r

2
n
=

(r, , ) =

n R n

E
+ r (Cnm cos m + Snm sin m )Pn 0 cos
m =1

U(r, , )

= gravitatio nal potential at radius r, latitude and longitude .

Pmn

= Legendre polynomial s

( 6-4 )

J n , C nm , S nm = coefficien ts dependent on mass distribution


Jn

= zonal harmonic coefficien ts which are independen t of longitude.

This expression describes the gravitational attraction resulting from the


irregular distribution of the Earths mass using a potential function.
Table 6-2
Magnitude of the lowest order J, C, S
coefficients.

J2

C21

S21

J3

C22

S22

J4

C31

S31

J5

C32

S32

J6

C33

S33

1082.6E-6

-2.53E-6

-1.62E-6

-0.23E-6
-0.54E-6

1.57E-6

2.19E-6

0.31E-6
0.10E-6

-0.90E-6

0.27E-6

-0.21E-6
0.20E-6

6.2.1 The J2 Perturbation

E
Line of nodes

Fig. 6-3.
Regression of line of nodes.

Zonal harmonics are defined by zeroth order (m=0), where the dependence of
the potential on longitude vanishes and the field is symmetrical about the
polar axis. These are simply bands of latitude. It is apparent that the term J2 is
much dominating compared to others. This term represents the Earths polar
flattening (or equatorial bulge). J2 is almost 1000 times larger than the next
largest coefficient (J3). Excess gravitational mass in the equator region affects
spacecraft orbits in two ways: (1) Regression of the line of nodes, and (2)
Precession of the line of apsides.

CHAPTER 6 ORBIT PERTURBATIONS

79

4
3

(/day)

2
1
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

-1
-2
-3
-4

100 x 200km, e = 0.128


100 x 180km, e = 0.09
100 x 160km, e = 0.037
100 x 140km, e = 0.023
100 x 120km, e = 0.009
100 x 100km, e = 0

-5

Fig. 6-4.
Regression of line of nodes. [Nodal
regression in degree/day].

Inclination ()

6.2.2 Regression of Line of Nodes

Line of
apsides

The equatorial bulge produces a torque which rotates the angular momentum
vector. For direct orbits (i < 90), the orbit rotates westward (regression of line
of nodes). Whereas for indirect orbits (i > 90), the orbit rotates eastward.
Nodal regression can be calculated from solution of the equation of motion of
the satellite taking into account the J2 term in the earths potential function.
The perturbed solution gives the regression of nodes per orbit as
2
= 0 3 J 2 R2 E n t cos i + O( J 22 )
2 p

( 6-5 )

We notice that orbits with zero and 180-degress inclination (i.e. equatorial
orbits) will experience no regression of nodes. This is expected since such
types of orbits have no defined nodes. Fig. 6-3. shows the variation of
regression of nodes in degrees per day as a function of orbit inclination,
eccentricity and altitude.

6.2.3 Precession of line of Apsides


The excess mass at the equator over the mean mass tends to curve the orbit
more rapidly at spacecraft crossings with the equator resulting in orbit
rotation. At inclination i 63.4, the precession is zero. This is the inclination
of Molniya orbits.
2

5
= 0 + 3 J 2 R2 E n 2 sin 2 i t + O( J 22 )
2 p
2

( 6-6 )

Fig. 6-5.
Precession of line of apsides.

CHAPTER 6ORBIT PERTURBATIONS

80

100 x 100km, e = 0
4

100 x 200km, e = 0.03


100 x 140km, e = 0.065

100 x 160km, e = 0.128

(/s)

100 x 180km, e = 0.183


2

100 x 200km, e = 0.231

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

-1

Fig. 6-6.
Daily
apsidal
degree/day.

regression

in

105W

165E

Fig. 6-7.
Triaxiality.

rs

Equator

75E

Inclination()

6.2.4 Triaxiality

15W
0
Greenwich

-2

The terms representing longitudinal variation of the Earths gravitational field


affects most geostationary (GEO) satellites at an altitude ~ 35,786km, since for
non-synchronous orbits this effect will be averaged out.
The term J22 = [(C22)2 + (S22)2]1/2 has the greatest influence and it represents the
slight ellipticity of the Earths equator with major axis along the line 15W165E.

= k 2 sin 2( )

rsd

( 6-7 )

A synchronous satellite will be stable at either 0 = 75E or 105W.

6.3 Solar and Lunar Gravitation

rd

Disturbing
body

Fig. 6-8.
Solar and lunar gravitation.
IIncoming
photons

Specularly reflected
photons

Fig. 6-9.
Solar radiation pressure.

Other bodies in the solar system impose additional gravitational force on


spacecraft. The Moon provides the most significant influence due to its mass
and proximity. The Sun provides an influence of the same order due to its
enormous mass. Both perturbations are termed luni solar perturbations. Their
most significant effect is to change the inclination (i) of orbit. Solution can be
obtained by solving the restricted three-body problem.

6.4 Solar Radiation Pressure


Like drag, solar-radiation pressure is a non-conservative perturbation, but it
becomes more pronounced at somewhat higher altitudes. One of the more
difficult aspects of analyzing solar radiation is accurately modeling and
predicting the solar cycles and variations.

CHAPTER 6 ORBIT PERTURBATIONS

81

During periods of intense solar storms, this effect may be much larger than all
the other perturbations (depending on the altitude); at times of low activity,
the effect may be negligible.
A spacecraft moving within the solar system will experience a perturbation
owing to the incidence of solar radiation on its illuminated surface.
To arrive at the solar-radiation pressure, begin with the intensity of the energy
of the incoming radiation from the Sun. A solar-radiation constantoften
called the intensity, irradiance or the solar radiation fluxis W ~ 1400
W/m2.
Electromagnetic radiation (photons) carries momentum and the reflection of
incident radiation on a surface represents exchange of momentum, thus
exerting a tiny, but measurable, pressure on the surface which is given by

P = W / c
P = solar radiation pressure
c = speed of light in vacuum

( 6-8 )

~ 3x108 km/s at Earth, PE ~ 4.7x10-6 N/m 2

0
0
-1

500

1000

1500

drag

2000
primary gravity

log10 (normalized acceleration)

-2
J2
-3
-4
-5

J3
J4

-6
J5
-7

solar gravity

-8
-9
-10

Spacecraft altitude(km)

Fig. 6-10.
Perturbing Accelerations on Earths
Satellite vs. Altitude (normalized by
standard acceleration of gravity at
Earths surface).

82

CHAPTER 6ORBIT PERTURBATIONS

6.5 Modeling Perturbations


Modeling orbit perturbations is primarily important for astrodynamists.
Perturbations may be classified due to their relative effect on orbital elements
into secular and periodic perturbations.

6.5.1 Special Perturbation Techniques:


Those dealing with the direct numerical integration of the equations of motion
including all necessary perturbing accelerations.

6.5.2 General Perturbation Techniques:


Those involving analytic integration of series expansions of the perturbing
accelerations. These techniques are more difficult and lengthy than special
techniques but lead to better understanding of the source of the perturbation

REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.

CHAPTER 6 ORBIT PERTURBATIONS

PROBLEMS
P6-1

Describe the regression of nodes perturbation. What is the main cause


for this perturbation?

P6-2

Describe three distinct perturbations to Earth satellite orbits. Explain


how each of them will affect the classical orbital elements.

P6-3

Write a MatLAB script (You may also use Simulink) to integrate the
equations of motion of an Earths satellite. Assume the satellite is
inserted into orbit with initial velocity = 0 at the point =
0 where i,j,k are the unit vectors of geocentric-equatorial
coordinate system xyz. Plot the satellite trajectory in the geocentricequatorial coordinate axes and compare it to Keplerian orbit. Consider
the motion of the satellite under the influence of a homogenous and
spherically symmetric Earth which is described by the equation
= =

P6-4

where = + + , = = 2 + 2 + 2 ,
0 = 7.5 kms , 0 = + 1000 km , =
398600.4415 km3 s 2 , 2 = 1802.627 106 , =
6378.1363 km

Study the effect of considering non-spehericity of the Earth on the


satellite orbit. Repeat problem P6-3 considering the motion of the
satellite under the influence of a non-spherically symmetric Earth
which is approximated by the equation

= = 3 ( + )

where = + + and
2
5 2
3
= 2 2 2 1 ,
2

2
3 5 2
= 2 2 2 1 ,
2

2
3 5 2
= 2 2 2 3
2

83

84

CHAPTER 6ORBIT PERTURBATIONS

Mission Analysis

I can The diversity of the phenomena of nature is so great, and the treasures hidden in the
heavens so rich, precisely on order that the human mind shall never be lacking in fresh
nourishment.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

The utmost goal of learning space mechanics for an aerospace engineer is to


be able to analyze and design a space mission; whether this mission is to send
a communication satellite, a weather satellite, a navigation satellite, or even
scientific space probe to help us learn more about the environment and the
outer space.
There are many aspects of mission analysis which cannot be fully covered in
single chapter. However, we are going to introduce here the main concepts
and outline the many of the practical aspects of mission analysis.

7.1 Spacecraft Coverage


Spacecraft coverage is so important for orbit selection (design) for a variety of
space missions including communication, navigation, weather, surveillance,
rescue, Earth resource monitoring, and space environment monitoring.
Many criteria may be used to specify coverage such as rate of sampling the
Earth, size of coverage area, time intervals between revisits of specific
locations, duration of satellite visibility from some location, and the fraction of
a day that specific locations will be covered (within the coverage area). As can
be seen, spacecraft coverage specification greatly depends on the mission
details. In the following analysis, Earth will be assumed a perfect sphere (the
maximum difference between Earths radii ~ 0.003 of mean radius).

7.1.1 Ground Station Visibility


At any instant in time, the point on a ground track is defined as the point of
intersection between the surface of the Earth and the line connecting the
Earth center and the satellite. This point is called the sub-satellite point
85

CHAPTER 7MISSION ANALYSIS

86

(SSP).A satellite is visible at all points on the Earths surface within a circle
centered on the SSP, whose diameter increases with altitude. Signals from
satellites at the horizon limit are attenuated by the atmosphere, so for
practical purposes the surface coverage is restricted to the region in which
satellite elevation is greater than ~ 5. The geocentric semi-angle over which
the satellite is visible can be calculated from

Earth
E

S
s

= + cos1 RE cos

RE + h

( 7-1 )

The slant range, range from ground station to satellite, is given by

s = ( RE + h) sin / cos

( 7-2 )

The duration of over-head pass is given by


Fig. 7-1.
Geometry
visibility.

for

ground

station

= 2 / ES
( 7-3 )
where

ES

+ 2 E
2

cos i

7.1.2 Elevation and Azimuth of Satellite


Elevation and azimuth are required to point an antenna or telescope to
a satellite. Elevation (El) is the angle from the horizon of the observer in the
plane containing the satellite, observer, and the center of Earth. Azimuth (Az)
is angle measured in the horizontal plane of the observer from local north to
the intersection with the plane containing the satellite, observer, and the
center of Earth. The geographic longitude and latitude of the subsatellite point
can be calculated from

es

E
i

Fig. 7-2.
The angular velocity of the satellite
with respect to Earth can be found
from the vector subtraction of the
satellite inertial angular velocity
from the Earths inertial angular
velocity about its axis.

s = sin 1[sin i sin( + )]


s = g + tan

sin( + )
+C
cos( + )

cos i

where
n = true anomaly
i = inclination
f = latitude of subsatelite point
ls = longitude of subsatellite point

= argument of periapsis
W = longitude of ascending node
l g = hour angle of Greenwich

C = 0 if cos( + n) 0
= p if cos( + n) < 0 and cos i sin( + n) > 0
= p if cos( + n) < 0 and cos i sin( + n) < 0

( 7-4 )

CHAPTER 7 MISSION ANALYSIS

87

The central angle or great circle angle between the observer and subsatellite
point is given by

cos = cos

0 cos

sin
2

sin
2

s cos(s 0 )

( 7-5 )

Then, the elevation and azimuth will be

cos RE

sin

El = tan

Az = cos

sin 0 cos

cos 0 sin

1 sin s

( 7-6 )

Where r = h + RE

7.2 Ground Track


7.2.1 Ground Track on a Non-rotating Earth
The orbit of Earth satellite lies in a plane passing through the center of Earth.
The track of this plane on the surface of a non-rotating spherical Earth will
become a great circle. If the Earth did not rotate the satellite would retrace
the same ground track over and over. On a Mercator projection, the ground
track would look like as shown:

Fig. 7-3.
Ground track on a non-rotating
Earth.

The maximum latitude north or south of the equator that the satellite passes
over is just equal to the orbit inclination of orbit (i), if the orbit is direct, and to
180 i, if the orbit is retrograde.

7.2.2 Effect of Earth Rotation on Ground Track


The orbital plane of a satellite remains fixed in space while the Earth turns
under the orbit. The net effect of Earth rotation is to displace the ground track
westward on each successive revolution of the satellite by the number of
degrees the earth turns during one orbital period. Instead of retracing the
same ground track over and over, a satellite eventually covers a swath around
the Earth between latitudes north and south of the equator equal to the
inclination.

Fig. 7-4.
Effect of Earth rotation on ground
track.

CHAPTER 7MISSION ANALYSIS

88

A global surveillance satellite would have to be in a polar orbit to fly over the
Earths entire surface. If the time required for one complete rotation of the
earth on its axis (23 hr 56 m) is an exact multiple of the satellites period then
eventually the satellite will retrace exactly the same path over the earth as it
did on its initial revolution (repeating orbit). This is a desirable property for a
reconnaissance satellite where you wish to have it fly over a specific target
once each day.

7.3 Effect of Launch on Orbit Inclination


We can determine the effect of launch site latitude and launch azimuth on
orbit inclination from spherical geometry. Suppose a satellite is launched from
point C on the earth whose latitude and longitude are L and L, respectively
with a launch azimuth, AzL. Since we know two angles and the included side of
the spherical triangle ABC we can solve for the third angle i as

cos i = sin AzL cos L

From the above equation, we notice that for a direct orbit (0 < i <90), cos i is
positive. Since -90 < AzL < 90, for any launch site, then cos L is always
positive. We also notice that a direct orbit requires, that the launch azimuth,
AzL, be easterly (0 < AzL < 180). To find the minimum orbital inclination that
can be achieved from a launch site at L, cos i must be maximized which
implies that AzL should be 90.

C
A

Fig. 7-5.
Launch site
inclination.

L0

effect

on

( 7-7 )

orbit

For a due east launch, the orbital inclination will be the minimum possible
from a launch site at latitude, L and i will be exactly equal to L0. A satellite
cannot be put directly into an equatorial orbit (i = 0) from a launch site which
is not on the equator. The previous Soviet Union had no launch site closer
than 45 to the equator. So, it cannot launch a satellite whose inclination is
less than 45. To insert a satellite into an equatorial orbit, we should perform
a plane change maneuver of at least 45 (a maneuver which requires a lot of
fuel) after the satellite is inserted into orbit. For example, The previous Soviet
Union had no launch site closer than 45 to the equator. So, it cannot launch a
satellite whose inclination is less than 45. To insert a satellite into an
equatorial orbit, a plane change maneuver of at least 45 should be performed
(which requires a lot of fuel) after the satellite is inserted into orbit.

7.4 Special Earth Orbits


For analysis of spacecraft mission it is convenient to arrange these missions
into the following categories such as: Low Earth Orbits (LEO), Medium-Height
Earth Orbits (MEO), Geostationary Earth Orbits (GEO), Highly Elliptic Orbits
(HEO), Non-geocentric Orbits (lunar and interplanetary).
Some Earths satellite orbits are commonly used to perform specific missions.
We will consider the following Earths satellite orbits:

CHAPTER 7 MISSION ANALYSIS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

89

Polar Orbit
Geo-synchronous Orbit
Molniya Orbit
Sun-synchronous Orbit
Repeating Ground Track Orbit

7.4.1 Polar Orbits

Polar orbits (i = 90) have no regression of nodes. So, a polar orbit will remain
fixed in inertial space.

= 0

3 J2R2E
nt cos i + O( J 22 )
2 p2

( 7-8 )

Polar orbits provide global coverage (from pole to pole). A near-polar orbit at
1000 km and with (68.4< i <111.6) provides global coverage with min
elevation (min = 10) at poles and better coverage at higher altitudes.
Therefore, polar LEO is usually used for Earths remote sensing and
surveillance. The altitude of satellite orbit is determined by trade-off between
instrument resolution (the lower, the better) and fuel required to maintain
orbit (the higher, the better). Civil remote sensing satellites are typically
placed between 600 900 km. Military surveillance missions usually have
more complex mission scenarios. In addition, the polar orbit may also be Geosynchronous, Sun-synchronous or sometimes both.

Fig. 7-6.
Ground track and swath width of a
polar satellite (i = 90, h = 1000 km,
0 = 104.5, elevation = 10).

Fig. 7-7.
Ground track and swath width of a
near-polar satellite (i = 68.4, h =
1000 km, 0 = 104.5, elevation =
10).

CHAPTER 7MISSION ANALYSIS

90

7.4.2 Earth-Synchronous Orbits


Earth-synchronous orbit results when the sub-satellite point follows a ground
track identical to some previous orbit after a certain period of time such that
payload requirement to revisit ground target sites or regions can be satisfied.
Repetition occurs on a regular basis and can be achieved in many ways. The
drift of the sub-satellite point on the equator between two successive orbits
() is determined by two factors:
(1) The Earths rotation
Fig. 7-8.
Earth-synchronous orbit.

E = 2

rad/orbit

(7-9)

(2) The regression of line of nodes

R =

3 J 2 R 2 E cos i
a (1 e )
2

2 2

rad/orbit

(7-10)

So,
( i 0)

= E + R

rad/orbit

(7-11)

For an Earth-synchronous orbit, we need

n = m 2
where n and m are integers

(7-12)

7.4.3 Geosynchronous Orbits


(e 0)
Fig. 7-9.
Geosynchronous orbit.

A geosynchronous orbit is special case of Earth-synchronous orbit, in which


the satellite period is identical to the sidereal period of the Earth. This can
be achieved if the semimajor axis of the orbit is equal to 42,156 km. It has
the advantage of large coverage area (~ 42% of Earth's surface). If
eccentricity is non-zero, the satellite appears to oscillate in longitude. If
inclination is non-zero, the satellite traces out a figure eight.

7.4.4 Geostationary Orbits


Fig. 7-10
A geostationary satellite.

A geostationary orbit is special case of geo-synchronous orbit, in which the


orbit has zero eccentricity and zero inclination (i.e. equatorial circular orbit). A
geostationary satellite can provide fixed-point communication. At least, three
geostationary satellites are required to provide global communication
network.

CHAPTER 7 MISSION ANALYSIS

91

7.4.5 Molniya Orbit


Orbits with inclinations = sin1 (4/5) = 63.4, 116.6 have zero
precision of apsides ( = 0).

- 0 = 0 =

2
2
3 J 2 R E
5
n 2 sin i t

2 p2
2

(7-13)

The Russian Molniya satellite takes advantage of this property to maintain


apogee over the northern hemisphere. The orbit is a highly elliptic (HEO), with
e 0.75 and period of one-half sidereal day 11h 58m. It allows long
observation time (up to 8 hrs) when satellite is in around apogee.
Communication can be provided to high latitude regions inaccessible from
geostationary satellites. Three satellites are required to provide 24-hr
communication.

7.4.1 Sun-Synchronous Orbit


Sun-synchronous orbit results when the orbit rotates in space at the same rate
as the Earths rotation around the Sun (one revolution per year),that is

s = 2 / ES

rad/orbit

Fig. 7-11
Molniya orbit in space.

(7-14)

Fig. 7-12.
Ground track of a Molniya satellite (i =
63.4, hp = 1000 km, 0 = -0.7174, e =
0.722)

Sun

Sun

Dawn/dusk orbit Mid-afternoon/night Noon/midnight


-along terminator orbit
orbit
(short shadows)

Fig. 7-13.

Illustration
of
synchronous orbit.

Sun-

92

CHAPTER 7MISSION ANALYSIS

Sun-synchronism is needed for some remote-sensing missions in which


interest is focused on a particular geographical region. The satellite will pass
over these particular regions approximately at the same local solar times each
day (once in daylight and once at night). Free sun-synchronization can be
achieved using regression of line of nodes.

REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Unsld, A., & Baschek, B. (2001). The New Cosmos: An Introduction to
Astronomy and Astrophysics. Berlin Springler.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
Walter, U. (2008). Astronautics: The Physics of Space Flight (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH.

CHAPTER 7 MISSION ANALYSIS

PROBLEMS
P7-1

What are polar orbits? What are the missions they are more suitable
for?

P7-2

What is a sun-synchronous orbit? How can the orbit of an Earth


satellite, which does not have an on-board propulsion system, be
made sun-synchronous?

P7-3

An Earth satellite has the following orbital parameters: period = 180


min, eccentricity = 0.005, inclination = 10, argument of perigee = 90,
right ascension (longitude) of ascending node = 100. Determine the
geographic longitude and latitude of the subsatellite point when the
true anomaly of the satellite = 180 and the hour angle of Greenwich =
10,000 s sidereal time (GMST).

P7-4

Find the geographic longitude and latitude of the subsatellite point of


the satellite in P7-3 after 2 hours. If you want to use a telescope to
observe the satellite, where shall you point your telescope (i.e. what is
the azimuth and elevation of the satellite)? Will you be able to
observe the satellite?
[Hint: You need to update the GMST after the 12 hours passage. Use
eccentric anomaly to convert between time and true anomaly].

P7-5

An Earth satellite has a perigee altitude = 500 km and eccentricity =


0.74. The satellite has been detected by a ground station to be at a
true anomaly of 20 .
(a) Find the mean motion, n of the satellite in rad/s.
(b) What is the time taken by the satellite since it last passed
through perigee?
(c) Find the satellite position (true anomaly) after 2:00:00 hours.

P7-6

The two line element (TLE) data of the international space station (ISS)
retrieved from (www.celestrak.com/NORAD/elements) at some past
epoch are as follows:

12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678
1 25544U 98067A
10063.37915313 .00014094 00000-0 10260-3 0 6988
2 25544 51.6465 48.6647 0007661 11.8053 136.8643 15.73611041646963

Find the classical orbital elements of ISS at epoch from the TLE data.
Use the Appendix for explanation of the TLE designations), specifically
find the following: eccentricity (e), inclination (i), argument of
periapsis (), longitude of ascending node (), mean motion in rad/s
(n), semi-major axis (a).

93

94

CHAPTER 7MISSION ANALYSIS

P7-7

At the given epoch (as indicated by the TLE data given in P7-6),
calculate the following:
(a) The time past since last perifocal passage (0 ) of the ISS.
(b) The true anomaly at epoch (0 )
(c) The Greenwich mean sidereal time (GMST) at epoch
(d) The geographic longitude and latitude of the ISS subsatellite
point at epoch
(e) The elevation and azimuth of the ISS with respect to a ground
station at 8N, 10142E.
(f) Assuming the ISS orbit is a Keplerian orbit; find the geographic
longitude and latitude of the subsatellite point 30 minutes
after epoch.

Orbital Maneuvers

I Philosophy is such an impertinently litigious lady that a man had as good be engaged in
lawsuits as to have to do with her.
Isaac Newton in a letter to his friend Edmund Halley, June 20, 1687

Spacecraft is not inserted in an orbit to stay forever! A spacecraft may need to


change its orbit once or more during its life time due to many reasons. A
launch vehicle may insert a geostationary (GEO) satellite into an initial low
Earth orbit (LEO) which is much lower than the final operational orbit. Then,
the satellite should transfer from the initial orbit to its final orbit. Another
need may arise if a surveillance satellite has to change its orbit in order to
track a new target. Interplanetary missions usually require many orbit
transfers until the spacecraft is inserted into the operational orbit or to use
the same spacecraft to accomplish more than one mission. At the satellite end
of life (EOF), the satellite may be kicked out of its orbit whether to reenter the
Earths atmosphere or to rest in a graveyard orbit.

8.1 Basics of Orbital Maneuver


8.1.1 Orbital Energy
Any analysis of orbital maneuvers, i.e., the transfer of a satellite from one
orbit to another by means of a change in velocity, logically begins with the
energy as
2 1
2 = ( )

(8-1)

95

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

96

Where V is the magnitude of the orbital velocity at some point, r the


magnitude of the radius from the focus to that point, the semimajor axis of
the orbit, and the gravitational constant of the attracting body. Equation (91) can be rearranged as

Where it is evident that

2nd burn
1st burn

V2

=
2
r
2a

(8-2)

Potential Energy
Total Energy
Kinetic Energy
+
=
Satellite Mass
Satellite Mass
Satellite Mass
Note that total energy/satellite mass is dependent only on a. As a increases,
energy increases.

8.2 Principles of Orbital Maneuvers

Fig. 8-1.
Satellite launch.

Impulse

(1)

(2)

=
(3)

Fig. 8-2.
Delta-V Budget.

ve

Fig. 8-3.
Impulsive thrust produced based on
rocket theory.

Orbital maneuvers are based on the principle that an orbit is uniquely


determined by the position and velocity vectors at any point. Conversely,
changing the velocity vector at any point instantly transforms the trajectory to
a new one corresponding to the new velocity vector. Any conic orbit can be
transformed into another conic orbit by changing the spacecraft velocity
vector instantaneously.

8.2.1 Satellite Launch


High-altitudes (above 200 km) may be achieved through two burns separated
by coasting phase. The first burn is nearly vertical and places the satellite into
an elliptic orbit with apogee at the final orbit radius. The satellite then coast
(no burn) until it reaches the apogee. A second burn can be used to insert the
satellite into its final LEO orbit.

8.2.2 The DeltaV Budget


Orbital transfers are usually achieved using the propulsion system onboard
the spacecraft. Since the propellant mass on board is limited, it is very crucial
for mission planning to estimate the propellant required for every transfer.
The overall need for propulsion is usually expressed in terms of spacecraft
total velocity change, or DV (Delta-V) budget. We assume the propulsion is
applied impulsively, i.e. the velocity change will be acquired instantaneously.
This assumption is reasonably valid for high-thrust propulsion. From rocket
theory, shown in Fig. 8-3.
we can express the force produced by the impulsive thrust as:

CHAPTER 8 ORBITAL MANEUVERS

= = 0

97

= ln = ln

(8-3)

(8-4)

(8-5)

(8-6)

where =specific impulse = thrust/rate of fuel consumption. The spacecrafts


initial and final mass, and the propellant mass are:
= spacecraft initial mass
= spacecraft final mass
=propellant mass used
0 =9.81m/s

= 0 ln(1 +

= exp

1 = 1 exp

0
0

(8-7)

8.3 Coplanar Maneuvers


Orbit maneuver had its roots in the classical formulas and dynamics of
Astrodynamics from several centuries ago. However, the application of orbit
maneuver did not occur until after the launch of Sputnik in 1957.
Orbit maneuver is based on the fundamental principle that an orbit is uniquely
determined by the position and velocity vectors at any point. Therefore,
changing the velocity vector at any point instantly transforms the trajectory to
correspond to the new velocity vector. Thus, the orbit of a satellite is changed.
Coplanar maneuver only involves the change of semimajor axis and
eccentricity of the orbit without changing the orbit plane. In this section, four
kind of coplanar maneuvers are introduced:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Tangential-Orbit Maneuver,
Non-tangential Orbit Maneuver,
Hohmann Transfer,
Bielliptic Orbit Transfer.

Fig. 8-4.
Single coplanar maneuver.

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

98

8.3.1 Tangential-Orbit Maneuver


Tangential-orbit maneuver occurs at the point where the velocity
vector of spacecraft is tangent to its position vector, typically at perigee
point.
EXAMPLE 8-1
Determine the V required to transfer from a circular orbit into
elliptic orbit.
SOLUTION

V
V1

V2

The V between two orbits can be shown as follow:


Vcirc

Vp

2
= , =

8-4 shows a typical tangential orbit maneuver


at perigee point. Using equation 9-5, the V required is,
Error! Reference source not found.

Fig. 8-5.
Basic orbital maneuver.

8.3.2 Non-Tangential Coplanar Maneuver


V1

V2

r2
Fig. 8-6.
Hohmann transfer.

r1

The orbit maneuver is not limited to apogee and perigee points. If needed, the
satellite may perform the orbit maneuver at any point. When the spacecraft
performs a burn from one orbit to another, the burn has to be performed at
the intersection point of the old and the new orbits.
Fig. 8-5 shows the V vector required for a non-tangential orbit maneuver,
where is the angle difference between the flight path angles before and
after the maneuver, at the intersection point.
V = v12 + v22 2v1 v2 cos

8.3.3 Hohmann Transfer

(8-8)

= 1 2

The Hohmanns transfer is the minimum cost two-impulse transfer between


coplanar circular orbits. It can be used to transfer a satellite between two
nonintersecting orbits (Walters Hohmann 1925). The Hohmann transfer
employs an intermediate elliptic orbit that is tangent to both initial and final

CHAPTER 8 ORBITAL MANEUVERS

99

orbits at their apsides. To accomplish the transfer, two burns are needed. The
first burn will insert the spacecraft into the transfer orbit, where it will coast
from periapsis to apoapsis. At apoapsis, the second burn is applied to insert
the spacecraft into final orbit.
Fig. 8-6 represents a Hohmann transfer from a circular orbit into another
circular orbit. A tangential V1 is applied to the circular orbit velocity. The
magnitude of V1 is determined by the requirement that the apogee radius of
the resulting transfer ellipse must equal the radius of the final circular orbit.
When the satellite reaches apogee of the transfer orbit, another V must be
added or the satellite will remain in the transfer ellipse. This V is the
difference between the apogee velocity on the transfer orbit and the circular
orbit velocity in the final orbit.
The first impulse magnitude can be calculated as:
2

V1 = Vp,t V1 =

r1
a
r1

(8-9)

Where, Vp,t is the velocity of the spacecraft on the transfer orbit at perigee.
The second impulse magnitude can be calculated as:

2
V2 = V2 Va,t =
r2
r2 a

(8-10)

Where,
Va,t is the velocity of the spacecraft on the transfer orbit at apogee.
The time of flight on the transfer orbit is:

1
3

= =
2

(8-11)

The perigee and apogee radii of the transfer orbit are:

EXAMPLE 8-2

, = 1 ,

, = 2

(8-12)

Determine the total V required for Hohmann transfer to transfer from a


LEO with hinitial = 191 km into GEO.
SOLUTION
The initial and final radii are:
rinitial = 191 + 6378.145 = 6569.145 km

100

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

rfinal = 42164.215 km
At the first impulse, the delta-v required is:
2

V1 =

rinitial a
rinitial

where,

rinitial + rfinal
= 24366.796 km
2
Thus, V1 = 2.457 km/sec
For the second impulse, the delta-v required is:
a=

V2 =

= 1.478 km/sec
rfinal
rfinal a

The total delta-v require is,


VTOTAL = 2.457 + 1.478 = 3.935 km/sec

EXAMPLE 8-3
Two geocentric elliptical orbits have common apse lines and their perigees
are on the same side of the Earth. The first orbit has a perigee radius of
= km and = . , whereas for the second orbit = km
and = . .
a. Find the minimum total delta-v and the time of flight for a transfer
from the perigee of the inner orbit to the apogee of the outer
orbit.
b. Do part (a) for a transfer from the apogee of the inner orbit to the
perigee of the outer orbit.
SOLUTION
a.
The initial orbit:

1 = 1 (1 + 1 ) = 9100 km

The final orbit:

1 = 11 2 = 10000 km

=
1

2 = 48000 km
=

+
2

= 8.6038 km/sec

& 2 = 64000 km

2 = 96000 km

= = 1.4408 km/sec
2

The transient orbit:


= 1 = 7000 km & = 2 = 96000 km

CHAPTER 8 ORBITAL MANEUVERS

= 51500 km
2

= = 10.3027 km/sec
1
1

2
2

=
2

= 0.7512 km/sec

1 = = 1.6989 km/sec
1

2 = = 0.6896 km/sec
2

= 2.3885 km/sec

= 3

Time of flight:

b.

= 5.402 105 sec 1


= 1.1631 105 sec

= 2.3262 105 sec = 16.1544 hr

For initial orbit:

For final orbit:

1 = 1 (1 + 1 ) = 13000 km
2
1

= 4.6328 km/sec

2
2

= 4.3225 km/sec

=
1

=
2

For transient orbit:


= 1 = 13000 km & = 2 = 32000 km
= 22500 km
2
1

=
1

2
2

=
2

= 6.6036 km/sec

= 2.6827 km/sec

1 = = 1.9708 km/sec
1

2 = = 1.6398 km/sec
2

Time of flight:

= 3.6106 km/sec
= 3.3588 104 sec
= 4.665 hr

101

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

102

EXAMPLE 8-4
A spacecraft is in a 300 km circular earth orbit. Calculate the transfer time
for a Hohmann transfer to a 3000 km coplanar circular Earth orbit.
SOLUTION
For initial orbit, 1:
1 = 6678.145 km 1 = 7.7258 km/sec
For final orbit, 3:
3 = 9378.145 km 3 = 6.5194 km/sec
For elliptical transient orbit, 2:
2 = = 6678.145 km
2 = = 9378.145 km
2 =

2 +2
2

= 8028.1 km

Transfer orbit time 2

23

2 =

= 8.7771 104 sec 1

2 =

2
2

= 0.9943 hr

8.3.4 Bi-elliptic Transfer

The bi-elliptic transfer requires a total of three impulses with two transfer
orbits. The first burn inserts the spacecraft into first transfer orbit at its
periapsis. When the spacecraft coasts to the apoapsis of the first transfer
orbit, the second impulse is fired to insert the spacecraft into second transfer
orbit. The spacecraft orbits along the second transfer orbit to its apoapsis
point. Finally, a third impulse inserts the spacecraft into the destination orbit.
Fig. 8-7 illustrates a bi-elliptic transfer between two circular orbits.
V1
V2

Fig. 8-7.
Bielliptic Transfer.

V3

The bi-elliptic transfer requires much longer transfer time compared to the
Hohmann Transfer. However, bi-elliptic transfers are more efficient in terms
of total delta-V needed for the mission, in some cases. Fig. 8-8 shows the cost
comparison between Hohmann and Bi-elliptic Transfers. R is the ratio of final
to initial radii for both orbits, where R* is the ratio of apogee radius of transfer
orbit to initial orbit in bi-elliptic orbit. For R < 11.94, Hohmann transfer is more
cost effective than the bi-elliptic transfer. For R > 15.58, the bi-elliptic transfer
is more cost effective than the Hohmann transfer.

CHAPTER 8 ORBITAL MANEUVERS

Bi-elliptic

103

Total Cost of V, (km/sec)

Hohmann
R* Increases
R* 50
R* 60
R* 100
R* 200
R* =

R* 11.94

R* 15.58

Final radius to initial radius ratio, R

EXAMPLE 8-5
Determine the total V required and time of flight for a bi-elliptic transfer
with given orbit properties:
Initial orbit, hinitial = 191.344 km
Apogee altitude of transfer orbit, hapog = 503873 km
Final orbit, hfinal = 376310 km
SOLUTION
The initial, transfer orbit apogee and final radius are,
rinitial = 191.344 + 6378.145 = 6569.489 km
rtrans = 503873 + 6378.145 = 510251.145 km
rfinal = 376310 + 6378.145 = 382688.145 km
And the semimajor axis for both transfer orbits are,
rinitial + rtrans
a1 =
= 258410.317 km
2
rfinal + rtrans
a2 =
= 446469.645 km
2
At first impulse, the delta-v required is,

V1 =

= 3.156 km/sec
rinitial a1
rinitial

At the second impulse, the delta-v required is,

V2 =

= 0.677 km/sec
rtrans a2
rtrans a1

At the third impulse, the delta-v required is,

Fig. 8-8.
Delta-v cost comparison between
for Hohmann and bieleptic orbit
transfers.

104

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

V3 =

= 0.0705 km/sec
rfinal
rfinal a2

The total delta-v require is,


VTOTAL = 3.156 + 0.677 + 0.0705 = 3.9035 km/sec
The time of flight is,

a31
a32

TOF =
+
= 2138113.26 sec = 593.92 hr

EXAMPLE 8-6
A spacecraft is in a 300 km circular Earth orbit. Calculate
a. The total delta-v required for the bi-elliptical transfer to a 3000 km
altitude coplanar circular orbit shown, and
b. Compare the total transfer time with the Hohmanns transfer time in
Example 9-4.
SOLUTION
a. For initial orbit, 1:
r1 = 6678.145 km v1 = 7.7258 km/sec
For final orbit, 4:
r4 = 9378.145 km v4 = 6.5194 km/sec
For first elliptical transient orbit, 2:
2 =0.3
r2A = r1 = 6678.145 km
r2B

r2

a2 = 1A = 9540.21 km
2

= rB = a2 (1 + 2 ) = 12402.26 km
2

v2A =
r

2A

v2B =
r

2B

a2

a2

= 8.8087 km/sec

= 4.74316 km/sec

For second elliptical transient orbit, 3:

CHAPTER 8 ORBITAL MANEUVERS

105

r3C = r4 = 9378.145 km
r3B = rB = 12402.26 km

a3 =

r3C +r3B

2
r3C

v3C =

v3B =
r

3B

a3

a3

= 10890.2 km

= 6.9573 km/sec

= 5.26088 km/sec

vA = v2A v1 = 1.0829 km/sec


vB = v3B v2B = 0.51772 km/sec
vC = v3C v4 = 0.43793 km/sec
= | A | + | B | + | C | = 2.03855 km/sec
b. Total transfer time,
2 3
= +
2
2
where,
2
= 9.2736 103 sec

3
2
2
3 = = 1.131 104 sec
3
3
= 1.02918 104 sec = 2.859 hr

2 =

From Example 9-4, Hohmann Transfer only requires 0.9943 hr to transfer


the spacecraft into another orbit. However, the bi-elliptic requires 3 times
longer of transfer time to transfer the spacecraft into another orbit.

8.3.5 General Coplanar Transfer between Circular Orbits


In the Hohamnn and Bi-elliptic transfers, the first and second impulses are
applied at either the periapsis or apoapsis; however, this is not a requirement.
For a general coplanar orbit transfer, the periapsis radius of the transfer orbit
must be equal to or less than the radius of the inner orbit; and the apoapsis
radius of the transfer orbit must be equal to or exceed the radius of the outer
orbit. This condition is illustrated in Fig. 8-9.
.

Transfer Orbit

Transfer Orbit

r2

r1

Possible because
rp < r1 and ra > r2

r2

r1

Impossible because
rp > r1

Transfer Orbit

r2

r1

Impossible because
ra < r2

Fig. 8-9.
General coplanar transfer
between circular orbits.

106

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

The amount of the first and second impulses in this case are not optimal, in
general. To calculate the amount of Delta-V needed, first we compute the
points of the first and second impulses. At each point, we compute the
velocity of the spacecraft before and after applying the impulse. The
difference is the required Delta-V at that point.

8.3.6 Phasing Maneuver


Coplanar maneuvers usually involve a change in orbit size and shape.
However, in some cases, a spacecraft is required to change its position in the
orbit, but not the orbit. One example is the case of two spacecraft, in the
same orbit, in a rendezvous mission. The interceptor spacecraft is required to
intercept (or meet) the target spacecraft, which could be behind or ahead of
the intercept spacecraft, in the same orbit.
Fig. 8-10 shows an illustration of the phasing maneuver. The maneuvering
spacecraft first transfers to a phasing orbit, stays there for one (or more) orbit
periods, and then transfers back to its original orbit. If the interceptor is
behind the target spacecraft, then the phasing orbit is smaller than the
original orbit, and vice versa. Given that the phase angle (the difference in
true anomaly) between the two spacecraft is . Then, the period of the
phasing orbit is:

phase =

2
ntgt

(8-13)

Where ntgt n is the mean motion of the target spacecraft (the original orbit).
The semimajor axis for the phasing orbit is then:

phase =

nphase

a3phase
= 2

2/3

phase
aphase =

Original Orbit

Target

Phasing Orbit

V
Interceptor

Phasing Orbit

Fig. 8-10.
Phasing orbit maneuver.

(8-14)

CHAPTER 8 ORBITAL MANEUVERS

107

EXAMPLE 8-7
Determine the semimajor axis of the phasing orbit, given that the
position of target and interceptor spacecraft are:
=

= +
SOLUTION

First, the phase angle between spacecraft is,



= cos1
= 60

The mean motion of the original orbit is,

ntgt = 3 = 0.125 rad/TU


r
Then, the one orbit period required for the phasing orbit is,
2
phase =
= 41.888 TU
ntgt
The semimajor axis for the phasing orbit is,
aphase

2/3

phase
=

Fig. 8-11.
Simple plane change.

= 3.5422 DU

8.4 Out-of-Plane Orbit Maneuvers


A velocity change which lies in the plane of the orbit can change its size or
shape, or rotate the line of apsides. To change the orientation of the orbit
plane in space, the V impulse-vector inserted to the spacecraft should not
parallel to the spacecraft velocity vector.

8.4.1 Simple Plane Change


Orbital maneuvers are characterized by a change in orbital velocity. If a
velocity vector increment, V that is perpendicular to a satellite velocity
vector, V1 is added, then its results a new satellite velocity vector, V2. The
perpendicular V does not change the speed and flight-path angle of the
satellite, but only the inclination of the orbit. The maneuver is called simple
plane change (see Fig. 8-11).
For a circular orbit spacecraft that performs the simple plane change through
an angle , the semimajor axis, a and eccentricity, e remain unchanged. Thus,
the velocity of spacecraft at before and after the plane change are equal,

V1 = V2 . Using the velocity vector triangle illustration in Fig. 8-12., the delta-v
required is,
= 2 sin

(8-15)

V
Fig. 8-12.
Velocity vector triangle for circular orbit
plane change.

108

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

EXAMPLE 8-8
Determine the V required for a satellite to change its orbit plane from
inclination 10 to inclination 25 at altitude 600km.
SOLUTION
The radius of the orbit is,
r = 600 + 6378.145 = 6978.145 km
The delta-v required for the plane change is,

25 10
V = 2 sin
= 1.973 km/sec
r
2

8.4.2 General Plane Change Maneuver

In general, plane change maneuver involves the inclination and RAAN change
while the size and shape of orbit remain the same. The change of the RAAN in
plane change maneuver results that both orbit do not intersect at the original
RAAN location. Fig. 8-13 shows the example of general plane change
maneuver. Nodes 1 and 2 are the direction of RAAN for both initial and final
orbits respectively, where else the e is the eccentricity vector (also known as
argument of perigee) for the initial orbit.
The delta-v required for the general plane change maneuver is given by
equation Fig. 8-13 . ALa is the argument of latitude of intersection point.

V = 2Vsin
(8-16)
2
cos = cos cos + sin sin cos()

(8-17)

ALa = +

(8-19)

sin() =

sin ALa sin


sin

Final Orbit

Initial Orbit

X
initial

Fig. 8-13.
General Plane Change Maneuver.

node 1

node 2

(8-18)

CHAPTER 8 ORBITAL MANEUVERS

109

Z
Final Orbit
Initial Orbit

ALa

ifinal

Equatorial Plane

Fig. 8-14.
Argument of latitude of intersection
point.

iinitial

node 2, f

node 1, i

EXAMPLE 8-9
Compute V required to change the right ascension of the ascending node
of the following orbit to 100o West:
rp1 = 1.1DU, e1 = 0.1, i = 45 , = 40 West, = 10
SOLUTION
The orbit of satellite is transfer to = 100 West.
The V required is given by,

V = 2Vsin
2
where is,
cos = cos cos + sin sin cos()
= 40 + 100 = 60
= 41.4
The speed of satellite at that particular point is,
2
V=

where,

a = 1.22DU

And r can be obtain through,


sin sin()
sin
ALa = 67.8
= ALa = 57.8
rp1 (1 + e)
r=
= 1.14878 DU
1 + ecos
sin ALa =

Thus,

V = 0.96 DU/TU
V = 0.679 DU/TU

110

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

8.4.3 Combined Maneuver


Frequently, the spacecraft orbit needs to be raised as well as titled. Two
orbital transfers may then be applied:
1) A coplanar maneuver to raise the orbit (change radius), then
2) A plane change to tilt the orbit.
However, performing two separates orbit maneuvers is fuel inefficient
because number of burns increased. Also, the time required for spacecraft to
arrive at final orbit is much longer. Therefore, as an alternative, these two
maneuvers can be combined in one maneuver to perform both tasks in one
burn which is more economic (require less fuel) and faster. There are a few
type of combined maneuver available in study. In this section, we will
introduce the minimum inclination maneuver.
Fig. 8-15 shows the minimum inclination maneuver for a spacecraft. Both
initial and final velocity of plane change maneuver contains the Hohmann
transfers contribution. The change of inclination between initial, transfer and
final orbit is chosen in the way such that the required cost is minimum. Here, a
scaling term, s is introduced to determine change of inclination required
between orbits.

(8-20)

= (1 )

The total delta-v that required for the combined maneuver is,
2
2
=
+
2 cos()

2
2
+_
+
2 _ cos(1 )

Final Orbit

Transfer Orbit
Vb

Va

Initial Orbit

Fig. 8-15.
Orbit transfer of a spacecraft using
combined maneuver.

(8-21)

CHAPTER 8 ORBITAL MANEUVERS

111

Now, the optimum scaling, s is required to determine to produce minimum

cost. Then, we take


=0

1
sin()

tan1

_ cos()
_

(8-22)

For circular initial and final orbits:

_
= 3 , =
_

(8-23)

EXAMPLE 9-10
Calculate the total delta-v required for a spacecraft to transfer from an orbit, r1 =
1.02 DU to r2 = 2.33 DU with the change of inclination i = 10.
SOLUTION
We have the initial and final radius, r1 and r2. Then semimajor axis for the transfer
orbit is,
1 + 2
=
= 1.675
2
The velocities at each location are:

initial = = 0.9901 DU/TU


1

2
trans_ = = 1.1678 DU/TU
1

2
trans_ = = 0.5512 DU/TU
2

final = = 0.6551 DU/TU


2

Then, we need to determine the scaling, s, that is:


1
sin()
= tan1 3/2
= 0.224105

+ cos()
Therefore, the total delta-V is,
= 0.3464 DU/TU

112

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Chobotov, V. (2002). Orbital Mechanics (3 ed.). AIAA.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
Walter, U. (2008). Astronautics: The Physics of Space Flight (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH.

CHAPTER 8 ORBITAL MANEUVERS

PROBLEMS
P8-1

A space vehicle in a circular orbit at an altitude of 0.0784 DU above


the Earth executes a Hohmann transfer to a 0.1568 DU circular orbit.
Calculate the total delta-v requirement.

P8-2

Calculate the total delta-v required for a Hohmann transfer from a


circular orbit of radius 4 to a circular orbit of radius 16.

P8-3

Determine the total time of flight for Hohmann and bi-elliptic transfer
with given orbit properties:
Initial orbit, hinitial = 200 km,
Apogee altitude of transfer orbit for bi-elliptic transfer, hapog = 35,000
km, Final orbit, hfinal = 30,000 km.

P8-4

Determine the total V required for a bi-elliptic transfer with given


orbit properties:
Initial orbit, r1 = 1.013 DU, Apogee altitude of transfer orbit, r2 = 3.021
DU, Final orbit, r3 = 2.601 DU.

P8-5

Determine the total V required and time-of-flight for a bi-elliptic


transfer to place a spacecraft from r1 = 6578.145 km into GEO. Given
that, the apogee radius of transfer orbit is, r2 = 46378.145 km.

P8-6

Given that the target and interceptor spacecraft are orbiting around
the Earth in equatorial orbit. Determine the semimajor axis of the
phasing orbit. Both spacecrafts positions at that time are:
rtgt = 12546.387I + 10527.667J km
rint = 16129.324I + 2844.035J km

P8-7

Given that the target and interceptor spacecraft are in an equatorial


orbit with semimajor axis of 15,000 km and eccentricity 0.1.
Determine the semimajor axis of the phasing orbit if the distances of
target and interceptor spacecraft to the Earth center are 13,574.4216
km and 13,615.9737 km respectively at the time. (Assume that the
true anomaly of both spacecraft are in first quadrant.)

P8-8

Determine the V required for a satellite to change its orbit plane


from equatorial orbit to an orbit with inclination 10 at altitude
400km.

P8-9

Determine the total V required for a satellite to change its orbit


plane at inclination 5 to GEO.

P8-10 Compute V required to change from following orbit to the right


ascension of the ascending node at 35 and inclination at 15:
rp1 = 1.08 DU, e1 = 0.05, i = 20 , = 20, = 5

113

114

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

P8-11 Calculate the V required at point C in orbit 1 for a single impulsive


maneuver to rotate the apse line by 180 counterclockwise (to
become orbit 2), but keep the eccentricity, e and the angular
momentum, h unchanged.

C
1

2
r

Fig. P8-11

[Answer: 2/]

P8-12 Compute V required to change from following orbit to the right


ascension of the ascending node at 30 and inclination at 25:
Altitude, h = 300 km, e1 = 0, i = 10 , = 25
P8-13 A satellite in orbit 1 undergoes a delta-v maneuver at perigee P1 such
that the new orbit 2 has the same eccentricity e, but its apse line is
rotated 90 clockwise from the original one. Calculate the specific
angular momentum of orbit 2 in terms of that of orbit 1 and the
eccentricity e.

2
1

Fig. P8-13

P8-14 Calculate the total delta-V required for a spacecraft to transfer from
an orbit with altitude, h1 = 400 km to geosynchronous orbit with the
change of inclination i = 25.

CHAPTER 8 ORBITAL MANEUVERS

P8-15 Calculate the total delta-v required for a spacecraft to transfer from
an orbit, r1 = 1.157 DU to r2 = 4.136 DU with the change of inclination
i = 20 using:
(a) Hohmann transfer followed by simple plane change.
(b) Combined Maneuver.
P8-16 A satellite is in a circular earth orbit of altitude 400 km. Determine the
new perigee and apogee altitudes if the satellite on-board propulsion
system increases the speed of the satellite
(a) in the flight direction by 240 m/s;
(b) gives the satellite a radial (outward) component of velocity of
240 m/s.

115

116

CHAPTER 8ORBITAL MANEUVERS

Interplanetary
Trajectories

The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from
the earth's. The motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent
inequalities in the heavens.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

9.1 Trajectories
Interplanetary missions involve spacecraft travels within the solar system.
Interplanetary trajectories are different from satellite orbits around planets
mainly because the spacecraft is exposed to more than one dominant force. A
spacecraft may leave the Earth, pass close to the Moon, travel round a
heliocentric trajectory dominated by the Sun, and have close encounters with
planets or asteroids before reaching its target planet. Parking orbits around
initial and final bodies also add intermediate goals to the mission but give
more flexibility to the mission design.
One of the major exploration projects in the United States was the Galileo
mission to Jupiter in 1989. The trajectory to Jupiter employed a two stage
inertial upper-stage (IUS) using one-gravity assist maneuver at Venus and two
maneuvers at Earth, requiring more than 6 years of travel time. Galileo was
launched in October 1989 from Earth on a Space Shuttle. Instead of heading
towards Jupiter or the asteroid belt, Galileo took a flight path that carried to
Venus. Galileo arrived there in February 1990. Venus gravity accelerated
Galileo and sent it on a flight path back toward Earth.
When Galileo passed Earth in December 1990, the Earths gravitational field
added energy to send Galileo out to the asteroid belt. A propulsive maneuver,
performed in December 1991, brought Galileo past Earth again in December
1992 for a last gravity assist before the spacecraft began its final path to
Jupiter. Arrival at Jupiter occurred late in 1995.

117

118

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

9.2 The Solar System


The Sun is attended by enormous number of smaller bodies. The most
noticeable are the nine planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.

9.2.1 Planets
Except for Mercury and Pluto, the planetary orbits are nearly circular and lie
nearly in the ecliptic plane. Plutos orbit is so eccentric that the perihelion
point lies inside orbit of Neptune. The size, shape and orientation of planetary
orbits are given by five classical orbital elements which remain relatively fixed
except for slight perturbations caused by the mutual attraction of the planets.

Fig. 9-1.
Components of the Solar System.

Fig. 9-2.

Tilting of the rotation axes of


the planets and the Sun

Fig. 9-3.

A side view of the planetary


orbits. Orbits and planets are
not to scale.

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

Orbital
period
(years)

Mean
distance
(106 km)

Orbital
speed
(km/s)

Mercury

0.241

57.9

47.87

Venus

0.615

108.1

Earth

1.000

Mars

Planet

Mass
Relative
to Earth

(km3/s2)

119

Equatorial
radius
(km)

Inclination
of equator
to orbit

7 15

333432 1.3271011

696,000

0.055

2.232104

2,487

35.04

0.815

3.257105

6,187

177.4

149.5

29.79

1.000

3.986105

6,378

23.5

1.881

227.8

24.14

0.107

4.305104

3,380

25.2

Jupiter

11.86

778

13.06

317.9

1.268108

71,370

3.1

Saturn

29.46

1426

9.65

95.18

3.795107

60,400

26.7

Uranus

84.01

2868

6.80

14.54

5.820106

23,530

97.9

Neptune

164.8

4494

5.49

17.13

6.896106

22,320

28.3

Pluto

247.7

5896

4.74

0.00216

860.976

1,154

122.5

Sun

Table 9-1

Physical
Planets

Properties

of

the

9.2.2 Asteroids
Asteroids (a Greek word for star-like), also called minor planets or planetoids,
are a class of small celestial bodies in the solar system that orbit around the
Sun. Asteroids are material left over from the formation of the solar system.
One theory suggests that they are the remains of a planet that was destroyed
in a massive collision long ago. More likely, asteroids are material that never
coalesced into a planet. They have been found inside Earth's orbit to beyond
Saturn's orbit. Most, however, are contained within a main belt that exists
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The first asteroid to be discovered,
Ceres, is the largest asteroid known to date and is now classified as a dwarf
planet. All others are currently classified as small solar system bodies. A newly
discovered asteroid is given a provisional designation consisting of the year of
discovery and an alphanumeric code (such as 2002 AT4). Once its orbit has
been confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g.
433 Eros).

Sun Mercury Venus Earth

Moon

Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Pluto

Fig. 9-4.
Astronomical symbols.

120

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

Fig. 9-5.

Asteroids belt.

9.2.3 Comets
The word "comet" comes from the Greek word kom, meaning hair of the
head. Comets are small Solar System bodies that orbit the Sun and, when
close enough to the Sun, exhibit a visible coma (or atmosphere) and/or a
tail both primarily from the effects of solar radiation upon the comet's
nucleus. Comet nuclei are themselves loose collections of ice, dust and small
rocky particles, measuring a few kilometers or tens of kilometers across.
Comets originate in the outer solar system; they are thrown inwards towards
the Sun by gravitational perturbations from planets or nearby stars. They have
a variety of different orbital periods, ranging from a few years, to 50 or 100
years, to thousands of years, while some are believed to pass through the
inner Solar System only once before being thrown out into interstellar space.
Dust tail
coma
nucleus

Fig. 9-6.

Comet structure.

Ion tail

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

121

9.3 The Patched-Conics Method


Interplanetary spacecraft spends most of the flight time moving under the
gravitational influence of a single body the Sun. Its path of motion is affected
by the gravitational fields of the departure and arrival planets only for very
brief intervals compared to total mission time. Perturbations caused by other
planets while the spacecraft is moving along its heliocentric course are
normally negligible. Precise computation of the mission trajectory, of course,
requires numerical integration of the equations of motion where all
perturbation effects are inserted. Though, for preliminary mission analysis, it
is sufficient to use an approximate method to determine Delta-V
requirements of the mission.
The patched conics approximation is the best available method for that
purpose. It involves partitioning the overall transfer into several two-body
problems. In other words, only one celestial bodys influence is considered to
be acting upon the spacecraft at all times. However, the patched-conic
approximation is still limited in that it only considers the gravity of one
celestial body at a time.

9.3.1 Description of Method


Assume that at any particular time; only one central body is acting on the
spacecraft. The region in which a particular body is dominant is called its
sphere of influence, which is a concept introduced by Lagrange. In this region,
the spacecraft is assumed to follow a Keplerian orbit. As it leaves one region, it
enters the sphere of influence of another body and its trajectory becomes a
new conic orbit with the second central body at its focus. Thus, the entire
trajectory is formed by patching together the various conic sections. To
determine the sphere of influence the equations of motion are first
constructed with respect to the disturbing body, treating the central body as a
perturbation. Then, constructing the equations of motion with respect to the
central body, treating the disturbing body as a perturbation. Then, the radius
of the sphere of influence, RSI can be approximated as
2
5

( 9-1 )

Mc = Mass of the central body


Md = Mass of the disturbing body
rd = Distance from the central body to the disturbing body
For Earth, RSI ~ 0.93106 km, assuming the Sun as a disturbing body. Compare
this to the radius of Moons orbit around Earth ~ 0.38106 km
The following table gives the sphere of influence of planets with respect to the
Sun.

122

Table 9-2
Sphere of influence of the Planets.

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

Surface
Escape
Velocity
(m/s)

J2

Sphere of
influence
(106 km)

273.98

6.18105

Mercury 2.232104

3.70

4250

Venus

3.257105

8.87

10360

Earth

3.986105

9.81

11180

Mars

4.305104

3.71

5020

Jupiter

1.268108

23.12

59530

0.01475 45.9 50.5

~ 9h50m

Saturn

3.795107

9.05

35560

0.01645 51.6 57.5

~ 10h15m

Uranus

5.820106

7.77

21250

0.012

49.4 54.1

~ 17h50m

Neptune 6.896106

273.98

6.18105

~ 27 days

Pluto

3.70

4250

Planet

Sun

(km/s)
1.327101
1

860.976

Equatorial
Surface
Gravity
(m/s)

0.09 - 0.14

Axial rotation
period
(sidereal)
~ 27 days
58.646 days

2.710-5 0.61 - 0.62

243.019 days

0.00108
0.91 0.94
3
0.00196
0.52 0.63
4

23h56m22.7s

0.09 - 0.14

24h37m22.6s

58.646 days

The patched-conic approximation offers an efficient method for describing


interplanetary orbits. By partitioning the overall orbit into a series of two-body
orbits, it greatly simplifies mission analysis. For each of the portions of an
orbit, one gravitational force is assumed to be acting upon the spacecraft at a
time.
To illustrate the efficiency of the patched-conic approximation, we partition
the standard Hohmann transfer of a spacecraft traveling from Earth to Jupiter
into three separate conic stages.
EXAMPLE 9-10
Calculate the total delta-v required to transfer of spacecraft from an orbit
around the Earth to an orbit around Jupiter using a Hohmann minimumenergy transfer. Orbits of the Earth and Jupiter around the Sun may be
assumed circular and coplanar.
SOLUTION
The mission is defined by the following phases
Phase 1: Geocentric the boost from Earth orbit to a heliocentric escape
trajectory.
Phase 2: Heliocentric the cruise in transfer orbit from Earth to Jupiter.
Phase 3: Jupiter centered the powered deceleration from heliocentric
approach trajectory to Jupiter orbit.

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

Jupiter

Earth

1. Heliocentric Phase:
The spacecraft speed relative to Earth as it exits the Earths sphere of
influence is given by
2

=
1 = 8.792 km/s

Similarly, the spacecraft speed relative to Jupiter as it enters Jupiters sphere


of influence is given by

2
= 1
= 5.643 km/s

which means that is in the opposite direction. The transfer time is half
orbital period of the transfer orbit

+
=
=
= 2.731 years
2
8

It is interesting to note here that the minimum time for the Earth-Jupiter
mission is 2.73 years. This is by no means a long trip in the context of
interplanetary missions as we will see later.
2. Geocentric Phase:
The spacecraft is assumed to be initially parking in a 300-km circular orbit.
Impulsive velocity increment 1 is provided at point (A) to inject the vehicle
into hyperbolic escape trajectory having speed at a great distance from the
Earth.

123

124

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

VE
A

VE
Asymptote

(periapsis)

The spacecraft velocity in its parking orbit is calculated from

=
= 7.726 km/s
+

In order to reach (B) with velocity , the spacecraft should leave (A) with
velocity

Therefore,

2
=
+ ( )2 = 14.024 km/s
+

1 =
= 6.298 km/s

The eccentricity of the hyperbolic trajectory can be calculated as


= 1 +

+ 2
( ) = 2.295
=1+

The hyperbola asymptotes must be in the same direction as Earths orbital


velocity. Then, the angular location of point (A) can be determined from

Arrival at Jupiter:

= cos1(1/) = 115.8

Within the sphere of influence of Jupiter, the transfer trajectory will appear as
a hyperbola.

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

VJ
D

VJ
Asymptote

(periapsis)

Assume that after arrival at Jupiter the spacecraft will be inserted into a
circular capture orbit with radius = 6RJ, in which the velocity is given by

=
= 17.173 km/s
6

Assume (D) is the point of closest approach to Jupiter on the hyperbola. As the

spacecraft approaches (C) with velocity , it will arrive at (D) with velocity
2

=
+ ( )2 = 24.934 km/s
6

Therefore, the velocity required velocity increment is

2 =
= 6.298km/s

The total mission Delta-V budget can be calculated from

= 1 + 2 = 7.761 + 6.298 = 14.059 km/s

The eccentricity of the hyperbolic trajectory can be calculated from


= 1 +

6 2
=1+
= 1.1080

The hyperbola asymptotes must be in opposite direction to Jupiters orbital


velocity, because the velocity of Jupiter with respect to the Sun is greater than
the velocity of the spacecraft with respect to the Sun. Then, the angular
location of point (D) can be determined from
= cos1(1/) = 154.5

125

126

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

9.4 Lagrange Liberation Points


Lagrange liberation points (or Lagrange points) are the five positions where
the combined gravitational field of two large masses will cause a smaller
object to remain stationary relative to the two larger objects. The points are
stationary solutions of the circular restricted three-body problem. Euler
discovered three of these points and Lagrange two of them.
There are three points that are unstable because the slightest disturbance to
any object located at one of them causes the object to drift away
permanently. Until recently, this meant that the unstable Lagrangian points
seemed to have no practical application for spaceflight. Now, however, they
are known to have immense significance and have become the basis for
chaotic control.

9.4.1 L1 (stable)
The L1 point Lies on the line defined by the two large masses between them.
Example: A body which orbits the Sun closer than the Earth would have a
shorter orbital period than the Earth. However, this is based on the
assumption that the effect of the Earths own gravitational pull is negligible.
If the object is directly between the Earth and the Sun, then the effect of the
Earth's gravity is to weaken the force pulling the object towards the Sun, and
therefore increase the orbital period of the object. The closer to Earth the
object is, the greater this effect is.
At the L1 point, the orbital period of the object becomes exactly equal to the
Earth's orbital period. L1 is well-suited to solar observations. Objects here are
never shadowed by the Earth or the Moon.

9.4.2 L2 (stable)
The L2 point Lies on the line defined by the two large masses, beyond the
smaller of the two. Here, the gravitational forces of the two large masses
balance the centrifugal force on the smaller mass.

Fig. 9-7.
Liberation points

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

On the side of the Earth away from the Sun, the orbital period of an object
would normally be greater than that of the Earth. The extra pull of the Earth's
gravity decreases the orbital period of the object, and at the L2 point that
orbital period becomes equal to the Earth's.
As the Earth rotates around the Sun, these two points rotate around the Sun
with it, always staying in the same place with respect to the planet. These
stable orbits are being eyed as places to deploy satellites that observe the
Earth-Moon system.

9.4.3 L3 (stable)
The L3 point lies on the line defined by the two large masses, beyond the
larger of the two. This Lagrange point is located the farthest away from the
Earth, on the opposite side of the Sun. Until the development of
interplanetary probes which could travel to areas of the solar system outside
the Earth and Moon, L3 could never be observed due to its position.
L3 in the SunEarth system exists on the opposite side of the Sun, a little
outside the Earth's orbit but slightly closer to the Sun than the Earth is. At the
L3 point, the combined pull of the Earth and Sun again causes the object to
orbit with the same period as the Earth.

9.4.4 L4 and L5 (unstable)


Two additional Lagrange points L4 and 5 The Earth-Moon system also has
these Lagrange points, which may contain interplanetary dust L4 and 5 in the
Sun-Earth system are also called the triangular Lagrange points or Trojan
points. The latter name comes from the Trojan asteroids at the SunJupiter L4
and L5 points. Every planet has its own Trojan points and the larger the planet,
the more interstellar dust will be found trapped in them.
They lie at the third corners of the two equilateral triangles in the plane of
orbit whose common base is the line between the centers of the two large
masses. They are located on either side of the Earth with respect to the Sun,
lie 60 ahead of the Earth and 60 behind the Earth in its orbit around the Sun,
and contain interplanetary dust grouped into what are called Kordylewski
clouds.

9.5 Aerobraking
A technique that can be employed to capture a spacecraft by the atmosphere
of a planet in order to reduce the fuel required for the mission. When the
spacecraft is at its closest point, the propulsion system is used to insert the
spacecraft into an elliptic orbit. The periapsis radius will approximately remain
fixed, while the apoapsis radius will decay at twice the rate of the semimajor
axis decay

127

128

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

dra/dt = 2 da/dt

( 9-2 )

When the apoapsis radius reaches the required altitude of the target orbit, the
propulsion system is used to raise the periapsis out of the atmosphere to the
desired altitude such that the target orbit will be sustained.
Aerobraking was first successfully used in the Magellan mission to Venus
Proper predictions of aerobraking requires good knowledge of the planets
atmospheric density. Consider the example of the Mars Global Surveyor
spacecraft.

9.6 Gravity Assist


Significant trajectory changes require substantial propellant mass. An
alternative approach is to make use of the gravitational field of an
intermediate planet which can change the magnitude or direction of the
spacecraft velocity. Such propellant-free maneuver is known as Gravity Assist,
Swing-by or Fly-by maneuver. Gravity assist was essential for several missions
including the Galileo mission to Jupiter and Cassini mission to Saturn.

Fig. 9-8.
Gravity assist maneuver

9.7 Aerogravity Assist


In the last years, a new concept in the field of aero-assisted maneuvers has
been developed. This new technique, envisaged for interplanetary missions
and named AGA (aero gravity assist), utilizes atmospheric flight in order to
augment the gravitational bending of heliocentric velocity occurring during a
planetary encounter (McRonald, 1992).
The resultant V is much larger than that obtained from traditional
(exoatmospheric) gravity assist. This rather paradoxical result (an atmospheric
pass, with its inevitable loss of energy, being made to increase the inertial
velocity) is illustrated in Fig. 1. The spacecraft enters the planet sphere of
influence at the hyperbolic excess velocity following an approach asymptote
with pericenter within the atmosphere. The atmospheric flight is controlled by
aerodynamic lift to maintain nearly constant altitude. This circular trajectory

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

129

needs very high values of lift, directed downwards, to counteract the


centrifugal force. After the atmospheric turn through an angle, the spacecraft
follows the leaving asymptote with a final velocity that, due to drag force, will
be smaller than the incoming velocity. It is expected that this reduction will be
minimized with appropriate vehicles, such as hypersonic waveriders.3'4 The
triangles of velocities shown at the bottom of the figure demonstrate that, in
spite of the reduction in V, the V with such an AGA maneuver is greater than
that obtained with gravity assist alone.
It is well known that the maximum V achieved in a gravity assist maneuver is
equal to the circular velocity at the hyperbola pericenter. One may ask: given
the aerodynamic performance L/D of a vehicle and an approach velocity V,
what will be the maximum V in an aerogravity assist maneuver? It is the goal
of this Note to give the answer to this question.

Fig. 9-9.
Aerogravity assist maneuver

130

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Chobotov, V. (2002). Orbital Mechanics (3 ed.). AIAA.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Hamilton, C. (1997). Asteroid Introduction.
http://www.solarviews.com/eng/asteroid.htm

Retrieved

2009,

from

McRonald, A. D. (1992). Hypersonic Maneuvering for Augmenting Planetary


Gravity Assist. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 216-222.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Stephen Schneider and Thomas Arny. (2007). Pathways to Astronomy. New
York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Unsld, A., & Baschek, B. (2001). The New Cosmos: An Introduction to
Astronomy and Astrophysics. Berlin Springler.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
Walter, U. (2008). Astronautics: The Physics of Space Flight (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH.

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

PROBLEMS
P9-1

Describe aerobraking. How can it be used to reduce the total velocity


change of an interplanetary mission? Consider a nuclear waste
disposal mission from earth (1 A.U.) to a heliocentric circular orbit of
radius 0.86 A.U.

P9-2

What is the characteristics energy required for a Hohmann transfer


from earth to the circular orbit or radius 0.86 A.U.?
What is the flight time via the Hohmann-transfer from earth to the
0.86 A.U. orbit about the sun?

P9-3

To accomplish certain measurements of phenomena associated with


sunspot activity, it is necessary to establish a heliocentric orbit with a
perihelion of 0.85 A.U. The departure from the earths orbit will be at
apohelion. What must the burnout velocity be at an altitude of
1300km to accomplish this mission?

P9-4

A Venus probe departs from a 6378-km altitude circular parking orbit


with a burnout speed of 8.69km/s. Find the hyperbolic excess speed at
infinity.

P9-5

Calculate the sphere of influence for the nine planets in the solar
system.

P9-6

When the Earth is 147.4106 km away from the Sun, a spacecraft


parked in a 200-km altitude circular Earth orbit is to be launched
directly into an elliptical orbit around the Sun with perihelion of
120106 km and aphelion equal to the Earths distance from the Sun
on the launch date.
(a) Calculate the V required.
(b) Calculate the velocity of the departure hyperbola.

P9-7

Compute the distance to L1, the Lagrangian liberation point, from the
center of the moon along the Earth-moon line. To a first
approximation, L1 is an equilibrium point between the gravitational
and centrifugal accelerations of the attracting bodies.

P9-8

Compute the stationkeeping requirements (V) to remain within 10


km of L1 in P9-7 for a year.

P9-9

Compute the velocity impulse (V) for transfer from a 100-km circular
orbit at Mars to a hyperbolic orbit Earth return trajectory with an
eccentricity e=1.5.

P9-10 Write the equation of motion for a solar sail in the solar system.
Discuss the type of trajectories possible.

131

132

CHAPTER 9INTERPLANETARY TRAJECTORIES

P9-11 If the Earth were stopped in its orbit, what would be the elapsed
time, in days, until collision with the sun? Assume point masses, and
assume the Earths orbit to be circular, with r=1.0 A.U.
P9-12 Assuming the orbits of Earth and Mars are circular (with radius equal
to semi-major axis) and coplanar, calculate
(a) the total V required to send a spacecraft from a 600-km
Earth orbit into a Hohmann transfer from Earth to Mars,
(b) the time required for the Hohmann transfer maneuver, and
(c) the initial position of Mars () in its orbit relative to Earth for
interception to occur.

Fig. P9-12

P9-13 Your space mission analysis team is assigned to design the first
interplanetary mission to Mars. The spacecraft will be initially
launched into a 500-km parking circular orbit around Earth. The
spacecraft propulsion system will be used to escape the gravitation
field of Earth and insert the spacecraft into a Hohmann transfer orbit
along which the spacecraft will coast towards Mars. On arrival at
Mars, the propulsion system will be used to decelerate the spacecraft
and insert it into a 13,500-km altitude circular orbit around Mars.
Assume the orbits of Earth and Mars around the Sun are both circular
and coplanar
(a) Calculate the velocity at which the spacecraft will be inserted
into the Hohmann transfer orbit relative to the Sun, then
relative to Earth.
(b) Calculate the velocity at which the spacecraft will exit the
Hohmann transfer orbit relative to the Sun, then relative to
Mars.
(c) Calculate the velocity change required to escape the Earths
orbit assuming a simple coplanar maneuver is used.
(d) Calculate the velocity change required to insert the spacecraft
into the Marss circular orbit assuming a simple coplanar
maneuver is used.

10

Relative Motion

The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from
the earth's. The motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent
inequalities in the heavens.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

10.1 General Relative Motion


Relative motion usually refers to the motion of one spacecraft with respect to
another close spacecraft. Relative motion (relative position and relative
velocity) can be described by the difference between the absolute positions
and absolute velocities, in an inertial frame. However, an easier way of
modeling the relative motion can be developed if we take into consideration
that the relative distance between the two spacecraft is much smaller than
the size of the spacecraft orbits. In fact, we will see in this chapter that when
we take advantage of the later fact, we can describe the relative motion
between the two spacecraft with a system of linear equations. This linear
system facilitates the design of several tasks like spacecraft docking, debris
avoidance, and position correction tasks.
Consider two spacecraft, A and B. The relative position between the two
spacecraft, in the inertial frame, is defined as:
Z

Chaser
k

N
rrel
= rBN rAN

j
i

(10-1)

Where, the superscript N denotes the inertial reference frame. The relative
position vector can be expressed spacecraft As RSW-reference frame as:
A
N
rrel
= [Q]rrel

rrel

Target
X
Y

(10-2)
Fig. 10-1.
Relative position of Chaser to
Target in RSW frame..
133

134

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

Where, the superscript A denotes the RSW reference frame of spacecraft A,


and [Q] is the rotation matrix of the RSW reference frame from the inertial
frame.
From Kinematics (see chapter 2) and using Eq. (10-1), the velocity of
spacecraft B is:
A rrel + v
B = v
v
A +
rel

(10-3)

A
A rrel + 2
A v
aB = aA + A rrel +
rel + arel

(10-4)

A is the angular velocity of the spacecraft A with respect to the Earth.


where
Also, the acceleration of spacecraft B is:

A .
A is the rate of change of the angular velocity,

Recall that the specific angular momentum of spacecraft A is:


A = rA v
h
A = rA vAp k

(10-5)

vAp = rA A

(10-6)

Where vAp is the component of the velocity vector perpendicular to rA . Recall


also the relationship between the angular velocity, A and vAp : is,
Substituting Eq. (10-6) into (10-5), we get:

A =

rA v
A
= A k
2
rA

(10-7)

Taking the time derivative for Eq. (10-7), we obtain:


2
2(rA v
A )
A = r A (rA v
A

A ) =

2
2
rA
rA

(10-8)

We have the angular velocities and accelerations derived in Eqs. (10-7) and
(10-8), then we can determine the relative velocities and accelerations in
Inertial frame using Eqs. (10-3) and (10-4). In spacecraft As RSW reference
frame are, we have:
A
N
vrel
= [Q]v
rel

aArel = [Q]aN
rel

(10-9)

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

EXAMPLE 10-1
At a given time, the orbital elements of spacecraft A are:
= , = . , = , = , = , =
and the orbital elements of spacecraft B are:
= , = . , = , = , = , =
Determine the relative position, velocity and acceleration of
spacecraft B with repect to spacecraft A, as expressed in spacecraft A
reference frame.
SOLUTION
First, the absolute positions and velocities for both spacecraft are,
= [6086.2086 4941.2610 1176.8355]T km
= [4.5384 5.2771 1.5146]T km/sec
= [6159.0316 4871.8140 1571.0703]T km
= [ 4.5076 5.1031 1.9933]T km/sec

Next, we determine the angular velocity and rate of angular velocity of


spacecraft A, expressed in Spacecraft As RSW frame:

= 8.82334 104
rad/sec

A = 3
aA

rA v
A )
rad
2(
8

A =

=
0.6641

10

A
r2A
sec
Next, we determine the Directional Cosine Matrix of spacecraft A at
that point, which is,
[Q]A = C(, i, + )
0.76775
0.62332 0.14845
[Q]A = 0.64035 0.73824 0.21201
0.02256 0.25783 0.96593

Then, the angular velocity and rate of angular velocity can be


expressed in Inertial frame as:
N = [Q]TA

A
N = [Q]TA

The relative position in Inertial frame is,

= = [72.8230 69.4471 394.2348]T km


The relative velocity in Inertial frame is,
N

rel
v
= vB vA
N
N
rel
v
= [0.06122 0.22816 0.46354]T km/sec
The relative acceleration in Inertial frame is,
N

)
aN
B aA
N

N (
N
2
N v
rel
rel = a

135

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

136

aN
rel = [0.03850

0.11369

0.29040]T 103 km/sec 2

Thus, the relative position, velocity and acceleration expressed in


spacecraft As RSW frame are,

= [Q]A
= [71.1472 14.3185 400.3501]T km

= [Q]A
= [0.02639 0.10937 0.50795]T km/sec

= [Q]A = [0.001802 0.047013 0.310685]T km/sec 2

10.2 What does an Observer on one


Spacecraft see?

X
3
X

X
4

2
Y
1

X
Y

6
8

X
Spacecraft A
Spacecraft B

Consider two spacecraft in two orbits with the same semimajor axis. That is,
both spacecraft have same orbit period. Let the first orbit be circular and the
second orbit be elliptic with small eccentricity.

X
7

Fig. 10-2.
Relative direction observation in
Inertial frame.

The spacecraft As reference frame is always rotating such that one axis is
pointing to the earth center. Consider an observer on spacecraft A and is
observing spacecraft B location at all times (see figure 10-2.) Because
spacecraft B is in elliptic orbit, its velocity is not uniform. If we plot the
observations on an XY coordinate system attached to spacecraft A, we get the
bean-shape shown in figure 10-3.
Spacecraft B travels faster when it is close to its perigee (when its altitude is
below that of spacecraft A,) and travels slower when it is close to its apogee
(when its altitude is above that of spacecraft A). The following section shows
how to compute the position vectors shown in figure 10-3 as a function of
time.

3
4
5

8
7

Fig. 10-3.
As viewed from co-moving frame
by spacecraft A

10.3 Linearized Equations of Relative


Motion
Consider two spacecraft A and B, and let rA be the position vector of chaser
spacecraft A and rB be the position vector of target spacecraft B, both
expressed in the inertial frame. The relative position between the two
spacecraft can is:
r = rB rA

(10-10)

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

137

Assume that the relative distance between the spacecraft is small, compared
to the absolute distance to the Earths center:
rB = rA +
r

(10-11)

r
1
rA

The assumption in Eq. (10-11) is reasonable, especially for spacecraft


rendezvous cases. Recall the orbit equation for spacecraft B:
rB
rB = 3
rB

(10-12)

Substituting Eq. (10-12) into the second order time derivation of Eq. (10-10)
yields,
r + rA
r = rA
rB3

(10-13)

The range of the target spacecraft, , to the Earths center can be expressed
as:
rB2 = (r + rA ) (r + rA ) = rA rA + 2r rA + r r

(10-14)

If we expend the Eq. (10-14), and using the assumption in Eq. (10-11), we get:
rB2

rA2 1 +

2r rA r 2
2r rA
+ 2 rA2 1 +

2
rA
rA
rA2

(10-15)

Note that r 3 = (r 2 )3/2;Eq. (10-15) can be replaced by:


rB3

rA3 1

2r rA
+

rA2

3
2

(10-16)

To linearize Eq. (10-16), we use the binomial series:

where, =
we have,

2rrA
.
r2A

(1 + ) = 1 + +

( 1) 2
+
2!

(10-17)

By neglecting the higher order terms in the binomial series,

2r rA
1 +

rA2

3 2r rA
1 +

2
rA2

(10-18)

Target
rB
X

rA

Chaser

Fig. 10-4.
Relative Position of Target
Spacecraft to Chaser Spacecraft.

138

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

Then, substituting Eq. (10-18) into (10-16), we obtain,


rB3 = rA3 1

3r rA
1
3
= 3 5 r rA
2
rA
rA rA

(10-19)

Substituting Eq. (10-19) into Eq. (10-13):

1
3
r = rA 3 5 r rA (r + rA )
rA rA

= rA

r
3
rA

rA
r3A

3
(r rA )rA
r5A

(10-20)

3
(r rA )r
r5A

Since the relative dstance between the two spacecraft is small, then
3
(r rA )r 1. Eq. (10-17) becomes:
r5
A

r
r
3
r= rA r3 + rA3 r5 (r rA )rA
A

(10-21)

r
Recall that rA = rA3 and substitute that into Eq. (10-18).The linearized
A

equation of relative motion is:

r 3
r = 3 5 (r rA )rA
rA rA

(10-22)

EXAMPLE 10-2
Given the initial positions and velocities of two spacecraft:
= [. . . ]
= [. . . ]
= [. . . ] /
= [. . . ] /
Using the linearized method, determine the relative position after
30mins. Then compare the results with the relative position
obtained through the determination of the absolute position of each
spacecraft.
SOLUTION
At initial time, the relative positions and velocities are,
12 = 2 1 = [22.0744 57.6290 14.0791]T km
12 = 2 1 = [0.054772 0.058184 0.017981]T km/sec

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

139

Using the Eq. (10-22), where rA = 1 and r = 12 ,. the relative


position after 30 mins is,
12 ( = 30min) = [52.2169 30.0041 5.4692]T km
The absolute position of each spacecraft after 30mins are:
1 (t = 30min) = [7414.0065 376.3305 245.6600]T km
2 (t = 30min) = [7465.1619 407.2900 239.8874]T km
Then, the relative position is,
12 = [51.1554 30.9595 5.7726]T km

10.4 Clohessy-Wiltshire (CW) Equation


Another form of the equations of relative motion between two close
spacecraft in near circular orbits is the Clohessy-Wiltshire (CW) equations 8.
is the relative position
Define the position vector rA for spacecraft A, and r
vector of spacecraft B with respect to spacecraft A, both vectors in the RSW
frame as:
rA =

r = + +

(10-23)

Based on the assumption that the relative distance between the two
spacecraft is small compared to the absolute position, Clohessy and Wiltshire
showed that the acceleration of the relative position vector is:

= 3 + r
+
r
3

(10-24)

The term represents all external forces, like thrust forces or aerodynamic
drag forces, affecting spacecraft B. Another way of looking at Equation (10-24)
is to consider spacecraft A as a target spacecraft and spacecraft B as an
interceptor spacecraft. The interceptor spacecraft may have thrusters
onboard and use them to intercept the target after a given amount of time.
Consider the equation,
r = r
r A 2
A
(
r A )

(10-24)

8 Clohessy and Whiltshire are both engineers who first developed this form of the equations of
relative motion, in the middle of the twentieth century

140

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

= 3
.
The vector
is the angular velocity of spacecraft A:
=

is constant, and hence


= 0.
Note that

Substitute for the angular velocity vector into equation (10-25), we get:

3 + + 2 2 + 2
r = 2 + +
(10-25)
+ 2

Which can be written in terms of its three components as:


2 32 =
2 =

(10-26)

+ 2 =

Eq.(10-27) is also known as Hills equation.

10.4.1 Closed-form solution for near circular orbits


It is possible to obtain a closed form solution for the Hills equation. Assume
that both spacecraft are in near circular orbits; with no external forces, i.e.
= 0. Note that using impulsive thrust does not violate the assumption of
zero external forces since impulsive thrust affects only the initial conditions of
the problem.
Taking time derivatives for the x-component equation, we get:
= 2 + 32
= 2 + 32

Substitute for = 2 into equation above, we obtain:


= 2

(10-27)

(10-28)

Then, taking the Laplace transform of equation (10-41), we get:


3 () 2 0 0 0 + ()2 0 2 = 0
() =

0
0
0
+ 2
+
2
2
(
)

+
( + 2 )

(10-29)

Where 0 , 0 and 0 are the x-components of the initial relative position,


velocity and acceleration vectors, respectively.

Take the inverse Laplace transform to obtain:

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

() = 0 +

141

0 0
0
+ sin() 2 cos()
2

(10-30)

From Eq. (10-28), we can see that 0 = 2 0 + 32 0. Then Eq. (10-31)


becomes,
() = 40 +

2 0 0
2 0
+ sin() 30 +
cos()

(10-31)

Eq. (10-32) shows the closed form solution of Hills equation for the xcomponent of the relative position vector. The relative velocity is obtained by
taking of the time derivative of ():
() = 0 cos() + 30 +

Substitute Eq. (10-33) into the equation,

2 0
sin()

() = 2 0 cos() 2(30 + 2 0 )sin()

(10-32)

(10-33)

Integrate the Eq. (10-34) twice, we obtain the expression of and ,


() = 2 0 sin() + 2(30 + 2 0 )cos()+C

() =

2 0
2
cos() + (30 + 2 0 )sin() + +

(10-34)

The constants and can be determined from initial conditions:


= 60 3 0

Therefore,
() =

2 0
+ 0

(10-35)

2 0
2
2 0
cos() + (30 + 2 0 )sin() (60 +)

(10-36)
+ 0

() = 2 0 sin() + 2(30 + 2 0 )cos() (60 +)

The solution of z-component in Eq. (10-27) is straight forward, since it is


uncoupled from the other two equations. The equation of motion in zcomponent is:
= 2

Taking the Laplace transform, we obtain:

(10-37)

142

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

2 () 0 0 = 2 ()
()( 2 + 2 ) = 0 + 0

() =

( 2

(10-38)

0
0
+ 2
2
+ ) ( + 2 )

Then, through inverse Laplace transform, the z-component equations are:


() =

0
sin() + 0 cos()

(10-39)

() = 0 cos() 0 sin()

From these results for the equation of relative motion, we can see that the
closed form solutions are linear functions in the initial relative positions and
velocities. Thus, they can be expressed in matrix form as follows:
= rr r0 + rv r0

= vr r0 + vv r0

where,

(10-40)

4 3cos()
0
0
rr = 6(sin() ) 1
0
0
0 cos()

rv

2
1
(1 cos())

sin()
0


2
1
= (cos() 1)
(4 sin() 3)
0

sin()
0
0

vr

vv

EXAMPLE 10-3

3sin()
0
0
= 6(cos() 1) 0
0

0
0 sin()

cos()
2sin()
0
0
= 2sin() 4 cos() 3
0
0
cos()

(10-41)

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

143

Due to an impulsive external disturbance (debris hit), a GEO satellite


=
is found an hour afterwards to have drifted to the position
[ ] relative to its original position. At that time the
satellite initiates a two-impulse maneuver to return to its original
location in 4 hours. Find the total Delta-v for this maneuver.
SOLUTION
For GEO satellite, the height and mean motion are,
h = 36000km

= 7.292 10 5 rad / sec


The closed form solutions of relative position for GEO satellite are:
1 = rr r0 + rv r0

1 = vr r0 + vv r0
with 0 = [0 0 0]T km and 1 = [5 5 0]T km
Given that the satellite is drifted to position 1 after one hour, then:
1 = 3600 secs.
The relative velocities at initial time and at t1 are,
r = [0.001669 0.000999 0]T km/sec
0

1 = [0.001093

0.001728

0]T km/sec

Time required to return to designate position is 4hrs. Then, 2 =


14400 secs.
Using the CW closed form solution,

2 = rr r1 + rv 1 +

where 2 = [0 0

2 = vr r1 + vv 1 +

0]T km and,

The required initial and final relative velocity to return to designate


position are,
+ = [0.0008235 0.0001988 0]T km/sec
1

2 = [0.0001941

0.0005303

Thus, the total Delta-v is,


V = 1 0 + + 2 = [0.001593
1

0]T km/sec

0.001458

0]T km/sec

144

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

REFERENCES
Chobotov, V. (2002). Orbital Mechanics (3 ed.). AIAA.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.

CHAPTER 10RELATIVE MOTION

PROBLEMS
P10-1 A spacecraft is about to be released from the space shuttle, which is
in circular orbit at 600 km altitude. The relative velocity (from the
shuttle bay) of the ejection is 0.9 m/s down, 0.05 m/s backwards, and
0.01 m/s to the right. Find the position and velocity of the spacecraft
after 4 minutes.

P10-2 Spacecraft A is in a circular orbit of radius 6000 km. An approaching


spacecraft B executes a delta-v burn when its position vector relative
to spacecraft A
is

r0 = [1 0.9 0.95]T km.


Just before the burn the relative velocity of the spacecraft was

v0 = [0. 01 0.01 5]T m / s.


Calculate the total delta-v required for the spacecraft B to rendezvous
with spacecraft A in one-third period of spacecraft A orbit.

145

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