FCKupload File Books Annex1

OMAN SALINITY STRATEGY (OSS)
www.maf.gov.om
Oman Salinity Strategy

ANNEX 1
ASSESSMENT OF SALINITY PROBLEM
2012
Oman Salinity Strategy
Annex 1
Assessment of Salinity Problem
Prepared by
Ministry Of Agriculture And Fisheries (Maf), Sultanate Of Oman

International Center For Biosaline Agriculture (Icba) Dubai, UAE
2012
His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said
Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman
CONTRIBUTORS
InternationalCenterforBiosalineAgriculture(ICBA)
International
Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA)

Dr
Khalil Ammar (Leader)
DrKhalilAmmar(Leader)
DrShabbirShahid
Dr
Shabbir Shahid
DrAdlaKhalaf
Dr Adla Khalaf
MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries(MAF)
MinistryEng.SaudAlFarsi(Coleader)
of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF)
Eng. Saud Al Farsi (Co-leader)

Eng.KhadirAlFarsi
Eng. Khadir Al Farsi
Eng.HamidAlDhuhli
Eng. Hamid Al Dhuhli
SultanQaboosUniversity(SQU)
Sultan Qaboos University (SQU)
DrAliAlMaktoumi
Dr Ali Al Maktoumi
DrMalikBenMohamedAlWardi
Dr Malik Ben Mohamed Al Wardi
MinistryofEnvironmentandClimateAffairs(MECA)
Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs (MECA)
Eng.SalehAlSoukri
Eng.
Saleh Al Soukri
OtherOrganizations
Other
Organizations
MrSaidAlMuselhi(OmanWastewaterServicesCompanyHaya)
Mr
Said Al-Muselhi (Oman Wastewater Services Company-Haya)
MrAhmedAlShaqsi(PublicAuthorityforElectricityandWater)
Mr
Ahmed Al Shaqsi (Public Authority for Electricity and Water)
Eng.
Amer Al Mamari (Public Authority for Electricity and Water)
Eng.AmerAlMamari(PublicAuthorityforElectricityandWater)
International
Consultant
InternationalConsultant

Dr
Abdulazim Ibraheem
DrAbdulazimIbraheem
ACRONYMSANDABBREVIATIONS
Al
Aluminum
As
Arsenic
Boron
Ba
Barium
BAU
BusinessAsUsual
Be
Beryllium
CA
ConservationAgriculture
Ca
Calcium
CaCO3
Calciumcarbonates
Cd
Cadmium
CO32
Carbonates
Co
Cobalt
Cr
Chromium
Cu
Copper
CWR
CropWaterRequirements
dS/m
deciSiemenspermeter
ECe
ElectricalConductivityofsoilsaturationextract
ECw
ElectricalConductivityofwater
Fluoride
FAO
FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations
Fe
Iron
GIS
GeographicalInformationSystem
GRC
GeoResourcesConsultancy
HCO3
Bicarbonates
Hg
Mercury
ICBA
InternationalCenterforBiosalineAgriculture
Potassium
km2
Kilometersquare
MAF
MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries
MAR
MeanAnnualRainfall
Meq/L
milliequivantperliter
Mg
Magnesium
Mg/L
Milligramsperliter
ii
Mm3
Millioncubicmeter
Mn
Manganese
Mo
Molybdenum
MRMWR
MinistryofRegionalMunicipalities,andWaterResources
Na
Sodium
Ni
Nickel
NO3
Nitrate
NO2
Nitrite
NWIP
NationalWellInventoryProject
OSS
OmanSalinityStrategy
Phosphorous
Pb
Lead
RSC
ResidualSodiumCarbonates
Sulfur
SAR
SodiumAdsorptionRatio
Se
Selenium
Si
Silicon
SO42
Sulfates
SQU
SultanQaboosUniversity
TDS
TotalDissolvedSolids
S/cm
microSiemenspercentimeter
USDA
UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture
Vanadium
VAM
VesicularArbuscularMycorrhizae
Zn
Zinc
iii

CONTENTS
EXECUTIVESUMMARY
11
1.OVERVIEWOFTHEPHYSICALRESOURCESINOMAN
56
1.1 WaterresourcesinOman
56
1.2 SoilresourcesinOman
1.2.1
SoilsoftheSultanateofOman
56
1.3 Landsuitabilityforlargescaleirrigatedfarming
56
67
2.WATERRESOURCESINALBATINAH
78
2.1 Studyareacharacteristics
78
2.2 Topography
89
2.3 AlBatinahlandcoverclassification
89
2.4 Rainfall
11
11
2.5 Wadiflow
11
11
2.6 Geology
12
13
2.7 Hydrogeologicalsettingandaquiferproperties
13
14
2.8 Groundwaterlevel
13
18
20
15
3.WATERQUALITYINALBATINAH
3.1 Watersalinity
20
15
3.2 Suitabilityofwaterforagriculturaluse
28
27
4.GROUNDWATERRESERVESINALBATINAH
36
37
4.1 Groundwaterbalance
32
37
4.2 Groundwaterrecharge
40
41
4.3 Groundwaterthroughflow(Jabalinflow)
42
43
4.4 Groundwateruse
43
44
4.5 Balance
46
47
5.GROUNDWATERMODELING
51
50
5.1 Modelcodeselection
50
51
5.2 Modellimitation
50
51
5.3 ConceptualflowmodelforAlBatinahcoastalplain
51
52
5.4 Waterbalance
52
53
6.MANAGEMENTOPTIONSINALBATINAHCOASTALPLAIN
6.1 Reducewaterdemand
6.1.1
Usewatersavingtechniques
6.1.2
Changecroppingpatterntolesswaterconsumingcrops
6.2 Increasewatersupply
6.2.1
Increasegroundwaterrecharge
6.2.2
Reusetreatedwastewaterforirrigation
53
54
50
55
56
51
56
51
56
51
6.3 Adoptionofconservationagriculturetechnologies
53
58
6.4 Rootzonesalinitymanagementandleachingfraction
59
54
6.5 Soilsalinityinirrigatedfieldsandrelativeyieldprediction
59
54
6.6 StrategiestoovercomesoilpH,CaCO3affectonnutrientavailability
60
61
6.7 Futureoptionsforexpansionofirrigatedagriculture
61
60
7.WATERRESOURCESINSALALAHCOASTALPLAIN
59
54
61
62
7.1 Studyarea
61
62
7.2 Landcover
61
62
7.3 Salalahmaincatchmentsystem
61
62
7.4 Hydrogeology
63
62
7.5 Groundwaterlevels
64
63
7.6 Recharge
7.6.1
Groundwaterinflow
7.6.2
Rechargeovertheplain
7.6.3
Indirectrecharge
7.6.4
Rechargedam
7.6.5
Reclaimedwater
60
65
61
66
61
66
66
61
67
62
7.7 Groundwateroutflowtosea
62
67
7.8 Groundwaterreserve
67
62
7.9 Groundwateruse
62
67
7.10 Waterbalance
68
63
62
67
8.WATERQUALITYINSALALAH
70
65
8.1 Watersalinity
69
70
8.2 Otherwaterqualityconstituents
70
71
9.SOILRESOURCESINALBATINAH
70
75
9.1 Levelofsalinization
70
75
9.2 Salinitymonitoring
70
75
vi
53
54
9.3 Soilsandtheirpotentialuses
70
75
9.4 SoilqualityofAlBatinahagricultureregionandmanagementissues,2011survey 7378

9.5 Assessmentofrootzonesalinitymanagementefforts
78
73
9.6 AssessmentofsoilsalinitytrendinAlBatinahfrom199397to2011
9.6.1
Limitationsof19931997datasets
9.6.2
DatahandlingandunificationofEC1:5toECe
79
74
9.7 AssessmentofsoilpHinAlBatinahregion
9.7.1
ConsequencesofhighsoilpH
9.7.2
AssessmentofsoiltextureinAlBatinah
79
74
80
75
75
80
75
80
80
81
10.SOILRESOURCESINSALALAH
82
81
10.1 Rootzonesoilsalinity
81
82
10.2 Soiltexture
82
81
10.3 SoilpHandnutrientavailability
82
83
11.GROUNDWATERNUMERICALMODELFORNORTHERNBATINAH
11.1 Modeldomain
83
84
11.2 Modelgrid
83
84
11.3 Boundaryconditions
84
85
11.4 Flowmodelcalibration
11.4.1 Steadystatecalibration
11.4.2 Transientstatecalibration
85
86
86
85
11.5 Solutetransportmodel
11.5.1 Transportboundaryconditions
11.5.2 Calibrationperformance
11.5.3 Sensitivityanalysis
11.5.4 Salinityprediction
12.GROUNDWATERNUMERICALMODELFORSOUTHERNBATINAH
89
88
96
95
96
91
99
94
99
94
100
95
101
100
12.1 Modeldomain
101
100
12.2 Modelgrid
101
100
12.3 Initialconditions
102
101
102
101
12.5.3 Transientmodelcalibrationperformance
102
103
102
103
12.6 Flowmodelprediction
102
107
vii
84
83
103
104
102
107
BIBLIOGRAPHY
104
109
APPENDIX
108
113
ListofTables
Table1:SoilgreatgroupsofOman. .......................................................................................... 67
Table 2. Landcover classes considered in IKONOS supervised classification and change
detection. ..................................................................................................................................10
9
Table3.Groundwatersalinityclassesformanagementlevels. .............................................. 21
22
Table4.GroundwaterreserveGoodtosuitablequalityiIrrigationwater........................... 37
38
Table5.GroundwaterreserveDoubtfultounsuitablequalityirrigationwater. .................. 38
39
42
Table6.MainrechargedamsandtheirstoragecapacityinAlBatinahcoastalplainarea. .. 41
49
Table7.CurrentgroundwaterbalanceinAlBatinahcoastalplain......................................... 44
Table8.Predevelopmentgroundwaterbalance(Mm3). ....................................................... 52
53
Table9.Designcapacityofproposedrechargedams. ........................................................... 52
57
Table10.Salttoleranceofcrops. ........................................................................................... 55
60
Table11:GroundwaterinflowfromJabal. ............................................................................. 61
66
Table12.MeandirectrechargeestimatesinSalalahplain .................................................... 61
66
Table13.Groundwaterreserveinthecoastalplain. .............................................................. 62
67
Table14.EstimatedcurrentgroundwateruseinSalalahplain(Mm3). .................................. 63
68
Table15.EstimatedfuturewaterdemandforSalalahplainarea(Mm3). .............................. 63
68
Table16.CurrentgroundwaterbalanceforSalalahplain(Mm3). .......................................... 64
69
Table17.Steadystatewaterbalance. .................................................................................... 83
88
Table18.Transientrechargedistributioninrechargezones(Mm3/year). ............................. 85
90
92
Table19.TransientJabalinflow. ............................................................................................. 91
94
Table20.MeangroundwaterbalanceforAlluviumandUpperFarsaquifers. ....................... 93
95
Table21.GroundwaterbalanceforNorthernBatinahunder(BAUscenario)(Mm3/year)..... 90
Table22.Simulatedvariationsofinlandsaltencroachmentwithtime. .............................. 102

107
viii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Land suitability classes for irrigated agriculture in the Sultanate of Oman...........................7
Figure 2. Location map of study area (Al Batinah governorates).........................................................8
Figure 3. The main catchment system in Al Batinah governorates......................................................8
Figure 4. Main catchments and catchment areas in Al Batinah governorates (km2)............................9
Figure 5. Al Batinah main topographic map.........................................................................................9
Figure 6. Example of landcover map for Sohar.....................................................................................10
Figure 7. Agricultural areas in Al Batinah coastal plain........................................................................11
Figure 8. Average annual rainfall distribution in Al Batinah coastal plain............................................11
Figure 9. Mean annual water surface inflow and outflow in the main catchments in
Al Batinah governorates.......................................................................................................................12
Figure 10. Geological map of Al Batinah governorates........................................................................15
Figure 11. Location of Alluvium and Upper Fars aquifers in the study area.........................................16
Figure 12. Geological cross-section of the northern Batinah Alluvium and Upper Fars aquifers.........17
Figure 13. Geological cross-section of Alluvium aquifer in Wadi Al Mawil of the
Southern Batinah.................................................................................................................................17
Figure 14. Water table trends in some selected catchments...............................................................19
Figure 15. Water sampling sites in Al Batinah Governorates...............................................................20
Figure 16. (a) Current percentage of increase and (b) decrease in groundwater salinity levels in
MRMWR surveyed wells compared to the year 2005 salinity levels....................................................21
Figure 17. Current seawater intrusion (Mm3) varies among the catchments......................................22
Figure 18. The growth of total land area with saline groundwater, 1995-2010 (Feddan)....................23
Figure 19. The growth of cultivated zones affected by the increase of seawater intrusion (Feddan)..23
Figure 20. Current total land areas of high water salinity (TDS > 10,000 mg/l) (Feddans)..................23
Figure 21. Current total agricultural areas of high water salinity (TDS > 10,000 mg/l) (Feddans).......23
Figure 22. Examples of water salinity trends in some selected catchments (Source: ICBA, 2011)......24
Figure 23. Observed groundwater salinity in Al Batinah Governorates for the years
1995-2010 (mg/l).................................................................................................................................25
Figure 24. Growth of seawater encroachment 1995-2010..................................................................26
Figure 25. The historic and project growth of groundwater salinity in Al Batinah Alluvium aquifer....26
Figure 26. Projection of groundwater salinity growth (in mg/l) over land area under Business
as Usual Scenario for the years 2015 (top) to 2030 (bottom)..............................................................27
Figure 27. Diagram for relating SAR and conductivity..........................................................................28
Figure 28. Water salinity (mg/l) for water (left) and Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) (right)
for the year 2010..................................................................................................................................29
Figure 29. Suitability of irrigation water quality with respect to land area (left) and agricultural
area (right)............................................................................................................................................30
Figure 30. Total agricultural areas of suitable or less suitable irrigation water....................................30
Figure 31. Water EC (a) and SAR (b) in Al Batinah (2011).....................................................................31
Figure 32. Water pH classes in Al Batinah (2011).................................................................................31
Figure 33. Adapted from groundwater quality classes distribution from Al Batinah...........................32
Figure 34. Water salinity classes in Al Batinah governorates (2011))...................................................33
Figure 35. Overall water pH distribution classes in Al Batinah agricultural governorates (2011)........33
Figure 36. Overall water salinity classes in the Al Batinah governorates (2011)..................................34
Figure 37. Overall water pH classes in Al Batinah governorates and individual wilayat (2011)...........35
Figure 38. Water pH (a) and salinity classes (b) in Al Batinah governorates........................................36
Figure 39. Estimated annual infiltration volumes from main recharge dams in the coastal plain area....... 42
Figure 40. Estimated groundwater inflow from Jabal in Al Batinah study area...................................43
Figure 41. Location of existing wells and their designated use, and operational status in
Al Batinah Governorates......................................................................................................................44
Figure 42. Estimated mean annual abstraction rate in Al Batinah coastal plain for the
period 1982-2010.................................................................................................................................45
Figure 43. Agricultural water demand in (a) Al Batinah governorates and (b) Al Batinah coastal plain...... 45
Figure 44. Agricultural water demand for (a) Al Batinah governorates and (b) Al Batinah coastal area..... 46
Figure 45. Livestock water demand in main catchments of Al Batinah governorates..........................46
Figure 46. Increase of saltwater intrusion over time in response to over-pumping............................47
Figure 47. The effect of reducing abstraction rate on seawater intrusion...........................................55
Figure 48. Agricultural water demand using different irrigation techniques.......................................56
Figure 49: Potential water saving by shifting from flood to better advanced techniques....................56
Figure 50: The most water-consuming crops (Mm3)............................................................................56
Figure 51: Location of proposed recharge dams in Al Batinah catchment area...................................57
Figure 52 Current sectoral use of treated wastewater quantities in Al Batinah governorates.............58
Figure 53. Reclaimed water quantities per wilayat in Al Batinah Governorates..................................58
Figure 54. Location map of Salalah study area.....................................................................................62
Figure 55. Land cover map for Salalah.................................................................................................62
Figure 56. Main wadis flow in Salalah (Mm3).......................................................................................63
Figure 57. Geology map for Salalah coastal plain.................................................................................64
Figure 58. Salalah measured average water table levels (1984-2003).................................................65
Figure 59. Water level model prediction 2003-2030............................................................................65
Figure 60. Measured groundwater salinity for the year 1997..............................................................70

Figure 61. Simulated groundwater salinity contours after 6 years of commissioning treated
wastewater injection wells...................................................................................................................71
Figure 62. Modeled salinity cross sections: (a) Initial conditions, (b) after 6 years..............................71
Figure 63. Water pH (a) and salinity (b) for livestock and poultry (Salalah).........................................72
Figure 64. Water Salinity (a) and Sodicity (b) in Salalah waters...........................................................72
Figure 65. Ground water quality for Salalah........................................................................................73
Figure 66. Drinking water salinity classes for livestock and poultry (1992, 1995 and 2011)...............74
Figure 67. Current Water pH classes....................................................................................................74
Figure 68. Land suitability classes for irrigated agriculture in the Sultanate of Oman (MAF, 1990).....74
Figure 69. Soil suitability map for agricultural use in Oman.................................................................75
Figure 70. Al Batinah soil classification map........................................................................................76
Figure 71. Comparison of soil suitability map with groundwater salinity map overlayed by
agricultural areas..................................................................................................................................77
Figure 72. Overall salinity classes distribution in Al Batinah governorates..........................................78
Figure 73. Assessment of root zone salinity management efforts in Al Batinah..................................79
Figure 74. Comparative trend of soil salinity in Al Batinah governorates (1993-97 to 2911)...............80
Figure 75. Overall pH classes distribution in Al Batinah governorates.................................................80
Figure 76. Overall texture classes distribution in Al Batinah governorates..........................................81
Figure 77. Root zone salinity classes in Salalah soils............................................................................82
Figure 78. Soil suitability for agriculture..............................................................................................82
Figure 79. Soil texture classes from Salalah.........................................................................................83
Figure 80. Soil pH classes of Salalah soils.............................................................................................83
Figure 81. Northern Batinah Model Domain and Grid System............................................................84
Figure 82. Boundary condition for northern Batinah Alluvium and Upper Fars aquifer.......................85
Figure 83. Initial head conditions in Alluvium and Upper Fars aquifer.................................................86
Figure 84. Location of wells in aquifer domain....................................................................................87
Figure 85. Main recharge zones in model domain...............................................................................87
Figure 86. Steady State calibration performance (Observed head vs. calculated head)......................88
Figure 87. Calibrated hydraulic conductivity........................................................................................89
Figure 88. Calculated steady state head...............................................................................................89
Figure 89. Location of observation wells used in the model................................................................93
Figure 90. Examples of calibration performance: (a) the year 1995, (b) the year 2010.......................93
Figure 91. Longitudinal dispersivity zones: (a) Alluvium aquifer, (b) Upper Fars aquifer......................97
Figure 92. Scatterplot of observed vs. calculated salinity concentration for selected years................98
Figure 93. Vertical cross-section of seawater encroachment over time in the coastal zone................99
Figure 94. Study domain and boundary conditions for southern Batinah...........................................101
Figure 95. South Bathina Model grid and location of the recharge dams............................................101
Figure 96. Contour map of initial head and simulated groundwater contours, meters with
reference to swl....................................................................................................................................102
Figure 97. Observed and calculated groundwater contours for year 1985..........................................103
Figure 98. Observed and calculated groundwater contours for year 2000..........................................104
Figure 99. Calibrated hydraulic conductivity of the study domain.......................................................105
Figure 100. Observed and Calibrated hydraulic head in well JT-11......................................................106
Figure 101. Observed and Calibrated hydraulic head in well DW-3....................................................106
Figure 102. Simulated annual recharge (million cubic meters) to the alluvial aquifer in the
period 1982 to 2010.............................................................................................................................106
Figure 103. Observed and calibrated hydraulic head in all points of all the eleven observation
wells (Year 2010) ................................................................................................................................107
Figure 104. Simulated groundwater salinity for several year...............................................................108
Box 1. Dams recharge efficiency..........................................................................................................43
EXECUTIVESUMMARY
This annex provides background information about salinity assessment of soil and water
analyses of the datasets, and scenarios run for different evaluations to establish a
comprehensivestrategytomitigatesalinityproblemsinOman.
Theexaminationofgroundwaterdatasetsclearlyrevealedadeclineinthewaterleveland
anincreaseinwatersalinities(1,000to30,000ppm)inthemonitoringwells.Ithasalsobeen
foundthatthereisadeficitbetweenthetotalrechargeandabstractionresultinginseawater
intrusion.VariablesoilandgroundwatersalinitiesinagriculturalfarmsbothfromAlBatinah
andSalalahhavebeenobserved.
To understand the groundwater availability in the Al Batinah governorates a conceptual
modelwaspreparedforthestudyareausinganumberofimportantvariables,suchasthe
aquifers properties and thickness, aquifer recharge, water abstraction and general flow
direction,etc.Thenumericalmodeldefinesitsdomain,grid,boundarycondition,calibration
performance,soluteandtransportboundarycondition.
Landcover classes are determined using the Landsat classification to delineate the
agricultural areas. Four Landsat satellite images covering the Al Batinah and Salalah areas
areusedasthesourcedataforthisexercise.Supervisedclassificationisperformed,where
categorizationissupervisedbyspecifyingtrainingsitesofspectralcharacteristicsofknown
areas.
The review of the general soil map shows potential map units in the Al Batinah where
suitablesoilsforagriculturecanbedelineated;however,thiscanonlybeachievedthrougha
detailed soil inventory in the area of interest. The review of soil and water datasets (Al
Batinah and Salalah) revealed, over years, increasing trend of soil and water salinity, the
salinity increase is more extensive in Al Batinah governorates than Salalah, suggesting
salinity is poorly managed in Al Batinah compared with Salalah governorate. It is
recommendedtousetheleachingfractionproperlytomanagerootzonesalinitybelowthe
thresholdlevelofcropsinquestion.InwaterswheretheSodiumAdsorptionRatio(SAR)is
morethan10,effortsshouldbemadetoamendwaterqualitythroughusinggypsuminsoil.
Inadditiontosoilandwatersalinities,soilpHwasabovetheoptimumpHrange,wheremost
of the plant nutrients are not readily available to plants. Omani soils have significant
potential to capitalize on nutrient availability through increasing fertilizer use efficiency by
propersoilmanagementtechniques.Variouswayshavebeensuggestedtomanagesoiland
watersalinity,includingtheadoptionofconservationagriculturetechnologies.
Finally,variousinitiativeshavebeenproposed,includingbutnotlimitedto,soilpolicyissues,
reducingthe abstractionratetomitigatethecurrentunsustainableenvironmentalimpacts
whichhaveaccountedfor42%oftotalabstraction(250Mm3),andusedtotalsparewaterof
104 Mm3 which consists of: using treated wastewater in agriculture (37 Mm3), building
rechargedams(30Mm3),andimprovingirrigationsystemsbyshiftingfromfloodirrigation
todripandsprinklerirrigation(41Mm3).
Objectives
ThemainobjectivesofthestudyaretoassessthesoilandwatersalinityprobleminOman,
delineate its spatial and temporal extent, describe the possible causes of salinity and
11
developastrategytotackletheseissuesforbetterservicesfromsoilandwaterresources.
Thespecificobjectivesare:
Toprovideanupdateofavailablewaterresourcesandwateruse.
Toquantifybrackishwaterresourcesaccordingtodifferentwaterqualityclasses.
TodevelopagroundwatermodelforAlBatinahregion.
Tousethedevelopedgroundwatermodeltoevaluatetheproposedmanagement
optionstomitigatethesalinityprobleminthemostaffectedregions.
ToassesscurrentsoilsalinitystatusinAlBatinahandSalalahregions.
Toassesswaterqualityfordrinkingwaterforlivestockandpoultryandfor
agriculturaluses.
Toformulaterecommendationsforthemanagementofsoilandwaterresources.
Scopeofwork
Waterresourcesassessment
Thescopeofworkforthewaterresourcesassessmentcomponentincludesthefollowing:
Reviewandupdateinformationonavailablewaterresources,usesanddistribution
inthestudyarea.
Assessthemainwaterinflowtotheaquifersystem:naturalrechargefromrainfall,
fromrechargedams,andreturnflowfromirrigation.
Assessaquiferstresses:groundwaterabstraction,andoutflowtothecoast(sea
interface).
Assessfuturewaterdemandinthestudyarea.
Updatethewaterbalanceforthestudyarea.
Reviewpreviousmodelingeffortsandcasestudiesandhighlightthespatialimpacts
ofseveralmanagementscenariosimplementedtosolvethesalinityproblem.
Identifythegeographicdistributionandtrendsofgroundwatersalinity(GIS
mapping).
Assessthesalinitylevelanditsextentingroundandsurfacewaterresources.
Assesshydrologicalcharacteristicsandchangesinsaltaffectedregions.
Identifywatersuitabilityforagriculturalpurposes.
Assesswaterdatafordrinkingforlivestockandpoultryandforagriculturaluses.
Soilsalinityassessment
Assesssoilandwatersalinity,pHdatasetstodeveloptrendofincreaseordecrease
overaperiodoftime.
Giverecommendationsforsustainableuseandmanagementofsoilandwater
resources.
Identifypotentialareasforfutureagriculturalextension.
Recommendations
1. Evaluatetheadequacyofgroundwaterandsoilmonitoringnetworks
The monitoring network needs to be evaluated in terms of the information it conveys on
understanding the groundwater system. This is particularly important in areas of new
development that has affected groundwater availability and quality, such as in areas of
intensive irrigation, and where there are consequences of overdrafting and saltwater
intrusion. This monitoring network should be expanded to cover: the underlying aquifers
22
such as the Upper Fars Aquifer, better salinity sampling over time, and per depth (vertical
profiles).
Soilmonitoringshouldbeconsideredanimportantpartofoverallenvironmentalmonitoring
program, so that threats to soil degradation, biodiversity decline and pollution can be
identified on time and actions taken to save the resources. This can be achieved through
usingRemoteSensingimagesoveraperiodoftimeandthroughintegrationwithGeographic
Information Systems (GIS). It is recommended to implement a regular soil monitoring
programtobetterunderstandresourcecapacity,degradationleadingtobettermanagement
toachievehigherbenefitsandenvironmentalservices.
2. Improveestimatesofgroundwateruse
Groundwater use data were the least available in the study area. These data are vital for
understandingthehumanimpactonwaterandecologicalresources,andassessingthegap
inmeetingfuturewaterneeds.Appropriatemeasurementsoftheabstraction(likemetering)
should be applied regularly to better estimate the groundwater pumped quantities. An
updatedwellinventoryandagriculturalfarmsprojectisurgentlyneeded.
3. Improveunderstandingoffreshwatersaltwaterinteraction
Inordertoimprovetheunderstandingofthesaltwatermechanisms:
a. More indepth geological and hydrological studies are needed to better understand the
coastalgroundwatersystem.Afewolderstudiescoveredthecoastalplain,butthesestudies
needregularupdatingandexpansiontocovernewareas.Thisshouldinclude:
drillingexplorationwells,
morepumpingteststodelineatetheaquiferhydraulicproperties,
detectingtheextentofsalinityintheaquiferthrough
o geophysicalmethodssuchasresistivitymethod,and
o geochemical investigations such as chemical composition of groundwater,
andisotopestudies(ageofwatertoidentifythesourceofsalinity).
b. Threedimensional numerical groundwater models of variabledensity flow and solute
transport should be constructed to better understand the saltwater intrusion mechanisms
andevaluatetheeffectivenessofdifferentremediationstrategies.
4. Collectdataanddevelopintegrateddatabases
Accesstoinformationisessentialforwiseandcomprehensiveplanning.Thereisaneedto
build an integrated and comprehensive database on the national level that covers inter
connected fields and connects different departments and institutions: hydrology, soil,
geology, water, economics, health, environment, industry, agriculture, etc. A webbased
front end should be developed that links to the comprehensive database. Additional
functionalityinthesystemshouldallowpotentialuserstoretrieveinformationaccordingto
their information priorities. The database will be useful for decision makers for strategic
agriculture planning, engineering, research, environment monitoring, land management
decisions support, education and environment. The proposed system could be available
throughtheMinistryofAgricultureandFisheries(MAF)officialwebsite.
5. Undertakeremotesensing
At the most basic level, remote sensing work has identified and mapped the spatial land
cover distribution in Al Batinah and Salalah areas. Classification has been approached
throughapplyingtheconventionalclassificationofsatelliteimagery.However,changesand
shiftsonthevegetationcoverhavenotyetbeendetectedand/orquantified.Therefore,to
3
3
improve understanding of trends in salinity change, it is recommended that land cover

dynamicsandchangesoveraspanofseveralyearsareanalyzed.Highresolutionimagesand
analyticalapproachesshouldbeusedtoenhancethereliabilityofthepredictionprocess.In
addition, land cover data should be coupled with topography, thermal temperature,
vegetationindices,andfieldobservationstoanalyzethealterationsinvegetationcoverand
provideevidencetolocatepossiblefuturechangesduetosoilsalinity.
6. Improvewaterconservationmeasuresandenhancegroundwateravailability
Thecurrentextractionrate(2010rate)is46%morethantheaveragerecharge.Thismeans
thatrestorationofnaturalconditionsneeds:
To reduce the present extraction rate between 20% to 40%, and within an
acceptableeconomiclevel.
Toconstructnewrechargedamswherefeasibleandapplicable.
7. Soilpolicy
Manycountrieshaveincludedsoilsintheirpoliciesasanaturalresourceofvitalimportance.
Thewayweuseoursoils,andtheinfluenceofouractivitiesonit,willhaveimportantand
farreachingimpactonthequalityofourlivesandenvironment.Thevisionofsuchpoliciesis
underpinned by the aim to manage the land for current and future generations. This
requires a significant and longterm commitment. The challenge is to develop more
sustainable ways of managing soils in the face of environment change and increasing
demands upon soil resources; restoring the productive capacity of degraded soils; and
puttinginplacerobustandresilientsystemsthatlanduseandmanagementpreventfurther
degradationofthesoilsandlandscapes.
The best management of the Omani soils will result from a planned, well implemented
approach based on coherent soil policy that oversee research, development, education,
legislation fully geared to soil protection, rational and sustainable uses, regulation and
enforcement, as well as monitoring systems, identification of risk areas, and remediation
programs and public awareness. The policy should tackle full range of uses and threats to
soil in a comprehensive way and create a common framework for rational uses and
protection. It should also include integration of soil information into the development and
implementationoffuturepoliciesandprojects.Soilpolicyshouldbeperceivedasoneofthe
keyelementsofenvironmentalpolicy,inthecontextofsustainableuses.
8. Managingshallowsalinewatertablethroughfarmaquaculture
There is an opportunity for evaluating efficient methods of withdrawing from the water
table, and ameliorating associated salinity. An interesting alternative to plant production
systemsinaddressingshallowwatertablescouldbethedevelopmentofartificialpondsfor
aquaculture(e.g.forbrineshrimporprawns).Toachievethis,itisessentialtounderstand
soilpropertiesthatwouldbebestsuitedtosuchartificialponds.Itisrecommendedtouse
integratedfarmingsystem(cropslivestockaquaculture)forbetteruseoffarmresourcesand
toearnhighincome.
Soil salinity mapping of agricultural farms in Al Batinah and Salalah
9. SoilsalinitysappingofagriculturalfarmsinAlBatinahandSalalah
InitiatesalinitymappingtoknowthecurrentfullstatusofsoilandwatersalinityinAlBatinah
andSalalahagricultureareas.Thedatashouldbeenteredintoanationaldatabaseforease
of access and analysis to better inform policy and decisionmaking for sustainable use of
resources.
44
10. Integratedsoilprogram
An integrated soil program including research, development, education and extension
(RDEE) should be developed and implemented by a dedicated professional team from
existing manpower at the MAF to perform such important role. This team should include
expertise in soil science, policy development, research implementation, public education,
andcontractmanagement.Theteam,inadditiontootherresponsibilities,shouldalsoassess
suitabilityofnewsitesfortheiruseforagricultureandotherprojectsatnationalandfarm
level.ItisrecommendedtoimplementaRDEEprogramtomaximizebenefitsfromnatural
resources and improve national human capacity, and to assess soil quality to identify
limitationsforaspecificusepriortoimplementationofnewprojectsofanykind.
11. Establishsoilsalinityunit
To address salinity related issues at the national level, it is recommended to create a Soil
SalinityUnitincludingasoilandwatertestinglaboratorywithintheMinistryofAgriculture
andFisheriesofOman.Theunitshouldberesponsibleforallsalinityrelatedissues,including
but not limited to, developing national policies, implementation of salinity monitoring
program, analytical soil and water testing services at national level, community, extension
and education services etc. The unit should also be responsible to implement, where
appropriate an integrated soil reclamation program (physical, chemical, hydrological,
biologicalmethods)atfarmleveltocapitalizefarmresourcesforbetterproduction.
12. Expansionofirrigatedagriculture
Further expansion of irrigated agriculture into new areas requires review of existing soil
maps to find map units having high potential for irrigated agriculture. At present soil map
units (MAF, 1990) provide weighted average suitability based on the soil types included in
these units (some are suitable and others may be unsuitable). Unfortunately this level of
detail does not enable the precise location of soil types, thus requires further elaboration
throughonsiteinvestigations.Oncethepotentialsitesareidentifiedfortheexpansionof
agriculture, it is highly recommended to conduct onsite investigations to find subareas
suitableforagriculture.
13. Undertakecapacitybuilding
To strengthen the available human resources, develop newlyrequired capacities, thus
improvingthetechnicallevelofresearchers,extensionstaffandthefarmers,thereisaneed
toundertake:
Stafftrainingin:
o remotesensingandGIS,
o vadosezoneandgroundwatermodeling,
o vulnerabilitymappingandriskassessment,
o forecastingmodelsforfutureplanning(waterdemand,population,climate
change,etc.),and
o trainingonqualityassurance/qualitycontrolofavailabledata.
Farmerstrainingin:
o improvingfarmersskillsinmodernandconservationirrigationtechniques.
o onfarmwatermanagement,andonfarmpartialdesalination,and
o soiltestingsalinityandfertilitydiagnosticsandmanagement.
55
1.OVERVIEWOFTHEPHYSICALRESOURCESINOMAN
1.1 WaterresourcesinOman
Oman is located in the southeastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula. It is an arid country whose
meanannualrainfallislessthan100mmperannum,thatis,thereislittlerain.Groundwateristhe
main water resource in the country. The net annual natural recharge is estimated to be around
1,260 million cubic meters (Mm3). The total water demand is around 1,650 Mm3, of which 90% is
usedforagriculture.
AlBatinahisthemainagriculturalregionofOman,accountingfor50%ofthecountry'sagricultural
production. There has been significant growth in agriculture over the last twenty to thirty years.
Excessive pumping from groundwater wells has resulted in seawater intrusion, causing soil and
watersalinizationinAlBatinahagriculturalregion.
Groundwater overpumping of limited renewable quantities has increased the salinity of
groundwater.AhistoricalrecordofagricultureinOmanhasclearlyrevealedthatthesoilandwater
resourcesintheAlBatinahagriculturalregionareaffectedbyanthropogenicandnaturalseawater
intrusionsoilsalinization.Thisjeopardizesthepotentialforfutureagriculturalproductiontobridge
thegapbetweenlocalfoodproductionandfoodimports.Futurechallengesassociatedwithclimate
changewillfurtheraffectagriculturalproductionandaggravateresourcedegradation.Itistherefore
imperativetoimprovesoilresourcecapacityforbettercropproductionandtoavoidabandonment
of farms. To address these issues, there is a need to develop a new agricultural paradigm of
sustainable crop production that is, "producing more from the existing agricultural area in Oman
while reducing negative impacts on soil services". To achieve this paradigm shift, innovative
approachesmustbeputinplacetoimprovetheconditionsofOmaniagriculture.
ThesoilsurveyofOman(MAF,1990)identifiedthat7%ofsoilsaresuitableforlargescaleirrigated
farming. In general the arable soils in the GCC countries (henceforth GS, 'Gulf States') have been
declining since 1961. This is due to the hot climatic conditions and land degradation that has
reducedtheresourcecapacityforagricultureproduction.Asof2003,theGShavelessthan0.15ha
arablelandperperson.
Inviewofthesoilandwaterconstraintsandtheexpectedimpactsofclimatechangeonagriculture
inOman,MAFhasinitiatedaprojecttodeveloptheOmanSalinityStrategy(OSS),jointlywithICBA.
OneoftheimportantcomponentsofOSSistocompilepastandpresentinformationonphysical(soil
andwater)resourcestoserveasabaselineofinformationonwhichtofoundthestrategy.
1.2 SoilresourcesinOman
1.2.1 SoilsoftheSultanateofOman
TheGeneralSoilMapoftheSultanateofOman(MAF,1990)isdividedintosevensoilgreatgroups
and five miscellaneous units (Table 1). These map units are not pure, that is, contain other minor
soils,whichcannotbeseparatedatthescaleofmapping(1:250,000).TheGypsiorthids,Calciorthids
andTorripsammentscumulativelycover69%areaofOman,and18.7%ofrockoutcrop.
66
1.3 Landsuitabilityforlargescaleirrigatedfarming
The land resources suitable for agriculture are limited as only 7.07% of the soils are suitable for
agriculture, equaling to 2.22 x 106 ha of the total Table1.SoilgreatgroupsofOman
landofOman(31.4x106ha)(Figure1).Itshouldbe (Source:MAF,1990).
noted that the actual area of suitable soils will be A.SoilGreatGroups
less than 7.07%. Because these areas also contain Calciorthids

16.02
soils which are not suitable for agriculture, the Gypsiorthids
36.26
actual suitable area cannot be delineated at the
Torripsamments
16.86
scale of mapping (1:250,000). If sufficient water is
0.93
available and all the available suitable land was Torrifluvents
6.37
exploited for agriculture, food importation would Torriorthents
beconsiderablyless.Thelandsuitabilityclassesare Ustropepts
0.70
definedbelow(MAF,1990):
Salorthids
2.50
79.64
S1 Highly to moderately suitable (791,651 ha) Subtotal(A)
2.52%
B.Miscellaneous
Landhavingnosignificantlimitationsorlimitations Coastaldunes
which in total are moderately severe for sustained Tidalflats
irrigatedagriculture.
Rockoutcrop
Wadibeds
S2Marginallysuitable(1,431,406ha)4.55%
Land having limitations in total which affect Urban

20.36
severely sustained application of a given use and Subtotal(B)
100.00
consequently reduce productivity or benefits, or Grandtotal
alternatively require increased inputs to the point that this expenditure will be only marginally
justified.
NNotsuitable(29,203,409ha)92.93%
Landhavinglimitationswhichmaybesurmountableintimebutwhichcannotbecorrectedwith
existingknowledgeatcurrentlyacceptablecost;thatis,thelimitationsaresosevereastopreclude
successfulsustainedirrigatedagriculture.
Figure 1. Land suitability classes for irrigated agriculture in the

SultanateofOman(Source:ICBA,2011,basedonMAF,1990).
77
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
egy Annex1: Physical Resources
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
2.WA
ATERREESOURC
CESINA
ALBATIN
NAHREG
GION
2.1 Sttudyareacharacteristics
AlBatinaahregionislocatedinth
henorthwestternpartoftheSultanatteofOman.Itextendsab
bout270
km alon
ng the Gulf of
o Oman, fro
om the Shinaas wilayat in
n the west to
o Barka wilaayat in the east.
e
This
regionccomprises25
5surfacecatchments(mainwadis)th
hatdraintheewesternmountainoussslopesof
JabalAlAkhdarandthecoastalp
plain(Figure2,Figure3)..
Figure2
2.Locationm
mapofstudyarea(AlBatiinah) Figure3.Themaaincatchmen
ntsysteminAl
Batin
(Source::ICBA,2011)).
nah(Source:ICBA,2010,basedon
inforrmationobtaainedfromM
MRMWR).
ThesecaatchmentsareboundedbyJabalinthesouthand
dbytheGulfofOmanin
nthenorth.TThetotal
2
areaoftthecatchmeentsis15,000
0km .ThelaargestcatchmentwithinAlBatinahggovernoratessisWadi
Mayhah
hMabrahHaajirsystem,w
whichhasan
nareaof1,3
387km2,follo
owedbyWaadiBaniGhaafer,with
2
an areass of 1,252 km . The smaallest catchm
ment within Al Batinah governorates
g
s is Wadi Manumah,
this portion of whicch is within Al Batinah governorates
g
s has an areea of just 24
4 km2 (Figure
e 4). The
maintow
wnsinclude::Shinas,Liwaa,Sohar,AlK
Khaburah,AssSuwayq,Saaham,AlMusanaah,andBarka.
8
8
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
Km2
1,600
1,400
1
1,387
1,252
1,200
1169 1145
5
1096
1,000
800
894
755
6
693
660
594
600
400
406 393 386

366 365
274
200
211 184
163 162 155 15
54
61
32
24
Figure4..Maincatchm
mentsandcaatchmentareasinAlBatin
nah governorrates(km2)(SSource:ICBA,2011).
2.2 To
opograph
hy
The top
pography of Al Batinah governorates ranges from
1,700m
mneartheJabalfrontin thesouthto
osealevelallong
the coast. There iss a steeper surface graadient near the
a
a flatteer surface gradient
g
in the plain. The
Jabal, and
upstream
m catchments exten
nd beyond
d Al Batiinah
governo
orates(studyyboundary)w
wheretheelevationreacches
up to 3,,000 m near the Jabel Al Akhdar on
o the south
hern
boundarry of Al Batiinah governo
orates. Whille the elevation
intheco
oastalplain rangesfrom100mto0 m(sealevel)at
thecoasst(Figure5).
2.3 AlBatinahlandcoverclassificaation
SomeoffAlBatinahccoastalcatch
hmentareassareaffected
dby
soilsalin
nityconditionsthatledttoenvironmeentalandso
ocio
economic problemss. Monitorin
ng the land cover patte
erns
withrem
motesensinggandGISprrovidesbaseinformation
non
crop waater use an
nd salinity changes,
c
thu
us enabling the
projectio
onoffurtherrlanddegrad
dation.
FourLan
ndsatsatellitteimagesco
overingtheA
AlBatinaharreas
areused
dasthesourcedatafor thisexercise.Groundtrruth
information required for valid
dating the cllassification is
absent. Landsat images aree acquired under clear
c
heric condiitions and georeferen
nced to UTM
U
atmosph
coordinaatesystem,ZZone40North.Thegeoreferencedd
data
is classiffied using ERDAS Imagin
ne and then
n clipped to the
twostud
dyareasusin
ngArcGIStoo
ols.
99
Figurre5.AlBatin
nahmain
topographicmap
p(Source:ICB
BA,
2011
1).
Supervisedclassificationisperformed,whereacombinationofspectralandinfraredbandsareused
todisplaytherawimagesforbettervisualinterpretation.Theidentificationandlocationoftheland
covertypesisthendeterminedbasedonthefeaturescombinationofdigitalnumbersmanifestedby
spectral reflectance and emittance properties. In other words, categorization is supervised by
specifying numerical descriptors that represent homogeneous examples of the known land cover
types in each Landsat image.
Theseareasareknownastraining
sites,
since
the
spectral
characteristics of these known
areas are used to train the
classification algorithm. Pixels
within and outside these training
sites are evaluated using the
statistical
parameters
and
assigned to the class of which it
has the highest likelihood.
Spectral separability of training
sampleswithineachfeatureclass
is then evaluated to ensure both
thateachpixeliscategorizedinto
the landcover type it mostly Figure6.ExampleoflandcovermapforSohar(Source:ICBA,
resembles
and
that
no 2011).
overlapping of pixel classification
takesplace.SupervisedclassificationisthencarriedoutusingERDASImagine2011softwarebased
onaonelevelclassificationschemewithsixclasses.Thechoiceoftheseclassesisguidedby:(a)the
objectiveoftheexercise;(b)theexpecteddegreeofaccuracyoftheimageclassification;and(c)the
easeofidentifyingclassesgiventhelowspectralresolutionofthedata.Abriefdescriptionofeach
landcoverclassisgiveninTable2.Figure6showslandcoverforSohar.
Table 2. Landcover classes considered in IKONOS supervised classification and change detection
(Source:ICBA,2011).
Landcoverclass
Trees/highdensityvegetation
Agriculture
Growing/naturalvegetation
Baresoil
Moist/ploughsoil
Other
Agriculture
Growing/naturalvegetation
Baresoil
Moist/ploughsoil
Other
Briefdescription
Trees,healthycrops,andvegetationwithlargeleafareas
Levelterracedagriculturalareasnearthecoast
Landcoveredbysmallleafvegetationareas
Areaswithoutvegetationcoverandsandysoil
Ploughed/wetareas
Baresoilandurbanexpansionareas
Levelterracedagriculturalareasnearthecoast
Landcoveredbysmallleafvegetationareas
Areaswithoutvegetationcoverandsandysoil
Ploughed/wetareas
Baresoilandurbanexpansionareas
Postclassification includes the conversion of each Landsat classified image to polygon features to
calculateareasandproducemaps.Theareaofeachpolygonandeachsingleclasswithineverysingle
segment is calculated. The land cover classification is presented in Figure 7. The figure shows the
agricultural areas specified as trees to account for fruit trees such as date palm, etc., while
vegetationrepresentsfieldcrops,vegetables,etc.
10
10
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
2.4 Raainfall
Innorth
hernOman,tthemainrainfallseasonoccursbetw
ween
Decemb
ber and Apriil which accounts for 58
8 to 83% off the
annual rainfall. Feb
bruary and March reco
ord the higghest
rainfallaaccountingffor35to42%
%oftheann
nualrainfall..The
number of days of light rainfaall (<10 mm per day) iss the
dominan
ntandaccou
untsfor66to
o95%oftheerain(Kwartteng,
2008). In Al Batinah governo
orates, the average an
nnual
rainfall is about 113
3 mm in thee northern Batinah
B
and 158
mm in southern
s
Battinah, and about 100 mm in the coastal
plainneearthecoastt.Theaveraggenumbero
ofrainydayssper
yearis9
9.1forAlBattinahcoastalplainand1
13rainydayssper
year forr the northern Oman mountains. Th
his rainfall varies
overspaaceandtimee.Thespatiaalrainfalldisstributionrevveals
that thee upper cattchments haave higher rainfall
r
than
n the
lower catchments
c
and the co
oastal areass. The temp
poral
rainfall distribution
d
shows that many years were dry years,
with rainfall lower than
t
averagee, as shown in Figure 8.. The
highestrecordedaveragewasin
ntheyear19
997of330m
mmin
northern
nBatinahan
nd608mminsouthernB
Batinah.Figu
ure8
shows continuous
c
d years forr the period
dry
d 1999 up to
o the
year 20
010, except the year 20
007. Rainfall data for some
s
d raingages in the study area weree obtained from
f
selected
MRMWRdatabase.
2.5 Wadiflow
W
The tottal wadi inflo
ow from Jab
bal to the All Batinah coastal
plainwaasestimated
dasapercen
ntageofmeaanannualrainfall
(MAR). This percenttage ranged
d between 4.2%
4
in Uppe
er Al
(m
mm)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
19821984198619881
199019921994199619982000200220
004200620082010
0
Rainfall
AverageRainfall
8 Average annual
a
rainfaall distributio
on in Al Batinah
Figure 8.
coastal plain (Sourcce: ICBA, 20
011, based on rainfall data
d
fromMR
RMWR).
11
11
Figu
ure7.AgricullturalareasinAl
Batinahcoastalplain(Source
e:ICBA,
2011).
Haw
wasnihwadiu
upto18.4%inUpper
Hattacatchmentt(Figure9,TTableA19
in the appendiix). The tottal wadi
matedas
outfllowtotheseawasestim
0.7%
% of MAR. These waadi flow
quan
ntities were estimated based
b
on
prevvious stud
dy (GRC, 2006).
Acco
ording to MRMWR
R, the
catch
hment areass were delineated as
uppeer and loweer catchments based
on the rainfall distributiion and
streaamflowtribu
utaries.
12
SurfaceInflowfromJabalCatchments
SurfaceoutFlowtotheCoast
Figure9.MeanannualwatersurfaceinflowandoutflowinthemaincatchmentsinAlBatinahgovernorates(Source:ICBA,2011).
10
11
12
13
14
15
Mm3
2.6 Geology
The main geological formations of Al Batinah governorates are presented in Figure 10. These
geological formations are simplified into following nine geological formation groups, as will be
discussed next. The Quaternaryaged Alluvium and Neogeneaged Upper Fars Group are the main
geological units in the study area. These two geological units are significant for groundwater
availability because all the wells in the coastal plain mostly tap from the Alluvium aquifer. A brief
discussionofthemainlithologicalcharacteristicsofthenorthernBatinahisgivenbelow:
1. RecentAlluvium
Recent alluvium is a Quaternaryaged alluvium. It is generally poorlysorted, loose gravels
interbeddedwithclay.ThethicknessoftheQuaternaryagedalluviumrangesbetween8mand147
m. The thinnest section of alluvium (8 m, overlaying Upper Fars) was in Wadi Mashin, while the
thickest sections of alluvium were located between Wadi Jizi and Wadi Al Fara (GeoResources
Consulting,2006).
2. FarsGroup
The Fars Group underlies the Alluvium formation in Al Batinah governorates. This group only
outcropsinthesoutheasternpartofthestudyarea,nearSeeb.TheFarsGroupcanbedividedinto
threemainformations(GeoResourcesConsulting,2006):
TheUpperFarsFormation(UpperConglomeriticFars)
The Neogeneaged Upper Fars formation contains dolomites, cemented conglomerates and chalky
limestonewithinterbeddingofthinsiltstonestowardsthebase.Thethicknessrangesbetween114
mand582m.
TheMiddleFarsFormation(FarsGroupEvaporates)
This formation comprises claystone interbedded with thin cemented gravels. The thickness of
MiddleFarsformationreachesupto146m.
LowerFarsFormation
Thisformationcomprisedcalcareousshaleinterbeddedwithsiltylimestone.Thesesedimentswere
depositedinshallowmarineconditions.Thethicknessoftheseformationrangesbetween8mand
133m.
3. HadhramautGroup
TheHadhramautGroupsedimentaryrocksliebeneaththecoastalplainwithinthestudyarea.These
rocksoutcropatsurfaceinthepiedmontofallcatchmentsbetweenWaidSakhinandWadiFara.The
mainstratigraphyandageoftheHadhramautgroupisasfollows:
Dammam(MiddletoLowerEocene)
Thisformationcomprisesmoderatelystronglimestoneinterbeddedwithweaktomoderatelyweak
siltyshale.Theformationthicknessisabout60m.
UpperUmmErRadhuma(UER)(LowerEocenetoPalaeocene)
TheUpperUERformationcomprisessiltyshaleinterbeddedwithdolomiticlimestone.Theformation
thicknessisabout90m.
LowerUER(LowerEocenetoPalaeocene)
The Lower UER comprises varying strengths of limestone with interbedded varying colored shale.
Theformationthicknessreaches300m.
13
4. ArumaGroup
TheArumaGroupformationisLateCretaceous.Itcomprisesshaleinterbeddedwiththinlayersof
yellowcalcareousmudstone.TheseformationsunderlietheHadhramautGroupandoutcropinWadi
SakhinanduptoWadiFaraandinthepiedmontbetweenWadiSakhinandWadiBidah.
5. OphioliticSamailNappes
Theophiolitesequencecomprisesperidotite,gabbroandmaficdykes,andpillowbasalt.Theserocks
outcropinallofthenorthernBatinahcatchments.
6. HawasinahNappes
HawasinahNappesarePermiantoCretaceousagedsedimentaryandvolcanicrocks.Thesenappes
consist of shales, calcarenite, basalt, shallow marine limestones and chert. They outcrop in Wadi
HawasinahandinthepiedmontbetweenWadiRajmaandWadiMayhahMabrahHajir.Theserocks
compriseweaktomoderatelystrongmudstoneinterbeddedwithshale,minorgravelandmudstone.
7. SumeiniNappes
The Sumeini Nappes formation comprises Permian to Cretaceousaged sedimentary rocks. They
overthrust the Hajar Super Group. These nappes consist of thinlybedded, finegrained grey
calcareniteandcalcirudite,beigeshale,calcareniteandchert.TheyoutcropinWadiHawasinah.
8. HajarSuperGroup
TheHajarSuperGrouprocksvaryinagefromLatePermiantoLowerCretaceous.Theserocksconsist
ofmassivelybeddeddolomite,siltstonesandsandstones.Theserocksexistinthesouthernpartsof
wadiBaniGhafirandWadiAlFaraandclosetoJabalAlAkhdar.
9. HaushitoHuqfGroups
The Haushi Huqf Group varies in age from Cambrian to Early Permian and is represented by the
Huqf, Haima and Haushi Groups. Rock types include limestone, sandstone, siltstone, dolomites,
evaporate,andconglomerates.
Geologicalstructure
Themainstructuralgeologicalfeaturesinthestudyareaincludemainfaults,regionalsynclines,and
anticlines.Thesefeaturesarealignedinanorthwesttosoutheastdirection,paralleltotheaxisofthe
Omanmountains,orinanortheasttosouthwestdirection.Themajorstructuralfeaturesareshown
in Figure 10. The main regional syncline occurs between Wadi Hilti down to Wadi Al Fara. This
synclineor elongated basinislocated in wadistothe southeast of Wadi Suq.This basin occurred
duetothedeformationoftheHadhramautrocks.ThisbasinwassubsequentlyfilledwithFarsGroup
andQuaternaryAlluviumsediments.
FourgeologicalcrosssectionsareavailablefromtheGeoResourcesConsultancystudy(2006).These
geologicalcrosssectionsextendalongandareperpendiculartothecoastlinewithinthestudyarea.
One cross section is presented in Figure 12. This crosssection shows that the Upper Fars thickens
and widens from the northwest to the southeast of the study area. In Wadi Ahin the Upper Fars
Formationisabout12kmwideandis300mto450mthick.Thickquaternaryalluvialsediments,up
to150mthickformabovetheUpperFars(Figure12).
2.7 Hydrogeologicalsettingandaquiferproperties
Aquiferoccurrences
The Batinah coastal plain is discussed in two parts: the northern Batinah coastal plain and the
southern Batinah coastal plain. In the northern Batinah coastal plain, groundwater occurs in the
14
AlluviumandUpperFarsaquifers,whileinthesouthernBatinah,groundwateroccursintheAlluvium
aquifer.
Figure 10. Geological map of Al Batinah governorates (Source: ICBA, 2011, based on information
fromMRMWR).
15
10
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
mAquifer
Alluvium
The Allu
uvium aquifeer is the prin
ncipal aquifeer in the stu
udy area. This aquifer co
onsists of we
eathered
limeston
neandOphiolitegravelss.Thesegravvelsvaryinssizebothspatiallyandindepth.Graavelsare
coarser near the mountain
m
and finer nearr the coast, and uncon
nsolidated neear the surfface and
datedtoward
dsthebase oftheaquifeer(Figure11
1).TheAlluvviumaquiferrisdelineate
edbased
consolid
ontheggeologicalmaapandcrosssections,byyfollowingth
heextentofthealluvium
moutcropare
ea.
In the northern
n
Battinah, the Alluvium aquifer overlies the bedrockk between W
Wadi Al Haw
wrim and
Wadi Su
uq, and oveerlies the Up
pper Fars aquifer betw
ween Wadi Jezzi
J
and W
Wadi Al Farraa. In the
southern
n Batinah, the Alluvium aquifer onlly overlies th
he bedrock between W
Wadi Bani Khaarus and
WadiTaaww.
ThethiccknessoftheeAlluviumaaquiferrangees
from 8 m between Wadi Hawrrim and Wad
di
Rijma to 143 m at
a Wadi Hilti and startts
thinningg after thaat along the northerrn
Batinah coast (Figu
ure 12). In the southerrn
Batinah,,thethickneessreachesaamaximumo
of
300 m at the Alluvium
trough. This
alluvium
mtroughwassformedalo
ongtheaxiso
of
Wadi Mawil, perpeendicular to the coastlin
ne
ween Wadi Mawil an
nd
that exxtends betw
WadiFarah(Figure13).
The Alluvium aquifer constitu
utes a single
hydrogeeological un
nit under water table
conditio
ons, and caan be regaarded as an
a
unconfin
ned aquifer, except where locaal
confinem
mentexists.
UpperFFarsAquifer
TheUpp
perFarsaquiiferconsists ofdolomites,
cementeed conglo
omerates and chalkky
limeston
ne. It underlies the Allu
uvium aquifeer
in the northern Batinah coastal
c
plaiin
between
n Wadi Jezzi and Wadi Al Farra. Th
he
UpperFarsrangesbetween114mand582m
m
in thicckness. Theese sedimeents thickeen
between
nWadiSuqaandWadiBaniGhafir,an
nd
between
nthefoothillsandtheco
oast.
The miiddle Fars formation is generally
impermeable and iss considered
d an aquitarrd
msthebaseoftheUppeerFarsaquifeer
thatform
locatedbetweenWaadiJiziandA
AlFarra.
The Allu
uvium and Upper Fars aquifers arre
modeled
dasoneaqu
uiferwithtw
wolayers,th
he
Alluvium
mlayerandtheUpperFarslayer.
Aquiferproperties
Figure 11. Locatio

on of Alluviu
um and Upper Fars
aquiferrsinthestud
dyarea(Sourrce:ICBA,20
011).
Thepum
mpingtestsrresultsobtaiinedfromth
heMRMWR arepresenttedin Table A1and Tab
bleA2(in
the tables and figu
ures in the Appendix) for the northern Batin
nah and thee southern Batinah,
16
11
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
p
datta are limite
ed in some places. Thee available hydraulic
h
respectively. These hydraulic property
n aquifer properties,
propertyy data weree interpolateed using GISS techniquess to generaliize the main
basedonwelllocationanddeptth.Ascanbeeinferredfro
omthepumpingresults andtheGISmapsof
the aqu
uifer hydrau
ulic propertties (namelyy transmissivity, hydraaulic conducctivity, and storage
coefficieent), the aquifer hydrau
ulic propertiies are significantly varriable in botth the Alluvvium and
UpperFFarsaquifers.Thisvariatiiondependssonthesizeofgravelsaandsands,th
hecementattion,and
thelocationwithresspecttothewadibeds.
Figure12.Geolo
ogicalcrossssectionofthenorthernB
BatinahAlluvviumandUp
pperFarsaqu
uifers
(Sou
urce:GeoressourcesConssultancy,200
06).
Figure13.G
Geologicalcrosssectiono
ofAlluviumaaquiferinW
WadiAlMaw
wiloftheSou
uthern
Batinah(Sou
urce:CACE,2
2004).
17
12
InthenorthernBatinah,themaincharacteristicsoftheAlluviumaquiferareasfollows:
The hydraulic conductivity ranged from 0.3 m/day to 449 m/day. The lowest hydraulic
conductivity was associated with cemented, clayey sands, while the highest values were
associatedwithuncementedsandsandgravels.
Storagecoefficientvaluesrangedfrom1x105to1x102.Thehighestvalueswerefoundwithin
theunconfined,uncementedsandsandgravels.
Thetransmissivityrangedfrom0.9m2/dayto16,900m2/day.
Aquiferyieldrangedfrom1l/secto515l/sec.
FortheUpperFars,thepumpingtestresultsareverylimited(readingsfromonlyfourwells),butthe
maincharacteristicsarethefollowing:
Hydraulicconductivityrangedfrom0.9m/dayto13m/day.
Storagecoefficientvaluesrangedfrom1x104to1x103.
Transmissivityrangedfrom17m2/dayto468m2/day.
Aquiferyieldrangedfrom5l/secto32l/sec.
InthesouthernBatinah,themainpropertiesoftheAlluviumaquiferincludethefollowing:
Hydraulicconductivityrangedfrom0.4m/dayto241m/day.
Storagecoefficientvaluesrangedfrom1.7x104to2x102.
Transmissivityrangedfrom1m2/dayto7560m2/day.
Aquiferyieldrangedfrom0.1l/secto41l/sec.
2.8 Groundwaterlevel
The historical water level data for the period 1982 to 2010 were obtained from the MRMWR
database. These water level data were analyzed to obtain spatial and temporal trends using Excel
andGISinterpolationtechniques.Theresultsofanalysisshowedthatthewaterlevelrangedfroma
shallow level of 0.32 m below the ground (as in well DB876605AA in Wadi As Sarami in Saham
wilayats)toadeepwaterlevelof60.6mbelowgroundlevel(asatwellEB416443AAinWadiBani
GhafirinAlMusanaahwilayat).
Thecurrentwatertableelevationrangesfrom24mbelowsealevel(33.3mbelowgroundlevel)at
well DM870960AA in Wadi Ahin in Sohar to 230 m (amsl) (9.36 m below ground level) at well
DB481873AAinWadiSuqinSohar.
Thecurrenthydraulicgradientis6m/km,withthehydraulicgradientnearthefoothillssteeperthan
at the coast. This hydraulic gradient follows the topography gradient and shows that the general
flow direction is from the foothills towards the coast. This natural behavior is very important for
stoppingorflushingsalinewaterouttothesea.
Wellhydrographs(watertableversustime)havebeenpreparedformostofthewellslocatedinthe
coastal strip (those nearest to the coast with a water table below sea level). Examples of these
hydrographs are presented in Figure 14. Although these hydrographs showed a declining trend in
most of the catchments, some catchments showed a rising trend. Table A3 in the Appendix
summarizesthewatertabledeclineandrisevaluesforsomeselectedwellsinthesecatchments.The
highest declining rate of 4.7 m/year occurred in Wadi Al MayhaMabrahAl Hajir System in As
SuwayqatwellEM147067AA(HTW1),whilethehighestrisingrateof5.6m/yearoccurredinWadi
SakhininSaham.
18
13

Well(HTW1)
Well(HA10)
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
1986
WaterLevel
(mamsl)
Well(HA13)
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
1982
201
40.0
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
201
Well(DN339973AA(PZ6))
Shinas(WadiHatta)
35.0
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
201
Well(JT10)
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
1991 1992 1993 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
0.0
Well(DM696761AA(NJ9))
Sohar(WadiAlJizi)
WaterLevel
(mamsl)
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
201
2001
2002
2003
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
Figure14.Watertabletrendsinsomeselectedcatchments.(Source:ICBA,2011,basedon
informationfromMRMWR).
19
14
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
3.WA
ATERQU
UALITYINALB
BATINAH
HREGIO
ON
3.1 Watersalin
W
nity
Dataso
ources
A.MRM
MWRsurveyssandregularrmonitoringgdata
ThewattersalinitydaataforAlBaatinahregion
nwereobtainedfromMRMWR.The MRMWRco
onducted
regular surveys eveery three to five years for
f Al Batinaah governorrates to mon
nitor the inccrease in
seawateerencroachm
mentsinceth
heyear1982
2uptotheyyear2010.Theseyearsin
ncluded:198
82,1983,
1984,19
986,1991,1993,1997,2
2000,2005,aand2010.Th
hehighestnu
umberofweellssurveyedof1,150
wellswaasintheyeaars2005and
d2010,whilethenumberofsurveyyedwellswaasverylimite
edinthe
years 19
982, 1983, and
a 1984. In addition, annual waterr salinity datta were colleected from MRMWR
M
monitorringwells.Th
hesewellsareusedform
monitoringw
waterlevel, butsomew
watersalinity samples
arecolleectedandmeeasuredasEEC(dS/m)fro
omthesewells,withmorrethanonerreadingperyyear,but
thenum
mberofsamp
plingsitesareelimited,andmostlyaftertheyear2
2000.
B.ICBAsfieldsurve
ey
onducted a farm surveyy to assess the salinityy
ICBA co
problem
m and its efffect on yield
d reduction (see
(
annex II
I
for morre details). This surveyy included 220
2
selected
d
farmsin
nAlBatinah coastalplain
ntocollectw
watersalinityy
data,an
ndanother40samplingssitesforsoil salinitydataa.
The locaation of thee surveyed farm
f
sites are
a shown in
n
Figure15.
Correlattion analysis was conduccted betweeen water and
d
soil salinity from benchmark
b
farm sites representingg
different water salinity (irrigatiion water used in these
e
a soil texture levels (ssee soil section for more
e
farms) and
details).Thisrelationshipwasusedfordefin
ningthesoil
water salinity
s
relattionship in different textured soilss.
Sampless from the selected
s
sitees included the
t followingg
characteeristics:
Soil samples weere collected

d from the root zone of
o
existting crops. The name was recorded for each
h
sam
mpled crop. Samples were
w
preservved at field
d
moisturelevelto
odeterminemoisturequ
uantity.
mplesofwateerusedforiirrigatingtheecropswere
e
Sam
colleected.
SoilsampleswereanalyzedforECe,volu
umeofwater
d to prepare saturated soil paste from known
n
used
weigghtofsoil,an
ndfieldmoisstureconten
nt.
Field
dsoiltextureewasmeasu
ured.
Datalim
mitationtoco
onveyaccurateinformattion
The watter salinity data incorp
porated high
h uncertaintyy
duetothefollowinggreasons:
20
Figure1
15.WatersamplingsitesinAl
Batinahgovernorattes(Source:IICBA,
2011).
15
1. Different data sources as mentioned above which make the quality of the collected data
questionable.
2. WatersalinitywassmeasuredasEC(dS/m)ratherthanasTDS(mg/l).Forthisstudy,theECdata
wereconvertedintoTDSusingaconversionfactorof700.
3. Salinity data were collected every three to five years mostly through surveys. These data
contains some errors and gaps (the years that are not covered by surveys). This limits the
correlation between important hydrological events like cyclones, wet or dry years and the
salinitytrends.
4. Watersamplesweretakenfromunspecifiedverticallocations.Thislimitstheinformationonthe
differentaquiferlayersandaffectsthemodelingresults.Nodifferentiationwasmadebetween
salinitylevelsperaquiferdepth.
The water salinity data in MRMWR monitoring wells showed that there was an increase in
groundwater salinity in many wells along the coast due to saltwater intrusion in response to
overpumping,despitetheverywetyearintheyear1997whichcausedraiseinwaterlevel,butthe
overpumpingwashigh.Sincetheyear1999,AlBatinahfacedtencontinuousdryyearswithincrease
in well pumpage which dramatically caused severe drop in water level and caused seawater
intrusion.Figure16showsthepercentageofincreaseandimprovementingroundwatersalinityas
observedintheMRMWRmonitoringwells.
Taww
Maawil
AlFara
B.Kharus
BaniGhafir
Hajer
Mashin
Mashin
AlHawasinah
Shafan
Shafan
Sakhin
Sarami
Ahin
Hilti
Ahin
AlJizi
Suq
Fizh
B.U.AlGharbi
Badiah
Hatta
Faydah
AlQawr
Hawarim
Malahah
400%
350%
300%
250%
200%
150%
100%
50%
0%
(a)
Taww
Maawil
B.Kharus
AlFara
BaniGhafir
Hajer
Mashin
Mashin
AlHawasinah
Shafan
Shafan
Sakhin
Sarami
Ahin
Ahin
Hilti
AlJizi
Suq
B.U.AlGharbi
Fizh
Badiah
Faydah
Hatta
Hawarim
AlQawr
Malahah
400%
350%
300%
250%
200%
150%
100%
50%
0%
(b)
Figure16.(a)Currentpercentageofincreaseand(b)decreaseingroundwatersalinitylevelsin
MRMWRsurveyedwellscomparedtotheyear2005salinitylevels(Source:ICBA2011).
21
16
Watersalinityanalysis
Groundwater salinity data were analyzed both spatially and temporally. The spatial salinity extent
andpatternwasinterpretedusingArcGIS.Datawereinterpolated,usingtheInverseDistanceWeight
(IDW)methodtoestimatesalinityinareasthatwerenotcoveredbymonitoringwells.Groundwater
salinitylevelswereclassifiedintosixclasseswithdifferentcolorsreflectingsalinitylevels,fromlow
tohighsalinity.ThesixwatersalinitylevelsarepresentedinTable3.
Table3.Groundwatersalinityclassesformanagementlevels.
(Source:ICBA,2011)
SalinityLevel
Classification
Class1
Class2
Class3
Class4
Class5
Class6
Freshwater
Lowsalinity
Moderatesalinity
Moderatelyhighsalinity
Highsalinity
Veryhighsalinity
WaterSalinity
(mg/l)
<1,500
1,5003,000
3,000 5,000
5,000 7,000
7,000 10,000
>10,000
WaterSalinity
(dS/m)
2.14
2.144.3
4.37
710
1015
>15
The results of the water salinity mapping showed that there is an increase of saltwater
encroachmentovertimeinmostofthecatchmentsintheareasclosetothecoastline,asshownin
Figure17.Seawaterencroachmentvariesamongthecatchmentswiththehighestencroachmentin
WadiAlHajirsystemof41Mm3.Figures1825showthatgroundwatersalinitylevelswerelowerat
45
41.0
40
35
30.2
30
25
20
16.7
15.5
15
10
5
4.1
3.9
3.3
3.2
3.0
2.2
2.1
2.0
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
Figure17.Currentseawaterintrusion(Mm )variesamongthecatchments(Source:ICBA,2011).
the beginning of the groundwater development phase (in the 1980s). Since that time, agricultural
activities that used groundwater wells for irrigation have increased in Al Batinah region. This
uncontrolled pumping has exploited the aquifer in many places, causing decline in water levels to
alarminglevels.Ithasalsocausedseawaterintrusioninplaceswherethewatertablewasbelowsea
level,ascanbeseeninthetrendsofincreasingsalinitynearthecoastline(Figure22).
To show the effect of seawater encroachment over time, the land area of water salinity contours
wascalculatedforthesixdefinedclasses.Thecontourofhighestsalinityclass(Class6>10,000mg/l)
representedtheextremesalinitycondition.WhilethesalinityClass5(7,000mg/l)representedthe
22
17
saltwaterinterface.Thecurrenttotallandareasandagriculturalareasofextremesalinity(Class6)
arepresentedinFigures20and21.
Thetotallandareaaffectedgrewfrom2,000feddansin1995to16,500feddansin2010.In2010,
Barka was the most affected by seawater intrusion (4,000 feddans), followed by Saham (3,300
feddans)andShinas(3200feddans).Overthesameperiod,thecultivatedareaaffectedbyseawater
intrusiongrewfrom233feddansto1,900feddans.
1995
2000
2005
2010
1995
5000
500
4000
400
3000
300
2000
200
1000
100
2000
2005
2010
Figure18.Thegrowthoftotallandareawith
salinegroundwater,19952010(Feddan)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
Figure19.Thegrowthofcultivatedzones
affectedbytheincreaseofseawaterintrusion
(Feddan)(Source:ICBA,2011).
Feddan
Feddan
500
5,000
400
4,000
300
3,000
200
2,000
100
1,000
Figure20.Currenttotallandareasofhighwater
salinity(TDS>10,000mg/l)(Feddans)(Source:
ICBA,2011).
Figure21.Currenttotalagriculturalareasofhigh
watersalinity(TDS>10,000mg/l)(Feddans)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
Historical salinity data were used in analyzing the salinity trends over time (Figure 22). The trends
analysisshowedincreaseofgroundwatersalinityovertime,buttherateofincreasevariedamong
thecatchments.Inmanymonitoringwells,sharpincreaseingroundwatersalinitylevelsintheyear
2010comparedtothepreviousyears,particularlytheyear2005werenoticedasshowninFigure22.
This is due to overpumping as mentioned and some readings might be due to readings error as
therearenoactualabstractiondatathatcansupportthereasonstobeduetooverpumping.
Figures23and24showsthegrowthofgroundwatersalinitylevelsandseawaterencroachmentover
time.Asshownfromthefigures,gradualincreaseofseawaterencroachmentoccurredinresponse
tooverpumping.Ifthesameabstractionratewillcontinueinthefuture(Businessasusualscenario),
thentheseawaterintrusionproblemwillincrease,causingmoredamagetothelandandagricultural
areas.Asitmoveswestandsouthwestwards,theseawaterwillincreasinglycontaminatefreshwater
23
18
resources.Historically,theAlluvialaquiferareahavingfreshgroundwaterhasreducedfrom30,000
feddans in 1995 to 19,000 feddans in 2010. The impact of continued seawater intrusion at the
present annual rate of 230 Mm3 has been modeled assuming that future rainfall will follow the
average of the past as an approximation. The modelling results indicate that by 2030 the present
cultivated area of fresh water may be reduced to only 4,700 feddans. While fresh water areas
contract,brackishandsalineareasexpandasisclearlyindicatedinFigures25and26.
Well(NCH60B)
Liwa(BaniOmarAlGharbi)
18,000
Well(NK33B)
Shinas(Badiah)
20,000
16,000
18,000
14,000
16,000
12,000
14,000
10,000
12,000
8,000
10,000
6,000
8,000
4,000
6,000
2,000
4,000
2,000
1995
1997
2000
Years
2005
2010
Well(NB62)
Saham(Shafan)
18,000
1995
1997
16,000
14,000
14,000
12,000
12,000
10,000
10,000
8,000
8,000
6,000
6,000
4,000
4,000
2,000
2,000
2005
2010
Well(R10(F11))
?(Taww)
18,000
16,000
2000
Years
0
1995
1997
2000
Years
2005
1993
2010
Well(T46)
(Maawil)
1995
1997
2000
Years
2005
2010
Well(NC5B)
Sohar(Hilti)
18,000
30,000
16,000
25,000
14,000
12,000
20,000
10,000
15,000
8,000
10,000
6,000
4,000
5,000
2,000
0
0
1993
1995
1997
Years
2000
2005
1995
2010
1997
2000
2005
2010
Years
Figure22.Examplesofwatersalinitytrendsinsomeselectedcatchments(Source:ICBA,2011).
24
19
Figure23.ObservedgroundwatersalinityinAlBatinahgovernoratesfortheyears19952010(mg/l)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
25
20
Figure24.Growthofseawaterencroachment19952010(Source:ICBA,2010).
80,000
Salinitymg/l
Feddans
70,000
> 10000
60,000
7001-10000
50,000
5001-7000
40,000
30,000
3001-5000
20,000
1501-3000
10,000
< 1500
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
Figure25.ThehistoricandprojectgrowthofgroundwatersalinityinAlBatinahAlluvium
aquifer(Source:ICBA,2011).
26
21
2015
2020
2025
2030
Figure26.Projectionofgroundwatersalinitygrowth(inmg/l)overlandareaunderBusinessasUsual
Scenariofortheyears2015(top)to2030(bottom)(Source:ICBA,2011).
27
22
3.2 Suitabilityofwaterforagriculturaluse
Forirrigationuses,otherwaterqualityparametersshouldbeconsideredinadditiontosalinity,such
asSodiumAdsorptionRatio(SAR),ResidualSodiumCarbonates(RSC),Boron,andheavymetalsthat
have toxic effects on the plants and cause a reduction in plant yield or plant death. In this study,
basedontheinformationreceivedfromdifferentinstitutions,thesuitabilityofwaterforirrigation
uses is assessed mainly on two water quality parameters: water salinity and SAR. The SAR for
irrigationwaterandwatersalinityrangesandrelationshipareshownintheFigure27,adoptedfrom
Richards(1954).
Figure27.DiagramforrelatingSARandconductivity(Source:Richards,1954).
The SAR data were obtained from the MRMWR for the year 2010. The data were interpolated
spatiallybasedonwelllocationinthestudyarea,usingtheGISspatialanalysttooltoproduceamap
thatcoversthestudyarea.ThisSARmapwasclassifiedintofourmainclasses(Figure28).
Lowsodiumwater(S1)<10:canbeusedonallsoils.
Medium sodium water (S2) >10 and <18: hazardous for use on finetextured soils (high
cationexchangecapacity).
High sodium water (S3) >18 and <26: may be harmful to most soils. Requires special soil
management.
28
23
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
Veryhighso
odiumwater(S4)>26:geenerallyunsatisfactoryfo
orirrigationp
purposes.
Thewattersalinitym
mapwasalsoclassifiedinttofourmain
nclasses(leveels)(Figure2
28):
Low salinityy water (C1)) < 250 S//cm: can be

e used for most
m
crops and soils with
w
little
likelihoodth
hatsoilsalinitywilldevelop.
Mediumsaliinitywater(C
C2)>250and
d<750S/cm
m:canbeussedwhereamoderateam
mountof
leachingocccurs.
Highsalinityywater(C3)>>750and<2
2,250S/cm:cannotbeu
usedonsoilssthathaverestricted
drainage.
250 S/cm: is
i not suitab
ble for irrigaation under ordinary
Very high salinity water (C4) > 2,2
conditions.
Figure 28.
2 Water saalinity (mg/l)) for water (left) and Sodium Adsorp
ption Ratio ((SAR) (right) for the
year201
10(Source:ICBA,2011,b
basedondattareceivedfrromMRMW
WR).
29
24
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
Figure2
29.Suitabilityyofirrigatio
onwaterquaalitywithresspecttoland
darea(left)aandagricultu
uralarea
(right)(SSource:ICBA
A,2011).
The SAR
R map was superimpose
s
ed over the
water salinity maap to pro
oduce the
irrigation water suiitability map
p based on
sixteen classes. Th
he resultingg suitability
o four main
map waas then reclaassified into
classes: Good, Suitable, Dou
ubtful, and
Unsuitab
Driscoll's
ble,
baseed
on
classificaation (1986). The suitab
bility map is
shown in
i Figure 29
9. Figure 30 shows the
associatted agricultu
ural areas over each
waterqu
ualityzone.
Waterq
qualityforiirrigation
Trees
Feddan
30000
27708
Vegetation
27412
25000
20000
13432
15000
10000
5000
1217
Doubtful
Suitable
Good
Un
nsuitable
Figure30
0.Totalagriculturalareassofsuitableorless
suitableirrigationwatter(Source:ICBA,2011)..
An overrall assessmeent of wateer samples from

f
Al Batiinah (Figure 31a) showss a variety of water
salinitycclasses.Nineetytwoperccentofthew
watersareclassedashigghandaboveeintermsoffsalinity.
WhereSSAR(Figure3
31b)islessthan10(mmoles/L)0.5,waatersodicityyismostlywithinsafelim
mits(80%
30
25
of water samples). However, sodicity levels behave differently at different levels of water salinity.
WaterpHclassesrangefromslightlytostronglyalkalinerange(Figure32).
(a)DistributionofwaterEC(indS/m)inAl
Batinah
(b)Watersodicityclasses(inmmoles/L)0.5inAl
Batinah
Figure31.WaterEC(a)andSAR(b)inAlBatinah(2011)(Source:ICBA,2011).
Figure32.WaterpHclassesinAlBatinah(2011)(Source:ICBA,2011).
Watersalinityandsodicitymanagementforirrigation
Cropsshouldbecarefullyselectedtosuitwatersalinitylevels,andappropriateLR/LFshouldbeused
to free the root zone from salinity above the crop threshold level. Where SAR is more than 10
(mmoles/L)0.5theadditionofgypsumatsoilsurfaceisrecommendedtooffsetthesodicityproblem
andthusimprovewaterqualityforirrigation.
The use of groundwater from Al Batinah may add some quantities of essential nutrients like
phosphorous and nitrogen. However, the benefits should be evaluated carefully, to assure water
salinityandsodicitylevelsarewithinanacceptablerangeforirrigatingspecificcrops.
31
26
Distributionofgroundwaterqualityclasses
TheUSDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)waterclassificationdiagram(Richards,1954)allowswater
quality prediction up to 5
dS/m. However, some of
the groundwaters from Al
Batinah region present
higher levels of EC (more
than 5 dS/m). It was
therefore imperative to
modify the diagram to
accommodate various EC
levels. The modified
diagram was prepared
using Sigma plot. The EC
andSARwerethenplotted
onto a new diagram
showingthedistributionof
water quality classes
(Figure 33). Fifty six
percent of water samples
show very high salinity
waters with variable
sodicity levels (Table A21,
intheAppendix).
It is likely that water with
SAR >10 may affect the
physical and chemical
properties of soil in a way
that has implications for
agricultural crops. It is
recommended to adjust
water sodicity through
using gypsum in the soil.
Water sodicity can also be
reduced through blending
withgoodqualitywater.
Figure33.Adaptedfromgroundwaterqualityclassesdistribution
fromAlBatinah(Source:ICBA,2011,USDAdiagramismodifiedto
accommodategroundwaterqualityfromOman).
GroundwatersalinityofAlBatinah,2011Survey
Therearethreeimportantwaterparametersthatdeterminewaterqualityforirrigation:EC,SARand
RSC. The recent survey dataset provided only water EC data and this has been reviewed from a
watersalinityperspective.Theexaminationismadeonoverallwatersalinityfromallwilayats(Figure
34)andforrespectivewilayat(Figure36).Thewatersaredistributedacrossvarioussalinityclasses.
Mostofthewaters(94%)areinthehightoveryhighsalinerange.Thisrequirescarefulwateruse
andmanagementinirrigatedagriculture.Individually,therearesimilartrendsinthedistributionof
samplesacrossthevarioussalinityclassesinallwilayat(Figure36).
Water pH is also distributed in various classes. Over 50% of the samples are in the moderateto
strong alkaline range (Figure 35). With water in this range, plant nutrient availability can be
restricted. Individually, there are similar trends of pH distribution in all wilayats, except in Liwa
wheremoresamplesareintheslightlyalkalinerange.
32
27
ThepHofallwatersisoutsidetheacceptablerangefordrinkingwaterforlivestock.Informationon
other drinking water quality parameters is not available from the present dataset, so a further
evaluationcannotbemade(Figure37).
Figure34.WatersalinityclassesinAlBatinahgovernorates(2011)(Source:ICBA,2011).
Figure35.OverallwaterpHdistributionclassesinAlBatinah governorates (2011)

(Source:ICBA,2011).
33
28
Figure36.OverallwatersalinityclassesintheAlBatinahgovernorates(2011)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
34
29
Figure37.OverallwaterpHclassesinAlBatinahregionandindividualwilayat(2011)(Source:
Figure 37. Overall water pH classes in Al Batinah governorates and individual wilayat (2011)
ICBA,2011).
(Source: ICBA, 2011).
35
30
Drinkingwaterforlivestockandpoultry
None of the water samples (Tables A21A29 in the Appendix) from Al Batinah meet the desired
levels of all constituents for livestock and poultry use. Their use is always restricted due to the
existenceofoneormoreconstituentsinundesirablequantities.Thewateranalyseslackinformation
foralkalinity(CO3+HCO3),Hg,F,Se,Be,butprovideinformationaboutBa,Fe,Ni,Mo,Si,whichare
notnormallylistedfordrinkingwaterquality.
pH
Tenpercentofwater(Figure38)inAlBatinahareoutsidethedesiredpHrange(>8.5).Only2%are
abovepH9(Sohar),whichmaycausedigestiveupsetsanddiarrhea,lowerfeedconversionefficiency
andreducedintakeofwaterandfeed.Ingeneral,thepHofwaterinAlBatinahiswithinasafepH
limit.
(a)WaterpHclassesforLivestockandPoultry
use
(b)WatersalinityclassesforLivestockand
Poultryuse
Figure38.WaterpH(a)andsalinityclasses(b)inAlBatinahgovernorates(Source:ICBA,2011).
Salinity
Generally,waterissafeforlivestockuse(TablesA21A29intheAppendix).However,atsomesites
where EC >8 dS/m, the water is not safe for livestock use (Figure 38b). These sites occur in all
wilayats.InAswaqandSoharwilayats,thesalinitylevelsofallsamplesweresafe.Regardingwater
usefor poultry, water samplesshowing EC >5 dS/m(46%) are unfit forpoultry use. Such sites are
foundacrossallwilayatsexceptAswaqandSohar.
AllwatersamplesinAlBatinaharesafeforlivestockuseintermsoflevelsofZn,Cu,Mn,Cr,Ni,B,
Co, V, NO3, NO2 and Escherichia coli. However, all water samples in Al Batinah are unsafe for
livestock use due to higher levels of Na (>50 mg/L), Al (>5 mg/L) and Pb (>0.1 mg/L). In water
samplesfromBarkathereisaproblemofcadmium(>0.05mg/L).Therearegenerallyhighlevelsof
phosphates(>1mg/L)inmanywatersfromAlBatinah(78%),foundacrossallwilayats.TheSO4levels
arehigh(>250mg/L)inalmosttwothird(62%)ofthesamples.
Escherichiacoliisabsentfromallwatersamplesandcoliformlevelsaresafeinallsamples,except
oneinBarkaandoneinSahamWilayat.
Overall,assessment ofwater samples againstthe desired standardsgiven in TablesA2224 (in the
Appendix) confirms that all water samples are unfit for drinking purposes for both livestock and
poultry.
36
31
4.GROUNDWATERRESERVESINALBATINAH
Thecurrentvolumeofgroundwaterreserveswasestimatedusingwaterleveldatafortheyear2010
andtheSpecificYield(Sy)propertyofunconfinedpartsoftheaquifer.AmeanvalueofSyof3.5%
was used in calculating this volume. This value was based on available lithological data and from
literature, where the GeoResource Consulting (2006) used this Sy value to estimate the
groundwater reserve, and in this study, the same Sy value of 3.5% is used for estimating
groundwaterreserve.Fortheconfinedparts,thestoragecoefficientvalueswereused.
The calculated groundwater reserve volume was classified in terms of suitability of water for
irrigation, depending on the Richards (Wilcox) diagram as described in the previous section. A
summaryofthesewaterreservecalculationsareshowninTables4and5.
Itisestimatedthatthegroundwaterreserveisequalto2,880Mm3ofgoodwaterqualitythatcould
beusedforagriculturaluseswithoutanyconstraintortreatment.Thesereservescanalsobeused
forlivestockwaterconsumption(nearlypotablewater).Itispossiblethatthiswatercouldalsobe
usedfordrinking,butthisshouldbewithcaution.Thewatermightneedtreatmenttocomplywith
OmaniDrinkingWaterStandards.Thetotalgroundwaterreservethatcanbeusedbyconventional
agricultureisestimatedat675Mm3.Thepossiblefuturegroundwaterreservesandtheirqualityand
suitabilityforagriculturearediscussedinthemodelingchapters11and12.
4.1 Groundwaterbalance
Groundwaterbalancehastwocomponents:thetotalinflowsandthetotaloutflows.Theequation
forthegroundwaterbalancecanbewrittenas:
Inflowsoutflows=S
WhereSisthechangeingroundwaterstorage.
Thetotalinflowsconsistof:
1. Groundwaterrecharge:bothnaturalrechargefromdirectrainfalloverthemountainsand
thecoastalplainandartificialrechargefromexistingrechargedams.
2. Groundwaterthroughflow(lateralgroundwaterflow)fromJabal.
Thetotaloutflowsconsistof:
1. Groundwaterabstractionforalluses(thatis,municipalandagricultural).
2. Groundwateroutflowtothesea.
37
32
38
WadiMashin
WadiBaniGhafir
AlMayhaMabrahAlHajirSystem
WadiBaniGhafir
Al MayhaMabrahAlHajirSystem
WadiBaniGhafir
WadiBaniUmarAlGharbi
WadiAhin
AlKhaburah
AlMusanaah
ArRustaq
ArRustaq
AsSuwayq
AsSuwayq
Liwa
Saham
WadiFaydh
WadiHatta
WadiRijma
WadiAhin
WadiAlHilti
WadiAlJizi
WadiSuq
Shinas
Shinas
Shinas
Sohar
Sohar
Sohar
Sohar
WadiAlHawarim
Shinas
Total
WadiShafan
Saham
CatchmentName
AlKhaburah
WilayatName
723
3.8
3.5
1.8
2.2
0.6
1.2
0.3
5.8
2.9
29.3
0.8
107.3
399.5
90.2
43.2
15.1
0.4
15.1
AlluvialPotential
Groundwater
3
Reserve(Mm )
361
1.9
1.7
0.9
1.1
0.3
0.6
0.1
2.9
1.4
14.7
0.4
53.7
199.7
45.1
21.6
7.5
0.2
7.6
AlluvialUsable
Groundwater
3
Volume(Mm )
Table4.Groundwaterreservegoodtosuitablequalityirrigationwater.
(Source:ICBA,2011).
6390
13
11
23
206
1333
3895
440
215
106
125
UpperFarsPotential
Groundwater
3
Reserve(Mm )
3195
11
103
666
1948
220
108
53
62
UpperFarsusable
Groundwater
3
Volume(Mm )
3556.5
6.1
8.3
5.0
6.8
0.3
0.6
0.1
2.9
12.9
117.8
0.4
720.0
2147.5
265.2
129.3
60.3
3.0
70.1
TotalUsable
Groundwater
3
Volume(Mm )
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Good
Suitable
Suitable
Good
Good
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
IrrigationWater
Suitability
33
39
CatchmentName
WadiAlHawasinah
WadiMashin
WadiShafan
WadiAlFara'
WadiBaniGhafir
WadiAlFara'
WadiBaniGhafir
WadiBaniGhafir
WadiMashin
WadiFizh
WadiRijma
WilayatName
AlKhaburah
AlKhaburah
AlKhaburah
AlKhaburah
AlMusanaah
AlMusanaah
ArRustaq
ArRustaq
ArRustaq
AsSuwayq
AsSuwayq
AsSuwayq
Liwa
Liwa
Liwa
11
24
212
154
261
192
194
654
1068
197
182
278
32
AlluvialPotential
Groundwater
Reserve(Mm3)
12
106
77
131
96
97
327
534
98
91
139
16
AlluvialUsable
Groundwater
Reserve(Mm3)
Table5.GroundwaterreserveDoubtfultounsuitablequalityirrigationwater.
(Source:ICBA,2011).
1970
4123
994
1056
26
4890
5659
1485
1996
1747
293
UpperFars
Potential
Groundwater
Reserve(Mm3)
985
2061
497
528
13
2445
2829
743
998
873
146
UpperFars
Usable
Groundwater
Reserve(Mm3)
12
106
1062
2192
593
625
16
2772
3364
841
1089
1013
162
TotalUsable
Groundwater
Volume(Mm3)
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
IrrigationWater
Suitability
34
40
WadiSuq
WadiAhin
WadiAsSarami
WadiSakhin
WadiShafan
WadiAlHawarim
WadiBid'ah
WadiFaydh
WadiFizh
WadiHatta
WadiMalahah
WadiQawr
WadiRijma
WAdiAlJizi
WadiAhin
WadiAlHilti
WadiSuq
Liwa
Saham
Saham
Saham
Saham
Shinas
Shinas
Shinas
Shinas
Shinas
Shinas
Shinas
Shinas
Sohar
Sohar
Sohar
Sohar
Sohar
Total
6178
222
500
232
548
61
42
12
37
30
26
67
295
165
192
249
21
3089
111
250
116
274
30
21
18
15
13
34
147
82
96
125
11
36043
708
2488
1192
2013
2301
854
1045
1196
18022
354
1244
596
1007
1151
427
523
598
21111
465
1494
712
1281
30
21
18
15
13
34
1298
510
618
723
14
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Unsuitable
Doubtful
Unsuitable
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Doubtful
Unsuitable
35
4.2 Groundwaterrecharge
Therehasbeennocleargroundwaterrechargeassessmentresearchconducted(fieldstudies)forthe
study area. Previous studies estimated the recharge as a percentage of rainfall depending on the
catchment land cover, slope, and soil type. A summary of the main studies and the recharge
estimatesusedaredescribedasfollows:
Recent groundwater modeling study on numerical simulation of groundwater flow for the
northernBatinahareawasconductedbyMRMWR(2011).Thereportisnotpublishedyet,
butapaperofthemainfindingsispublishedintheWAST9thGulfWaterConference(El
Biheryetal,2010):
o Thegroundwaterrechargewasestimatedtobe329Mm3andtakesplacethrough
directrechargefromrainfall,andreturnflowfromirrigation,andnoJabalinflow.
o The recharge over the study area was distributed into two zones: coastal zone of
36.5mm/year(0.0001m/day),andfoothillzoneof146mm/year(0.0004m/day).
The GeoResourcesConsultancy(2006)estimatedtherecharge tothe coastalplainof257
Mm3whichwasbasicallyasgroundwaterthroughflowintheJabalgapsandsurfaceinflow
from the Jabal catchments, with no direct recharge from rainfall over the plain. (Table 26
ofGeoResourcesreport).
The Century Architects consultancy (CACE, 2004) estimated the total recharge in Wadi Al
Mawil catchment of midlower and coastal plain parts to be 44.91 Mm3/year. The total
rechargebreakdownisasfollows:
o Groundwater inflow from upper catchment 12.46 Mm3/year (based on Darcys
equation).
o Directrainfallrecharge10.41Mm3/year(assumed25%ofrainfallasinfiltrationrate)
o Infiltration of runoff in the wadi 2.14 Mm3/year (the difference between the
estimatedwadiflowandtheflowrecordedatthedam).
o Infiltrationofdamstorage2.9Mm3/year(assumed80%ofwaterbehindthedamis
percolatedandinfiltratedandonly20%asevaporativelosses).
o Direct rainfall recharge in lower coastal plain 3.25 Mm3/year (assumed 25% of
rainfallasinfiltrationrate).
o Returnseepagefromirrigationwater13.75Mm3/year.
Theyestimatedtherechargeintheuppercatchmentas35%ofrainfall.
AstudyconductedbyHydroconsult(1985)fortheMAF,estimatedgroundwaterrechargefor
threewadis:WadiAhin,WadiSakhin,andWadiSaramiof21.1Mm3,3.7Mm3and7.9Mm3,
respectively. In previous studies, Cardew (1980) estimated the recharge as 21.1 Mm3, 3.7
Mm3and7.9Mm3forthethreewadisrespectively,andHorn(1978)estimatedtherecharge
as22.5Mm3forWadiAhinand8.2Mm3forWadiSarami.
Department of Groundwater Resources Authority (DGWRA) estimated the recharge in the
upper and lower catchment of Wadi Al Jizzi to be 35%, and 20% of rainfall, respectively
(DGWRA, 1995a, 1995b). They estimated a total of 19.1 Mm3 crosses through the wadi
alluviumandbedrockintothelowercatchmentandanother16.4Mm3islostviabedrock.
Using these inflow quantities, Gartner Lee (1996) conducted a modeling study for Wadi Al
Jizziandshowedthatlowerrechargeratescorrespondingtoabout1%oftheannualrainfall
achievedbetterheadmatch.
IntheOSSstudy,rechargehasbeenestimatedas18%ofmeanannualrainfall,thisratewasusedas
preliminaryinputandadjustedduringcalibrationtoachievethebestheadmatch:
Arechargeof36mmperyear(18%ofrainfall)atthemountainfoothills.
Arechargeof22mmperyear(18%ofrainfall)atthecoastalplain.
41
36
Theaveragetotalrechargewasestimatedat90Mm3/year.
Rechargedams
SevenmainrechargedamsexistinAlBatinahcoastalplainofatotalcapacityof32Mm3,aslistedin
Table6below:
Table6.MainrechargedamsandtheirstoragecapacityinAlBatinahcoastalplainarea.
(Source:MRMWR,2010)
DamName
Wilayat
Capacity
(Mm3)
Length(m)
Height(m)
Flow
Type
Construction
Year
Hilti/Salahi
Sohar
0.55
9063
4.5
Ghabion
1985
AlJizi
Sohar
5.4
1234
20.4
Concrete
1989
Ma'awil
Barka
10
7500
8.3
Ghabion
1991
Fara'
ArRustaq
0.6
638
12
Earth
1992
Taww
Barka
5.1
4500
9.2
Ghabion
1992
Ahin
Saham
6.8
5640
Ghabion
1994
AlHawasinah
AlKhaburah
3.7
5900
6.8
Concrete
1995
TotalCapacity
32.2
Infiltrationfromtherechargedampoolwastakenas35%ofthewaterbehindthedam.Thereason
for using this low infiltration rate is due to the lack of information regarding dams infiltration
efficiency.ExamplesfromtheregionondamsinfiltrationefficiencyaregiveninBox1.Theannual
infiltrationvolumesfromthesedamsaregiveninFigure39.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
WadiAlJizi
WadiHiltiSalahi
WadiAhin
WadiAlHawasinah
Figure39.Estimatedannualinfiltrationvolumesfrommainrechargedamsinthecoastalplainarea
(Source:ICBA,2011).
42
37
4.3 Groundwaterthroughflow(Jabalinflow)
Groundwaterthroughflowwas
calculatedusingDarcysequation:
Box1.Damsrechargeefficiency
Q=TIL
Where Q is groundwater throughflow, T
is transmissivity, I is the hydraulic
gradient and L is the length of cross
section.
Thecalculatedgroundwaterthroughflow
foreachcatchmentispresentedinTable
A5 in the Appendix, and in Figure 40
below. These values matched the
groundwater throughflow pattern and
values calculated by GeoResources
(2006). These Jabal inflow quantities
were used as a preliminary input in the
modelandadjustedduringcalibrationto
match the observed head with the
calculated head. The calibrated Jabal
inflowvaluesarepresentedinFigure40.
An assessment study on dam recharge efficiency was

conducted on three main dams: Ham, Bih, and Tuween
damsintheUnitedArabEmirates.Theseprojectshavebeen
designedtouseisotopehydrologytoevaluategroundwater
recharge in these dams and to define the flow direction of
groundwater, and involved studying shallow and deep
percolationofgroundwateralongwithanassessmentofthe
age and origin of various groundwater reserves, and the
extentofsalineintrusion.Theseprojectsshowedthat:
TherechargeefficiencyforHamDamis47%,TweenDam
22%,andBihDamis31%,thatis,thesearethe
percentagesofwaterstoragequantitiesinthedamlake
thatreachesthewatertable,whiletheremaining
quantitiesstagnateintheunsaturatedzoneandenrich
thesoilmoisture.
Rechargeefficiencycouldbeimprovedconsiderablyifthe
accumulatedsiltfromwadifloods(1015cm)wouldbe
removedasthegeologyofthetoplayerconsistsof60%
gravel.
Surfacewaterisinterceptedtoenhancethegroundwater
recharge.Theconstructeddamshavesignificantly
enhancedthegroundwaterrecharge.
(Source:ICBA,2010,MOEW2005).
TotalJabalInflow269Mm3
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Figure40.EstimatedgroundwaterinflowfromJabalinAlBatinahstudyarea
(Source:ICBA,2011).
43
38
4.4 Groundwateruse
Wellabstractiondataarethemostuncertaindatainthestudy,sincehistoricalwellabstractiondata
weremissing.TheonlyavailableabstractiondatawereobtainedfromtheMRMWRdatabase.These
abstraction data were collected by the national well inventory project (NWIP) for the year 1995.
They represent estimates not the actual or measured abstraction. The total groundwater
abstractioninAlBatinahcoastalplainfortheyear1995was570Mm3/year,ofwhich400Mm3was
in the northern Batinah and 170 Mm3 in the southern Batinah. About 97% (550 Mm3) of the
groundwaterabstractionwasusedinagricultureandforlivestock,andtheremaining3%(20Mm3)
formunicipalandindustrialuses.ThelocationoftheabstractionwellsarepresentedinFigure41.
Figure41.Locationofexistingwellsandtheirdesignateduse,andoperationalstatusinAlBatinah
governorates(Source:ICBA,2011,basedonwellinventorydataobtainedfromMRMWR).
Figure 41 presents a location map of abstraction wells and their designated uses in Al Batinah
governorates. As is clear from the map, the majority of the agricultural wells are located in a thin
strip of land along the coast. All these wells are shallowdug borehole wells that are tapping the
alluvialaquifer.Thetotalnumberofpumpingwellsisequalto58,132,ofwhichabout20%(11,700
wells) were not operating (red dots in Figure 41). The most likely reason is due to salinization
problem(seawaterintrusion)asthemajorityislocatedinathinstripalongthecoast.
Previous studies by Hydroconsult (1984), Century Architects (CACE, 2004), and GeoResources
Consultancy (2006) estimated groundwater abstraction for Al Batinah governorates. The
HydroconsultreviewedpreviousstudiesbyHorn(1978)whoestimatedthetotalabstractionforthe
wholeAlBatinahas190Mm3/yearandCardew(1980)whoestimatedthetotalabstractionforthe
44
39
whole Al Batinah as 235 Mm3/year. Based on these studies, the Hydroconsult estimated the total
abstraction for the whole Al Batinah to be 235 Mm3/year for the year 1984. The CACE study
estimatedthetotalabstraction from 2,754operationaldugwellsandboreholesat94.9 Mm3/year
forWadiMaawilinsouthernBatinahbasedonthenationalwellinventoryproject(NWIP)forthe
period1990to1993.TheGeoResourcesConsultancydrillingandaquifertestingstudyestimatedthe
totalagriculturalabstractionquantitiesbasedonnetcropwaterdemandof387Mm3/yearfor4,800
wells in the northern Batinah area. Based on this review, the total abstraction rate used for this
studywasequalto235Mm3/yearforthewholeAlBatinahgovernoratesfortheyear1984.
To estimate the historical abstraction data for the period 19822010, interpolation was done to
assess annual abstraction rate based on earlier estimates of agricultural demands available in
literature,datafromwellinventorysurvey,andagriculturalcensusasshowninFigure42(TableA11
intheAppendix):
The
abstraction
Abstraction(Mm3)
estimateoftheyear
800
1984 (235 Mm3, as
mentioned above)
600
(green data in
Figure42)
400
The well inventory
data for the year
200
1995 (green data in
Figure42)
0
The estimated net
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
2010
crop water demand
as calculated from
the
agricultural Figure42.EstimatedmeanannualabstractionrateinAlBatinahcoastal
census, and an plainfortheperiod19822010(Source:ICBA,2011).
added
weighted
average leaching
factorof13%(DarkbluedotsinFigure42,alsoaspresentedinFigure43).
Mm3
Mm3
1000
1,000
800
800
600
600
400
400
200
200
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
19971998199920002001200220032004200520062007200820092010
AgriculturalWaterDemand
ModeledArea(LF)
AlBatinahregion(Average)
AlBatinahmodelArea(Average)
a.AlBatinahgovernorates
b.AlBatinahcoastalplain
Figure 43. Agricultural water demand in (a) Al Batinah governorates and (b) Al Batinah coastal
plain(Source:ICBA,2011,basedonagriculturalstatisticsreports).
45
40
ThenetcropwaterdemandwascalculatedforboththewholeAlBatinahgovernorates,andfor
the coastal plain part (model study area). The total agricultural water demand was calculated
based on the cropping area and the crop water requirements as shown in Figure 44. The crop
water requirements and the cropping areas were estimated for several types of crops classified
intovegetables,fieldcrops,forages,andfruitsgroups(TablesA6A8intheAppendix).Thedatafor
cropping areas were compiled from the statistical agricultural census studies. The total cropping
areas, the cropping pattern, and estimated agricultural water demand for each crop type in Al
BatinahregionaresummarizedinTablesA9A10intheAppendix.
1000
1000
875
859
800
800
721
660
600
600
400
400
200
200
700
687
578
528
0
1997
Fruit
2000
Forages
2005
Vegetables
1997
2010
FieldCrops
Fruit
(a)AlBatinahgovernorates
2000
Forages
2005
Vegetables
2010
FieldCrops
(b)Coastalplainarea
Figure44.Agriculturalwaterdemandfor(a)AlBatinahregionand(b)AlBatinahcoastalarea(Mm3)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
Actual water use and consumption could be 2040% larger than these estimates of crop water
demandbecausetheapplicationofirrigationwaterisnotefficient.
Camel
Cattle
Sheep
Goat
73,926,4%
Mm3
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
a.Livestockwaterrequirements
Sakhin
Hawrim
Bidh
Fizh
Rajmi
Fara
Sarami
Hawasinah
Suq
Ahin
Mashin
Jizi
BaniGhafir
161,435,9
%
Hilti
0
AlHajir
848,401,5
0%
Shafan
627,807,3
7%
b.Livestockwaterdemand
Figure45.LivestockwaterdemandinmaincatchmentsofAlBatinahgovernorates
(Source:ICBA,2011,basedondatafromcensus2005).
46
41
Livestockwateruse
The total livestock water demand is 1.7 Mm3, the highest share is in Mayhah MabrahHajir
catchment.Mostofthelivestockwaterisconsumedbycattleandgoats(Figure45)(TableA12and
TableA13intheAppendix).
4.5 Balance
The current total inflow of recharge and Jabal inflow is about 305 Mm3/year in Al Batinah coastal
plain,whilethetotalcurrentabstractionis578Mm3/year.Thisshowsthatthecurrentgroundwater
extraction is overpumping the available water in Al Batinah coastal aquifers by 43%. This over
pumpingvariesamongthedifferentcatchments,asshownfromthemodelrunspresentedinTable
7.ThecurrentwaterbalanceforAlBatinahshowsawaterdeficitoftheorderof250Mm3ofwhich
144 Mm3 is saltwater intrusion, 106 Mm3 is removed from aquifer storage, assuming the reduced
groundwaterflowtoseaisenvironmentallyacceptable.Theseresultsshowthatthehighestdeficitis
inWadiAlMayhaMabrahAlHajirofAsSuwayqwilayatoftheorderof79Mm3,followedbyWadi
AhinofSahamandSoharwilayatsoftheorderof48Mm3.
Mm3
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
SeawaterIntrusion
2002
2006
2010
abstraction
Mm3
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
SeawaterIntrusion
2010
2014
2018
2022
2026
abstraction
2030
Figure46.Increaseofsaltwaterintrusionovertimeinresponsetooverpumping
(Source:ICBA,2011).
47
42
Thewatermustcomefromsomewheretobalancethedeficit:eitherthroughincreasedinflowtothe
aquiferordecreasedoutflowtothesea.Theincreasedinflowthatoccursinresponsetopumpingis
in fact the result of saltwater intrusion where the water table is below the sea level, and of
groundwaterremovedfromstorage.Thistranslatesintoreducedoutflowtotheseaandstorage.
Theaquiferresponsetopumpingstartsbyfirsttakingwaterfromstoragewithinthevicinityofthe
well where water level instantaneously drawdown causing cone of depression in response to
pumping. When pumping continues with higher rates, the drawdown increases and water level
dropscausingdeeperconeofdepression.Thenwaterinflowsfromtheseatocompensateforthese
pumped quantities. Abstraction also causes that more water is captured within the well area and
reducethegroundwateroutflowtothesea.Figure46showsclearlytheannualincreaseinsaltwater
intrusioninresponsetoabstraction.
48
43
49
Table7.CurrentgroundwaterbalanceinAlBatinahcoastalplain.
(Source:ICBA,2011)
Year
Recharge
Groundwater
Seawater
Removed
Inflow
Intrusion
from
(BAU)
Storage
1982
147
240
0
541
1983
62
211
0
437
1984
23
171
2
440
1985
28
176
8
380
1986
75
274
12
304
1987
134
365
10
271
1988
159
323
10
262
1989
112
307
16
256
1990
110
352
23
247
1991
59
336
39
258
1992
114
256
44
270
1993
67
263
77
261
1994
80
280
93
218
1995
259
349
68
170
1996
168
304
101
194
1997
332
325
101
142
1998
107
231
174
276
1999
87
209
205
246
2000
47
294
244
188
2001
44
288
255
172
2002
79
356
229
147
2003
61
306
223
172
2004
50
270
213
165
2005
76
319
182
114
2006
117
326
136
114
Abstraction
(BAU)
163
181
201
223
256
285
316
344
390
433
464
516
543
574
620
671
694
697
701
705
698
692
646
604
564
TotalIn
1573
1300
1117
1025
1206
1508
1465
1369
1464
1383
1232
1179
1185
1497
1385
1583
1303
1177
1269
1250
1433
1320
1197
1232
1246
606
496
410
347
337
378
379
326
302
247
194
141
115
148
124
148
89
67
53
47
50
46
47
57
70
Groundwater
Outflow
118
3
0
0
51
100
42
7
27
1
16
3
5
118
17
74
0
1
16
4
61
19
1
26
57
StorageLoss
1574
1300
1117
1026
1207
1508
1465
1369
1464
1383
1232
1179
1185
1497
1385
1583
1303
1177
1269
1250
1433
1320
1197
1232
1245
Totalout
44
50
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
162
50
82
111
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
316
241
313
294
352
346
346
347
349
352
310
310
311
311
311
312
312
312
312
312
312
312
312
312
111
146
138
144
148
151
155
159
163
182
183
184
185
186
186
187
187
188
188
188
188
189
189
189
110
182
111
106
129
112
101
93
86
90
109
107
106
105
104
103
103
102
102
102
101
101
101
101
1290
1068
1174
1207
1385
1380
1376
1372
1369
1357
1371
1370
1369
1369
1369
1368
1368
1368
1368
1368
1367
1367
1367
1367
540
542
544
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
572
99
58
58
63
80
93
95
94
92
82
81
81
81
81
81
81
81
81
81
81
81
81
81
81
56
15
43
18
44
10
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1290
1068
1174
1207
1385
1380
1376
1372
1369
1357
1355
1354
1353
1352
1352
1352
1351
1351
1351
1351
1351
1351
1351
1351
45
5.GROUNDWATERMODELING
5.1 Modelcodeselection
The modeling code is the computer program that contains algorithms to numerically solve the
mathematical model (equations that represent the hydraulic system). The selection of the model
codedependsonthemodelingobjectives,thedefinedhydrogeologicalconceptualmodelandmain
physical processes. For this study, the main objective is to simulate the salinity gradients and
seawaterintrusioninAlBatinahcoastalplain,andtoquantifygroundwateravailability.Thisrequires
amodelwiththefollowingcapabilities:
1. Athreedimensional(3D)multilayeredflowandsolutetransportmodelcoupledwithdensityto
accountforthedensitydifferencebetweenfreshandsaltwater.
2. Capability to represent the conceptual model: 3D flow system, geometry and hydraulics of
multiple aquifer and confining layers, areal recharge, wells, boundary conditions, variability of
parameterswithspaceandtime.
3. Capabilitytorepresentverticalgradientsbetweenlayers.
4. Publicdomaincode,thatispopularandverifiedinmanypublishedcasestudies.
MODFLOW, a threedimensional finitedifference groundwater model developed by the US
Geological Survey that was first published in 1984 meets the above criteria. It has a modular
structure that allows it to be easily modified to adapt the code for a particular application.
MODFLOWsimulates:
Steady and nonsteady flow in which aquifer layers can be confined, unconfined, or a
combinationofboth.
Flowfromexternalstresses,suchasflowtowells,andarealrecharge.
Hydraulicconductivitiesortransmissivities,andstoragecoefficient.
Specifiedheadandspecifiedfluxboundaries.
Solutetransportandsaltwaterintrusion(SEAWAT),andgroundwatermanagement.
Therearemanycommerciallyavailablegraphicaluserinterface(GUI)packagesthatcanalsobeused
and meet the above criteria like FEFLOW (DensityDependent Groundwater Flow, Contaminant
Transport and Thermal or Heat transport Model), and SUTRA (2D, 3D Saturated / Unsaturated
Transportmodelusingvariabledensity).Usually,tradeoffsbetweenmodelaccuracy,economics,and
friendly use play a role on the selection decision. For this case study, Visual MODFLOW, a
commercial GUI package is selected. Visual MODFLOW is a user friendly and well known package,
combines MODFLOW, MODPATH, ZoneBudget, MT3D/RT3D, WinPEST, and well optimization
package, originally developed by Waterloo University, Canada, and further developed by
SchlumbergerCompany,France.
SEAWATcodeisathreedimensional,variabledensity,transientgroundwaterflowinporousmedia
thatwasdevelopedbycombiningMODFLOWandMT3DMScodes.
5.2 Modellimitation
Despitethegoodmodelcapabilityandpredictionperformanceforbothflowandsaltwaterintrusion
asreflectedinevaluatingtheimpactofdifferentmanagementscenariosonwaterresources,there
aresomedataandmodelconstraints:
The model was developed based on groundwater use data that was estimated based on well
inventory survey data and not on frequent actual measured abstraction data. Usually well
51
46
inventory surveys estimate well abstraction rather than measure the actual abstraction from
wellsbymeters.Thisisanacknowledgeduncertaintythataffectsthemodelcalibration.
The existing groundwater monitoring network covers the study area, particularly the coastal
plainclosetothecoast,withlessspatialdistributiontowardsthefoothill.Therearemanyspatial
and temporal gaps and errors in the water level data that affects interpreting the information
from the data. The water level data needs thorough review and needs regular quality control
andqualityassurance.
Salinity data are collected every five years through surveys. These data are not accurate and
contain many errors and gaps due to the sampling approach, where the samples were taken
from unspecified vertical locations, and the salinity is measured based on the EC rather than
laboratoryTDS(mg/l)measurements.
5.3 ConceptualflowmodelforAlBatinahcoastalplain
Thegeologicalandstructuralfeaturesofthestudyareadesignatetwointerconnectedaquifers,the
Alluvium and Upper Fars aquifers. In places where the Alluvium aquifer overlies the Upper Fars
aquifer, the two aquifers behave as one hydrogeological unit under saturation conditions, and
therefore are modeled as one aquifer, with two layers. The first layer simulates the Alluvium
formationandthesecondlayersimulatestheUpperFarsformation.
The thickness of the Alluvium aquifer ranges between 8 m and 143 m, while the thickness of the
Upper Fars aquifer ranges between 114 m and 582 m. The Upper Fars aquifer is underlain by low
permeable Middle Fars formation which acts as the base of the combined aquifer (Alluvium and
UpperFarsaquifer).
Rechargefromrainfalloccursoverthestudyareaandcanbedistinguishedasfollows:
DirectrechargefromrainfalloccuringovertheAlluviumplain.
Rechargefromwadiflowinmainwadichannels
Groundwaterthroughflowwhichisrechargedfromrainfallthatoccursoverthebedrockat
the mountain, and enters the Alluvium aquifer through the mountain gabs (fractures and
faultsthatactasconduits).Higherrechargeratesoccursoverthebedrocknearthefoothills
thantheplainarea.
Recharge that infiltrates from recharge dams which contributes significantly to the aquifer
waterbalance.
The primary discharge is the abstraction from wells for agricultural uses, and for public
watersupplyuses.Thesedischargesaffectflowdirectionandcausechangesingroundwater
level.AllwellabstractionsweretappingtheAlluviumaquifer,however,noclearabstraction
was recorded for the Upper Fars Aquifer. Under natural conditions without abstraction,
groundwaterdischargesatthecoastalshoreline.
The general flow direction is from the recharge area near the foothills towards the coast
exceptwheresomefaultsthatareperpendiculartothegeneralflowdirectionwhichactasa
barriertothegroundwaterflowandchangeflowdirectiontowardstheselocalareas.
The hydraulic gradient is steeper near the foothills than the coastal plain. The hydraulic
gradientforthenorthernBatinahmodelisabout6m/kmandforsouthernBatinahmodelis
about 8 m/km. The difference in hydraulic head between the highest points near the
foothills and the lowest point at the coast is significant, and reaches 170 m for northern
52
47
Batinah and 200 m for southern Batinah. This high difference in head affects the
groundwater velocity to be faster and resists seawater intrusion. The head difference
increases at the pumping wells where the water table drops below the sea level at the
coastalboundary.Thisabstractionchangesgroundwaterflowdirection,groundwaterlevels,
hydraulic pressure, groundwater velocity, the hydraulic gradients, as well as the aquifer
parameters (storage, permeability, etc.). The changes in these conditions and parameters
greatly induce the saltwater to intrude the aquifer as the equivalent freshwater pressure
decreases.
Transmissivity varies widely across the study area. Higher transmissivity occurs in
uncemented, lose gravels and sands, while lower transmissivity occurs in locations where
cemented,andclayeygravelsexists.
Groundwater salinity varies widely within the study area. This water salinity is generally
lowerneartherechargeareas(thefoothills)andhigherclosertothecoast.
Data regarding dam storage, rainfall, observation wells, aquifer parameters, and well field
pumping were assembled and prepared in the model input format. The recharge to the
aquiferwasassignedthrough8zonescorrespondingtotherechargefromrainfallandfrom
thedamsstorageforthemodelingperiod.
5.4 Waterbalance
Thepremodeldevelopmentmeangroundwaterbalanceincludesthefollowingcomponents:
Table8:Predevelopmentgroundwaterbalance(Mm3).
(Source:ICBA,2011)
FlowComponent
Assumptions
Quantity
(Mm3/year)
Inflow
Rechargefromrainfall
18%ofmeanannualrainfall(MAR)
Groundwater
W x i x T, where (w) is Catchment
throughflowfromJabal width, (i) is Hydraulic gradient, (T) is
Transmissivity, for each catchment,
Table26ofGRC,2006.
257
TotalInflow
347
Outflow
Abstraction
385
Outflowtothesea
20
TotalOutflow
405
Balance
58
90
Thenumericalflowandtransportmodelingisexplainedindetailsinchapters11and12forboththe
northernBatinahandthesouthernBatinah.
53
48
6.MANAGEMENTOPTIONSINALBATINAHCOASTALPLAIN
The natural balance between freshwater and saltwater in Al Batinah coastal plain aquifers is
disturbedbygroundwaterabstraction,whichlowersgroundwaterlevels,reducesfreshgroundwater
flowtothecoast,andcausessaltwatertointrudeinthecoastalplainfreshaquifer.Otherhydraulic
stresses that reduce freshwater flow in coastal aquifers include lowered rates of groundwater
rechargeduetourbanizationanddroughts.Climatechangeimpacts,suchasdroughtsorlessrainfall
in dry years, also severely affect the natural balance in a similar way to abstraction, if not more
severely.
Saltwatercontaminatesthefreshwateraquifereitherbysaltwaterencroachment(lateralmovement
ofsaltwater)orbysaltwaterintrusion(saltwaterupconing;i.everticalmovementofsaltwaterfrom
deeperandmoresalineaquifers)inresponsetopumping.
Thelandwardflowofsaltwaterintofreshwatercoastalplainaquifersandsaltwatercontamination
canhaveadverseeffectsoncoastalgroundwatersupplies.Equallyimportantaretheseawardflow
offreshgroundwatertocoastalecosystemsandtheroleofgroundwaterindeliveringnutrientsand
other dissolved constituents to these systems. Dissolved chemical constituents discharged with
groundwater affect the salinity and geochemical budgets of coastal ecosystems and affect the
biologicalspeciescompositionandproductivityofthesesystems.
Nutrient contamination of coastal groundwater occurs as a consequence of activities such as
wastewaterdisposalfromseptictanksandagriculturalusesoffertilizers.Oneofthemostcommon
effects of large inputs of nutrients to coastal aquifers is acceleration of the process of
eutrophication, which is the enrichment of an ecosystem by organic material formed by primary
productivity(photosyntheticactivity).
Becausegroundwatermovesslowly,theflushingofcontaminatedgroundwaterfromanaquifercan
take many years, even decades. Quantifying groundwater and contaminant discharge to coastal
ecosystems and understanding the role of groundwater in maintaining the biological health and
geochemical balancesof thesesystemsincreasingly requires the integrationofdata collectionand
dataanalysistechniquesfromdiversescientificfields.
Based on the behavior of the aquifer system, the present status of the groundwater table, and
salinitydistributiontrends,aswellasthelocationandratesofabstractionsasdiscussedinprevious
sections,thefollowingactionsarenecessary:
6.1 Reducewaterdemand
As shown in the previous section, groundwater abstraction is high and should be reduced to
acceptableenvironmentalandeconomicallevelsinsuchawayastominimizethedeclineinwater
levelsandsustaingroundwateruse.Forthispurpose,differentpumpingscenariosareproposed:
1. Base case scenario or Business as Usual scenario (BAU): to represent no change in
abstraction case (no actions). This is used as a base scenario to compare with alternative
scenarios.
2. Reductionofrateofabstractionof50%:this50%reductionisequivalentto the undesired
environmental impact due to BAU abstraction. The undesired environmental impacts
include:seawaterencroachmentof144Mm3,andnetremovedwaterfromstorageof106
Mm3.Thisaddsupto250Mm3,whichis42%ofBAUabstraction(250Mm3/578Mm3).While
removing the salt water intrusion alone is equivelant to 25% (144 Mm3/578 Mm3). To
account for the weighted effect of seawater intrusion as it differs between the northern
Batinahand thesouthernBatinah,a20%reductioninabstractionisassumedfornorthern
Batinahand50%reductioninabstractioninsouthernBatinah.
54
49
The results of running these different scenarios in the groundwater model showed that better
environmental performance was obtained, where remarkable reduction in the level of intruded
saltwater,andhighergroundwateroutflow(discharge)isexpected(thegreenlineinFigure47).
Mm3
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
2010
2014
2018
2022
Abstraction(BAU)
SeawaterIntrusion(BAU)
Abstraction(Reduction)
Seawaterintrusion(Reduction)
2026
2030
Figure47.Theeffectofreducingabstractionrateonseawaterintrusion(Source:ICBA,
2011).
Itisimportanttomentionthattheaimisnottopreventseawaterintrusion,butrathertocontrolor
mitigateseawaterintrusion.Theoptimalabstractionrate(orabstractionthreshold)canbeobtained
by judging the economic and environmental impacts together. This can be done by drawing
abstraction versus economic and environmental damage. Water demand reduction could be
achievedthroughacombinationofthefollowingactions:
6.1.1 Usewatersavingtechniques
Significant savings could be made from changing the irrigation technology, particularly from flood
irrigation to drip (Figure 48). The estimated potential savings is 41 Mm3 (Figure 49), which is
equivalent to reducing abstraction by 6% (Table A14 in the Appendix). Due to only limited
information being available on irrigation technology and distribution in Al Batinah, the following
assumptionswereusedinestimatingthepossiblesaving:
The share of irrigation technology of the year 2005 was used as the base to estimate the
shareofirrigationtechnologyof2010.
Theaveragecropwaterrequirementforeachgroup(vegetables,fruits,etc.)wasusedasthe
cropwaterrequirementsfortheunknowncropwaterrequirements.
Theaverageshareorirrigationtechniquedistributionwasusedfortheunknowncropshare.
The investment cost for shifting the irrigation methods should also be taken into account, and
tradeoffsbetweenthecostandthesavedquantitiesofwatershouldbeapplied.
55
50
Caution should be taken regarding implementing this strategy, because onfarm management is
essentialtoachievethedesiredsaving.
For example, losses in the irrigation
Modern
Flood
Mm3
systemshouldbeminimized,andwell
500
trained workers who can use the
397
modern irrigation system efficiently
400
shouldbeemployed.
276
300
6.1.2 Changecroppingpatternto
lesswaterconsumingcrops
200
100
34
11
ThemostwaterconsumingcropsinAl
0
Batinah include date palm, Rhodes
Fruits
Forages
Vegetables
FieldCrops
grass, and alfalfa. The total water
consumption of these highest water Figure 48. Agricultural water demand using different
consumer crops is 514 Mm3 which irrigationtechniques(Source:ICBA,2011).
accounts for 77% of total agricultural
waterdemand(Figure50)(formoredetailsseeTableA6toTableA10intheAppendix).
6.2 Increasewatersupply
6.2.1 Increasegroundwater
recharge
Mm3
35
31.7
30
25
Groundwater recharge could be

20
increasedthroughcapturingthesurface
15
runoff behind recharge dams. The
7.5
10
existingrechargedamsprovedtobean
5
1.3
0.9
important measure for increasing
0
aquifer recharge in Oman. Several
Fruits
Forages
Vegetables
FieldCrops
previous
studies
recommended
constructing recharge dams for Al

Batinah region, but the design capacity Figure49:Potentialwatersavingbyshiftingfromflood
and location still needs further tobetteradvancedtechniques(Source:ICBA,2011).
assessment and approval from the
Alfalfa,41
MRMWR. Therefore, the proposed
(8%)
rechargedamsusedinthisstudyarejust
to show the possible improvements in
the groundwater system, and do not
represent planned or approved dams.
Figure 51 presents the proposed
Date
recharge dams and their possible
Rhodes
palm,263
locations in each catchment. The total
grass,210
(51%)
design capacity of these proposed
(41%)
3
recharge dams is about 60 Mm (Table
9).
Figure50:Themostwaterconsumingcrops(Mm3)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
56
51
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
Table9:Designcapaacityofproposedrecharggedams.
nication).
(Source::SQU,Personalcommun
Dam
DamsStorrage
Capacitty
(Mm3/ye
ear)
Bidah
2.7
F
FayadhB
3.1
HattaA
10.1
HattaC
RijmaA
4.8
RijmaC
RijmaD
BaaniUmarA
Saham
m
S
SaramiC
4.79
Khaburah
S
SaramiA
Suwayyq
MaabrahDE1
11.74
MaabrahDE2
MaabrahDE3
AlAisC
14.5
AlAissAAlternate
59.73
Wilaayat
Shinass
Liwa
Musan
nnah
Rustaq
q
Total
The efficiency of inffiltration fro

om these reccharge Figgure 51: Lo
ocation of proposed recharge
dams iss an imporrtant factor,, and the design daams in Al Baatinah catch
hment area (Source:
capacityy is not thee only factor that affeccts the SQ
QU.Personalcommunication).
rechargee amount. The highesst loss is usually
u
throughevaporation
nwhichcan adduptolo
ossesofupto70%.Inthisstudythe rechargefro
omthese
3
dthedam,w
whichequalss21Mm /year.Ifthe
damsis estimatedaat35%oftheestoragevolumebehind
percentageccouldreach5
50%ofthesstoragevolum
me,or30Mm3/year.
damsarrewellmainttainedthisp
Thisisequivalenttoreducingan
nnualabstracctionbybetw
ween4%and
d6%.
Comparingtheresultsofascenariowithrecchargedamsstoascenarriowithoutrechargedam
ms(Table
A15 in the
t Appendix) shows that recharge dams reducced the undeesired enviro
onmental im
mpacts of
saltwateerintrusion by2%,increeasedground
dwaterdirecctrechargeo
overtheplainby22%(e
excluding
inflowfrromJabal),aandincreaseedgroundwaateroutflow totheseab
by8%(formoredetailssseeTable
A15inth
heAppendicces).
57
52
6.2.2 Reusetreatedwastewaterforirrigation
The current total treated wastewater quanty used in Al Batinah region is 6.82 Mm3/year (18708
m3/day),ofwhich91%isusedforirrigation(6.23Mm3/year),3%forindustrialuse(0.2Mm3/year),
3%foraquiferrecharge(0.17Mm3/year),and3%forotheruses(Figure52andFigure53)(TableA16
intheAppendix).
100%
6.2
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0.2
0.17
Industrialuse
Groundrecharge
0.2
0%
Irrigationuse
ReuseOthers
Figure52CurrentsectoraluseoftreatedwastewaterquantitiesinAlBatinahgovernorates(Mm3)
Source:ICBA,2011,basedondatafromMinistryofEnvironmentandClimateAffairs).
Mm3
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Sohar
Barka
Saham
Al
ArRustaq
Musanaah
Shinas
Liwa
Awabi
AsSuwayq
Al
Khabourah
Figure53.ReclaimedwaterquantitiesperwilayatinAlBatinahgovernorates(Source:ICBA,2011,
basedondatafromtheMinistryofEnvironmentandClimateAffairs).
58
53
6.3 Adoptionofconservationagriculturetechnologies
Low and notillage and conservation agriculture (CA) are experiencing a persistent and steadying
growth(95x106ha)intheworld.Notillageis"plantingcropsinpreviouslyuntilledsoilbyopeninga
narrowslot,trenchorbandonlyofsufficientwidthanddepthtoobtainproperseedcoverage".The
CAisabasketofagriculturalpractices(lowornotillage,rationalsiteorientedsoiluse,cropresidue
toremainonsoilsurfaceasmulch,burningofmulchisprohibited,permanentsoilcoverisessential,
focusonbiologicalsoilprocess,croprotationincludingleguminouscrops),farmerschoosewhatis
bestforthem.TheCAisamajoropportunitythatcanbeexploitedforachievingmanyobjectivesof
theinternationalconventionsoncombatingdesertification,biodiversityandclimatechange(Benites
etal.,2002).TheCAholdstremendouspotentialforallsizesoffarmsandagroecologicalsystems,
but its adoption is most urgently required by smallholder farmers (FAO, 2006). FAO is actively
involved in promoting CA, especially in developing or emerging economies as it has been
demonstratedthatthelongtermgainsfromwidespreadconservationtonotillagecouldbegreater
thanfromanyotherinterventioninthirdworldagriculturalproduction(Warren,1983).
ItisrecommendedtouseappropriateCAtechnologieswhicharespecifictoconservesoilmoisture,
efficientuseofnutrientsandtoreducesalinityaffectonthecrops.
6.4 Rootzonesalinitymanagementandleachingfraction
It is essential to keep the plant root zone salinity below crop threshold level to get optimum
production and to maintain soil health. This requires careful management of irrigated agricultural
fields. The main objectives of salinity management are; to increase the yield per unit area; and to
increasethewaterandfertilizeruseefficiency,thusresultinginimprovedlivelihoodforthefarmers.
6.5 Soilsalinityinirrigatedfieldsandrelativeyieldprediction
Excessive soil salinity (salts) cause reduced yields in many agronomic crop plants. Yield reductions
may range from a slight loss to complete crop failure, depending on the particular crop and the
severityofthesalinityproblem.
Crops can tolerate salinity up to certain levels without a measurable loss in yield (this is called
thresholdlevel).Asageneralrule,themoresalttolerantthecropis,thehigherthethresholdlevel.
At salinity levels greater than the threshold, crop yield reduces linearly as salinity increases. Using
thesalinityvaluesinasalinity/yieldmodeldevelopedbyMaasandHoffmanin1977,predictionsof
expected yield loss can be made. Maas and Hoffman expressed salt tolerance of crops by the
followingrelationship,
Yr=100s(ECet)
whereYr=percentageof theyieldof cropgrowninsalineconditionsrelative tothatobtainedon
nonsalineconditions;t=thresholdsalinitylevelwhereyielddecreasebegin;s=percentyieldloss
perincreaseof1ECe(dS/m)inexcessoft.
It is recommended, while making selection of salt tolerant crops for a specific saline farm site, to
evaluate/forecastrelativecropyieldusingaboveequationpriortosowing.Ifsignificantyielddecline
isexpectedtheneithercropselectionmatchingsoil/watersalinityistobemadefollowingbyuseof
LR/LFconcepttofreerootzonefromsalinitythatisabovethethresholdlevel.Adetailedtableofsalt
tolerant crops exist (Maas, 1996). Table 10 shows the relative salt tolerance of important field,
forage,vegetablesandfruitcrops.TheselecteddataissourcedfromAyersandWestcot(1976)and
usedbymanyworkersworldwidesuchasFranklinandFollett(1985).
59
54
Table10.Salttoleranceofcrops1
(Source:ICBA,2011)
Crops/Relativeyielddecrease(%)
Barley
Sugarbeet
Safflower
Sorghum
Soybean
A.FieldCrops
Broadbean
Corn
Cowpea
Fieldbean
Tallwheatgrass
Barleyhay
Ryegrass
B.ForageCrops
Sweetclover
Alfalfa
Cornfodder
Beets
Broccoli
Tomato
Cucumber
Spinach
Cabbage
C.Vegetable
Potato
Crops
Pepper
Lettuce
Radish
Onion
10
10.0
8.7
6.2
5.1
5.5
2.6
2.5
2.0
1.5
7.5
6.0
5.6
25
ECe(dS/m)
13.0
18.0
11.0
15
7.6
9.9
7.2
11.0
6.2
7.5
4.2
6.8
3.8
5.9
3.1
4.9
2.3
3.6
9.9
13.3
7.4
9.5
6.9
8.9
10.0
8.7
6.2
5.1
5.5
2.6
2.5
2.0
1.5
19.4
13.0
12.2
1.5
2.0
1.8
4.0
2.8
2.5
2.5
2.0
1.8
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.2
1.2
3.2
3.4
3.2
5.1
3.9
3.5
3.3
3.3
2.8
2.5
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.8
5.9
5.4
5.2
6.8
5.5
5.0
4.4
5.3
4.4
3.8
3.3
3.2
3.1
2.8
10.3
8.8
8.6
9.6
8.2
7.6
6.3
8.6
7.0
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.0
4.3
Carrot
Beans
Datepalm
Fig
Olive
Grape
Grapefruit
1.0
1.0
4.0
2.7
2.7
1.5
1.8
1.7
1.5
6.8
3.8
3.8
2.5
2.4
2.8
2.3
10.9
5.5
5.5
4.1
3.4
4.6
3.6
17.9
8.4
8.4
6.7
4.9
Orange
Lemon
Apple
Pear
Plum
Peach
Apricot
Blackberry
Raspberry
Strawberry
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.0
1.0
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.1
2.2
2.0
2.0
1.4
1.3
3.2
3.3
3.3
3.3
2.9
2.9
2.6
2.6
2.1
1.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.3
4.1
3.7
3.8
3.2
2.5
D.FruitCrops
50
*Thevaluesapplyonlyfromthelateseedlingstagethroughmaturity,duringtheperiodofmostrapidplant
growth.Cropsineachclassarerankedinorderofdecreasingsalttoleranceinsofaraspossible.
60
55
6.6 StrategiestoovercomesoilpH,CaCO3affectonnutrientavailability
SoilsofOmanarerichinCaCO3,lowinorganicmatterandclaycontents,andthesoilpHishigher
thanoptimumlevel(6.77.3).Thus,thecombinedeffectresultsinsoilswithlownutrientavailable
capacity.Inorganicnutrients(e.g.,NO3)leachreadilyinsuchconditions(sandysoils)leadingtohigh
costsoffertilizerinputsandhighriskofoffsitepollutionbytheoutflowofnutrients.Othersarefixed
insoilduetohighCaCO3andpH(P,Fe,Cu,Mn,Zn).ThereisasignificantpotentialforOmanisoilsto
beimprovedthroughbetterfertilizeruseefficiencyandeffectiveness(type,rate,placeandtiming).
Under calcareous alkaline soil conditions the use of organic matter (compost, farm yard manure),
vesicular arbuscular mycorrgizae (VAM) and biofertilizers (these have ultimate acidic behavior in
soil),aswellastheband placementofphosphaticfertilizerarerecommended.Thelongerthesoil
andaddedphosphorousareincontact,thehigherthechancesforphosphorousfixationinsoil.The
VAMareknowntoimprovePnutritiontoplants,andleguminouscropsaremoremycorrhizalthan
cerealcrops.Toavoidammoniavolatilization,Nfertilizersaretobeincorporatedintosoilsandnot
broadcasted.Insandysoils,useofnitratefertilizersshouldbeavoidedtoreducenutrientlossesand
groundwatercontamination.
Itisrecommendedtouseanintegratedsoilfertilitymanagement(ISFM)programtoimprovesoil
healthandforefficientuseoffertilizersforimprovedyields.
6.7 Futureoptionsforexpansionofirrigatedagriculture
Currently,AlBatinahgovernoratesisaffectedbyvariouslevelsofsoildegradation(mainlysalinity).
Appropriate soil and water management technologies can minimize these problems. The use of
salinewaterforirrigationmayincreasesoilsalinity;however,thiscanbemanagedthroughleaching
requirement/fractionanddrainage,cropselectionandusingconservationagriculturetechnologies,
whereappropriate.
In the likelihood that the Omani Government would want to use more land for agricultural
production, it is essential that the location of the ideal agricultural land be identified. Given the
general criteria (see below) for soils having the potential for irrigated agriculture, the map units
needstobefurtherinvestigatedtofindsuitablesoils.Thesalorthids,marineflats,tidalflats,playas
shouldtobeavoidedduetotheiragricultureunsuitability.
In Al Batinah, where agricultural farms are showing permanent threat of soil salinization, which
cannotbeeconomicallycontrolled(persistentseawaterintrusion,hardpanthatrestrictsleachingof
salts from root zone, high groundwater salinity. etc.), these farms should be abandoned and
potentialsiteswiththefollowingcharacteristicsareexplored:
1. Nohardpanwithinupper2m.
2. Nowatertablewithinupper2m.
3. Nogypsumlayerwithinupper1m.
4. Noseawaterintrusion.
5. Nosalinitymorethan4dS/m.
6. Norockoutcrops.
7. Gravelsarenotdominant(>35%).
8. Sufficientwaterisavailabletomeetcropdemandandassociatedleachingrequirements.
61
56
7.WATERRESOURCESINSALALAHCOASTALPLAIN
7.1 Studyarea
ThestudyareaislocatedintheDhofarGovernorateontheArabianSea.Thelocationmapofthe
studyareaisshowninFigure54.
Figure54.LocationmapofSalalahstudyarea(Source:ICBA,2011).
7.2 Landcover
The land cover classification
is presented in Figure 55.
The figure shows the
agricultural areas specified
as high density vegetation
(treesaccountforfruittrees,
including date palm, etc.),
while agricultural vegetation
represents field crops,
vegetables,etc.
7.3 Salalahmain
catchment
system
Most of the wadis flow Figure55.LandcovermapforSalalah(Source:ICBA,2011).

originate from the Jabal and
dischargetotheArabianSeaaftercrossingtheSalalahcoastalplain.Theareaofthesewadisvaries
62
57
insize,(Figure56andTableA17intheAppendix).Inthesewadis,theflowoccursinresponsetohigh
rainfallduringthekhareef(autumn)seasonandremainsdrythroughtheyear.Surfacewaterflowin
thesewadisisinfrequentandofshortduration.
10.00
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Arzat
DarbatLowerDarbatUpper
(Taqah)
(Falls)
Hamran
Sahalnawt
Jarsis
Figure56.MainwadisflowinSalalah(Mm )(Source:ICBA,2011).
7.4 Hydrogeology
TheprimaryaquiferintheJabaloccursinthekarsticUmmErRadhuma(UER)limestoneformationof
the Hadhramaut Group, while the primary aquifer in the coastal plain occurs in the Adwanib
Formation of the Fars Group sediments. Details of these primary aquifers are described in the
followingsections:
A.Jabalarea
ThemaincharacteristicsoftheUERaquiferare:largehydraulicgradients,significantvariationin
verticalgradientsandgoodwaterquality.Fourmainaquiferunitsareidentifiedwithinthe
Hadhramautgroup:
1. DammamandRusFormation:
ConsistofmarlandgypsumofRusformation.Theaquiferthicknessrangesbetween200and
400m.Thesalinitylevelrangesfrom8to25dS/m.
2. UpperUmmErRadhuma:
Theaquiferthicknessrangesfrom100to200m.
3. UpperLowerUmmErRadhuma:
Theaquiferyieldisgood.Theaquiferthicknessrangesbetween100to150m.Thesalinitylevel
rangesfrom5to20dS/m.
4. LowerUmmErRadhuma:
Theaquiferthicknessrangesfrom100to200m.
B.Plainarea
TheprimaryaquiferintheplainareaistheAdawnibaquiferoftheFarsGroup(Figure57).Themain
characteristicsofthisaquiferinclude:
Maximumsaturatedthicknessofabout120m,generallyrangingfrom60to70m.
Veryhightransmissivitythatrangesfrom1000to200,000m2/day.
Highpermeabilityassociatedwithkarsticfeatures.
63
58
Hydraulicconductivityvariesbetweenthreeordersofmagnitudefrom10sto1,000sm/day
(MRMWR,2004).
Flathydraulicgradient.
Figure57.GeologymapforSalalahcoastalplain(Source:ICBA,2011,compiledfromOman
geologicalmap).
7.5 Groundwaterlevels
Groundwater levels are generally very flat in the plain area, ranging from 10 m (above mean sea
level) near the Jabal front to about sea level near the coast (Figure 58) (MRMWR, 2004).
GroundwaterleveltrendsshowedsmalldecliningandrisingtrendsasshowninFigure59.Declines
aresmall.Thisistobeexpected,ashighdrawdownisunusualinahighlytransmissivekarsticaquifer
with direct hydraulic connection to the sea, because unlimited inflows from the sea rapidly
compensate for any depletion in fresh water storage. In addition, inflows from adjacent highly
permeable brackish zones provide rapid replenishment. A decline in water level may occur
instantaneously at a time that most likely corresponds to the commissioning of a new abstraction
well nearby to the monitoring point. Neither groundwater level data nor salinity data for Salalah
plain were accessible for the ICBA team during the study. Therefore, the analyses are limited and
includeonlythecompiledinformationfrompreviousreports.
64
59

19 0000 0
SAHALN AW T
ARZAT1X
ARZAT
Naheez2X
18 9500 0
KHAYSH
G arsis1XG ARSIS
KHAYS
KhH1X
aysh2X
E BZ BH5
Naheez 1X
UH23 BH W SD-03
PW -01
T HIM RIN2
Asheesee
UH9F
EBZ BH7
E BZBH1
SF BH1A
IWR
34
IWR43
G arsaisFa IW R-46
W BZBH2
Asaiqa1-X
18 8500 0
WBZBH12
WadiTheet
P AWRUH3
TUBROK
E BZBH6
M AFS AH
18 9000 0
HAMRAN
S F-BH12A
SF- BH10A
S WI40
S FBH13A
S FBH15A
18 8000 0
18 7500 0
18 7000 0
1570 00
16 200 0
167 000
1 720 00
17 700 0
10000
182 000
1 870 00
19 2000
20000
1970 00
30000
2 0200 0
207 000
2 120 00
21 700 0
40000
Figure58.Salalahmeasuredaveragewatertablelevels(19842003)(Source:MRMWR,2005).
PredictedgroundwaterlevelwascompiledfromapreviousmodelingstudyofSalalahcoastalplain
forMRMWR,2004.Thismodelwascalibratedwithacceptableaccuracyandusedforpredictingthe
effectofinjectionwellsoftreatedwastewateronmitigatingthesalinityproblem.Thepredictionwas
basedon11yearpredictionrun,andrepeatedthe11yearruntodevisea22yearpredictionbase
caseuptotheyear2013.Forthisstudy,more11yearpredictioncasecycleswereusedtoexpand
thepredictionuptotheyear2030.ThepredictionresultsareshowninFigure59.
Water level (m ASL)
WSD-03 (Central Freshwater Zone)

5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Days
Figure59.Waterlevelmodelprediction20032030(Source:ModifiedafterMRMWR,2004).
7.6 Recharge
Rainfall is the main source of groundwater recharge. Three types of natural recharge can be
distinguished:
65
60
1. GroundwaterthroughflowwhichisrechargedfromrainfallthatfallsovertheJabalandflowsto
theplainaquiferassubfloworthroughflow;
2. Directrechargefromrainfallovertheplain;and
3. Rechargefromthewadistreambeds.
In addition to natural recharge, artificial recharge is used through building recharge dams and
throughwellinjectionusingreclaimedwater.Adetailofrechargequantitiesofeachrechargetype
isgivenbelow:
7.6.1 Groundwaterinflow
Jabal groundwater throughflow is the main source of recharge to the Salalah plain aquifer. This
groundwaterthroughflowisestimatedbasedonDarcyslaw,usingconstanthydraulicconductivity
of100m/day,hydraulicgradient,andsaturatedthicknessasshowninTable11,below:
Table11.GroundwaterinflowfromJabal(Source:MRMWR,2004).
Zone
Saturatedthickness Hydraulicgradient*
(m)
width(m)
Salalahplain,West
Salalahplain,Central
Salalahplain,East
DarbatSouth
Total
25
60
25
20
3
10
5
2
Groundwater
throughflow
(Mm3/year)
7.5
30.4
9.4
6.8
54.1
7.6.2 Rechargeovertheplain
Directrechargefromrainfallovertheplainislikelytooccurduringhighrainfallandcyclonicevents.
Quantification of this direct recharge is not available from the literature. The potential recharge
volumesareassumedtorangebetween1020%ofmeanannualrainfall(MAR),Table12:
Table12.MeandirectrechargeestimatesinSalalahplain(Source:MRMWR,2004).
Zone
Area
MAR
RainfallVolume RechargeRange(Mm3/year)
2
(km ) (mm/year)
(Mm3/year)
10%
20%
Salalahplain,West
164
135
22
0.2
1.1
163
124
20
0.2
1.0
Salalahplain,East
129
113
15
0.1
0.7
DarbatSouth
70
119
8
0.1
0.4
Total
65
1
3
7.6.3 Indirectrecharge
Indirectrechargefromthewadibedsoccursinthemainstreamwadis.Thetotalestimatedrecharge
amountisequalto4.2Mm3/year(2%ofMAR).
66
61
7.6.4 Rechargedam
TheSahalnawtrechargedamistheonlyrechargedamthatrechargestheplainaquifer.Thedams
storage capacity is about 6.4 Mm3. In addition to recharging the aquifer, the dam provides flood
protection.
7.6.5 Reclaimedwater
Thewastewatertreatmentandreinjectionprojectwasestablishedin2003.About80%ofthecityof
Salalah was connected to the project. In addition, the Awqad was connected to the project in the
year2004.
Thetotalprojectcapacityin2004was7.3Mm3(20ML/day).Wastewaterwastreatedtoatertiary
levelandusedtoinjecttheplainaquiferthrough40injectionwellsdistributed300mapartalongthe
coastwithanaveragedepthof35m.
7.7 Groundwateroutflowtosea
Under natural conditions, groundwater flows out to the sea. After increased agricultural
development,groundwateroutflowisreducedbecauseofabstraction,andinsomeplacessaltwater
intrudesfromthesea.Thetotalestimatedgroundwateroutflowisabout12Mm3/year.
7.8 Groundwaterreserve
The fresh groundwater reserve quantity in Salalah plain is estimated to equal 363 Mm3, while the
brackishgroundwaterestimatewas672Mm3(Table13)(MWR,2000;MRMWR,2004).
Table13.Groundwaterreserveinthecoastalplain(Source:MRMWR,2004)
Zone
WaterQuality
Area
Saturated
Sy
(km2) thickness(m)
SalalahWest
Fresh
SalalahCentral
Fresh
Rus/Damman
UeR
SalalahEast
Fresh
DarbatNorth
Fresh
Rus/Damman
UeR
Salalahplain,West
Brackish
164.4
60
0.03
<1400mg/l
Fresh
91.6
70
0.03
>1400mg/l
Brackish
71
70
0.03
Salalahplain,East
Brackish
129.4
60
0.03
DarbatSouth
Fresh/Brackish
70.1
60
0.001
Total
526.5
7.9
Volume
(Mm3)
296
192
149
233
4
874
Groundwateruse
Thetotalestimatedcurrentgroundwateruseisabout69Mm3(Table14).Thisestimationwasbased
onthewaterusevaluesoftheyear2001(MRMWR,2004),assumingthatagriculturalwaterdemand
67
62
will continue to be equivalent to the 2001 abstraction quantities, while the municipal and
commercialquantitieswillincreaseannuallyby13%.Thelatterisassumedsimilartotheprojections
oftheSalalahwaterresourcesandmanagementstudy(MRMWR,2004).
Table14.EstimatedcurrentgroundwateruseinSalalahplain(Mm3).
(Source:ModifiedafterMRMWR,2004).
Zone
2001
2010
Municipal
Municipal
and
Agricultural Total
and
Agricultural Total
commercial
commercial
SalalahplainWest
0.03
5.59
5.62
0.09
5.59
5.68
2.64
43.49
46.13
7.93
43.49
51.42
Salalahplain,East
0.04
6.50
6.54
0.12
6.50
6.62
DarbatSouth
0.04
5.15
5.19
0.12
5.15
5.27
Total
2.8
60.7
63.5
8.3
60.7
69.0
The future water demand projections for the years 2020 and 2030 are estimated using the same
projectionassumptionofannualincreaseinmunicipalandcommercialwaterdemandandconstant
agriculturalwaterdemand.TheseestimatesarepresentedinTable15below.
Table15.EstimatedfuturewaterdemandforSalalahplainarea(Mm3).
(Source:ICBA,2011,basedonMRMWR,2004municipalprojections).
Area
2020
2030
Municipal
Municipal
and
Agricultural Total
and
Agricultural Total
commercial
commercial
Salalahplain,West
0.3
5.6
5.9
1.0
5.6
6.6
26.9
43.5
70.4
91.4
43.5
134.9
Salalahplain,East
0.4
6.5
6.9
1.4
6.5
7.9
DarbatSouth
0.4
5.2
5.6
1.4
5.2
6.5
Total
28.0
60.7
88.8
95.2
60.7
155.9
7.10 Waterbalance
The current water balance is estimated based on the inflow and outflow quantities defined in the
previoussectionsandsummarizedinTable16.
Groundwaterinflowincludedgroundwaterrechargetotheaquifersystem:naturalrechargeboth
direct and indirect, groundwater throughflow, recharge dams, and well injection using reclaimed
water. Groundwater outflow included: groundwater abstraction and groundwater outflow to the
sea.
68
63
Table16.CurrentgroundwaterbalanceforSalalahplain(Mm3).
(Source:ICBA,2011,basedonMRMWR,2004municipalprojections).
Flowcomponent
EstimationAssumption
Inflow
Jabalinflow
DarcysLaw
Directrecharge
1020%ofMAR
Indirectrecharge
2%ofMAR
RechargeDams
40%ofstoragecapacity
ReclaimedwaterInjection 80%oftotalstoragecapacity
Subtotalinflow
Outflow Abstraction
Outflowtosea
Subtotaloutflow
Balance
69
Quantity(Mm3/Year)
54.1
13
4.2
2.6
5.8
67.769.7
69
12
7071
2.3to1.3
64
8.WATERQUALITYINSALALAH
8.1
Watersalinity
Theplainaquiferisgenerallybrackish,exceptwherefreshwateroccursinthecentralplain(<1,500
mg/l)elongatednorthsouthintheflowdirection.Inaddition,freshwaterlensesoccurneartheJabal
frontandinWadiDarbat.
The underlying Mughsayl Formation contains groundwater of higher salinity levels, ranging from
7,000to10,000mg/l.
The MRMWR model for modeling the salinity distribution on the Salalah plain showed that the
injectionoffreshwastewater(1500mg/l)bythewastewaterschemehelpedtoreducetheinfluence
ofdrawdownduetoabstractionnearthecoast,andtheinfluenceofsalineinflowsfromthecoast.
Thetreatedwastewaterinjectionwaseffectiveindecreasinggroundwatersalinitiesbyabout5000
mg/l within one year of the commissioning of the injection scheme. Other factors that helped in
mitigating the salinity problem was due to the major freshening effect of the cyclone in 1996
(MRMWR,2004).Figures6062showstheeffectofmitigatingthesalinityproblemafter6yearsof
usingthetreatedwastewaterinjectionwells.
TDS
(kg/m3 or thousands of mg/L)
1900000
NORTHING (m)
1895000
1890000
1885000
1880000
Measured September 1997
1875000
180000
185000
190000
195000
200000
205000
210000
215000
EASTING (m)
35.2
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.5
0.25
0.1
Figure60.Measuredgroundwatersalinityfortheyear1997(Source:MRMWR,2004).
70
65

TDS
(kg/m3 or thousands of mg/L)
1890000
NORTHING (m)
Location of
injection wells
1885000
Prediction after 6 years simulation

with wastewater injection
1880000
180000
185000
190000
195000
200000
205000
EASTING (m)
35.2
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.5
0.25
0.1
Figure61.Simulatedgroundwatersalinitycontoursafter6yearsofcommissioningtreated
wastewaterinjectionwells(Source:MRMWR,2004).
Figure62.Modeledsalinitycrosssections:(a)Initialconditions,(b)after6years(Source:MRMWR,
2004).
8.2
Otherwaterqualityconstituents
Livestockandpoultry
NoneofthewatersamplesfromSalalahmetthedesiredlevelsofallconstituentsforlivestockand
poultry use. Their use was always restricted by the existence of one or more constituents in
undesirablequantities.Thewateranalyseslackinformationforalkalinity(CO3+HCO3),Hg,F,Se,Be,
butprovideinformationaboutBa,Fe,Ni,Mo,Si,whicharenormallynotrequiredforwaterquality
assessment.
pH
WaterqualityfromSalalahdoesnotpresentanyproblemfromawaterpHpointofview,asallwater
pHisunderdesirablerange(<8.5).
RecentanalysesofgroundwaterdatasetsfromSalalahin2011revealedwaterpHtobebetween7.5
and8.0.ThiswateristhusconsideredsafefromapHpointofview(Figure63).
Salinity
InSalalah,mostofthewatersaresafeforlivestockuse(EC<8dS/m),exceptinafewareas(Figure
63b)wherereasonablesafetyfordairy,beefcattleandsheepisrequired(seeAppendix,TableA28).
This water (EC 10.69 dS/m) is not fit for pregnant and lactating animals. Ground water analyses
made in 2011 from 30 sites revealed 86% samples under safe salinity category (EC <8 dS/m) for
71
66
livestock use, and 64% samples safe for poultry use (EC <5 dS/m). About 40% water samples are
unfitforpoultryuse(EC>5dS/m).
(a)DistributionofwaterpH
(b)DistributionofwaterEC
Figure63.WaterpH(a)andsalinity(b)forlivestockandpoultry(Salalah)(Source:ICBA,2011).
AllwatersamplesinSalalaharesafeforlivestockuseduetodesiredlevelsofZn,Cu,Mn,Cr,Ni,B,
Co,V,NO3,NO2andEcoli.However,allwatersamplesinSalalahareunsafeforlivestockusedueto
higherlevelsofNa(>50mg/L),Al(>5mg/L)andPb(>0.1mg/L).InSalalahwaterposesaproblemof
cadmium(>0.05mg/L)in20%samples.Thereisgenerallyhighlevelsofphosphates(>1mg/L)inall
samples. The SO4 levels are generally higher (>250 mg/L) in almost all samples, except in 20%
samples.
Overall assessment of water samples against the desired standards given in Tables A21A28 of
Appendixconfirmedallwatersamplesareunfitfordrinkingpurposesbothforlivestockandpoultry.
ThetotalEscherichiacoliinallwatersamplesareinsafelimit,however,contrarytoBatinahcoliform
levelsarehigherthandesirablelevel(<1)in63%watersamples.
Waterqualityforagriculture
AnoverallwatersalinityfromSalalah(Figure64a)showsrelativelylesssalinewaterthanAlBatinah.
Water salinity of most of the waters is less than EC 5 dS/m; however, 27% waters show sodicity
problemthatisSAR>10(mmoles/L)0.5.WhereSARismorethan10,theadditionofgypsumasasoil
surfaceamendmentisrecommendedtooffsetwatersodicityproblem(Figure64).
a)Watersalinityclasses
b)Watersodicityclasses
Figure64.WaterSalinity(a)andSodicity(b)inSalalahwaters(Source:ICBA,2011).
72
67
Distributionofgroundwaterqualityclasses
The Groundwaters, EC and SAR from Salalah (see Appendix, Table A28), were plotted onto the
diagram (Figure 65) showing the
distributionofwaterqualityclasses.
Eighty three percent of water
samplesshowveryhighsalinitywith
variable sodicity levels, however,
the water salinity is at the lower
end compared with groundwaters
formAlBatinah(SQUanalyses,blue
dots).
The water analyses provided by
MRMWR are shown in Figure 66
(red dots), revealing large number
ofsamplesinveryhighsalinityclass.
ItislikelythatSARofmorethan10
may affect soil physical and
chemical properties that have
implications to agricultural crops. It
is recommended to amend water
sodicity through using gypsum in
soil. Water sodicity can also be
reduced through blending with
goodqualitywater.
The trend of water quality for
livestockandpoultrywasevaluated
from three data sets from 1992,
1995 and 2011. The data indicate

that the percent number of water Figure65.GroundwaterqualityforSalalah.
samples in the lower salinity level
(<1.5 dS/m) decreased from 43% (Source:ICBA,2011).RedrepresentsdatafromMRMWRandblue
(1992), 27% (1995) to 1% (2011), representsdatafromSultanQaboosUniversity
and subsequent increase was
observedinthenextwatersalinitylevel(1.5to5dS/m),from22%(1992),to47%(1995)andto61%
(2011)(Figure65).Theyareallfitasdrinkingwaterforbothlivestockandpoultry.Asmallnumberof
watersamplesi.e.,35%(1992),25%(1995)and38%(2011)werefoundunfitforpoultryusefrom
watersalinityperspective.
Regarding the livestock use the percentage of water samples fit for drinking remain relatively
unchanged,83%(1992),86%(1995)and83%(2011).Thefitnessisbasedonwatersalinitybasis(see
Appendix, Table A22A24), data about other parameters is not available. The water pH for all
samplesiswithinacceptablerange(<8.5)forbothpoultryandlivestockpurposes(Figure65).
TrendsofwatersalinityinSalalahovertheperiodof1992to2011
Threewatersalinitydatasetsfrom1992,1995and2011wereevaluatedtoseethetrendofwater
salinityoverperiodoftime.Thedataindicatethatthereisincreasingwatersalinitytrendfromlower
level(<1.5dS/m)toupperlevels(1.55and58dS/m),from1992to2011(Figure66).
73
68
Figure66.Drinkingwatersalinityclassesfor
livestockandpoultry(1992,1995and2011)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
Figure67.CurrentWaterpHclasses
(Source:ICBA,2011).
6.2.7AssessmentofWaterQualityforAgriculture(1992,1995and2011Surveys)
Thetrendofwaterquality(EC)fromSalalahintheyears1992,1995and2011isshowninFigure68.
ItclearlyshowsanincreasingwatersalinityfromlowertohigherlevelsespeciallyintherangeC2to
C3toC4.
Thewatersamplesaredistributedinvariouswatersalinityclassesmainlyinthehightoverystrongly
saline ranges; therefore, present various options for crop selection and salinity management to
optimizecropproduction.
Figure
68.Water
Land salinity
suitability
classes
for irrigated
agriculture
Figure 68.
classes
in Salalah
for agricultural
use. in the Sultanate of Oman (MAF,
1990)(Source:ICBA,2011).
74
69
9.SOILRESOURCESINALBATINAH
9.1
Levelofsalinization
According to a study conducted by MAF (1993a, b and c), 50% of the agricultural area in South
Batinah is reported to be affected from salinity (ECe >4 dS/m) levels. The major part of the salt
affected soils are Gypsiorthids (gypsiferous). The soils of South Batinah are mostly moderately
alkaline (pH 7.98.4). Organic carbon and nitrogen contents are usually low (less than 1%). The
average topsoil calcium carbonate equivalents are about 37 percent in Barka, and 26 percent in
MasanaahandSuwayqareas(Qureshi,1995).InnorthernBatinahabout50%ofthetotalcultivated
landisirrigatedwithwaterofECmorethan3dS/m,andapproximately38%isirrigatedwithwater
ofEC>5dS/m.
9.2
Salinitymonitoring
The findings of AlMulla and AlAdawi (2009) and AlMulla (2010) from mapping changes in soil
salinity in AlRumais (near Barka) using remote sensing analysis identified increased scope of soil
salinityinthearea.
Consequently, in many farms, date palm yields are declining or in extreme cases farms have been
abandoned leading to reduced or negligible income. Ahmad et al. (2010) estimated that annual
lossesinOmanduetosoilsalinitywerefrom6.7to13.3millionOMR.Ifthelossesfromabandoned
date palm farms are also included, then the losses range between 7.3 and 14.0 million OMR per
annum(Ahmedetal.,2011).
9.3 Soilsandtheir
potentialuses
A review of the physiographic
regions of the Sultanate of Oman
(MAF, 1990) identified two regions
in Al Batinah (coastal and northern
plains). Most agricultural activities
occur in these two regions. A
generalizedsoilmapofAlBatinahis
showninFigure69,whichhastobe
correlatedwiththatofMAF(1990),
fromwherethefollowingmapunits
arederived.
A. Northern
(borderingsea)
coastal
plain
Coastal plain consists of three soil

map units (56, 57, 58) presenting
different landscape features (MAF,
1990):
Figure69.SoilsuitabilitymapforagriculturaluseinOman
Mapunit56coastaldune
(Source:MRMWR,2005).
marineflats.
Mapunit57playassalorthids.
Mapunit58tidalflatsanddunes.
75
70
Thesoilsintheseunitsarenotsuitableforagriculture.
Map Unit 56: Coastal dunes and marine flats: deep sandy soils and tidal flats, 010 percent slope.
Mapunitincludes70%sandysoilondunes,20%tidalflatand10%minorsoils.Theunitisunsuitable
forirrigatedagricultureduetohighsalinity,droughttrendsandsanddispersal.
MapUnit57:PlayasSalorthids:Playasandclayeytosandy,deepsoils,stronglysaline,0to1%slope.
Themapunitincludes50percentplayas,40percentsalorthidsand10%minorsoils.Themapunitis
unsuitable for irrigated farming due to excess salts, ponding and poor drainage (that is, aspects
whichcannotberemediated).
Map Unit 58: Tidal flats and dunes: tidal flats and sandy soils, 0 to 10 percent slope. The unit is
mostlyalevelareainvadedbytheseaathightide.Themapunitoccursmainlyincoastalareasand
isunsuitableforirrigatedfarming,althoughitmayhavepotentialforfishfarming.
B.Northerncoastalplainbordering"A"
Thecoastalplainconsistsoftwosoilmapunits(41and42)presentingdifferentsoiltypes,
MapUnit41Torrifluventssalorthids.
MapUnit42Torriorthents.
Thesoilsintheseunitsaremarginallysuitableforagriculture.
Map Unit 41 TorrifluventsSalorthids: loamy, deep, strongly saline soils, in coastal plains, 0 to 2
percentslopes.Themapunitincluded70%Torrifluvents,20%Salorthids(stronglysalinesoils)and
10%minorsoils.Seventy%forlargescale(marginallysuitable)and80%oftheunitissuitablefor
smallscaleirrigationfarming.Thetorrifluventsshouldbeusedforagricultureandsalorthidsareto
beavoided.
Legend
SoilSalClass_Clip
Soil_Class
Calciorthids-Gypsiorthids:Loamy to Loamy Skeletal,deep & moderately deep soils,0-5% slope
Calciorthids-Torrifluvents-Torriorthents:Loamy Sand & Sandy Skeletal,deep soils,moderately flooded,0-3% slope
Calciorthids:Loamy to Loamy-skeletal,deep to moderately deep soil,0-5% slope
Coastal dunes & marine flats:deep Sandy soils & tidal flats,0-10% slope
Gypsiorthids-Rock outcrop:Loamy to Loamy-Skeletal,deep to shallow soils & rock outcrop,0-35% slope
Gypsiorthids:Loamy,Loamy-Skeletal & Sandy-Skeletal,deep to moderately deep saline soils with gypsum pan on slightly to strongly dissected alluvial terraces & pan,0-15% slope
Plays-Salorthids: plays & Clayey to Sandy,deep soils,strongly saline, 0-1% slope
Rock outcrop-Torriorthents:mountains & strongly dissected rocky plateaus, Loamy-Skeletal to Sandy-Skeletal, shallow soils,0-100% slope
Torrifluvents-Torriorthents-Torripsamments:Sandy,deep soils,on plains,0-3% slope
Torrifluvents-Torriorthents:Sandy & Loamy deep soils,slightly to moderately flooded,0-3% slope
Torriorthents & Calciorthids-Rock outcrop:Loamy & Loamy-Skeletal,shallow & moderately deep soils & rock outcrop,0-15% slope
Torriorthents-Gysiorthids:Sandy to Sandy-Skeletal,deep & moderately deep soils on young alluvial fans & terraces,0-5% slope
Torriorthents:extremely gravelly,Sandy,deep soils on young flooded alluvial terraces & fans,0-5% slope
Torriorthents:very gravelly,Sandy & Loamy,deep soils,moderately flooded,0-3% slope
Torripsamments:Sandy,deep soils on sand sheet & dunes fields,0-30% slope
Figure70.AlBatinahsoilclassificationmap(Source:MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries,
Oman).
Map Unit 42 Torriorthents: very gravelly sandy, deep soils, moderately flooded, 0 to 3 percent
slope. The map unit contains 75% skeletal Torriorthents (very gravelly, calcareous and slightly to
moderatelysalineanddeep)and25%othersoils.Sixty%unitismarginallysuitableforlargescale
and80%forsmallscaleirrigatedfarming.
76
71
C.Northernplainbordering"B".
The northern plain consists mainly of soil map units 36 and 38 presenting different soil types and
suitability for agriculture. The map unit 36Torifluvents; 38mixture of Torrifluvents, Torriorthents
andToripsamments.
Thesoilsinthismapunitsarehighlytomoderatelysuitableforagriculture.
Map Unit 36
Torrifluvents: plains of
loamy, deep soils,
moderately flooded, 0
to 2 % slope (Highly
suitable). Most of the
unit as in 1990 was in
irrigated farming. The
unit consists of 80%
Torrifluvents and 20%
other soils. Eighty
percent of the unit is
suitable for largescale
and 90% forsmallscale
irrigatedfarming.
Map Unit 38
Torrifluvents
Torriorthents
Torripsamments: sandy,
deep soils on plains, 0
to 3 percent slopes on
plains (Highly suitable).
The map unit consists
of 30% (Torrifluvents),
30%(Torriorthents)and
25% (Torripsamments)
and 15% other soils.
About 80% soils are
suitable for largescale
irrigated farming, and
85% is suitable for
smallscale
irrigated
farming.
The generalized soil Figure 71. Comparison of soil suitability map with groundwater salinity
map of Al Batinah mapoverlayedbyagriculturalareas.
region is shown in (Source:ICBA,2011).
Figure 70 followed by
thelegendfordescription.
Comparison of this map with the original source (MAF, 1990) shows some discrepancy; therefore,
theuseofthismapiscautioned,andadvisedtouseoriginalmap(MAF,1990)forfurtherdescription
andtofindsoilshavingpotentialforirrigatedagricultureforfutureexpansion(Figure71).
77
72
9.4
SoilqualityofAlBatinahagricultureregionandmanagementissues,
2011survey
The recent survey (year 2011) provided large dataset from eight wilayat (Al Batinah area) for soil
salinity (ECe), pH, textural classes and groundwater quality (EC, pH). The data were examined for
overallassessment(ECe,pH,texture)ofallwilayatscollectivelyandindividuallyforeachwilayat.
The overall examination (Figure 72) of Al Batinah soils (all wilayats) indicated over 62% soils
distributedintodifferentsalinityclasses(>2dSm1).Individuallysalinesoilsrangefrom50%(Sohar)
tomaximum74%inBarka.
Figure72.OverallsalinityclassesdistributioninAlBatinahgovernorates
(Source:ICBA,2011).
9.5
Assessmentofrootzonesalinitymanagementefforts
TochecktheimpactofrootzonesalinitymanagementeffortsineachwilayatfromAlBatinah,three
scenariosweremodeled(Figure73):
ScenarioI
Tocheckthesalinitydevelopmentintheupper30cmor3060cmdepth,thesoilsalinityat030cm
(A)wasdividedbysoilsalinityat3060cm(B),i.e.,A/B.TheA/Bratio>1.1indicatespoorsalinity
managementatupper30cm,indicatingproperleachingfractionwasnotusedtoreducerootzone
salinity.
ScenarioII
Tochecksalinitydevelopmentintheupper30cm(A)inrelationtogroundwatersalinity(C)usedfor
irrigation.TheA/Cratio>1.1indicatespoorsalinitymanagement;leachingfractionwasnotused
properly.
ScenarioIII
Tochecksalinitydevelopmentinthe3060cm(B)inrelationtogroundwatersalinity(C)usedfor
irrigation.TheB/Cratio>1.1indicatespoorsalinitymanagement,indicatingtheoccurrenceofdense
layerbelow60cmrestrictingwatermovement,orleachingfractionwasnotusedproperly.The
resultsofthreescenariosareshowninFigure73.
78
73
Scenario 1 clearly indicates poor management of root zone (030 cm) salinity in Sohar and Liwa
wilayats, followed by Aswaq and Barka, presenting more than 50% soils giving A/B >1.1. In other
wilayats,salinitywasrelativelybettermanaged(A/B>1.1in<50%soils).
The outcome of the second scenario shows the salinity in the upper 30 cm in relation to
groundwatersalinityisbettermanaged(A/C>1.1in<50%soils).Suchapredictioniscommonfrom
coarsetexturedsoils(sandyandloamysandsoils).
Theresultsofthirdscenarioareverysimilartothatofsecondscenario,i.e.,subsurfacesalinity(30
60cm)isbettermanagedinregardtogroundwatersalinity.
Figure 73. Assessment of root zone salinity management efforts in Al Batinah

(Source:ICBA,2011).
The soils which show A/B, A/C, B/C >1.1 require particular attention to use leaching
requirement/leaching fraction to leach salts below actual rootzone of crop in the field. Achieving
this is not enough, as this salinity level may be above that of threshold salinity level of the crop.
Therefore,additionaleffortsarerequiredtomaintainrootzonesalinitybelowthesalinitythreshold
levelofthecropinquestion.
9.6
AssessmentofsoilsalinitytrendinAlBatinahfrom199397to2011
Two datasets were analyzed to assess the trend of soil salinity from 19931997 to 2011. The first
dataset(199397)wasobtainedfromanIntegratedStudyofSouthBatinah(1993)andNorthBatinah
(1997).Theseconddatasetwasobtainedfromthe2011survey.
9.6.1 Limitationsof199397datasets
TheECedatawasnotavailablefromallsites.
The dataset was not representative of agricultural farms, but a general survey of the Al
Batinaharea.
Thedatasetwasavailableforentireprofileregardlessofrootzone.
79
74
TheEC1:5wasavailableformostsites.
ThedatasetincludesECe/EC1:5fromcoastalsabkhasites.
9.6.2 DatahandlingandunificationofEC1:5toECe
Thesoildepthof030cmornearestonewasselectedtogetECeorEC1:5.
WhereECewasavailable,itwasincluded.
Where only EC1:5 was
available,
it
was
converted to ECe by
multiplyingwithafactor
of 7.3 (developed by
ICBA) for sand and
loamysandtexture.
Thedatasetfromsabkha
was eliminated, as the
sites are not currently
andcannotinthefuture
beusedforagriculture.
Figure 74 presents comparison Figure 74. Comparative trend of soil salinity in Al Batinah
of
overall
soil
salinity governorates(199397to2911)(Source:ICBA,2011).
distribution
between
two
datasets (199397 and 2011).
Figure 74 illustrates clearly the
decrease in soil salinization in < 4
dS/m range, with a subsequent
increase in 416 dS/m salinity
classes, thus showing the trend of
anincreaseinsoilsalinization.
9.7 Assessmentofsoil
pHinAlBatinah
The analyses of soil pH from the Al
Al Batinah region indicated over
98% (Figure 75) soils in the range
where most of the plant nutrients
are unavailable plants (pH >7.3).
Such soils in individual wilayat
rangefrom94.6%(Aswaq)to100%
(Barka, Khaburah, Saham, and
Sohar).
Figure 75. Overall pH classes distribution in Al Batinah

governorates(Source:ICBA,2011).
9.7.1 ConsequencesofhighsoilpH
ItisclearthathighCaCO3(ubiquitousinOmanisoils)isthemainreasonforbufferingpHintherange
between 7.49.0. The optimum pH range where most of the nutrients are available to plants is
between6.77.3.Theexceptionsareformolybdenum(Mo)andcalcium(Ca),whichareavailableat
moderatelyalkalinerange.OthernutrientsarefixedinsoilduetohighlevelsofCaCO3andpH(P,Fe,
Cu,Mn,Zn).Unlikenitrogen,phosphorus(P)islessmobileinsoil(about1cmfromappliedgranule).
The calcareous agricultural soils coupled with high pH, the total soil phosphorous (P initially
80
75
precipitatedasdicalciumphosphatewhichisthenconvertedtolesssolubleoctacalciumphosphate)
and precipitated on the surface of CaCO3 crystals will be abundant but only a small fraction is
availabletoplants.ItisessentialtoconsiderthesolubilityandmobilityofPinsoilwhileschedulingP
applicationinsoil.
9.7.2 AssessmentofsoiltextureinAlBatinah
Soiltextureisanimportantsoilcharacteristicwhichdoesnotchangeoverthelongterm,unlesssoil
of a different texture is imported to improve farm resource capacity. Texture controls water and
nutrientholdingcapacityanddrainagecharacteristics.Sandysoilshavehighdrainagecapacityand
very low nutrient and water holding capacities, while clayey soils have high nutrient and water
holding capacities with low drainage. The overall soil texture analyses in the Al Batinah region
(Figure 76) indicated 25% soils are coarse textured (sand and loamy sand) and rest 75% are in
mediumtexturegroup.Thecoarsetexturesoilsaredistributedfrom10%(Shinas)to38%(Liwa).
The saturated conductivity of the
mediumtextured soils is projected
to range between 3.6 to 36 mm/hr
(moderately highmedium texture),
and for coarsetextured soils to
range between high (>36 mm/hr)
andveryhigh(>360mm/hr).Under
coarsetexturedsoils,therootzone
salinity is controlled by irrigation
watersalinity(1ECw),and1.5ECw
inmediumtexturedsoils.
It is likely that if soil salinity is not

properly managed in medium
textured soils, rootzone salinity is
likelytodevelop.
Figure76.OveralltextureclassesdistributioninAlBatinah
governorates(Source:ICBA,2011).
81
76
10.SOILRESOURCESINSALALAH
The recent survey provided three sets of data: root zone soil salinity, pH and soil texture. The
evaluationofthedatasetsandinterpretationisgivenbelow.
10.1 Rootzonesoilsalinity
The survey findings in Salalah identified the root zone salinity (030 and 3060 cm) development
(Figure 77). Most soils
are categorized in the
very slight salinity class
(~46%), and 34% in
slightmoderatestrong
salinityclasses.
One scenario (A/B) was
run to assess root zone
salinity
management
efforts in Salalah (Table
A29 of Appendix). The
results indicated only
22% soils have shown
(A/B
>1.1)
poor
management of root
zone(030cm)salinity.
Figure77.RootzonesalinityclassesinSalalahsoils(Source:ICBA,2011).
10.2 Soiltexture
Recent data from Salalah agricultural zone was examined to establish soil textural classesto
understand soil behavior and predict soil management issues (Figure 78). The figure reveals that
soils of Salalah dominantly fall
under medium texture (sandy
loam to sandy clay loam ~ 89%
soils) and not sandy soils as
perceived under normal desert
conditions. Such soils have
saturatedhydraulicconductivity
ranging from moderately low
(0.36 to <3.6 mm/hr) to
moderately high (3.6 to 36
mm/hr), in contrast to sandy
soils (>36 mm/hr). The low
saturatedhydraulicconductivity
suggeststherearehighchances
of rootzone salinity develop
ment if suitable measures are
not taken; however, inorganic

nutrients (e.g., NO3) are less Figure 78. Soil suitability for agriculture (Source: ICBA, 2011
likely to leach from rootzone adaptedfromSoilAtlas1993).
andpresentlowriskofoffsitepollution.
82
77
ThesefindingsmakeitclearthatthesoilsinSalalahrequirecarefulmanagementtoensurethatroot
zone salinity does not develop above the crop threshold. The concept of Leaching Fraction (LF)
keepinginmindwateruptakecapacityinsalineconditionsistobeusedforrootzonesalinity
management.
Figure79.SoiltextureclassesfromSalalah(Source:ICBA,2011).
10.3 SoilpHandnutrientavailability
The most soils (86%) from Salalah are buffered at moderately alkaline range (pH 7.98.4). It is
obvious that high CaCO3 is the main reason for buffering pH in this range (Figure 80). Similar
managementoptionsarerecommendedasthoseofAlBatinahsoils.
Figure80.SoilpHclassesofSalalahsoils(Source:ICBA,2011).
83
78
11.GROUNDWATERNUMERICALMODELFORNORTHERN
BATINAH
Thepurposeofdevelopingagroundwatermodelistoevaluatethehistorical,current,andfuture
groundwaterflowandsalinityscenarios,andtousethemodelasapredictivetooltoassessthe
proposedmanagementoptions.Themodelwillprovidequantitativeassessmentofthecausesand
extentofthegroundwatersalinityproblem,andgroundwateravailabilityinAlBatinahcoastalplain.
The modeling study area covers Al Batinah coastal plain area. This area is the most affected by
salinity,particularlysalinityintrusionfromthesea.
This assessment will be done through defining a conceptual model and a numerical model for the
study area. The conceptual model for Al Batinah region is based on the available hydrogeological
data,andwaterqualitydataobtainedfromseveralministries.Twomodelsweredevelopedtocover
AlBatinahcoastalplain,whichcomprisesthenorthernBatinahandsouthernBatinah.
11.1 Modeldomain
The northern Batinah coastal plain
groundwater model covers the extent
of the Alluvium formation and the
underlain Upper Fars formation. The
model area extends from Wadi
Malahah catchment in the northwest
to Wadi Al Farra catchment in the
southeast (2629573 m to 2762978 m
northing), and from the Alluvium
boundary at the contact of Alluvium
and Ophiolite formation in the
southwesttotheArabianSeacoastline
inthenortheast(452683mto569499
m easting). The upper catchments
beyond the Alluvium boundary were
not included in this study for the
following reasons: the bedrock
formation are impermeable and acts
asanoflowboundarytotheAlluvium
aquifer, and the focus of the study is
onthemostsaltaffectedareasdueto
irrigation activities, well abstraction
andpossibleseawaterintrusion.
Figure 81. Northern Batinah Model Domain and Grid

System(Source:ICBA,2011).
11.2 Modelgrid
Themodeldomainwasdividedintosquaregridcells.Thesizeofthegridcellis600mby600m.The
gridcomprises278rows(xdirection)by236columns(ydirection),whichrepresentsthemaximum
number of rows and columns that could be used in this case study. This is due to the study area
whichextends200kmalongthecoast,andalsotothemodelcapabilitiesthathasalimitednumber
ofrowsandcolumnsthatcouldbeused,andaccordinglylimitstheminimumcellsizetobe600m.
84
79
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
dwithinthe Alluviumbo
oundary,whiileinactiveccellswerede
esignated
Activegridcellswerredesignated
mandUpperFarsboundaries(Figure8
81).
totheceellsoutsidettheAlluvium
11.3 Boundaryc
B
conditions
Thebou
undaryconditionsrepresentthephyssicalandhyd
draulicconditionsontheeexternalbo
oundaries
oftheaq
quifer;nameely:
Specifiedheadboun
ndary(ConsttantHeadBo
oundaryCon
ndition)
Theconstantheadb
boundaryassumesauniform,fixedo
orconstant head,andalllowsaninfiniteflow
toandfromthecelldependingo
onthecellshydraulicco
onductivityaandheadgraadient.Thisb
boundary
isapplieedtotheAraabianSeacoaastlinecells.Aconstanthydraulicheeadvalueof zeroheadisgivento
allcellsfforbothlayeers.
Headde
ependentflu
uxboundary(GeneralHe
eadBoundarryCondition)
Theheaaddependen
ntfluxbound
daryconditio
onorGeneralHeadBou
undaryCondition,repressentsthe
groundw
waterthrougghflow(groundwaterbasseflow)thattcrossestheeboundary, andisapplie
edtothe
boundarry of the aquifer at the Alluvium bo
oundary at the
t foothills. This bound
dary depend
ds on the
differenceinheadaacrossthebo
oundary,witththehead ononesideeoftheboundarybeing inputto
the mod
del and thee head on the
t
other siide being caalculated byy the model. The general head
boundarry is used to
o calibrate the
t calculateed hydraulicc head with the observeed head to augment
rechargee.
Specifiedfluxbound
dary
Source/sinkbou
undaries
Thepum
mpingwellsw
wereapplied
dtothe
model according
a
to
o their spatial and
vertical distribution
n. The exttraction
rates weere applied as time dep
pendent
compon
nents.
Rech
harge(Areallrecharge)
Therech
hargefromrrainfallwas applied
tothem
modelcellsthatareadjustedto
rainfall and
a releasin
ng some amo
ount of
the raiinfall as in
nfiltration to
t the
groundw
water. Thosee cells are mostly
the cells around the mounttainous
areasan
ndatwadibeeds.
NofflowBoundaary
No flow
w boundary is a specifieed flow
boundarry of zero flow value. Two
T
no
flow bo
oundaries exxist in this study,
physicalandhydrolo
ogical.
The ph
hysical no flow bound
dary is
applied to the low impermeable
geologiccal units off Ophiolitic Samail
Fiigure 82. Boundary

B
co
ondition for northern Batinah
Alluvium and
d Upper Farrs aquifer (SSource: ICBA
A, 2011,
baasedondataaobtainedfrromMRMWR).
85
80
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
he northern Batinah cattchments, where

w
the cells along the
e contact
Nappes in the uppeer parts of th
n these low permeable rock and Alluvium boun
ndary is giveen zero flow
w. A physical no flow
between
boundarryisappliedtothelowp
permeableM
MiddleFarsfo
ormationattthebottomo
oflayer2.
Thehyd
drologicalno
oflowbound
daryisapplieedtotheflo
owlinesand
dgroundwaterdivideslo
ocatedat
the eastternwestern
n catchmentt boundariess where the flow lines are parallel to the grou
undwater
flowfromsouth(theemountain)towardsnorth(thecoasst).Alsoano
oflowbound
daryisapplie
edtothe
bottomoftheaquifeer(bottomo
oflayer2),w
whereground
dwaterflowssisparallelto
otheaquiferrbase.
Initialh
head
The inittial head is the head distribution in
n
the mo
odel domain
n that represents thee
beginnin
ng of the simulation
s
period. Thiss
hydrauliicheadistheestartingheadandmustt
be enteered into thee model beffore runningg
the sim
mulation. In this model,
m
thee
groundw
waterheadd
distributiono
ofyear1982
2
was taken as thee start tim
me for thee
simulation purposess. The head distribution
n
was generated
from thee availablee
g
observation wells and geostatisticallyy
regionallized to produce a reliablee
distributtion of the hydraulic
h
heead over thee
modeld
domain.
Simulattionperiodandstressperiod
Based on the data availability, a longg
simulation period was
w defined to be from
m
1982 to
o 2010. This simulation period tookk
into acccount the hyydrological wet
w and dryy
years which hellps stabilizze possiblee
hydrologgicalfluctuattions.
Stress period
p
is deefined as a time period
d
during which
w
all tim
me dependen
nt processess
suchas pumpingandrechargeaareconstant.
A stresss period of 1 year was used in thee
model.TThisaddedu
upthestressperiodstoaa
totalof29.
11.4 Flowmod
F
elcalibrattion
11.4.1 Steadystattecalibratio
on
Initialcconditions
The initial con
nditions reeflect thee
undeveloped aquifeer condition (equilibrium
m
conditio
ons) at th
he beginnin
ng of thee
simulation period. In this study, thiss
ntedthelongtermaveraageofwaterr
represen
levels fo
or the stead
dy state cond
dition, whilee
Figure 83.
8 Initial heead conditio
ons in Alluvvium and
Upper Fars
F
aquifer (Source: ICBA, 2011, based
b
on
waterleveldataobtaainedfromM
MRMWR).
86
81
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
ntoursof
fortranssientcalibrationreflecteedthewaterrlevelcondittionsoftheyyear1982.TTheheadcon
theyearr1982were generated((usingaGIS geostatisticaaltool)andu
usedtodeveeloptheinitialwater
tablewh
hichwasuseedlaterintheetransientcalibration(Figure83).
Wellsaabstraction
Wells abstraction
a
c
comprised
reecorded lon
ng term average abstracction from tthe Alluvium
m aquifer
(layer1)).Norecordeedabstractio
ondatawereeavailablefrromtheUpp
perFarsAquifer(layer2))asmost
of the abstractio
on wells are
a
tapping the Aalluviall aquifer on
nly.
About 97%
9
of the abstraction is
agricultu
ural.Therem
maining3%aare
supply wells for domestic and
municipaluses.Welllsabstractio
ons
wereap
ppliedtothe modelareaas
areally distributed specified flu
ux.
The run
n results represented tthe
steady state condiitions for the
t
aquifer((Figure84).
Recharrge
Areal groundwater
g
r recharge is
applied to the model area ass a
constantt specified flux.
f
The areeal
rechargeewasassignedtoallactiive
cellsintthemodelarrea(Figure85).
Two zo
ones of reecharge weere
designattedinthemo
odelarea:
Figure
e 84. Locatio
on of wells in aquifer do
omain (Sourcce: ICBA,
2011)
areechargerate of36mmp
per
untainfoothiills
yearrthatcomprrise18%ofannualrainfallatthemou
arechargerateo
of22mmpeeryearthatccomprise18%
%ofannualrainfallatthecoastalplaain.
Figure
e85.Mainreechargezoneesinmodeld
domain(Sou
urce:ICBA,20
011)
87
82
Steadystatewaterbalance
Thesimulatedwaterbalanceresultswerematchedwiththecalculatedpremodelingwaterbalance
inTable17.
Table17.Steadystatewaterbalance
(Source:ICBA,2011).
FlowComponent
Assumptions
Inflow
Recharge
rainfall
Groundwater
throughflowfrom
Jabal
W*i*T, where (w) is Catchment width, (i)

isHydraulicgradient,(T)isTransmissivity,
for each catchment, Table 26 of (GRC,
2006)
257
TotalInflow
347
Outflow
Abstraction
Outflowtothesea
347
TotalOutflow
347
Balance
from 18%ofmeanannualrainfall(MAR)
Quantity
(Mm3/year)
90
Calibrationperformance
Hydraulicconductivityandrechargewereusedtocalibratethemodel.Theseaquiferparametersand
recharge were varied to match the model
simulated heads with the measured/
observed heads in the field to achieve
certain accuracy (criteria: root mean
square error <10%) (Figure 86). The
simulated steady state groundwater
contours are presented in Figure 88. As
shownfromthefigure,undernaturalflow
conditions before developing the aquifer
and pumping water out of the aquifer,
groundwater flows out of the aquifer to
the sea and no water inflow from the sea
back to the aquifer (the head contour at
theshorelineiszero).Therefore,thishead
contour represents the undeveloped or
naturalcondition.
The calibrated hydraulic conductivities are
shown in Figure 87. These calibrated
hydraulic conductivities and groundwater
recharge distribution were used in the
transient simulation. Under steady state
Figure 86. Steady State

calibration performance
s
(Observed head vs. calculated head (Source: ICBA,
2011).
88
83
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
ons, storage was not needed

n
for the steady state calibrration. The calibrated hydraulic
h
conditio
conducttivityrangedbetween10
0%to400%o
ofthemeasu
uredhydraulicconductiviity.
11.4.2 Transientsstate
calibration
A transsient ground
dwater
flow mo
odel is deveeloped
based on
o the calibrated
steady state aquifer
a
parametters.
The
calibrateed
hyd
draulic
conducttivity and storage
s
wereusedinthetraansient
model.TToaccountfforthe
changessintime,theestress
period
was
d
divided
discretely into timee steps
to obtain an acccurate
solution and smo
oother
heador drawdown versus
curves.
time
The
simulation period was
divided into 29 stress
5 time
periods,, with a 5
stepsineach.
Figgure87.Calibratedhydraaulicconducctivity(Sourcce:ICBA,201
11).
Transie
entabstracttion
Well abstraction data were obttained from the MRMW
WR. These daata compriseed the Natio
onal Well
Inventorry (NWI) abstractions fo
or the year 1995. Well abstraction data that ccover the simulation
period(19822010) didnotexistorwereno
otaccessible
etotheworkingteam.Inordertod
distribute
these abstractions
along
a
the sim
mulation period, an
estimatee
was
done
assumin
ng 1.2% annual
abstracttion incremeent for
the period 1982 to
o 1995,
and
less
inccrement
percentaagethereaftteruntil
the yeear 2010. These
values were adjusted
a
accordin
ngtotheann
nualnet
crop
water
d
demand
calculateed for thiss study
(seewatterdemand section
formoreedetails).Figure42
in chaptter 4, preseents the
averageannualabsttraction
rate ovver the sim
mulation Figure88.Calculatedsteaadystateheaad(Source:ICBA,2011).
periodforthestudyarea.
89
84
Transientrecharge
The temporal variation of recharge depended mainly on the rainfall temporal variation and
hydrological characteristics of the study area (dry and wet years). Recharge in the model area
comprised6rechargezones:twofromnaturalrainfall,andfourfromrechargedams.Thetemporal
distributionofrechargeinthesezonesisgiveninthefollowingtable:
Table18.Transientrechargedistributioninrechargezones(Mm3/year)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
NaturalRecharge
Zone1
Zone2
RechargefromRechargeDams
Zone3
Zone4
Zone5
Zone6
Wadi
Ahin
(Saham)
WadiAl
Hawasinah
(Al
Khabourah)
Recharge
(Coast)
WadiAl
Jizi(Sohar)
1982
73
62
134
1983
42
16
58
1984
11
19
1985
13
11
23
1986
32
28
61
1987
49
55
0.6
104
1988
64
65
0.1
130
1989
44
35
6.7
3.3
88
1990
46
38
2.0
5.2
92
1991
25
23
0.8
0.0
49
1992
48
39
5.1
0.0
92
1993
23
33
0.2
0.0
56
1994
25
33
3.3
0.0
61
1995
72
55
25.8
3.2
33.7
12.0
202
1996
63
46
12.1
1.0
10.3
6.7
139
1997
108
72
25.6
2.2
34.8
21.7
265
1998
47
28
3.3
0.7
9.4
5.7
94
1999
32
27
1.2
0.7
7.6
4.2
72
2000
13
19
0.7
0.3
2.5
1.2
36
Year
Total
Recharge
(Mountain)
WadiHilti
Salahi
(Sohar)
90
85

2001
10
13
1.1
0.4
6.5
3.5
35
2002
28
15
1.9
0.8
11.2
3.5
60
2003
23
20
2.9
0.1
2.9
2.1
51
2004
10
11
2.1
0.0
11.8
0.3
36
2005
19
16
1.7
0.3
13.4
4.4
54
2006
42
31
4.0
0.6
9.1
7.5
95
2007
61
41
7.3
0.6
6.8
5.1
121
2008
15
13
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
28
2009
22
16
11.0
0.8
14.9
3.7
68
2010
38
29
8.0
0.1
6.9
4.7
87
Average
38
31
5.8
0.9
11.4
5.4
83.1
Therechargeduetorainfallwasadjustedtoensurethatthecalculatedheadsatobservationpoints
arereasonablymatchingthefieldmeasurements.Therechargefactorusedwasaround20percent
oftherainfall.Althoughrelativelyhigh,thesandandgravelnatureoftheaquifersysteminthestudy
areaallowsforsuchhighrecharge.Ontheotherhand,fieldobservationsindicatedthedirecteffect
ofrainfalleventsongroundwaterlevels.Therechargefactorinthepondingareawasconsideredin
theorderof2040percentoftheaccumulatedwaterinthepondingareasbehindthefourstorage
dams.Thestoragedepthindamswasdistributedintoequivalentcellareaswithintheareaofdam
storageandintimealongthetotalperiodofstorageasm/day:
Arechargefactorof35%inthedamspondingareas;and
Rechargefactorof18%intherechargecellsnearthebasementoutcropareasarefoundto
bethebestratesforgettingthebestfitbetweenobservedandcalculatedhydraulicheadin
thewellslocatedintheseareasandthususedinthevalidationperiod.
TransientJabalinflow
TransientJabalthroughflowvariedintimedependingonrainfallinthemountainregion.TheJabal
throughfloworthegeneralheaddependentflowinputincludedtheheadatthesource,outsidethe
modelboundary,andtheconductance.ThegeneratedJabalthroughflowispresentedinTable19.
Transientmodelcalibrationperformance
The transient state calibration was achieved by changing three parameters, namely, hydraulic
conductivity, Storage coefficient/specific yield and recharge rate. The observation wells data
obtainedfromMRMWRwereusedascalibrationpointsinthemodel.Theseobservationwellswere
screened for possible errors, and the observation wells that have temporal and spatial
representationofthemodeldomainwereused.AsshowninFigure89,113calibrationpointswere
selectedtocoverthemodeldomain.
91
86
Table19.TransientJabalinflow.
(Source:ICBA,2010).
Jabalinflow(Mm3)
Year
Jabalinflow(Mm3)
Year
1982
258
1997
516
1983
188
1998
389
1984
132
1999
177
1985
140
2000
210
1986
280
2001
218
1987
382
2002
321
1988
324
2003
260
1989
295
2004
205
1990
350
2005
266
1991
319
2006
272
1992
201
2007
456
1993
218
2008
227
1994
219
2009
244
1995
488
2010
242
1996
381
Average
282
The calibration results as presented in the scatter plot examples showed that the model achieved
accebtable calibration performance that match the calibration targets of normalized root mean
squareerroroflessthan10%(rangedbetween6%to8%),andhighcorrelationcoefficient(ranged
between0.92to0.95)asshowninFigure90(a)and(b),respectively.
Transientmodelwaterbalance
The calibrated water balance comprises four sources and three sinks. The groundwater sources
compriserechargefromrainfallandagriculturalreturnflow,groundwaterthroughflowfromJabal,
seawater intrusion and leakage from underlain aquifer, and groundwater gain from storage
(decreaseinstorage).Themaingroundwatersinkscomprisegroundwaterabstraction,groundwater
outflowtothesea,andgroundwaterincreaseinstorage.
Thewaterbalanceforthesimulationperiodshowsthatthelargestsourceisthegroundwaterinflow
fromJabal,whilethesmallestsourceisthestorageloss.Thelargestsinkisgroundwaterabstraction,
whilethesmallestsinkisthestoragegain.
Theleastrechargewasintheyear1984whichwasadryyear,whilethehighestrechargewasinthe
year1997(wetyear).Similarly,theleastgroundwaterthroughflowwasintheyear1984,whilethe
highestgroundwaterthroughflowwasintheyear1997.
92
87
Oman Salinity
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 89.
8 Location of observattion wells ussed in Figu
ure90.Exam
mplesofcalib
brationperfo
ormance:
themod
del(Source:IICBA,2011b
basedonMR
RMWR (a) the year 19
995, (b) the year 2010 (Source:
ICBA
monitorringwells).
A,2011).
Themeaanannualreenewablegroundwaterfflowforthe simulationp
period19822010comp
prisesthe
rechargee and groun
ndwater thrroughflow. The
T
mean recharge
r
is 90 Mm3/year, while th
he mean
3
groundw
waterthrougghflowis260
0Mm /year.
93
88
Table20.MeangroundwaterbalanceforAlluviumandUpperFarsaquifers.
(Source:ICBA,2011).
Source/Sink
FlowComponent
Aquifer
Alluvium
Recharge
InflowfromJabal
Quantity(Mm3)
90
UpperFars
0.00
Alluvium
260
UpperFars
0.00
Source
InflowfromSeawater
StorageLoss
UpperFars
69
Alluvium
28
UpperFars
Total
464
Alluvium
355
UpperFars
2.09
OutflowtotheSea
StorageGain
13
Abstraction
Sink
Alluvium
Alluvium
22
UpperFars
56
Alluvium
24
UpperFars
Total
5
464
SensitivityAnalysis
Duringcalibrationprocess,thesimulatedheadswere:
Moderately sensitive to small changes (less than 50%) in recharge rates, general head
boundary,andhydraulicconductivity.
Extremelysensitive tolargechanges (orderofmagnitude)inrechargerates,generalhead,
andhydraulicconductivity
Leastsensitivetochangesinstoragecoefficientandspecificyield.Thisisbecausethe
storagedatapointswereveryfewanddonotcoverthemodeledarea.
94
89
Table21.GroundwaterbalanceforNorthernBatinahunder(BAUscenario)(Mm3/year)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
Year
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
Recharge
146
62
20
25
66
114
142
96
100
53
100
62
67
217
150
284
101
78
40
38
64
56
39
58
102
130
31
73
94
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
51
Groundwater
inflow
235
204
161
163
259
349
305
287
330
312
231
236
253
322
275
295
201
178
262
255
322
271
235
283
290
279
205
276
256
314
307
307
308
309
310
310
310
311
311
311
312
312
312
312
312
312
312
312
312
Seawater
intrusion
0
0
2
8
12
10
10
16
23
39
44
77
90
60
88
84
152
178
213
219
189
179
165
131
81
54
86
76
79
81
81
84
86
88
89
90
91
92
92
93
94
94
94
95
95
95
95
95
96
Removed
from
storage
65
64
97
59
6
0
3
10
7
25
54
45
17
0
14
0
103
86
35
24
15
37
42
3
5
20
86
10
16
43
29
22
17
14
11
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
1
Total
in
1092
919
762
689
886
1200
1171
1086
1191
1120
977
932
942
1251
1145
1347
1072
949
1044
1027
1212
1101
980
1016
1030
1076
856
964
997
1176
1173
1170
1167
1165
1163
1162
1161
1160
1159
1159
1159
1158
1158
1158
1158
1158
1158
1158
1158
Abstraction
120
133
147
164
190
211
235
253
289
321
339
377
389
401
447
497
519
521
524
527
520
512
465
422
381
357
359
360
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
388
Groundwater
outflow
272
196
134
92
103
162
182
147
143
107
74
41
34
80
64
92
38
20
9
6
10
9
12
24
39
69
30
31
38
56
70
73
73
73
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
Storage
gain
54
2
0
0
51
100
42
7
27
1
16
3
5
118
17
74
0
1
16
4
61
19
1
26
57
55
15
42
18
44
10
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
out
1092
919
762
689
886
1200
1171
1086
1191
1120
977
932
942
1251
1145
1347
1072
949
1044
1027
1212
1101
980
1016
1030
1076
856
964
997
1176
1173
1170
1167
1165
1163
1162
1161
1160
1159
1159
1159
1158
1158
1158
1158
1158
1158
1158
1158
95
90
11.5 Solutetransportmodel
Thesolutetransportmodelisdevelopedbasedonthecalibratedtransientflowmodel,describedinthe
previous section. This solute transport model comprises only the salt constituent. The salt is a
conservative constituent that does not degrade by time. Therefore, the main salt transport processes
used in the model included: advection, dispersion, and molecular diffusion. Advection is the main
processofconveyingdissolvedsaltsfromonepointtoanotherduetoflowofwater,dependingonthe
hydraulicheaddifferences(forexample:acrossthecoastline).Dispersionistheprocessofmixingthat
causes a zone of mixing to develop between the freshwater and the saline/brackish water. The
molecular diffusion is a mixing caused by molecular motion due to thermal kinetic energy (the
movementofsaltparticlesinplace)anditisimportantinlowvelocityfluids.
ThesaltmodelsetupdependedonavailablesalinitydataobtainedfromtheMRMWR.Thissalinitydata
was missing the vertical profile of salinity in each well. This is a main data limitation that affects the
accuracyoftheresultsandcalibrationprocess.Inaddition,thequalityofthesedataislowduetoweak
qualitycontrol,inconsistencyandunreliabilityofthedataasthesewereobtainedfromthreeseparate
sources.Thesedatasourcesincluded:
The MRMWR regular data survey that is usually conducted every five years. These years
included:1993,1997,2000,2005,and2010.
The regular monitoring data for some selected water level monitoring wells, where they
measuresalinityasEC(S/cm)inthefieldandnotasTDS(mg/l)inthelaboratory.Forthisstudy,
the EC data were converted into TDS using a conversion factor of 0.7. This increases the
uncertaintyinthedataandmodelresults.
ICBAsfarmsurveytosomeselectedfarmsinAlBatinahregion.
Due to the abovementioned data limitation; there is a degree of uncertainty associated with the
calibratedconcentrationvalues.
11.5.1 Transportboundaryconditions
Thefollowingboundaryconditionswereusedtobuildthesaltmodel:
Constantwithtimeinflowconcentrationof35,200mg/linbothlayers.Thisconstantconcentration
wasappliedovertheconstantheadcellsthatweredelineatedintheflowsimulationmodel.
Constant with time concentration of 500 mg/l was assigned to the General Head boundary to
preventtheboundaryfromoverdilutingthesalinityofthegroundwaterwithintheaquifer.
Aconstantrechargeconcentrationof5,000mg/lappliedtotheagriculturalareastoaccountforthe
salinityfromirrigationpractices.
Aconstantwithtimerechargeconcentrationof500mg/lisappliedunderrechargedams.
Aconstantrechargeconcentrationof20,000mg/lwasapplied tothecellswhereminingactivities
weretakingplace.Seawaterwasusedintheseminingactivities.
TransportandDispersivityparameters
Severaltrialsweredonetoestimatethelongitudinaldispersivityzonesandvaluesforbothlayers.The
used longitudinal dispersivity ranged between 50 and 3,000 (dimensionless). Eight zones of these
longitudinaldispersivitiesweredelineatedinthemodelarea,theseincluded(Figure91):
91
96
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
Oman Salinity
Meaan longitudin
nal dispersivvity of 50 fo
or the wholee model areaa except thee delineated
d dispersivityy
zonees,andmosttlyinthefresshwaterzonees.
Longgitudinal disspersivity zone of 100 located at th
he agricultural areas to allow salinity intrusion
n
thro
oughreturnfflowfromirrrigation.
Longgitudinaldisp
persivityzon
nesof300allongthebracckishzones((Salinitylessthan10,000
0)
Longgitudinal
disp
persivity zon
ne of
h
500 along the highly
bracckish zoness to
salin
ne(Salinityranges
betw
ween 10,000
0 and
15,0
000).
Longgitudinal
disp
persivity zon
ne of
h
700 along the highly
bracckish zoness to
salin
ne(Salinityranges
betw
ween 15,000
0 and
20,0
000).
Longgitudinal
disp
persivity zon
ne of
1000
0alongthe saline
zonees (Salinityy of
morrethan20,00
00).
Longgitudinal
disp
persivity zon
ne of
0alongthe saline
1500
morrethan25,00
00).
Longgitudinal
disp
persivity zon
ne of
0alongthe saline
3000
35,2
200).
A courant number of
o 0.7
pliedtothem
model
wasapp
to limitt the num
merical
dispersio
on. The co
ourant
number representss the
number ofcellsapaarticle
will be allowed to move
through in any direection
inonetiimestep.
(a)
(b)
Figure91.Longgitudinaldisp
persivityzonees:(a)Alluviumaquifer,(b)Upper
ource:ICBA,2011).
Farrsaquifer(So
The density of the

waterwastakenas1,000
0kg/m3andtthatofthesaltwaterwastakenas1,,025kg/m3.
groundw
92
2
97
InitialConditions
Theinitialsalinitylevelsrepresentedtheaveragesalinitylevelsfortheperiod1993to2005reducedbya
factorof0.3.First,themodelwasrunwiththeavailableaveragesalinitywhichresultedinhighsalinity
dataintheyears19821990.Later,thisaveragesalinitywasreducedby30%toreflecttheinitialsalinity
levelsasadjustedinthecalibrationprocess.
Figure92.Scatterplotofobservedvs.calculatedsalinityconcentrationforselectedyears
93
98
11.5.2 Calibrationperformance
The calibration results showed good match between observed groundwater salinity and calculated
groundwatersalinitybythemodelintermsofmeetingthecriteriaoflessthan10%ofnormalizedroot
meansquareerrorandcorrelationcoefficientof0.95for372calibrationpoints(Figure92).
1995
2000
2010
2030
Figure93.Verticalcrosssectionofseawaterencroachmentovertimeinthecoastalzone(Source:
ICBA,2011).
11.5.3 Sensitivityanalysis
Thesimulatedconcentrationwas:
Moderatelysensitivetosmallchanges(lessthan50%)inlongitudinaldispersivityparameters.
94
99
Extremely sensitive to large changes (order of magnitude) in longitudinal dispersivity

parameters.
Leastsensitivetochangesineffectiveporosity.Thisisbecausenorealdatawereavailablefor
thestudyarea.
11.5.4 Salinityprediction
AscanbeseenfromFigure93,groundwatersalinitywasverylimitedwhenabstractionwaslow.As
moreabstractiontookplace,moresaltwaterintrudedtothefreshaquifersystem.Thesalinityincreased
inresponsetoabstractionuptotheyear2010.IftheBAUabstractionwillcontinueinthefuture,more
saltwaterwillinflowtothefreshaquifersystem.
95
100
S
Strate
R
in
n the Sultana
ate of Oman
Oman Salinity
12.G
GROUND
DWATER
RNUMEERICALM
MODELFORSO
OUTHER
RN
B
BATINAH
H
12.1 Modeldom
M
main
Themo
odeldomain ofsouthernBatinahaqu
uifercomprissesanarea of2,180km2.Itcoversttheextentoff
the Allu
uvium form
mation which
h is
composed of receent Pleistoccene
wadigraavels.Thislaayerisunderrlain
by the consolidated rocks of the
olitic
Semail
formation
(Ophio
ndorangeco
olors
sequencce;brownan
as in Figure 94. The
T
model area
a
di Bani Khaarus
extends from Wad
catchmeent in the northwest to
Wadi Taww
T
catch
hment in the
southeast (569499 m to 607642 m
m the Alluvvium
easting), and from
boundarry at thee contact of
Alluvium
mandOphioliteformatio
onin
the southwest to the Arabian Sea

einthenorttheast(2577
7102 Figure
coastline
onditionsforrsouthern
domainandboundaryco
Figurre94.Study
94.
m to 2622997
2
m northing). The
Batin
nah(Source:ICBA,2011).
model domain includes the
B
catchmeent areas of Wadi Bani
Kharus, Wadi Al Maawil,
M
and
d
5km2).
WadiAlTaww(1355
12.2 M
Modelgrid
d
Themo
odeldomain wasdivided
d
into 246
6 rows (xd
direction) byy
229 columns (ydirection). Thee
t gridcell is250 m byy
sizeof the
250 m. The grid comprises
c
a
a
total 56105 square cells (Figuree
he Alluvium
m outcropss
95). Th
within the studyy boundaryy
comprised active grid cells,,
while the
t
Ophiolitte outcropss
were designated
d
as inactivee
cells.
Figure
5.SouthBathinaModelggridandlocaationoftherrecharge
Figure995.
ource:ICBA,2011).
dams(So
96
6
101
12.3 Initialconditions
The initial headwasselectedastheheadatthe beginningofthesimulationperiod intheyear1982.
Thisheadwasinterpolatedusingobservationheadwellstocoverthestudyareaandusedinthemodel
asastartinghead(Figure96).
The boundary conditions represent
the physical and hydraulic
conditions on the external
boundariesoftheaquifer;namely:
Specified head boundary (Constant
HeadBoundaryCondition)
The constant head boundary
assumes a uniform, fixed or
constanthead,andallowsaninfinite
flowtoandfromthecelldepending
on the cells hydraulic conductivity
andheadgradient.Thisboundaryis
appliedtotheArabianSeacoastline
cells. A constant hydraulic head
valueofzeroheadisgiventoallcells
forbothlayers.
Figure 96. Contour map of initial head and simulated

groundwater contours, meters with reference to swl (Source:
ICBA,2011).
Specifiedfluxboundary
Source/sinkboundaries
The pumping wells were applied to the model according to their spatial and vertical distribution. The
extractionrateswereappliedastimedependentcomponents.
Recharge(Arealrecharge)
Therechargefromrainfallwasappliedtothemodelcellsthatareadjustedtorainfallandreleasingsome
amount of the rainfall as infiltration to the groundwater. Those cells are mostly the cells around the
mountainous areas and at wadi beds. Ponding areas of Al Maawil, Farah, and Baraka dams were
delineatedandmarkedasrechargecellsinthestudydomain(Figure95).
NoflowBoundary
Noflowboundaryisaspecifiedflowboundaryofzeroflowvalue.Twonoflowboundariesexistinthis
study,physicalandhydrological.
Thephysicalnoflowboundaryisappliedto:
thelowimpermeablegeologicalunitsofOphioliticSamailNappesintheupperpartsofthesouthern
Batinah catchments, where the cells along the contact between these low permeable rock and
Alluviumboundaryisgivenzeroflow.
thelowpermeableBasementformationatthebottomoflayer1.
97
102
Thehydrologicalnoflowboundaryisappliedto
theflowlinesandgroundwaterdivideslocatedattheeasternwesterncatchmentboundarieswhere
the flow lines are parallel to the groundwater flow from south (the mountain) towards north (the
coast).
thebottom
bottomofofthe
the
aquifer
(bottom
of layer
1) groundwater
and at the freshwater/saltwater
interface.
the
aquifer
(bottom
of layer
1). The
flow parallel to the aquifer
base The
and
groundwaterflowparalleltotheaquiferbaseandinterface.
interface.
Simulationperiodandstressperiod
Theavailablehistoricalrecordofwatertableobservationsisonlyavailablestartingfrom1982.Basedon
the data availability, a long simulation period was defined to be from 1982 to 2010. This simulation
periodtookintoaccount thehydrologicalwet and dryyearswhich helpstabilizepossible hydrological
fluctuations.
Stressperiod is defined asatimeperiodduringwhichall time dependent processes such as pumping
and recharge are constant. A stress period of 1 year was used in the model. This added up the total
stressperiodstobe29stressperiodsforthesimulationperiod19822010.
A steady state model was developed to represent the predevelopment flow system using longterm
averageflow,andtodevelopthe initialwaterleveltobeusedin the transient calibration. Themodel
was run with no abstraction from the Alluvium aquifer. The run results represented the longterm
average flow under no abstraction.
Storage is not needed for the steady
statecalibration.
Two aquifer parameters were used to
calibrate the model: hydraulic
conductivity, and storage coefficient.
Theseaquiferparameters were varied
to match the model simulated heads
withthemeasured/observedheadsto
achieve certain criteria (<10%). The
simulated steady state groundwater
contours
and
the
observed
groundwater contours for the year
1985 are presented in Figure 97. The
simulated water balance results were
matched with the calculated pre
modelingwaterbalance.
Recharge
Arealgroundwaterrechargeisapplied
to the model area as a constant
Figure97.Observedandcalculatedgroundwatercontoursfor
year1985(Source:ICBA,2011).
98
103
specified flux. The areal recharge was assigned to all active cells in the model area (Figure 95). Two
zonesofrechargeweredesignatedinthemodelarea:
arechargerateof36mmperyearthatcomprise18%ofannualrainfallatthemountainfoothills,
arechargerateof22mmperyearthatcomprise18%ofannualrainfallatthecoastalplain.
Initialconditions
Theinitialconditionsreflecttheundevelopedaquifercondition(equilibriumconditions)atthebeginning
of the simulation period. This is represented as the long term average of water levels for the steady
statecondition.Fortransientcalibration,thisreflectsthewaterlevelconditionsoftheyear1982.
A
flow
model
is developed
based on
the calibrated
steady state
aquifer
parameters.
Atransient
transientgroundwater
groundwater
flow
model
is developed
based
on the calibrated
steady
state
aquifer
In
transient model,
the stress
period
divided
discretely
into time
steps into
to obtain
accurate
solution
parameters.
In transient
model,
theisstress
period
is divided
discrete
timean
steps
to obtain
an
and
result in smoother head or drawdown versus time curves. A ten time steps in each stress period
accuratesolutionandresultinsmootherheadordrawdownversustimecurves.Atentimestepsineach
with
time step multiplier
of 1.2 were used
in the
model.
The time
stepThe
multiplier
is a factor usedisto
stressa periodwith
a time stepmultiplier
of 1.2
were
usedinthe
model.
time stepmultiplier
a
increment
the
step size
within
period.each
A time
stepperiod.
multiplier
valuestep
greater
than one
will
multiplier
value
factor used
totime
increment
the
timeeach
stepstress
size within
stress
A time
produce
smaller time steps at the beginning of a stress period resulting in better representation of the
greaterthanonewillproducesmallertimestepsatthebeginningofastressperiodresultinginbetter
changes
of the transient flow field.
representationofthechangesofthetransientflowfield.
Thecalibrationperiodwasselectedfrom January1982toDecember2000(8yearsor2920days).The
validation period was considered
from January 2001 to December
2010.
The transient state calibration
was achieved by changing three
parameters, namely, hydraulic
conductivity, storage coefficient/
specific yield and recharge rate
from the accumulated water in
thefivestoragedams.Inorderto
simulatethesuddenresponsefor
the recharge in observation
boreholes located in the vicinity
ofthedam,arathersmallspecific
yieldwasimposed.
Transientrecharge
The recharge due to rainfall was Figure98.Observedandcalculatedgroundwatercontoursforyear

adjusted to ensure that the 2000(Source:ICBA,2011).
calculated heads at observation
points are reasonably matching the field measurements. The recharge factor used was around 20
percentoftherainfall.Althoughrelativelyhigh,thesandandgravelnatureoftheaquifersysteminthe
study area allows for such high recharge. On the other hand, field observations indicated the direct
effectofrainfalleventsongroundwaterlevels.Therechargefactorinthepondingareawasconsidered
in the order of 2040 percent of the accumulated water in the ponding areas behind the five storage
99
104
dams.Forthecalibrationpurpose,thestoragedepthindamswasdistributedintoa64cellswithinthe
areaofstorage(4km2)ofdamandintimetothetotalperiodofstorageasm/day.
The calibration was performed for matching measured groundwater levels in observation wells of
complete records with corresponding simulated groundwater levels in space and time. The simulated
andobservedgroundwatercontoursforyear2000isshowninFigure98.
There is a good match
between observed and
calculated groundwater
contours (root mean
square
error
<10%,
correlation
coefficient
0.91). The final values of
permeability are pre
sented in Figure 99. These
calibrated values were
used for the model
validation in the period
2000to2010.
A recharge factor of
30% in the dams
pondingareasand
Recharge factor of
18% in the recharge

Figure 99. Calibrated hydraulic conductivity of the study domain
cells
near
the
(Source:ICBA,2011).
basement
outcrop
areas are found to be
thebestratesforgettingthebestfitbetweenobservedandcalculatedhydraulicheadinthewells
locatedintheseareasandthususedinthevalidationperiod.
TimeseriesgraphsofsimulatedversusobservedgroundwaterlevelsareshowninFigure100andFigure
101. As illustrated by Figure 100, the model simulates very closely the trends and groundwater levels
resulting from groundwater abstractions and recharge from the reservoir storage and rainfall events.
However, the limited discrepancies in some of the peak values may be attributed to the accuracy of
observedgroundwaterlevelsasmeasurementsaretakenonceeverymonthandnotnecessarilyonthe
samedayofeverymonth.Themodelisconsideredtobevalidatedandcanbeusedforthepredictionof
groundwaterquantityinthefutureunderdifferentproposedscenarios.
The simulated annual groundwater recharge in the period 1982 to 2010 indicates that the annual
groundwaterrechargetotheAlluvialaquiferisrangingfrom23Mm3indryyears2000,2004,2006,and
2010tomorethan49Mm3inwetyear(e.g.1996,1997)withanaverageof14Mm3peryear.
Transientabstraction
Thealluvialaquiferhasneverbeenunderasteadystateconditionevenbefore1982(abstractionwas10
timesgroundwater recharge). The rate ofextraction togroundwaterrecharge variedfrom only three
foldinthewetyearof1997to35foldsinthedryyearof2003(Figure102).Thepresentextractionrate
of2010is185Mm3andthusitis13foldstheaveragerechargerate(14Mm3/yr).
100
105
This
clearly explains the salt water encroachment and movement of saline fresh water interface in land.
Thisclearlyexplainsthesaltwaterencroachmentandmovementofsalinefreshwaterinterfaceinland.
The
Alluvial
aquifer has been under the non-steady condition before 1982 as at that year the extraction
Thealluvialaquiferhasbeenunderthenonsteadyconditionbefore1982asatthatyeartheextraction
rate
was 10 times the recharge rate of dry year. The simulated groundwater total salinity in (mg/l) for
ratewas10timestherechargerateofdryyear.Thesimulatedgroundwatertotalsalinityin(mg/l)for
year
1982 indicates that there was a saltwater intrusion along the coast. The saline fresh water interface
year1982indicatesthattherewasasaltwaterintrusionalongthecoast.Thesalinefreshwaterinterface
Figure 100. Observed and Calibrated hydraulic Figure 101.Observedand Calibratedhydraulic head
headinwellJT11(Source:ICBA,2011).
inwellDW3(Source:ICBA,2011).
has continued to move
200
Recharge(MCM)
inland in the period 1982
180
Abstraction(MCM)
to 1994 at an increasing
160
paceastheextractionrate
140
in these dry years was
120
from 4 to 29 times the
100
recharge rate depending
80
on the precipitation rates.
60
Thenthe coastal saltwater
40
intrusion or the saline
20
fresh water interface
0
started to move very
slowly in the period 1985
to 1987 as the extraction

rateintheserelativelywet
Figure 102. Simulated annual recharge (million cubic meters) to the
years decreased to only 4
alluvialaquiferintheperiod1982to2010(Source:ICBA,2011).
(1995), 9 (1996), and 3
(1997)timestherechargeratedependingontheprecipitationrates.
Theyears1998 to 2010were relatively very dryyears andthe rate of extractionranged from6 to 38
foldstherechargerateandsalinefreshwaterinterfacemovedrapidlyinland.Inyear2011,thisinterface
approachesmonitoringwellsNC3andNC5.Thenetmassofsaltaddedtothegroundwaterofaquiferis
20billionkilogramofsalt.
101
106
12.5.3 Transientmodelcalibrationperformance
Figure 103 shows the transient
calibration
performance
of
scatterplot of the observed vs.
calculated head. The calibnration
achieved the calibration target of
normalized root mean square error
of less than 10% and a correlation
coefficient of 0.95 which is also
considered high. Therefore, the
calibrated model can be used for
predition.
12.6 Flowmodel
prediction
If the increase in the abstraction
ratefollowedthesametrendofthe
last fifteen years (BAU scenario),

the whole area between the coast
Figure103.ObservedandCalibratedhydraulicheadinallpoints
lineandmonitoringwellsTD3,NC
ofalltheelevenobservationwellsintimestep10220days(year
3, and NC5 will be intruded by
2010)(Source:ICBA,2011).
saline water by year 2030. This
means that if scenario 1 (business
asusual)impliedasamanagementoptioninSouthBatinaharea,thenbyyear2030,thewholecentral
Table22.Simulatedvariationsofinlandsaltencroachmentwithtime.
(Source:ICBA,2011).
Year
Minimum(km)
Area
Maximum(km)
Area
1982
Westernandeasternparts
0.5
Centralpart
1990
0.9
Westernpart
1.5
Centralpart
2000
1.0
Westernpart
2.4
Centralpart
2010
1.2
Westernpart
3.0
Centralpart
2020
1.4
Westernpart
3.6
Centralpart
2030
1.5
Westernpart
4.6
Centralpart
102
107
partwillbeaffectedbysaltwaterintrusion.ThedistancesofinlandsaltencroachmentarelistedinTable
22.
Theincreaseingroundwaterrechargecausedbytheconstructionofthisdamisforcingthesalinefresh
waterinterfacetoretreatorslowingitsinlandmovementinthewholewesternsectionofSouthBatinah
depending on the precipitation rate. Similar effects but to a lesser extent can be seen for Farah,
Barak_Taw,andBaraka_Fluj(Figure104).
SimulatedGroundwatersalinityforyear2005
Figure104.Simulatedgroundwatersalinityforseveralyear(Source:ICBA,2011).
103
108
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AhmedM,EsechieHandAlAjmiA(2004).Biosalineagriculture:PerspectivesfromOman.Presentedat
aWorkshoponBiosalineAgriculture,2730June2004,Wageningen,TheNetherlands.
AhmedM,HussainNandAlRawahySA(2011).ManagementofSalineLandsinOman:LearningtoLive
with Salinity. Chapter 2. In: Advances in Soil Classification, Land Use Planning and Policy Implications
(TahaFK,ShahidSAandAbdelfattahMA(eds.).InPress.
AhmedM,AlRawahySA,HussainN,EsechieH,AlLawatiA,RahmanHA,ShahidSA,AlHabsiSandAl
Rasbi S (2010). Biosaline Agriculture in Oman: A critical review. In: A monograph on Management of
SaltAffectedSoilsandWaterforSustainableAgriculture,Pp.916.
AlMulla Y (2010). Salinity mapping in Oman using remote sensing tools: status and trends. In: A
MonographonManagementofSaltAffectedSoilsandWaterforSustainableAgriculture,Pp.1724.
AlMulla YA and AlAdawi S (2009). Mapping temporal changes of soil salinity in Al Rumais region of
Oman using geographic information system and remote sensing techniques. American Society of
Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE) Annual International Meeting. Paper No. 095777. Reno,
NV,USA.
AshworthJM(2004).DrillingandaquifertestingprojectintheWesternAlWustaDesert.Proceedingsfor
WellsiteGeologists.Pp.19.
Australian Water Resources Council (1969). Quality aspects of farm water supplies. Department of
NationalDevelopment,Canberra.Pp.45.
AyersRSandWestcotDW(1994).Waterqualityforagriculture.FAOIrrigationandDrainagePaper29
Rev.1,FAO,Rome.
BenitesJ,VanephSandBotA(2002).Plantingconceptsandharvestinggoodresults.LEISAMagazineon
LowExternalInputandSustainableAgriculture,18(3):69.
CenturyArchitectsConsultingEngineers(2004).IntegratedcatchmentsmanagementforWadiAlMaawil
Catchment.MinistryofRegionalMunicipalities,EnvironmentandWaterResources,Oman.
ECG(2011).Evaluationlossesforagricultureandagribusiness.ECGPaperNo3,EvaluationCooperation
GroupWashingtonDC.Pp.34.
EwingB,MooreD,GoldfingerS,OurslerA,ReedAandWackernagelM(2010).TheEcologicalFootprint
Atlas2010.Oakland:GlobalFootprintNetwork,Pp.111.
FAO(2006).ConservationAgriculture(Availableatwww.fao.org/ag/ca).
GeoResources Consultancy (2006). Drilling and aquifer testing in the northern Batinah, Musandam
Governorate and Northern Al Massarat. Ministry of Regional Municipalities, Environment and Water
Resources,Oman.
GlobalResearchEconomy(2011).OmanEconomicOverview.OmanEconomy.GlobalInvestmentHouse
Kuwait.Pp.45.
Hoffman CJ (2001). Water quality criteria for irrigation. Biological System Engineering University of
Nebraska,InstituteofAgriculturalandNaturalResources.PublicationNo.EC97782.
104
109
Hussain N (2005). Strategic plan for combating water and soil salinity in Sultanate of Oman for 2005
2015.SoilandWaterResearchCenter,Rumais,Oman,Pp.117.
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (1984). Preliminary soil and groundwater survey in the Batinah
region,Finalreport,PartIGroundwater,Hydroconsultconsultingengineers,Oman.
JICA(1985).HydrologicalobservationprojectintheBatinahcoastofSultanateofOman,InterimReport
II.TheGovernmentofSultanateofOman.Pp.160.
MinistryofEnvironmentandWater(MOEW)(2005).EvaluatingtherechargeefficiencyoftheBih,Ham,
andTuweenrechargeDamsusingmathematicalmodels.IncooperationwiththeUnitedArabEmirates
University.
MRMWR (1995). Stage 2: site screening for proposed large catchment recharge dams, South Batinah
Region. Draft Internal Report. Recharge Section Research Department, Directorate General of Water
ResourcesAssessment.Pp.79.
MRMWR(2004a).DetailedwaterresourcemanagementandplanningstudyfortheSalalahregion.Part
A,Mainreport,Oman.
MRMWR(2004b).DetailedwaterresourcemanagementandplanningstudyfortheSalalahregion.Part
B,Groundwatermodelfinalreport,Oman.
MRMWR(2005).BrackishWaterDevelopmentStudy.WaterResourcesDevelopmentDepartment,The
MinistryofRegionalMunicipalities,EnvironmentandWaterResources,SultanateofOman.Pp.198.
MRMWR(2006).Watermeteringtechnicalandfinancialfeasibilitystudy.Draftfinalreport.TenderNo:
79/2005. Submitted by ALDAR consultancy Talal Abu Ghazaleh International. The Ministry of Regional
Municipalities,EnvironmentandWaterResources.Pp.167.
MRMWR (2008). Water Resources in Oman. Issued by Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water
ResourcesontheoccasionoftheExpoZaragoza2008(waterandSustainableDevelopment),Pp.138.
MaasEV(1996).Cropsalttolerance.Chapter13:InAgriculturalsalinityassessmentandmanagement.
ASCEManualsandReportsonEngineeringPracticeNo.71.AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers,pp.262
304.
Macumber PG (1998). The cable tool program and groundwater flow in the Eastern Batinah alluvial
aquifer.MinistryofWaterResources,DirectorateGeneralofWaterResourcesAssessment.Pp.159.
MAF (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries) (1982a). Soil and groundwater survey for Buraimi area.
GroundwaterDevelopmentConsultants(International)Limited,SultanateofOman.Pp155.
MAF(MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries)(1982b).SoilandgroundwatersurveyforWadiQuriyatarea.
GroundwaterDevelopmentConsultants(International)Limited,SultanateofOman.Pp205.
MAF(MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries)(1990).GeneralsoilmapoftheSultanateofOman.Ministry
ofAgricultureandFisheries.
MAF (1993a). South Batinah Integrated Study. Summary of Conclusions and Recommendations.
DirectorateGeneralofAgriculturalResearch,MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries,SultanateofOman.
Volume1,Pp.54.
105
110
MAF (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries) (1993b). South Batinah Integrated Study. Land Resources.
Volume2.Pp.741.
MAF(MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries)(1993c).SouthBatinahIntegratedStudy.Part1:LandUse;
Part 2: Irrigation Report; Part 3: Crop water requirements report; Part 4: Farming systems report.
Volume3.Pp.251.
MAF(MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries)(1997).IntegratedStudyofNorthBatinah,Sohar,Volume1,
MainReport,Oman.
TechnicalReportA,Oman.
TechnicalReportBD,Oman.
MAF(MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries)(1997).IntegratedStudyofNorthBatinah,Shinas,Volume2,
MAF(MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries)(1997).IntegratedStudyofNorthBatinah,Liwa,Volume1,
MainReport,Oman.
MainReport,Oman.
MAF (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries) (2010). Investigation on present situation and
countermeasurestakenforsoilandwatersalinization,DraftReport.
MAF(MinistryofAgricultureandFisheries)(1990).GeneralSoilMapoftheSultanateofOman.Pp.50+
57mapsheets.
Ministry of Water Resources (2000). ShinaLiwa and Sohar. Water Resources Assessment Report,
MinistrybofWaterResources.Pp.106.
MAF (2005). Techno Economic Feasibility. Volume 2: Financial statements. Feasibility study for fodder
cultivationinNejd(DhofarRegion).PreparedbyParsonsInternationalandCo.Ltd.SultanateofOman.
Pp.16.
MastersD,EdwardsN,SillenceM,AveryA,RevellD,FriendM,SanfordP,SaulG,VeberlyCandYoungJ
(2006).Theroleoflivestockinthemanagementofdrylandsalinity.AustralianJournalofExperimental
Agriculture46:733741.
MinistryofNationalEconomy(2004).MasterplanfortheWaterSector.Volume1:Executivesummary.
106
111
Ministry of Water Resources, Surface Water Department (1995). Wadi flow dataVolume II (South
BatinahRegion19801992).Pp.40.
Naifer A, AlRawahi SA, Zekri S (2011). Economic impact of salinity: The case of Al Batinah in Oman.
InternationalJournalofAgriculturalResearchPp9.
National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering (1972). Water quality criteria.
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.WashingtonDC.ReportNo.EPAR373033.592p.
OmanDailyObserver(2011).OmansAgricultureonarapidgrowthtrajectory.Pp.6.
Pannell DJ (2005). Farm, food and resource issues: politics and dryland salinity. Australian Journal of
ExperimentalAgriculture45:14711480.
PannellDJ,McFarlaneDJ,FerdowsianR(2001).Rethinkingtheexternalityissuefoedrylandssalinityin
WesternAustralia.AustralianJournalofAgriculturalandResourceEconomics45(3):459475.
QureshiRH(1995).FinalReport.VisitofProf.RiazHussainQureshi,SalinityExpertatARC,Rumais,Aug
1,1994toJan31,1995.Faisalabad,Pakistan.
RavenscroftP(1986).ResultsofexploratorydrillingoftheBatinahcoastwithspecialreferencetosaline
intrusion.CouncilforConservationofEnvironmentandWaterResources,SlutanateofOman.Prepared
byPublicAuthorityforWaterResources,SultanateofOman.Pp.28.
RichardsL(ed.)(1954).Diagnosisandimprovementofsalineandalkalisoils.USDAHandbookNo.60.
Shahid SA (2012). Development in soil salinity assessment, modeling, mapping and monitoring from
submicroscopictoregionalscales.Chapter1,InAdvancesinsoilsalinityassessmentanduseofmarginal
quality water in irrigated agriculture (Taha FK, Shahid SA and Abdelfattah A (ed.) Springer, p. 336 (In
press).
Shahid SA (2004). Irrigation water quality manual. ERWDA Soil Bulletin No 2. Environmental Research
andWildlifeDevelopmentAgencyAbuDhabi,Pp.31.
Shahid SA, Rahman K (2011) Soil salinity development, classification, assessment and management in
irrigatedagriculture.Chapter2,InHandbookofPlantandCropStress(MPessarakli(ed.),p.2339.
SuarezDL(2011).Soilsalinizationandmanagementoptionsforsustainablecropproduction.Chapter3,
In:HandbookofPlantandCropStress(MPessarakli(ed.),ThirdEdition,pp.4154.
Turner A, WhiteS,AlGhafriA,AzizAandAlSulaimaniZ(2005).WaterefficiencyAsustainableway
forwardforOman.StockholmWaterSymposium2127August2005.Pp.10.
University of Durham, England (1978). Research and Development Surveys in Northern Oman. Final
ReportVolumeIIWater.Pp.183.
Warren(1983).Technologytransferinnotillagecropproductioninthethirdworldagriculture.InNo
tillagecropproductioninthetropics.Proc.Symp.Monrovia,Liberia.PbInt.Plant.Center,OregonState
Univ.,Corvallis,USA,Pp.2531.
ZekriS(2008). Usingeconomic incentivesandregulationstoreduce seawaterintrusionin theBatinah
coastalareaofOman.AgriculturalWaterManagement95:243252.
Zekri S (2009). Controlling groundwater pumping online. Journal of Environmental Management
90:35813588.
107
112
APPENDIX
MainTablesandFigures
108
113
TableA1.AquiferpropertiesinNorthernBatinahstudyarea(Source:MRMWR,2010).
WellID
Easting
Northing
Aquifer
Drilled
Depth
Ground
Level
Elevation
Yield
(L/s)
DM775543BA
475335
2675340
Alluvium
73.2
52.3
2.4
8.70E04
83
DM872917AA
482097
2679650
Alluvium
83
3.8
74.5
4320
DM872521AA
482051
2675110
Alluvium
85.0
185.1
7776
19.5
DM778607AA
478090
2676750
Alluvium
80
26.9
34.3
1544
DM778388AA
478822
2673770
Alluvium
74.4
28.3
76.7
2967
DM870616AA
480128
2676520
Alluvium
81
21.5
48.0
2506
DM775847AA
475467
2678740
Alluvium
80.5
48.9
26.8
778
DM777696AA
477908
2678570
Alluvium
80
29.0
52.1
2419
DM789270AA
479778
2681980
Alluvium
75
15.1
96.0
4752
DM870960AA
480647
2679080
Alluvium
80
13.2
74.5
4320
DM880068AA
480549
2680850
Alluvium
80.5
8.4
108.8
5875
DM775543AA
475355
2675320
Alluvium
73.2
52.4
0.3
4.00E02
50
DM871185BA
481788
2671540
Alluvium
71.4
26.0
39.3
4.20E04
1728
DM870878AA
480782
2678810
Alluvium
564.0
11.7
1.90E04
817
6.0
DM870878BA
480784
2678850
Alluvium
120.0
11.9
972
86.0
DB786052AA
476771
2680430
Alluvium
175.0
33.5
54.0
2580
10.0
DB789342AA
479400
2683200
Alluvium
130.0
71.0
2764
6.0
DB870598AA
481176
2676110
Alluvium
175.0
17.0
78.0
5375
10.0
DB873940AA
483380
2678990
Alluvium
102.0
6.1
21.0
1950
22.0
EB514498AA
554403
2614403
Alluvium
300.0
94.3
1.00E03
48
EB516995AA
557190
2620539
Alluvium
101.0
39.7
13.0
468
EB621628AA
561518
2617622
Alluvium
47.2
11.0
84
10.0
EB612955AA
561954
2618710
Alluvium
70.0
40.4
4.0
473
109
114

EB627755AA
567714
2627739
Alluvium
105.0
7.5
21.0
1858
EB612955AA
562500
2619500
Alluvium
70.0
50.1
4.0
473
EB621628AA
561200
2626800
Alluvium
47.2
11.0
84
10.0
EB314499AA
554900
2614900
Alluvium
166.0
81.2
3.50E03
690
DN349926BA
439004
2749490
Alluvium
87.0
10.5
36.0
1265
6.0
EM053082AA
503847
2650220
Alluvium
92.7
32.5
1603
EM042872AA
502767
2648200
Alluvium
51.7
47.0
36
EB046900AA
506340
2649220
Alluvium
40.0
24.2
984
515.0
DM784617AA
474084
2686560
Alluvium
193.0
25.5
31.0
4500
11.0
DM786987AA
476574
2689930
Alluvium
97
8.2
26.0
1300
DM781421BA
471212
2684130
Alluvium
385.0
47.2
16.0
3650
17.0
DB780739AA
470619
2688340
Alluvium
103
26.4
194.0
4838
9.0
DM783398AA
473918
2683770
Alluvium
109.0
37.0
129.0
2200
18.0
DM783435AA
473359
2684540
Alluvium
109.0
35.7
105.0
9100
20.0
DM784445BA
474800
2684500
Alluvium
115.0
31.6
193.0
5000
20.0
DM783398BA
473900
2683700
Alluvium
102.0
2200
DM783435BA
473300
2684500
Alluvium
110.0
2.00E04
5100
DB689955AA
469685
2689770
Alluvium
82
25.2
16900
13.0
DM599145AA
459400
2691500
Alluvium
30.5
2100
9.0
DM599126AA
459200
2691600
Alluvium
37.0
4800
13.0
DM580982AA
450435
2689150
Alluvium
50.0
172.3
1400
12.0
DB694340AA
464400
2693000
Alluvium
50.0
40.0
173
3.3
DB694288AA
464800
2692800
Alluvium
57.5
1750
8.0
DM693757AA
464244
2698110
Alluvium
51.0
22.7
7980
DB696350AA
466500
2693000
Alluvium
200.0
29.2
85.0
15050
9.0
DM695408AA
465025
2694840
Alluvium
80.5
32.0
175.0
4000
20.0
110
115

DM695584AA
465782
2695460
Alluvium
77.0
25.7
92.0
5800
20.0
DM696581AA
466872
2695190
Alluvium
68.0
20.3
161.0
8000
20.0
DM696492AA
466905
2694220
Alluvium
58.0
24.0
184.0
8000
20.0
DB694269AA
464600
2692900
Alluvium
57.5
8350
7.0
DM695408BA
465000
2694800
Alluvium
80.0
4200
DM696405BA
466000
2694500
Alluvium
72.0
4700
DM695584BA
465700
2695400
Alluvium
75.0
5800
DM696592BA
466800
2695100
Alluvium
73.5
1.00E05
4600
DM696492BA
466900
2694200
Alluvium
62.0
10000
DB698632AA
468706
2696550
Alluvium
40
11.8
4300
16.0
DB694517AA
464272
2695970
Alluvium
45
32.7
1500
4.0
DB691503AA
461309
2695500
Alluvium
55
50.3
3200
8.0
DB694235AA
464371
2692910
Alluvium
55
45.4
60
1.0
EB327231AA
537300
2622100
Alluvium
142
62.8
1325
DB874067AA
484600
2670700
Alluvium
160.0
2122
10.4
DM864585AA
484735
2665370
Alluvium
73.0
27.5
1819
DB865981AA
485850
2669140
Alluvium
60.0
550
EB316218AA
536832
2615822
Alluvium
141.0
132.9
5.36E04
59
9.9
EB316218BA
536948
2615822
Alluvium
52.0
127.8
5.36E04
57
EB317527AA
537279
2619045
Alluvium
76.3
102.9
15.0
316
EB327231AA
537582
2625315
Alluvium
NA
62.8
1325
EB433368AA
544249
2634269
Alluvium
35.7
14.4
36
8.2
EB438280AA
551053
2631405
Alluvium
45.7
11.8
168
7.7
EB521527AA
572800
2627000
Alluvium
53.0
35.9
2051
5.4
EB416443AA
551325
2626125
Alluvium
91.0
115.7
5.4
EB316218AA
536832
2615820
Alluvium
141.0
140.5
5.36E04
59
9.9
111
116

EB438280AA
548800
2632000
Alluvium
45.7
10.2
168
7.7
EB521527AA
551200
2625700
Alluvium
53.0
35.9
2051
5.4
EB433368AA
543600
2633800
Alluvium
35.7
14.4
36
8.2
EB316218BA
536948
2615820
Alluvium
50.0
124.8
5.36E04
57
DN507668AA
457916
2706880
Alluvium
45.0
274.0
8200
25.9
DN515033BA
455308
2710360
Alluvium
50.0
449.0
9630
25.0
DN435055AA
445528
2730550
Alluvium
38.5
12.4
35.0
880
19.6
DN432453AA
443151
2734580
Alluvium
90.0
22.2
2160
25.0
DN515605AA
454865
2716630
Alluvium
64.0
8.5
5408
25.4
DN434936BA
444584
2739560
Alluvium
80.3
7.0
6.0
9900
20.0
EM144165AA
514684
2641550
Alluvium
96.7
36.3
3533
DN429451AA
449432
2724310
Alluvium
109
18.4
7123
25.0
DN425136AA
445955
2722040
Alluvium
80.0
55.2
DB874012AA
484135
2670210
Alluvium
160.0
22.2
2160
10.4
DB754868AA
474600
2658800
Alluvium
34.0
85
8.0
DB754819AA
474100
2658900
Alluvium
35.0
110
8.0
DM870028AA
480090
2670730
Alluvium
62.0
36.1
2422
DB873253AA
483788
2672630
Alluvium
60.0
16.1
985
473.0
DM951301AA
491038
2653080
Alluvium
68.1
83.5
93
DM954622AA
494301
2656160
Alluvium
74.4
45.8
2.80E04
891
DN603280BA
463807
2702080
Alluvium
111.0
10.5
28
DN604232CA
463807
2702080
Alluvium
111.0
10.5
50
DN604232AA
463807
2702080
Alluvium
111.0
10.5
167.0
2210
DN600060AA
460885
2699820
Alluvium
66.0
21.7
3.0
DM949578AA
499787
2645860
Alluvium+
Tertiary
35.8
73.0
5621
112
117

DM696405AA
466035
2694530
Alluvium
+Ophiolite
63.0
27.4
205.0
3800
18.0
EB627755AA
567500
2627500
Alluvium+
Seeb
99.7
7.5
21.0
1858
EB416443AA
546400
2614300
Alluvium+
Seeb
91.0
115.7
5.4
EB317527AA
537200
2615700
Alluvium
+Tertiary
76.3
103.0
15.0
316
EB514498AA
554900
2614800
Alluvium
+UpperFars
300.0
94.3
1.00E03
48
EB516995AA
556900
2619500
Alluvium+
UpperFars
101.0
39.7
13.0
468
EM140241BA
510426
2642170
Alluvium
+UpperFars
195.0
53.8
0.9
2.80E04
81
32.0
CM960654BA
490510
2666400
UpperFars
236.0
190.0
3.50E04
17
5.0
113
118
TableA2.AquiferpropertiesinsouthernBatinahstudyarea(Source:MRMWR,2010).
WellID
Easting
Northing
Aquifer
Drilled
Depth
Ground
Level
Elevation
Yield
(L/s)
EB703203AA
573000
2602300
Alluvium
140.0
131.0
0.4
4.0
0.7
EB705870AA
575700
2608000
Alluvium
140.0
82.0
1.3
14.0
1.5
EB728120AA
578200
2621000
Alluvium
305.0
14.2
326.0
EB728048AA
578400
2620800
Alluvium
39.0
14.9
10.0
153.0
19.0
EB729486AA
579800
2624600
Alluvium
73.0
2.6
6.3
326.0
EM810135BA
580300
2611500
Alluvium
200.0
61.8
148.0
6470.0
EM810135AA
580300
2611500
Alluvium
200.0
61.8
6.60E03
5000.0
EM810135CA
580300
2611500
Alluvium
135.0
61.6
81.0
1.00E02
7560.0
18.9
EM810760AA
580600
2617000
Alluvium
77.0
29.2
175.0
1.50E02
7238.0
2.0
EM810760BA
580600
2617000
Alluvium
72.0
29.2
5253.0
23.4
EM814609AA
584000
2616900
Alluvium
75.0
23.8
241.0
2.00E02
6031.0
4.0
EB814639AA
584300
2616900
Alluvium
51.0
24.6
9.0
269.0
30.0
EM804882AA
584800
2608200
Alluvium
328.0
91.1
11.5
1.00E03
1380.0
32.0
EM804882BA
584807
2608018
Alluvium
210.0
91.3
14.0
1.20E03
4256.0
EM815391AA
585900
2613100
Alluvium
257.0
46.7
32.8
1.00E03
3900.0
35.0
EM815391BA
586038
2613177
Alluvium
102.0
48.1
70.0
3.00E03
4100.0
EB827331AA
587300
2623100
Alluvium
72.0
3.5
25.0
1276.0
9.5
EB818717AA
588180
2617740
Alluvium
106.0
16.2
226.0
225.0
EM808768AA
588603
2607863
Alluvium
350.0
89.1
31.0
EB828171AA
588700
2621100
Alluvium
104.0
3.8
21.0
EB819706AA
589000
2617600
Alluvium
34.9
17.5
8.0
146.0
12.9
EB819144AA
589400
2614000
Alluvium
70.0
54.4
0.5
1.0
0.7
EB718411AA
578100
2614100
Alluvium
71.0
48.1
31.6
316.0
7.7
114
119

EB818717AA
588180
2617740
Alluvium
106.0
16.2
226.0
225.0
EM816551AA
586550
2615180
Alluvium
275.0
32.0
5.0
EM804882BA
584800
2608200
Alluvium
208.0
91.3
14.0
1.20E03
4256.0
EB814639AA
584300
2616900
Alluvium
51.0
24.6
9.0
269.0
30.0
EM814609AA
584000
2616900
Alluvium
75.0
23.8
241.0
2.00E02
6031.0
4.0
EM804882AA
584800
2608200
Alluvium
328.0
91.1
11.5
1.00E03
1380.0
32.0
EB728048AA
578400
2620800
Alluvium
39.0
14.8
10.0
153.0
19.0
EB819706AA
589000
2617600
Alluvium
34.9
17.5
8.0
146.0
12.9
EB819144AA
589400
2614000
Alluvium
70.0
54.4
0.5
1.0
0.7
EB718411AA
578100
2614100
Alluvium
71.0
48.1
31.6
316.0
7.7
EB729486AA
579800
2624600
Alluvium
73.0
2.6
6.3
326.0
EL885738AA
585300
2587800
Alluvium
80.0
280.3
12.0
EB813836AA
583300
2618600
Alluvium
39.0
16.2
2.0
634.0
12.9
EM808768AA
588603
2607860
Alluvium
350.0
89.1
31.0
EB827000AA
587000
2620000
Alluvium
24.0
NA
225.0
EM606032CA
566612
2600508
Alluvium
28.0
150.4
7.40E03
220.0
24.5
EM606366BA
566905
2603891
Alluvium
90.0
124.1
0.4
6.00E04
180.0
3.0
EM617782BA
567800
2617292
Alluvium
60.0
39.3
49.0
2269.0
EM617782AA
567815
2617288
Alluvium
80.0
39.6
46.0
2105.0
11.0
EB628478AA
568700
2624800
Alluvium
49.0
13.3
3.0
48.0
10.5
EB618381AA
568800
2613100
Alluvium
70.0
59.3
15.7
220.0
EM618133AA
569042
2611333
Alluvium
200.0
68.4
21.0
895.0
EM618133BA
569050
2611340
Alluvium
135.0
68.6
20.0
855.0
15.6
EB721092AA
571900
2620200
Alluvium
74.0
25.3
15.7
204.0
EB722568AA
572600
2625800
Alluvium
74.0
6.4
6.3
316.0
32.0
EB723708AA
573000
2627800
Alluvium
72.0
3.6
2.0
92.0
115
120

EB723400AA
573022
2624069
Alluvium
305.0
13.2
316.0
EB714222AA
573333
2612420
Alluvium
144.0
59.3
19.4
426.0
EB728850AA
578669
2627621
Alluvium
75.0
2.2
10.8
562.0
EA573203AA
553000
2572300
Alluvium
70.0
548.6
1.5
EB728850AA
578500
2628000
Alluvium
72
2.2
10.8
562.0
EB723708AA
573000
2627800
Alluvium
72.0
4.8
2.0
92.0
EB722568AA
572600
2625800
Alluvium
74.0
7.9
6.3
316.0
32.0
EB714222AA
574200
2612200
Alluvium
144.0
59.3
19.4
426.0
EB618381AA
568800
2613100
Alluvium
70.0
59.3
15.7
220.0
EB721092AA
571900
2620200
Alluvium
74.0
25.3
15.7
204.0
EM617782BA
567800
2617290
Alluvium
60.0
39.3
49.0
2269.0
EM711700BA
571150
2617220
Alluvium
50.0
34.9
69.0
1.70E03
1201.0
4.7
EM606032CA
566612
2600510
Alluvium
28.0
150.4
7.40E03
220.0
24.5
EA573160AA
553600
2571000
Alluvium
72.0
582.5
0.1
EB628478AA
568700
2624800
Alluvium
49.0
13.3
3.0
48.0
10.5
EM711700AA
571142
2617200
Alluvium
54.0
35.7
51.0
880.0
9.8
EM713233BA
573336
2612400
Alluvium
231.0
59.0
41.0
EM713234AA
573324
2612400
Alluvium
234.0
59.0
10.0
EM606065BA
566612
2600510
Alluvium
45.0
150.6
50.0
662.0
EB715815AA
575100
2618600
Alluvium
223.0
27.3
170.0
549.0
EM902729AA
592211
2607967
Alluvium
350.0
74.6
3.0
EM915221AA
595200
2612100
Alluvium
150.0
44.4
1.0
EM906911AA
596100
2609100
Alluvium
95.5
62.1
7.0
3.0
EM916281AA
596800
2612100
Alluvium
96.0
43.2
5.0
5.6
EM915221AA
595200
2612100
Alluvium
150.0
44.4
1.0
EM916281AA
596800
2612100
Alluvium
96.0
43.2
5.0
5.6
116
121

EM713233AA
573336
2612400
Alluvium+ 350.0
UpperFars
59.0
41.0
EM815391BA
585900
2613100
Alluvium+
FARS
102.0
46.8
70.0
3.00E03
4100.0
EM810760BA
580600
2617000
Alluvium+
Fars
72.0
29.2
5253.0
23.4
EB723400AA
573000
2624000
Alluvium+
Fars
305.0
14.9
316.0
EM815391AA
585900
2613100
Alluvium+
FARS/Seeb
257.0
46.7
32.8
1.00E03
3900.0
35.0
EM606366BA
566905
2603890
Alluvium+
limestone
150
124.1
0.4
6.00E04
180.0
3.0
EM606398AA
566905
2603890
Alluvium+
limestone
150.0
124.9
2.5
1.70E04
188.0
4.0
EB705870AA
575700
2608000
Alluvium+
Seeb
140.0
82.0
1.3
14.0
1.5
EM810760AA
580600
2617000
Alluvium+
UpperFars
77.0
29.2
175.0
1.50E02
7238.0
2.0
EB703203AA
573000
2602300
Alluvium+
UpperFars
140.0
131.0
0.4
4.0
0.7
EM810135BA
580300
2611500
Alluvium+
UpperFars
200.0
61.8
148.0
6470.0
EM713234BA
573324
2612400
Alluvium+
UpperFars
234.0
58.5
10.0
EA573213BA
553100
2572300
Alluvium+
dolomite
90.0
500.1
1235.0
23.0
EB728120AA
578200
2621000
Alluvium
+Sur(Fars)
305.0
14.2
326.0
117
122
TableA3.Summaryofdecliningandrisingwatertabletrends
(Source:ICBA,2011).
WellName
Wilayah
Catchment
DecliningTrend
(m/Year)
Risingtrend
(m/Year)
NC24B
522846
2633160
Saham
WadiAhin
0.23
DM874728AA
484284
2677812
Saham
WadiAhin
0.65
DM873955AA
483514
2679583
Saham
WadiAhin
0.12
DB875691AA
485900
2676100
Saham
WadiAhin
3.03
DB873940AA
483380
2678990
Saham
WadiAhin
1.04
DB967078AA
496949
2661000
Saham
WadiShafan
0.26
DB956996AA
497078
2659840
Saham
WadiShafan
0.28
DB964233AA
494583
2662600
Saham
WadiShafan
0.07
DB874130AA
484549
2671146
Saham
WadiSakhin
5.6
DM870616AA
480128
2676520
Sohar
WadiAhin
1.58
DM793593AA
473968
2695290
Sohar
WadiAlJizi
0.19
DM791895AA
471931
2698480
Sohar
WadiAlJizi
0.15
DB8790189AA
486766
2670987
Sohar
WadiAlJizi
1.07
DM696761AA
466536
2697040
Sohar
WadiAlJizi
1.84
DM693757AA
464244
2698110
Sohar
WadiAlJizi
1.48
DM789369AA
479627
2683900
Sohar
WadiHilti
0.79
DM784423AA
474397
2684440
Sohar
WadiHilti
1.098
DM783435AA
473359
2684540
Sohar
WadiHilti
0.44
DB780988AA
471025
2690110
Sohar
WadiHilti
1.17
DB796024AA
476554
2690660
Sohar
WadiHilti
0.27
DM442480AA
457900
2707900
Shinas
WadiHawarim
0.16
DM441646AA
457900
2707900
Shinas
WadiHawarim
0.61
DC434427AA
444480
2734960
Shinas
WadiFaydh
0.43
DC356835AA
436694
2756780
Shinas
WadiQawr
0.06
DN339973AA
439693
2739280
Shinas
WadiHatta
3.28
118
123
TableA4.EstimationoftotalrainfallvolumeoverAlBatinahgovernorates(Mm3)
CatchmentName
WadiMalahah
WadiQawr
WadiAlHawarim
WadiHatta
WadiFaydh
WadiBid'ah
WadiRijma
WadiFizh
WadiSuq
WAdiAlJizi
WadiAlHilti
WadiAhin
WadiSakhin
WadiAsSarami
WadiShafan
WadiAlHawasinah
WadiMashin
AlMayha
WadiBaniGhafir
WadiAlFara'
WadiBanikharus
WadiMa'awil
WadiManumah
WadiTaww
Total
CatchmentComponent
LowerMalahah
LowerQawr
LowerAlHawarim
UpperHatta
LowerHatta
LowerFaydh
LowerBid'ah
UpperRijma
LowerRijma
UpperFizh
LowerFizh
UpperBaniUmarAlGharbi
LowerBaniUmarAlGharbi
LowerSuq
UpperAlJizi
LowerAljizi
UpperAlHilti
LowerAlHilti
UpperAhin
LowerAhin
LowerSakhin
UpperAsSarami
LowerAsSarami
UpperShafan
LowerShafan
UpperAlHawasinah
LowerAlHawasinah
LowerMashin
UpperAlMayha
LowerAlMayha
UpperBaniGhafir
LowerBaniGhafir
UpperAlFara
LowerAlFara
UpperBaniKharus
LowerBaniKharus
UpperMa'awil
LowerMa'awil
LowerManumah
LowerTaww
Area(km2)
33
58
156
271
93
166
155
293
180
267
27
276
205
212
633
518
330
319
735
269
366
213
194
272
483
591
390
275
730
720
600
783
686
487
759
421
315
783
76
366
14701
Rainfall
(mm)
94
94
94
125
95
95
100
119
96
119
96
119
96
100
142
105
141
99
151
102
91
135
118
133
73
147
86
83
126
74
195
90
187
91
187
91
195
90
90
90
RainfallVolume
(Mm3)
3.10
5.45
14.66
33.88
8.84
15.77
15.50
34.87
17.28
31.77
2.59
32.84
19.68
21.20
89.89
54.39
46.53
31.58
110.99
27.44
33.31
28.76
22.89
36.18
35.26
86.88
33.54
22.83
91.98
53.28
117.00
70.47
128.28
44.32
141.93
38.31
61.43
70.47
6.84
32.94
1775
119
124
TableA5.EstimatedgroundwaterinflowfromJabalinAlBatinahstudyarea.
(Source:ICBA,2011,basedonGRC,2006).
No.
CatchmentName
Catchment
Width(km)
Hydraulic
Gradient
Transmissivity
2
(m /day)
Groundwater
Throughflow
3
(Mm /Year)
1 Hawrim
15.6
0.0036
665
13.6
2 Bidh
17.9
0.0041
665
17.8
3 Rajmi
10.4
0.0034
665
8.6
4 Fizh
15.3
0.0019
665
7.1
5 Suq
6.4
0.0039
665
6.1
6 Jizi
9.8
0.0029
1330
13.8
7 Hilti
11.9
0.0032
1330
18.5
8 Ahin
11
0.0056
1330
29.9
9 Sakhin
3.3
0.0014
1330
2.2
10 Sarami
5.6
0.0011
1330
3.0
11 Shafan
19.4
0.0023
1330
21.7
12 Hawasinah
8.1
0.004
1330
15.7
13 Mashin
10.1
0.0053
1330
26.0
14 MayhahMabrahHajir
25.7
0.0032
1330
39.9
15 BaniGhafir
19.6
0.0023
1330
21.9
16 Fara
9.8
0.0023
1330
10.9
17 Ma'awil
7.9
0.0145
300
12.5
207.8
269.2
Total
120
125
126
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
698
124
Okra
Raddish
FieldCrops
1023
632
Cantaloupe
Others
758
Watermelon
150
Cauliflower
Squash
770
Cabbage
994
Onion
Carrot
427
Eggplant
927
Pepper
Garlic
1195
160
Potao
Cucumber
1205
733
688
1013
136
706
1518
449
1075
837
222
1334
1280
733
550
810
122
706
1670
449
860
837
112
1602
928
112
632
576
992
120
320
696
385
1024
1184
160
1200
662
107
156
35
120
632
576
992
120
320
960
400
1336
592
120
1320
719
59
66
59
115
630
576
994
118
316
873
387
1195
827
129
1242
745
60
66
60
70
664
578
919
118
439
916
406
1077
899
154
1319
724
55
62
57
117
648
566
874
114
461
996
386
1052
853
130
1300
1971
201
105
30
73
446
780
506
254
326
320
381
496
379
78
1408
1794
183
95
18
66
406
332
398
298
570
221
346
556
346
119
1457
1723
162
116
27
94
529
606
544
242
483
534
391
701
580
129
1493
1614
144
130
30
99
597
642
629
220
471
694
411
850
712
150
1517
2074
113
318
38
329
385
298
477
452
266
515
760
635
69
2882
121
3114
417
426
46
462
472
669
888
604
171
934
1137
642
46
2605
1711
2001
Tomato
2000
2010
1999
1997
Vegetables
1998
CropType
TableA6.CroppedareasforAlBatinahmodeledarea(Feddan).
(Source:ICBA2011,Annex2).
127
3115
26
911
Sorghum
Sugarcane
Tobacco
Maize1
Others
Forages
Fruitcrops
3781
86
290
Banana
Papaya
Others
79606
2562
Mango
Total
5251
52
Lemon
Coconut
31794
Others
Datepalm
7568
Sorghum
Rhodesgrass
13378
1178
Barely
Alfalfa
45
Wheat
77892
302
86
3781
2562
3185
52
31794
7520
13360
4077
42
1189
27
78012
400
120
3840
2640
3040
52
31794
7440
13600
960
48
3120
1200
27
64408
400
120
4000
2640
3040
522
31794
7440
1360
824
26
2808
1064
41
77328
400
160
4400
2640
3040
52
32000
7600
13600
332
508
28
2960
1120
40
77041
384
142
4234
2638
3015
50
31951
7465
13565
696
508
37
2911
1099
40
574
508
30
3010
1101
34
4934
2770
19
2234
1183
123
1254
1296
7315 10325 10444
4640
2307
462
19
2234
1183
123
402
160
4413
2570
2157
48
485
14
3358
1530
1654
16
485
14
3358
1530
1654
16
76479 76022 62780 62686
353
122
4082
2614
2695
48
31931 31924 25423 25423
7395
13448 13381
696
508
36
2938
1086
35
2733
3500
1030
934
338
1303
2085
1462
9752 12584
7492
1811
43
2745
1254
158
430
19
3675
1530
1639
15
381
14
3358
1530
1635
16
64933 66199 66637
430
19
3675
1530
1639
15
25423 25423 25423
1360
9976
6392
2162
32
2558
1227
141
122
70029
381
14
4246
1530
1635
16
25423
183
1550
16291
2864
1891
834
456
80
128
Vegetables
790
873
155
Cantaloupe
Okra
Raddish
1279
Others
Wheat
2.
Squash
56
Carrot
Garlic
FieldCrops
948
187
Cauliflower
Watermelon
962
Cabbage
1242
534
Eggplant
Onion
1159
Pepper
200
2139
1494
1997
Potao
Cucumber
Tomato
1.
CropType
34
1506
916
860
1266
170
883
1897
561
1344
1046
278
1668
1998
34
1600
916
688
1013
153
883
2087
561
1075
1046
140
2002
1999
51
1160
140
790
720
1240
150
400
870
481
1280
1480
200
1500
2000
50
827
134
195
44
150
790
720
1240
150
400
1200
500
1670
740
150
1650
2001
TableA7.CroppedareasinAlBatinahgovernorates(Feddan).
(Source:ICBA,2011).
50
899
74
82
74
144
788
720
1242
148
395
1091
484
1494
1034
161
1553
2002
44
931
75
83
75
87
830
722
1149
148
549
1145
507
1346
1124
192
1649
2003
43
905
69
78
71
146
810
707
1093
142
576
1245
483
1315
1066
162
1625
2004
154
2464
251
131
38
91
557
975
633
317
407
400
476
620
474
97
1760
2005
154
2243
229
119
22
83
507
415
497
372
712
276
433
695
432
149
1821
2006
176
2154
202
145
34
117
661
757
680
302
604
667
489
876
725
161
1866
2007
197
2017
180
162
37
124
746
803
786
275
589
868
514
1062
890
187
1896
2008
423
2592
141
397
48
411
481
372
596
565
333
644
950
794
86
3603
2009
123
100
3892
521
532
58
578
590
836
1110
755
214
1167
1421
803
58
3256
2010
129
1139
Maize1
Others
Fruitcrops
4726
107
363
Banana
Papaya
Others
99508
3203
Mango
Total
6564
65
39742
Lemon
Coconut
Datepalm
4.
9460
16722
Others
Sorghum
Rhodesgrass
Alfalfa
Forages
Tobacco
3.
33
Sugarcane
3894
Sorghum
1472
Barely
97365
378
107
4726
3203
3981
65
39742
9400
16700
5096
52
1486
97515
500
150
4800
3300
3800
65
39742
9300
17000
1200
60
3900
1500
80510
500
150
5000
3300
3800
653
39742
9300
1700
1030
33
3510
1330
96660
500
200
5500
3300
3800
65
40000
9500
17000
415
635
35
3700
1400
96301
480
177
5293
3297
3769
62
39939
9331
16956
870
635
46
3639
1374
95599
441
153
5103
3268
3369
60
39914
9244
16810
870
635
45
3673
1358
95027
503
200
5516
3213
2696
60
39905
9144
16726
717
635
38
3762
1376
78475
606
18
4197
1913
2067
20
31779
1567
12906
5800
2884
578
24
2792
1479
78358
606
18
4197
1913
2067
20
31779
1620
13055
6167
3462
24
2792
1479
81166
538
24
4594
1913
2049
19
31779
1700
12470
7990
2702
40
3198
1534
82749
538
24
4594
1913
2049
19
31779
1629
12190
9365
2264
54
3431
1567
83296
476
18
4197
1913
2044
20
31779
2606
1828
15730
3416
4375
1288
1167
124
87536
476
18
5308
1913
2044
20
31779
229
1938
20364
3580
2364
1042
570
130
Cropcycle
OctFeb
OctFeb
NovFeb
OctJan
FebMay
FebJun
OctJan
OctDec
JanMar
JanApr
Perennial
JanMar
JulSept
JanApr
AprJun
JulSept
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Perennial
Crop/Plant
Onion
Tomato
Pepper*
Potatoes
Watermelon*
SweetMelon
Cucumber*
Cabbage
Lettuce
Wheat
Alfalfa
Maize1
Maize2
Barely
Sorghum1
Sorghum2
Dates
Mango
Lime
Banana
Rhodesgrass
82
81
105
92
90
105
63
92
105
150
123
132
177
150
150
No.of
days
980.8
882.7
735.6
882.7
784.6
573.7
948.8
1079
Sept
868.4
781.6
651.4
781.6
694.8
955.4
543.9
193.5
491.5
607.9
607.9
Oct
623.8
561.5
467.9
561.5
499.1
686.3
562.1
296.4
554.5
128.2
525.8
491.8
Nov
522.2
470
391.6
469.8
417.8
574.4
509.6
349.3
574.4
255.2
565.7
490.8
Dec
538
484.3
403.5
484.3
430.4
387.4
281.4
591.8
413.6
1218
324.5
538.2
311.1
580.3
507.8
Jan
612.6
551.5
459.5
551.5
490.1
675.1
765.8
674
759.4
588.3
311.1
140.6
481
481.2
530.6
Feb
893.8
804.4
670.3
804.4
715
1139
858.8
983.1
1161
175.6
656.5
456.3
Mar
1121
1009
840.6
1009
896.6
620.2
744.5
1233
905.8
1144
960.7
Apr
TableA8.CropwaterrequirementsforAlBatinahgovernorates(m3/Feddan)(Source:ICBA,2011).
1348
1213
1011
1213
1078
1351
1483
1418
1157
May
1261
1135
946
1135
1009
755.4
1387
1109
Jun
1229
1106
921.6
1106
983.1
663.9
621.2
1352
Jul
1134
1020
850.2
1020
906.9
1110
1372
1247
Aug
11132
10019
8349
10019
8906
2348
2726
2946
2942
1906
12245
3240
1982
1616
1164
4639
2714
2159
1176
2761
2629
Total
125
10337
9304
7753
9303
8269
2180
2532
2735
2732
1770
11371
3008
1840
1500
1081
4308
2520
2004
1092
2564
2441
131
1500
1886
2520
1886
1886
1886
1886
1886
1886
1886
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Watermelon
Cantaloupe
Okra
Raddish
Garlic
Carrot
Squash
Others
3008
2735
2356
2700
2700
Wheat
Barely
Sorghum
Sugarcane
Tobacco
2441
Onion
FieldCrops
1886
Eggplant
2481
1092
Pepper
Vegetables
1857
2004
Potao
2473
2473
2493
2693
2962
1857
1857
1857
1857
1857
1857
1857
1477
2404
1857
1075
1974
1064
1081
Cucumber
2524
Weight
ed
Average
2564
Average
CWR(Drip
&Surface)
m3/Feddan
Tomato
Vegetables
0.0
0.1
11.0
4.5
0.2
26.7
2.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
1.8
1.7
2.7
0.4
1.6
3.4
1.1
1.4
3.3
0.2
6.1
1997
0.0
0.0
0.1
4.5
0.1
27.7
3.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.9
1.8
3.5
0.4
1.5
5.2
1.2
1.6
2.3
0.3
4.8
1998
0.0
0.2
11.0
4.6
0.1
27.7
3.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.9
1.4
2.8
0.3
1.5
5.7
1.2
1.3
2.3
0.2
5.7
1999
0.0
0.1
9.9
4.0
0.2
23.1
2.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
1.7
1.5
3.5
0.3
0.7
2.4
1.0
1.6
3.3
0.2
4.3
2000
1.8
0.1
10.4
4.3
0.2
23.3
1.7
0.3
0.4
0.1
0.3
1.7
1.5
3.5
0.3
0.7
3.3
1.0
2.0
1.7
0.2
4.7
2001
TableA9.AgriculturalwaterdemandforAlBatinahgovernorates(Mm3).
(Source:ICBA,2011).
1.8
0.1
10.2
4.2
0.2
23.0
1.9
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
1.7
1.5
3.5
0.3
0.7
3.0
1.0
1.8
2.3
0.2
4.4
2002
1.8
0.1
10.3
4.1
0.1
23.6
2.0
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.7
1.5
3.2
0.3
0.9
3.1
1.1
1.6
2.5
0.2
4.7
2003
1.8
0.1
10.6
4.2
0.1
23.4
1.9
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.3
1.7
1.5
3.1
0.3
1.0
3.4
1.0
1.6
2.4
0.2
4.6
2004
1.6
0.1
7.9
4.5
0.5
21.6
5.2
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.2
1.2
2.0
1.8
0.7
0.7
1.1
1.0
0.8
1.1
0.1
5.0
2005
0.0
0.1
7.9
4.5
0.5
19.8
4.7
0.5
0.2
0.0
0.2
1.1
0.9
1.4
0.8
1.2
0.7
0.9
0.8
1.0
0.2
5.2
2006
0.0
0.1
9.0
4.7
0.6
23.1
4.5
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.2
1.4
1.6
1.9
0.6
1.0
1.8
1.0
1.1
1.6
0.2
5.3
2007
0.0
0.2
9.7
4.8
0.7
24.6
4.2
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.3
1.6
1.7
2.2
0.6
1.0
2.4
1.1
1.3
2.0
0.2
5.4
2008
0.0
0.0
3.6
3.6
1.4
27.3
5.4
0.3
0.8
0.0
0.1
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.3
0.9
0.9
1.4
1.2
1.8
0.1
10.3
2009
126
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.7
0.3
34.8
8.2
1.1
1.1
0.0
0.1
1.2
1.2
2.3
2.3
1.3
0.6
2.4
1.7
1.8
0.1
9.3
2010
132
2146
10337
10854
10854
8269
8657
7753
9303
9304
8657
8657
Rhodes
grass
Sorghum
Others
Forages
Fruitcrops
Datepalm
Coconut
Lemon
Mango
Banana
Papaya
Others
Total
Fruitcrops
10178
11371
Alfalfa
8524
8524
9160
9160
7633
8524
8142
7840
11196
Forages
2473
2700
Others
1743
FieldCrops
2251
Maize1
875
509.5
3.5
1.0
48.9
33.2
56.6
0.6
365.7
320.3
0.0
0.0
108.8
211.6
18.9
3.2
0.0
853
487.4
3.6
1.0
48.9
33.2
34.3
0.6
365.7
319.4
0.0
0.0
108.1
211.3
19.0
14.2
0.0
858
489.2
4.8
1.4
49.7
34.2
32.8
0.6
365.7
322.0
0.0
0.0
107.0
215.1
19.2
3.4
0.0
859
496.9
4.8
1.4
51.8
34.2
32.8
6.3
365.7
322.0
0.0
0.0
107.0
215.1
17.1
2.9
0.0
865
499.3
4.8
1.9
56.9
34.2
32.8
0.6
368.0
324.3
0.0
0.0
109.3
215.1
17.9
1.2
0.0
860
495.8
4.6
1.7
54.8
34.1
32.5
0.6
367.5
321.8
0.0
0.0
107.3
214.5
18.9
2.4
0.0
851
489.2
4.2
1.5
52.8
33.8
29.1
0.6
367.2
319.0
0.0
0.0
106.3
212.7
19.0
2.4
0.0
847
488.1
4.8
1.9
57.1
33.3
23.3
0.6
367.1
316.8
0.0
0.0
105.2
211.6
18.8
2.0
0.0
660
379.7
5.8
0.2
43.4
19.8
17.8
0.2
292.4
235.7
13.9
0.0
148.4
73.4
22.6
8.1
0.0
665
379.7
5.8
0.2
43.4
19.8
17.8
0.2
292.4
242.5
14.4
0.0
150.1
78.0
22.6
9.7
0.0
688
383.0
5.2
0.2
47.6
19.8
17.7
0.2
292.4
259.6
15.1
0.0
143.4
101.1
21.9
7.5
0.0
702
383.0
5.2
0.2
47.6
19.8
17.7
0.2
292.4
273.1
14.4
0.0
140.2
118.5
21.6
6.3
0.0
678
378.2
4.6
0.2
43.4
19.8
17.6
0.2
292.4
251.6
23.1
4.4
180.9
43.2
20.8
12.2
0.0
127
721
389.7
4.6
0.2
54.9
19.8
17.6
0.2
292.4
286.2
2.0
4.7
234.2
45.3
10.7
6.6
2.1
133
1886
2441
1500
1886
2520
1886
1886
1886
1886
1886
1886
1886
Eggplant
Onion
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Watermelon
Cantaloupe
Okra
Raddish
Garlic
Carrot
Squash
Others
3008
2735
2356
2700
2700
2251
Wheat
Barely
Sorghum
Sugarcane
Tobacco
Maize1
1092
Pepper
FieldCrops
2004
Potao
1081
Cucumber
Vegetables
2524
1743
2473
2473
2493
2693
2962
1857
1857
1857
1857
1857
1857
1857
2481
1857
1477
2404
1857
1075
1974
1064
2524
AverageCWR Weighted
(Drip&Surface) Average
m3/Feddan
Tomato
Vegetables
0.0
0.0
0.1
8.8
3.6
0.1
21.4
2.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
1.5
1.3
2.1
0.3
1.3
2.7
0.9
1.1
2.7
0.2
4.9
1997
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
3.6
0.1
22.1
2.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.5
1.4
2.8
0.3
1.2
4.1
0.9
1.3
1.9
0.3
3.8
1998
0.0
0.0
0.1
8.8
3.7
0.1
22.2
2.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.5
1.2
2.3
0.3
1.2
4.5
0.9
1.0
1.9
0.1
4.6
1999
0.0
0.0
0.1
7.9
3.2
0.1
18.5
1.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
1.3
1.2
2.8
0.3
0.5
1.9
0.8
1.2
2.6
0.2
3.4
2000
0.0
1.4
0.1
8.3
3.4
0.1
18.7
1.4
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.3
1.3
1.2
2.8
0.3
0.5
2.6
0.8
1.6
1.3
0.1
3.8
2001
0.0
1.4
0.1
8.2
3.3
0.1
18.4
1.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
1.3
1.2
2.8
0.2
0.5
2.4
0.8
1.5
1.8
0.2
3.5
2002
TableA10.AgriculturalwaterdemandforAlBatinahmodelarea(Mm3)(Source:ICBA,2011)
0.0
1.4
0.1
8.3
3.3
0.1
18.9
1.6
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.4
1.2
2.6
0.2
0.7
2.5
0.9
1.3
2.0
0.2
3.8
2003
0.0
1.4
0.1
8.5
3.3
0.1
18.7
1.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
1.4
1.2
2.5
0.2
0.8
2.7
0.8
1.3
1.9
0.2
3.7
2004
0.0
1.3
0.1
6.3
3.6
0.4
17.3
4.1
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.9
1.6
1.4
0.5
0.5
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.1
4.0
2005
0.0
0.0
0.1
6.3
3.6
0.4
15.8
3.8
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.1
0.9
0.7
1.1
0.6
1.0
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.1
4.2
2006
0.0
0.0
0.1
7.2
3.7
0.5
18.5
3.6
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.2
1.1
1.3
1.5
0.5
0.8
1.4
0.8
0.9
1.3
0.2
4.3
2007
0.0
0.0
0.1
7.7
3.8
0.5
19.7
3.4
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.2
1.3
1.3
1.8
0.5
0.8
1.9
0.9
1.0
1.6
0.2
4.3
2008
128
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.9
2.8
1.1
21.9
4.4
0.2
0.7
0.0
0.1
0.7
0.8
0.8
1.0
0.8
0.7
1.1
0.9
1.4
0.1
8.2
2009
1.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.4
0.3
27.8
6.5
0.9
0.9
0.0
0.1
1.0
1.0
1.9
1.9
1.0
0.5
2.0
1.4
1.4
0.1
7.4
2010
134
7753
9303
Lemon
Mango
8657
Coconut
700
Total
2.8
0.8
39.1
26.5
45.3
0.5
292.5
407.6
8524
8524
9160
9160
7633
8524
8142
256.3
0.0
0.0
87.0
169.2
15.1
2.5
Fruit
8657
8269
Datepalm
Others
Fruitcrops
8657
Forages
Papaya
10854
Others
9304
10854
Banana
2146
10337
Rhodes
grass
Sorghum
7840
10178
11371
Alfalfa
11196
Forages
2473
2700
FieldCrops
Others
683
389.9
2.9
0.8
39.1
26.5
27.5
0.5
292.5
255.5
0.0
0.0
86.5
169.0
15.2
11.4
686
391.3
3.9
1.2
39.7
27.3
26.2
0.5
292.5
257.6
0.0
0.0
85.6
172.1
15.3
2.7
687
397.5
3.9
1.2
41.4
27.3
26.2
5.0
292.5
257.6
0.0
0.0
85.6
172.1
13.7
2.3
692
399.4
3.9
1.5
45.5
27.3
26.2
0.5
294.4
259.5
0.0
0.0
87.4
172.1
14.3
0.9
688
396.7
3.7
1.4
43.8
27.3
26.0
0.5
294.0
257.5
0.0
0.0
85.9
171.6
15.1
1.9
681
391.4
3.4
1.2
42.3
27.1
23.2
0.5
293.8
255.2
0.0
0.0
85.1
170.1
15.2
1.9
678
390.5
3.9
1.5
45.7
26.6
18.6
0.5
293.7
253.4
0.0
0.0
84.1
169.3
15.0
1.6
528
303.7
4.7
0.1
34.8
15.8
14.3
0.2
233.9
188.6
11.1
0.0
118.7
58.7
18.1
6.4
532
303.7
4.7
0.1
34.8
15.8
14.3
0.2
233.9
194.0
11.5
0.0
120.1
62.4
18.1
7.7
550
306.4
4.1
0.2
38.0
15.8
14.1
0.1
233.9
207.6
12.0
0.0
114.7
80.9
17.5
6.0
562
306.4
4.1
0.2
38.0
15.8
14.1
0.1
233.9
218.5
11.5
0.0
112.2
94.8
17.3
5.1
129
542
302.6
3.7
0.1
34.8
15.8
14.1
0.2
233.9
201.3
18.5
3.5
144.7
34.6
16.7
9.8
36.2
577
311.8
3.7
0.1
44.0
15.8
14.1
0.2
233.9
229.0
1.6
3.8
187.4
8.6
5.3
TableA11.EstimatedhistoricalabstractionratesinAlBatinahgovernorates(Mm3).
(Source:ICBA,2011).
1982
Agricultural Municipal Northern Agricultural

Batinah
115
4
119
42
Municipal
Total
Southern
Batinah
43
162
1983
129
133
46
47
180
1984
143
147
51
53
200
1985
159
164
57
59
223
1986
184
190
63
65
255
1987
204
210
70
72
282
1988
228
235
79
81
316
1989
247
255
87
90
345
1990
281
290
97
100
390
1991
310
10
320
108
111
431
1992
329
10
339
119
123
462
1993
365
11
376
133
137
513
1994
378
12
390
148
153
543
1995
388
12
400
165
170
570
1996
436
13
449
166
171
620
1997
483
15
498
167
172
670
1998
506
16
521
168
173
694
1999
507
16
523
169
174
697
2000
507
16
523
170
175
698
2001
510
16
526
171
176
702
2002
505
16
521
172
177
698
2003
498
15
514
172
177
691
2004
458
14
472
173
178
650
2005
408
13
421
174
179
600
2006
369
11
380
175
180
560
2007
358
11
369
176
181
550
2008
348
11
359
176
181
540
2009
351
11
361
176
181
542
2010
384
12
396
176
181
577
130
135
TableA12.LivestockwaterrequirementsinAlBatinahgovernorates.
(Source:AgricultureCensus20042005).
No
Animal
RangeofPerday
waterrequirements
(Liters)
AverageWater
Requirements
(Liters)
Numberof
animals
LivestockWater
Demand(m3/year)
Camel
2250
36
5626
73926
Cattle
2050
35
66411
848401
Sheep
35
110572
161435
Goat
35
430005
627807
Total
1711569
Total(Mm )
1.7
TableA13.:LivestockwaterdemandinmaincatchmentsofAlBatinahgovernorates.
(Source:ModifiedafterGRC,2003:AssumptionLivestockpercatchmentisassumedsimilartoGRC
2003distribution).
No.
CatchmentName
Livestock2003
(GRC)(Mm3/yr)
Livestockdemand(census2005)
Hawrim
0.02
0.03
Bidh
0.029
0.04
Rajmi
0.035
0.05
Fizh
0.039
0.06
Suq
0.061
0.09
Jizi
0.124
0.18
Hilti
0.124
0.18
Ahin
0.069
0.10
Sakhin
0.03
0.04
10
Sarami
0.05
0.07
11
Shafan
0.13
0.19
12
Hawasinah
0.05
0.07
13
Mashin
0.09
0.13
14
MayhahMabrahHajir
0.17
0.25
15
BaniGhafir
0.11
0.16
16
Fara
0.05
0.07
Total
1.181
1.71
131
136
137
100
570
Wheat
Barely
96%
75%
70%
3892
Others
54%
52%
521
Squash
70%
70%
70%
83%
70%
4%
70%
45%
83%
63%
54%
18%
6%
5%
15791
532
Carrot
Total
Vegetables
FieldCrops
578
Okra
Garlic
590
Cantaloupe
58
836
Watermelon
Reddish
1110
755
Cauliflower
214
1167
Eggplant
Cabbage
1421
Pepper
Onion
803
58
3256
Potato
Cucumber
Tomato
4%
25%
54%
42%
30%
40%
31%
40%
40%
40%
47%
40%
2%
40%
26%
47%
36%
31%
10%
3%
3%
Flood
46%
58%
2,946
3,240
2,031
2,031
2,031
2,031
2,031
2,031
2,031
2,714
2,031
1,616
2,629
2,031
1,176
2,159
1,164
2,761
2,525
2,777
1,741
1,741
1,741
1,741
1,741
1,741
1,741
2,326
1,741
1,385
2,253
1,741
1,008
1,850
997
2,366
Drip
3
(m /
Feddan)
2,735
3,008
1,886
1,886
1,886
1,886
1,886
1,886
1,886
2,520
1,886
1,500
2,441
1,886
1,092
2,004
1,081
2,564
1.8
0.3
6.3
0.6
0.9
0.1
1.1
0.9
0.1
1.8
0.6
0.5
1.7
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.1
2.3
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.3
2.1
0.7
0.7
0.1
0.8
0.7
1.4
0.1
8.3
Modern
3
(Mm )
Waterdemand
(Mm3)
(Census2005)
Sprinkler Flood
3
3
(m /
(Mm )
Feddan)
Cropwaterrequirements
Flood
3
(m /
Feddan)
70%
60%
69%
60%
60%
60%
53%
60%
98%
60%
74%
53%
64%
69%
90%
97%
97%
Modern
Percentageof
irrigation
technology(ICBA
2010)
48%
30%
46%
30%
30%
30%
17%
30%
96%
30%
55%
17%
37%
46%
82%
94%
95%
Percentageof
irrigation
technology
(Census2005)
Flood Modern
Vegetables
Cropped
areasin
2010
(Feddan)
Majorcrops
(Batina
region)
1.9
0.4
8.5
1.1
1.2
0.1
1.3
1.3
2.2
2.4
1.3
0.6
2.5
1.8
1.7
0.1
8.8
Total
TableA14.:Reducedwaterrequirementsthroughusinginnovativeirrigationmethods(Source:ICBA,2011).
0.2
9.4
3.6
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.6
0.5
0.1
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.3
Flood
3
(Mm )
0.7
0.2
24.6
4.6
0.7
0.6
0.1
0.6
0.7
2.1
1.3
0.9
0.3
1.5
1.1
1.5
0.1
8.5
Modern
3
(Mm )
Waterddemand
(m3)
(ICBA2010)
132
1.77
0.34
34
8.17
1.08
1.12
0.12
1.23
1.24
2.21
2.33
1.23
0.59
2.43
1.7
1.71
0.07
8.75
Totalwater
demand
(40%Flood
&60%drip)
138
2364
4076
Others
TotalField
Crops
Forages
229
Others
476
Others
87536
18
Papaya
Total
5308
Banana
41558
1913
Mango
TotalFruits
2044
20
70%
89%
95%
95%
89%
82%
74%
95%
94%
31779
70%
26111
Lemon
Coconut
Datepalm
Total
Forages
Fruitcrops
93%
1938
75%
15%
20364
95%
95%
92%
96%
Rhodes
grass
Sorghum
3580
1042
Maize1
Alfalfa
91%
Tobacco
95%
Sugarcane
91%
Sorghum
30%
11%
5%
5%
11%
18%
26%
5%
6%
30%
25%
7%
85%
5%
9%
5%
8%
4%
5%
9%
50%
54%
54%
50%
46%
42%
54%
53%
39%
42%
53%
9%
54%
52%
54%
52%
54%
54%
52%
50%
46%
46%
50%
54%
58%
46%
47%
61%
58%
47%
91%
46%
48%
46%
48%
46%
46%
48%
9,323
9,323
10,019
10,019
8,349
9,323
8,906
8,575
2,348
11,132
12,245
2,704
1,906
2,704
2,704
2,726
7,991
7,991
8,588
8,588
7,156
7,991
7,633
7,350
2,012
9,542
10,496
2,318
1,634
2,318
2,318
2,337
8,657
8,657
9,304
9,303
7,753
8,657
8,269
7,963
2,180
10,337
11,371
2,511
1,770
2,511
2,511
2,532
512
4.8
0.2
53.4
17.7
14.3
0.2
301.7
1.7
4.8
38.9
47.2
6.9
2.1
49.2
7.2
2.2
2.1
5.1
0.2
59.1
21.1
18.6
0.2
237 749.5
5
0.2
5.8
3.4
4.3
15.5 317.2
0.5
0.3
186.2 225.1
0.3
0.2
579
221.6
2.7
0.1
30.1
10
8.1
0.1
170.5
52.3
0.9
2.7
22
26.7
6.2
3.9
1.2
856
175.4
0.1
25.7
10
9.6
0.1
128
223.5
1.1
2.1
200.7
19.6
4.7
2.9
0.9
133
718
397.02
4.68
0.18
55.82
19.99
17.68
0.2
298.46
275.81
2.04
4.79
222.71
46.27
10.94
6.75
2.09
Table A 15. : Groundwater balance for the proposed recharge dams case under BAU scenario (Mm3)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
Year
Recharge
(with)
Inflow
from
Jabal
Seawater
intrusion
(with)
Removed Total
from
Inflow
storage
Abstraction
Outflow
Storage
gain
Total
Outflow
1982
136
258
0.3
209
602
91
397
114
602
1983
59
188
0.5
187
435
101
313
21
435
1984
19
132
2.5
220
373
112
259
373
1985
24
140
5.6
177
347
125
220
347
1986
61
280
8.2
73
423
138
214
70
423
1987
105
381
10.1
38
534
154
232
149
534
1988
131
323
13.2
33
500
170
245
85
500
1989
90
295
22.1
46
453
189
228
35
453
1990
93
350
29.9
37
510
210
226
74
510
1991
49
318
44.3
49
461
233
210
17
461
1992
93
201
56.7
117
468
259
190
19
468
1993
57
217
80.3
105
459
287
162
10
459
1994
62
218
105.4
83
469
319
144
469
1995
204
488
119.7
813
365
176
272
813
1996
141
380
119.9
646
366
192
88
646
1997
268
515
96.8
880
368
254
257
880
1998
96
389
108.7
39
631
370
232
29
631
1999
73
177
118.2
200
568
372
189
568
2000
36
210
132.5
145
524
374
149
524
2001
35
218
143.0
108
504
376
128
504
2002
61
321
147.8
39
569
377
128
63
569
2003
52
260
150.1
68
529
379
127
22
529
2004
36
205
156.9
104
502
381
119
501
134
139

2005
55
266
159.9
34
515
383
120
12
515
2006
96
272
157.9
25
550
387
121
42
550
2007
123
456
149.3
14
742
389
146
207
742
2008
29
226
159.9
135
550
391
131
28
550
2009
69
244
161.1
54
528
393
119
17
528
2010
88
241
160.0
38
527
395
118
14
527
2011
155
259
149.0
49
611
395
142
73
610
2012
83
188
161.7
99
532
395
132
531
2013
40
133
170.8
171
514
395
118
513
2014
86
139
178.6
122
525
395
108
22
525
2015
134
277
175.1
26
613
395
122
95
612
2016
107
380
163.3
23
674
395
142
137
674
2017
153
320
151.9
11
635
395
158
83
635
2018
95
293
154.5
27
570
395
152
23
570
2019
107
344
150.7
14
616
395
158
64
616
2020
128
313
152.5
16
609
395
165
49
609
2021
127
197
149.5
98
572
395
160
17
572
2022
140
210
154.9
72
577
395
151
30
576
2023
82
216
158.9
79
536
395
138
536
2024
191
490
144.6
829
395
171
263
829
2025
142
383
142.4
10
677
395
186
96
677
2026
251
521
118.7
891
395
241
255
891
2027
118
389
127.8
26
661
395
228
39
661
2028
81
177
135.2
194
588
395
184
588
2029
59
209
147.3
129
545
395
149
545
2030
51
217
156.5
98
522
395
126
522
135
140
TableA16.:TreatedwastewaterquantitiesandusesbywilayatinAlBatinahgovernorates.
(Source:ICBA,2011).
WilayatName
OwnerName
Awabi
MRMWR
Barka
AjitKumarkarasandas
SoharPoultryCompany
S.A.O.G
AlKhabourah
Liwa
ArRustaq
Ground
recharge
3
(m /day)
Reuse
Others
3
(m /day)
300
300
150
150
240
240
Totaluse
3
(m /day)
250
250
AECODevelopments
700
700
MinistryOfCommerceAnd
Industry
100
100
GULFMUSHROOMPRODUCTS
AESBarka
AESBarka
AESBarka
MRMWR
2000
2000
MRMWR
79
79
RoyalOmanPolice
23
23
155
155
MRMWR
AlhassanEngineeringCo.
S.A.O.G
Dustcon
70
70
130
130
MRMWR
189
189
MinistryOfSocialAffairs
120
120
MinistryOfDefence
700
700
MinistryOfDefence
104
104
SOHARPORTPROJECT
Industrial
use
3
(m /day)
MRMWR
L&TModularFabricationLLC
AlMusanaah
Irrigation
use
(m3/day)
RoyalOmanPolice
136
141
Saham
MinistryOfDefence
288
MinistryOfHealth
62.5
MinistryOfEducation
125
MRMWR
BahwanGroupOfCompanies
288
187.5
250
125
500
500
700
700
46
46
MinistryOfEducation
180
180
MinistryOfSocialAffairs
120
120
500
RoyalOmanPolice
MinistryOfHealth
Shinas
MRMWR
RoyalOmanPolice
RoyalOmanPolice
Sohar
80
80
500
26 wadi
26
41
41
OmanEngineOil
JGCCorporation(Oman)
AlJazeeraTubeMillsCo.
200
AlManaraInternational
(Interbeton)
180
180
180
180
1000
1000
MajisIndustrialServicesSAOC
29
29
SoharAluminumCompany
30
30
30
30
Larsen&Toubro(Oman)LLC
500
500
700
700
L&TModularFabricationLLC
130
130
OmanMethonolCompanyLLC
HMREnvEngServices
200
25
25
80
450
80
137
142

MajisIndustrialServicesSAOC
1445
AlwadiHotel
180
180
OMANSUNFARMS
300
300
70
70
360
360
3375
3375
100
100
MinistryOfHealth
80
MinistryOfDefence
80
80
PublicEstab.ForIndustrial
Estates
582
582
MinistryOfCommerceAnd
Industry
50
50
MinistryOfHealth
23
23
RoyalOmanPolice
138
138
75
MinistryOfEducation
OmanMiningCompany
SoharMunicipality
MinistryOfEducation
AsSuwayq
MinistryOfHealth
MRMWR
17074
220
80
40
560
478.5
1665
160
40
75
595
18708
TableA17.MainwadisinSalalahandtheirmeanannualrunoffvolume(m3)
(Source:ModifiedafterMRMWR,2004).
2
Wadi
Area(km )
EventDate
Runoff
3
Volume(m )
Mean
Catchment
Rainfall(mm)
Runoff
Volume
Coefficient
Average
Volume
3
(m )
Jarsis
100
Dec85
245,000
245,000
May96
16
Jun96
45
May02
NA
240
Apr88
171,000
50
1.30%
Sahalnawt
272
610,375
138
143
Arzat
Hamran
149
Darbat
394
Upper(Falls)
Darbat
Lower
(Taqah)
418
Mar89
2,898,000
105
10%
Apr92
1,058,000
40
10%
May96
280,000
45
2.30%
Jun96
134,000
40
1.20%
Dec96
56,000
37
0.60%
Oct99
115,000
32
1.30%
May02
171,000
120
0.50%
Apr88
42,000
50
0.60%
Mar89
140
Apr92
21,000
40
0.40%
May96
300,000
50
4%
May02
34,500,000
130
178%
Jun96
25,000
68
9.20%
JulAug1998
1,888,000
152
310%
SepOct1998
3,839,000
34
2820%
Apr88
5,914,000
80
19%
Mar89
NA
190
Apr92
1,260,000
20
16%
May96
7,190,000
40
45%
Jun96
7,000,000
150
11.80%
May02
NA
160
Apr88
6,218,000
80
19%
Mar89
190
0%
Apr92
106,000
20
1.30%
May96
5,453,000
40
33%
Jun96
13,553,000
150
22%
May02
NA
160
8,715,750
1,917,333
5,341,000
6,332,500
139
144
TableA18.MaincatchmentsandcatchmentareasinAlBatinahgovernorates(Source:ICBA,2011).
CatchmentName
Area(Km2)
WadiMalahah
32
WadiQawr
61
WadiAlHawarim
155
WadiHatta
162
WadiFaydh
163
WadiBid'ah
154
WadiRijma
393
WadiFizh
184
386
WadiSuq
211
WadiAlJizi
693
WadiAlHilti
594
WadiAhin
660
WadiSakhin
366
WadiAsSarami
406
WadiShafan
755
WadiAlHawasinah
894
WadiMashin
274
1,387
WadiBaniGhafir
1,252
WadiAlFara'
1169
WadiBanikharus
1145
WadiMa'awil
1096
WadiTaww
365
WadiManumah
24
Total
12982
140
145
TableA19.MeanannualwatersurfaceinflowandoutflowinthemaincatchmentsinAlBatinah
governorates(Mm3)(Source:ICBA,2011,modifiedafterGRC,2006).
No.
CatchmentName
Catchment
Component
Area
2
(km )
Rainfall
(mm)
Runoff
Percentage
ofRainfall
SurfaceInflow
fromJabal
Catchments
(Mm3)
Surface
outFlow
tothe
Coast
(Mm3)
WadiMalahah
LowerMalahah
33
94
0.7
0.02
WadiQawr
LowerQawr
58
94
0.7
0.04
WadiAlHawarim
LowerAlHawarim
156
94
0.7
0.10
WadiHatta
UpperHatta
271
125
18.4
6.22
LowerHatta
93
95
0.7
0.06
WadiFaydh
LowerFaydh
166
95
0.7
0.11
WadiBid'ah
LowerBid'ah
155
100
0.7
0.11
WadiRijma
UpperRijma
293
119
12
4.18
LowerRijma
180
96
0.7
0.12
UpperFizh
267
119
13
4.12
LowerFizh
27
96
0.7
0.02
UpperBaniUmarAl
Gharbi
276
119
13
4.26
LowerBaniUmarAl
Gharbi
205
96
0.7
0.14
WadiFizh
WadiBaniUmarAl
Gharbi
10
WadiSuq
LowerSuq
212
100
0.9
0.19
11
WAdiAlJizi
UpperAlJizi
633
142
16.2
14.57
LowerAljizi
518
105
0.35
0.19
UpperAlHilti
330
141
11.2
5.20
LowerAlHilti
319
99
0.35
0.11
UpperAhin
735
151
11.9
13.21
LowerAhin
269
102
0.35
0.10
12
13
WadiAlHilti
WadiAhin
141
146

14
WadiSakhin
LowerSakhin
366
91
0.7
0.23
15
WadiAsSarami
UpperAsSarami
213
135
12
3.44
LowerAsSarami
194
118
0.7
0.16
UpperShafan
272
133
9.1
3.29
LowerShafan
483
73
0.7
0.25
UpperAlHawasinah
591
147
4.2
3.65
LowerAlHawasinah
390
86
0.9
0.30
16
17
WadiShafan
WadiAlHawasinah
18
WadiMashin
LowerMashin
275
83
0.7
0.16
19
AlMayhaMabrah
AlHajirSystem
UpperAlMayha
MabrahAlHajir
730
126
12
11.04
LowerAlMayha
MabrahAlHajir
720
74
0.7
0.37
UpperBaniGhafir
600
195
6.4
7.49
LowerBaniGhafir
783
90
2.1
1.48
UpperAlFara
686
187
4.5
5.77
LowerAlFara
487
91
2.3
1.02
UpperBaniKharus
759
187
4.5
6.39
LowerBaniKharus
421
91
2.3
0.88
UpperMa'awil
315
195
4.5
2.77
LowerMa'awil
783
90
2.3
1.62
20
21
22
23
WadiBaniGhafir
WadiAlFara'
WadiBanikharus
WadiMa'awil
24
WadiManumah
LowerManumah
76
90
4.5
0.31
25
WadiTaww
LowerTaww
366
90
2.3
0.76
Total
14701
95.60
8.85
142
147
TableA20.Estimatedannualinfiltrationvolumesfrommainrechargedamsinthestudyarea(Mm3)
(Source:MRMWR,2010).
Year
WadiAlJizi
(Sohar)
WadiHiltiSalahi
(Sohar)
WadiAhin
(Saham)
WadiAl
Hawasinah(Al
Khabourah)
Totalfrom
RechargeDams
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
0.6
1988
0.1
1989
6.7
3.3
10
1990
2.0
5.2
1991
0.8
1992
5.1
1993
0.2
1994
3.3
1995
25.8
3.2
33.7
12.0
75
1996
12.1
1.0
10.3
6.7
30
1997
25.6
2.2
34.8
21.7
84
1998
3.3
0.7
9.4
5.7
19
1999
1.2
0.7
7.6
4.2
14
2000
0.7
0.3
2.5
1.2
2001
1.1
0.4
6.5
3.5
12
2002
1.9
0.8
11.2
3.5
17
2003
2.9
0.1
2.9
2.1
2004
2.1
11.8
0.3
14
2005
1.7
0.3
13.4
4.4
20
2006
4.0
0.6
9.1
7.5
21
2007
7.3
0.6
6.8
5.1
20
2008
2009
11.0
0.8
14.9
3.7
30
2010
8.0
0.1
6.9
4.7
20
Average
6.0
1.2
12.1
5.7
14
143
148
Waterquality
TableA21.GroundwaterqualityinAlBatinah(2011.)
(Source:ICBA,2011).
Musanah
Barka
Name
Aswaq
ID
EC
(mS/cm)
pH
SAR
(mmoles/l)0.5
Na
(mg/l)
Na
(meq/l)
Mg
(mg/l)
Mg
meq/l)
Ca
(mg/l)
Ca
(meq/l)
1BK
0.442
8.19
1.80
21.125
0.92
0.00
10.4
0.52
2BK
0.749
8.41
17.68
322.5
14.03
0.00
25.25
1.26
3BK
2.77
8.12
4.82
248.25
10.80
77.5
6.37
73.5
3.67
4BK
4.71
7.81
6.30
462.5
20.13
126
10.36
202
10.08
5BK
8.77
7.52
2.53
332.5
14.47
610
50.16
307.5
15.34
6BK
9.75
7.62
6.20
742.5
32.31
432.5
35.57
375
18.71
7BK
16.59
7.45
12.92
1855
80.72
622.5
51.19
537.5
26.82
8BK
15.79
7.76
14.70
1942.5
84.53
587.5
48.31
357.5
17.84
9MS
1.35
8.18
3.87
114.75
4.99
19.5
1.60
34.5
1.72
10MS
1.895
7.96
5.50
204.25
8.89
33
2.71
50.25
2.51
11MS
1.919
3.24
148.5
6.46
55.5
4.56
68.25
3.41
12MS
1.863
8.28
5.68
198
8.62
27.75
2.28
46.5
2.32
13MS
2.2
8.1
5.64
277.5
12.08
70.75
5.82
67
3.34
14MS
11.45
7.36
11.24
1305
56.79
432.5
35.57
310
15.47
15SWQ
0.761
8.06
3.75
62.75
2.73
0.2
0.02
20.875
1.04
16SWQ
0.758
8.06
2.25
98.75
4.30
15.45
1.27
120.25
6.00
17SWQ
0.807
8.35
4.85
73.5
3.20
0.00
17.4
0.87
18SWQ
1.429
8.04
3.55
121.25
5.28
35.25
2.90
30.25
1.51
19SWQ
3.14
8.07
8.79
410
17.84
83.25
6.85
27.75
1.38
20SWQ
3.86
7.94
3.52
287.5
12.51
277.5
22.82
48.25
2.41
21SWQ
4.48
7.92
5.77
427.5
18.60
231
19.00
36
1.80
22KBH
6.67
7.79
4.71
480
20.89
422.5
34.75
93
4.64
144
149
Shinas
Liwa
Sohar
Saham
Khabura

23KBH
7.98
8.2
17.27
1285
55.92
213.5
17.56
68.5
3.42
24KBH
9.57
7.82
9.42
1047.5
45.58
487.5
40.09
136
6.79
25KBH
16.31
7.77
16.08
2200
95.74
735
60.44
210.25
10.49
26KBH
29
7.64
17.80
3600
156.66
1632.5
134.25
415
20.71
27SHM
0.691
8.43
3.26
50.5
2.20
0.00
18.175
0.91
28SHM
1.747
8.22
2.28
102
4.44
71.75
5.90
34
1.70
29SHM
2.01
8.44
3.76
173.75
7.56
84.25
6.93
23
1.15
30SHM
7.21
8.23
18.81
4343.75
189.02
2106.25
173.21
575
28.69
31SHM
10.43
7.79
11.52
1310
57.01
510
41.94
141.25
7.05
32SHM
21.7
6.45
1312.5
57.11
1652.5
135.90
420
20.96
33SOH
0.612
8.46
3.62
48.25
2.10
0.00
13.45
0.67
34SOH
1.28
8.68
5.17
141.5
6.16
27.5
2.26
11.475
0.57
35SOH
2.25
9.05
7.73
292.5
12.73
62
5.10
6.625
0.33
36SOH
5.49
8.03
2.84
320
13.93
415
34.13
282.5
14.10
37SOH
5.95
8.24
7.50
685
29.81
330
27.14
89.25
4.45
38SOH
8.78
8.77
8.44
905
39.38
465
38.24
105.75
5.28
39LWA
1.369
8.33
3.70
142.5
6.20
46.75
3.84
35.25
1.76
40LWA
1.467
8.46
3.29
130
5.66
49.25
4.05
37.5
1.87
41LWA
4.48
8.31
1.49
139
6.05
335
27.55
110.5
5.51
42LWA
5.56
8.84
1.45
154.5
6.72
425
34.95
166.5
8.31
43LWA
5.91
8.29
4.20
410
17.84
400
32.89
64
3.19
44LWA
11.01
8.04
4.13
602.5
26.22
762.5
62.71
360
17.96
45SHN
1.141
8.54
5.53
129.75
5.65
5.325
0.44
33
1.65
46SHN
2.15
8.01
2.92
195.25
8.50
134.5
11.06
116.75
5.83
47SHN
5.42
7.96
3.22
347.5
15.12
412.5
33.92
202
10.08
48SHN
10.07
7.39
1.67
270
11.75
915
75.25
480
23.95
49SHN
18.7
7.62
14.62
2420
105.31
1040
85.53
365
18.21
50SHN
24.2
7.19
3.20
812.5
35.36
2357.5
193.87
1015
50.65
145
150
Drinkingwaterqualitystandards
Livestockandpoultry
Introduction
Water is essential to meet the requirements of feed ingredients and for livestock and poultry. In this
regards safe water quality is desirable for healthy livestock and poultry (Tables A22A24). Water that
adversely affects the growth, reproduction, or productivity of livestock and poultry cannot be
consideredsuitable.Unsafewatercontainshighlevelofcontaminantssuchasnitrates,bacteria,organic
materialsandsuspendedsolids,andotherelectrolytes.Thereforewaterqualityistobemaintainedtoa
safer level for better livestock performance. Following are the typical water quality parameters for
livestockandpoultryuse.
Totalcoliformbacteria
pH(acidoralkalinelevel)
Totaldissolvedsolids
Totalsolublesalt
Salinity
Hardness
Alkalinity(CO3+HCO3)
Sulfate
Phosphates
Al,As,B,Cd,Cr,Co,Cu,F,Pb,Hg,NO3,NO2,SO4,Se,V,Zn,
Otherfactorssuchastoxicityproblemswithspecificmineralsorpesticides,oroccasionally,
heavyalgaegrowth
146
151
TableA22.Waterqualityrequirementsforlivestockandpoultryuses(AdaptedfromNationalAcademy
ofSciences(1972,1974,cf.WaterQualityforAgricultureFAOIrrigationandDrainagePaper29rev.1,
1994;AyersandWestcot,1994).
WaterSalinity
Rating
Remarks
ECdS/cm
<1.5
Excellent
Usableforallclassesoflivestockandpoultry.
Very
Satisfactory
Usableforallclassesoflivestockandpoultry.Maycausetemporary
diarrhoeainlivestocknotaccustomedtosuchwater;watery
droppingsinpoultry.
1.55.0
Satisfactoryfor
Livestock
Maycausetemporarydiarrhoeaorberefusedatfirstbyanimalsnot
accustomedtosuchwater.
5.08.0
UnfitforPoultry
Oftencauseswateryfaeces,increasedmortalityanddecreased
growth,especiallyinturkeys.
LimitedUsefor
Livestock
Usablewithreasonablesafetyfordairyandbeefcattle,sheep,swine
andhorses.Avoiduseforpregnantorlactatinganimals.
8.011.0
UnfitforPoultry
Notacceptableforpoultry.
11.016.0
VeryLimited
Use
Unfitforpoultry.Considerableriskinusingforpregnantorlactating
cows,horsesorsheep,orfortheyoungofthesespecies.Ingeneral,
useshouldbeavoidedalthougholderruminants,horses,poultrymay
subsistonwaterssuchastheseundercertainconditions.
>16.0
Not
Recommended
Riskswithsuchhighlysalinewateraresogreatthatitcannotbe
recommendedforuseunderanyconditions.
147
152
TableA23.GuidelinesforlevelsoftoxicsubstancesinLivestockdrinkingwater1
cf.WaterQualityforAgricultureFAOIrrigationandDrainagePaper29rev.1,1994).
Constituent(Symbol)
Upperlimit
(mg/L)
Aluminium(Al)
5.0
Arsenic(As)
0.2
2
Beryllium(Be)
0.1
Boron(B)
5.0
Cadmium(Cd)
0.05
Calcium
100
Carbonates+bicarbonates(alkalinity)
2,000
Chlorides
100
Chromium(Cr)
1.0
Cobalt(Co)
1.0
Copper(Cu)
0.5
Fluoride(F)
2.0
Magnesium
<250
Iron(Fe)
notneeded
4
Lead(Pb)
0.1
5
Manganese(Mn)
0.05
Mercury(Hg)
0.01
Nitrate+Nitrite(NO3N+NO2N)
100.0
Nitrite(NO2N)
10.0
6
Phosphorous(P)
0.7
Potassium(K)
20
Selenium(Se)
0.05
Sodium(Na)
50
Sulfur
50
Vanadium(V)
0.10
Zinc(Zn)
24.0
AdaptedfromNationalAcademyofSciences(1972).
Insufficientdataforlivestock.Valueformarineaquaticlifeisusedhere.
AdaptedfromAustralianWaterResourcesCouncil(1969),cfFAOBulletin29.
Leadisaccumulativeandproblemsmaybeginatathresholdvalueof0.05mg/l.
Insufficientdataforlivestock.Valueforhumandrinkingwaterused.
ZinproWaterAnalysisProgram,Version2.02002
148
153
pH
Guidelines for the suitability of water pH do not exist due to lack of research. It is generally assumed
thatthehumanpHguideline(pH6.58.5)issatisfactoryfordairycattle.IfpHislessthan5.5,itreduces
feedintake,pHmorethan9maycausedigestiveupsetsanddiarrhea,lowerfeedconversionefficiency
andreduceintakeofwaterandfeed.
TableA24.Desiredandpotentiallevelsofpollutantsinlivestockwatersupplies(Source:Agricultural
WasteManagementFieldHandbook,page1to16).
Substance
Desiredrange
Problemrange
Totalbacteriaper100ml
<200
Fecalcoliformper100ml
<1
>1foryounganimals
>10forolderanimals
Fecalstrepper100ml
<1
>3foryounganimals
>30forolderanimals
pH
DissolvedsolidsinmgL1
>1,000,000
6.87.5
<5.5or>8.5
<500
>3,000
TotalalkalinityinmgL1
<400
>5,000
SulfateinmgL1
<250
>2,000
PhosphateinmgL1
<1
notestablished
149
154
Waterqualitystandards
Agricultureuse
Introduction
The principal parameters for water classification are dissolved constituents in water. There are four
basic criteria for evaluating water quality for irrigation purpose (Shahid, 2004): 1) Total soluble salt
content,2)Relativeproportionofsodiumcation(Na+)toothercationssodiumadsorptionratio(sodium
hazard),3)Residualsodiumcarbonates(RSC)bicarbonateanions(HCO3)andcarbonateanions(CO32)
concentrationasrelatedtocalcium(Ca2+)andmagnesium(Mg2+)cations,4)Excessiveconcentrationof
elementsthatcausesionicimbalanceinplantsortoxicity.
There are many water classification systems in use; however, the one of Richards (1954) is the most
widelyused.Althoughthewaterusedependsonclimateandsoiltypes.
Watersalinity
Richardsclassifiedwatersalinityandsodictyintofourclasses.Thisclassificationismodified(additionof
C5,C6andC7)toaccommodatewatersalinitylevelsfromOmanforbetterinterpretation.Tocorrelate
theinformationtoUSDAwatersalinityclasses,C5C7canbeaddedtoC4.
TableA25.Watersalinityclasses.
Watersalinity
Salinityclass
Salinityhazard
dS/m
C1C7
0.10.25
C1
Low
0.250.75
C2
Medium
0.752.25
C3
High
2.255.00
C4*
Veryhigh
5.0010.00
C5*
Strong
10.0030.00
C6*
Verystrong
>30.00
C7*
Extreme
*ModifiedRichards(1954)classificationtosuitwaterclassesfromAlBatinahandSalalah
WaterSodicity
Richards(1954)classifiedwatersodicity(SAR)intofourclasses(TableA26);however,itshouldbenoted
thatsameSARcangivedifferentsodicityclassatdifferentwaterconductivities.
SAR=Na/[(Ca+Mg)/2]0.5
WhereNa,CaandMgareinmeq/L
150
155
TableA26.Watersodicityclasses
WaterSAR
Sodicityclass
Sodicityhazard
(mmoles/L)0.5
S1S4
Lessthan10
S1
Low
1018
S2
Medium
1826
S3
High
Morethan26
S4
Veryhigh
Residualsodiumcarbonates(RSC)
TheRSCisusedtopredicttheadditionalsodiumhazardassociatedwithCaCO3andMgCO3precipitation
involvescalculationoftheRSC.
RSC(meq/L)=(CO32+HCO3)(Ca2++Mg2+)
Wherecationsandanionsareinmeq/L
TableA27.WaterRSCclasses.
RSC
meq/L
Watersuitabilityfor
irrigation
Lessthan1.25
Safe
1.252.50
Marginal
Morethan2.50
Unsuitable
151
156
TableA28:GroundwaterqualitySalalah(2011).
ID
EC
(dS/m)
pH
SAR
0.5
(mmoles/l)
Na
(mg/l)
Na
(meq/l)
Mg
(mg/l)
Mg
(meq/l)
Ca
(mg/l)
Ca
(meq/l)
1SAL
4.48
7.36
7.09
582.5
25.35
117
9.62
320
15.97
3SAL
1.639
7.43
3.16
183.5
7.99
43.75
3.60
183.75
9.17
6SAL
1.718
7.99
3.66
222.75
9.69
56
4.61
188.5
9.41
9SAL
2.68
7.33
4.85
340
14.80
84.5
6.95
234.25
11.69
13SAL
2.05
7.36
3.60
231.25
10.06
61
5.02
213.5
10.65
16SAL
2.2
7.46
4.62
285
12.40
61.75
5.08
187.5
9.36
31SAL
2.75
7.68
3.85
297.5
12.95
76.25
6.27
327.5
16.34
33SAL
7.04
7.31
8.54
930
40.47
187.75
15.44
590
29.44
34SAL
7.41
7.3
7.53
880
38.29
200.5
16.49
705
35.18
37SAL
10.69
7.38
14.29
1620
70.50
277.5
22.82
517.5
25.82
40SAL
6.7
7.32
8.31
852.5
37.10
192
15.79
482.5
24.08
43SAL
15.9
7.68
22.05
2600
113.14
390
32.07
412.5
20.58
60SAL
7.56
7.46
13.97
1242.5
54.07
197.25
16.22
275
13.72
63SAL
4.97
7.98
10.95
817.5
35.57
125
10.28
217
10.83
66SAL
4.42
7.72
9.62
680
29.59
114.75
9.44
190
9.48
70SAL
7.06
7.45
13.35
1155
50.26
185.5
15.25
262.5
13.10
73SAL
7.29
7.44
14.30
1195
52.00
162.25
13.34
262.5
13.10
92SAL
2.74
7.41
4.38
317.5
13.82
72.25
5.94
280
13.97
95SAL
3.67
7.72
4.67
417.5
18.17
108.25
8.90
427.5
21.33
98SAL
7.61
7.45
11.11
1157.5
50.37
192
15.79
507.5
25.32
101SAL
8.73
7.4
14.96
1430
62.23
214.5
17.64
340
16.97
104SAL
1.935
7.49
3.66
230.75
10.04
52.25
4.30
215.5
10.75
120SAL
3.23
7.51
5.26
390
16.97
98
8.06
255
12.72
122SAL
3.9
7.63
7.71
572.5
24.91
107.5
8.84
241
12.03
124SAL
6.35
7.26
8.99
845
36.77
170
13.98
390
19.46
127SAL
4.08
7.68
7.23
557.5
24.26
116
9.54
260
12.97
130SAL
3.27
7.25
4.79
365
15.88
109.75
9.03
260
12.97
132SAL
4.29
7.34
6.43
520
22.63
131.25
10.79
280
13.97
134SAL
5.29
7.8
8.69
735
31.98
170
13.98
262.5
13.10
136SAL
4.07
7.5
43.46
18375
799.61
4250
349.51
6562.5
327.47
152
157
FigureA1.OverallsoilsalinitydistributioninAlBatinahgovernorates(2011),andindividualwilayat
(Source:ICBA,2011)
153
158
FigureA2.OverallpHdistributioninAlBatinahgovernorates(2011),andindividualwilayats(Source:
ICBA,2011).
154
159
FigureA3.OverallsoiltexturalclassesdistributioninAlBatinahgovernorates(2011),andindividual
wilayats(Source:ICBA,2011).
155
160
TableA29.AssessmentofrootzonesalinityeffortsinSalalahgovernorate(Source:ICBA,2011).
S.N
Depth
cm
030
EC
dS/m
A
2.83
80
3060
EC
dS/m
B
3.55
81
030
2.99
82
3060
2.59
1.15
83
030
3.66
84
3060
4.75
0.77
85
030
4.24
86
3060
4.02
1.05
0.74
87
030
4.06
88
3060
3.57
1.14
0.78
89
030
4.89
90
3060
4.20
1.16
2.05
0.99
91
030
2.97
92
3060
2.50
1.19
3060
3.16
0.92
93
030
1.73
94
3060
1.58
1.09
3060
3.24
1.47
95
030
3.36
96
3060
4.08
0.82
20
3060
2.08
1.31
97
030
2.68
98
3060
2.71
0.99
22
3060
5.17
1.01
99
030
2.54
100
3060
2.62
0.97
1.92
24
3060
1.69
1.14
101
030
6.82
102
3060
5.41
1.26
030
1.56
26
3060
2.08
0.75
103
030
1.80
104
3060
1.24
1.45
030
1.52
28
3060
1.57
0.97
105
030
1.72
106
3060
1.62
1.06
29
030
8.52
30
3060
1.40
6.09
107
030
4.30
108
3060
5.46
0.79
31
030
3.02
32
3060
1.61
1.88
109
030
4.30
110
3060
4.09
1.05
33
030
2.35
34
3060
1.88
1.25
111
030
8.37
112
3060
8.33
1.00
35
030
2.59
36
3060
2.42
1.07
113
030
19.76
114
3060
18.30
1.08
37
030
5.20
38
3060
5.34
0.97
115
030
7.40
116
3060
6.00
1.23
39
030
25.50
40
3060
19.22
1.33
117
030
7.95
118
3060
7.52
1.06
41
030
6.16
42
3060
5.31
1.16
119
030
1.31
120
3060
1.53
0.86
43
030
3.19
44
3060
3.31
0.96
121
030
1.86
122
3060
2.01
0.93
45
030
10.29
46
3060
8.17
1.26
123
030
2.25
124
3060
1.82
1.24
47
030
8.07
48
3060
8.44
0.96
125
030
2.72
126
3060
2.27
1.20
49
030
8.65
50
3060
8.56
1.01
127
030
3.14
128
3060
3.41
0.92
51
030
27.10
52
3060
14.49
1.87
129
030
3.51
130
3060
2.05
1.71
53
030
4.44
54
3060
1.80
2.47
131
030
2.44
132
3060
2.38
1.03
55
030
1.75
56
3060
1.84
0.95
133
030
2.79
134
3060
2.70
1.03
57
030
1.48
58
3060
1.42
1.04
135
030
2.58
136
3060
2.18
1.18
59
030
12.50
60
3060
11.95
1.05
137
030
2.15
138
3060
2.78
0.77
61
030
11.11
62
3060
12.39
0.90
139
030
2.26
140
3060
2.01
1.12
63
030
10.88
64
3060
9.69
1.12
141
030
1.55
142
3060
1.57
0.99
65
030
3.48
66
3060
2.47
1.41
143
030
2.43
144
3060
1.95
1.25
67
030
7.77
68
3060
3.23
2.41
145
030
3.05
146
3060
3.54
0.86
69
030
2.87
70
3060
3.26
0.88
147
030
4.26
148
3060
3.61
1.18
71
030
7.87
72
3060
5.50
1.43
149
030
2.77
150
3060
2.87
0.97
73
030
14.83
74
3060
16.74
0.89
151
030
2.27
152
3060
2.05
1.11
75
030
2.63
76
3060
2.78
0.95
153
030
3.42
154
3060
2.31
1.48
77
030
4.64
78
3060
3.57
1.30
A/B>1.1
S.N
Depth
cm
030
EC
dS/m
A
3.30
3060
EC
dS/m
B
3.59
030
1.63
3060
030
2.23
3060
030
2.04
030
14.71
11
030
1.83
13
030
15
17
A/B
S.N
Depth
cm
0.92
79
1.53
1.07
3.99
0.56
3060
1.79
1.14
10
3060
20.00
12
3060
2.34
2.02
14
3060
030
2.90
16
030
4.75
18
19
030
2.72
21
030
5.21
23
030
25
27
S.N
Depth
cm
156
161
A/B
0.80
22%
162
1.895
1.919
1.863
2.2
11.45
0.761
0.758
0.807
10MS
11MS
12MS
13MS
14MS
15SWQ
16SWQ
17SWQ
9.75
6BK
1.35
8.77
5BK
9MS
4.71
4BK
15.79
2.77
3BK
8BK
0.749
2BK
16.59
0.442
1BK
7BK
EC
(mS/cm)
ID
8.35
8.06
8.06
7.36
8.1
8.28
7.96
8.18
7.76
7.45
7.62
7.52
7.81
8.12
8.41
8.19
pH
73.5
98.75
62.75
1305
277.5
198
148.5
204.25
114.75
1942.5
1855
742.5
332.5
462.5
248.25
322.5
21.125
Na
mg/l
nd
15.45
0.2
432.5
70.75
27.75
55.5
33
19.5
587.5
622.5
432.5
610
126
77.5
nd
nd
Mg
mg/l
17.4
120.25
20.875
310
67
46.5
68.25
50.25
34.5
357.5
537.5
375
307.5
202
73.5
25.25
10.4
Ca
mg/l
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
Zn
mg/l
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.1
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.1
<0.001
<0.001
0.075
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.125
<0.001
Cu
mg/l
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.025
0.2
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.05
0.1
<0.001
Mn
mg/l
0.75
0.725
0.7
0.7
1.275
0.725
0.75
0.65
0.725
0.775
0.85
0.75
0.75
0.85
0.75
0.775
0.7
Fe
mg/l
TableA30.WateranalysesfromBatinahandSalalah,2011
2.125
2.525
1.575
0.825
1.125
3.425
3.425
2.675
0.125
0.375
1.525
1.375
2.4
3.35
3.775
1.825
Pb
mg/l
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
Cr
mg/l
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.875
1.225
0.825
0.525
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
Cd
mg/l
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.9
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.05
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
B
mg/l
157
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
Ni
mg/l
0.4
0.375
0.425
0.5
0.4
0.575
0.425
0.4
0.45
0.675
0.4
0.725
0.425
0.6
0.525
0.425
0.225
Co
mg/l
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.075
0.075
0.15
0.375
0.125
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
Ba
mg/l
0.825
1.25
0.3
2.75
0.925
0.375
0.85
0.7
1.5
<0.001
0.5
1.65
1.175
1.175
0.55
1.625
Mo
mg/l
8.725
11.65
10.575
13.9
14.65
15.75
10.875
10.7
12.225
12.45
11.95
13.125
14.725
13.75
10.675
8.775
9.775
Si
mg/l
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
V
mg/l
33.25
<0.03
<0.03
707.5
380
282.5
242.5
228.25
61.5
640
870
600
78.5
244.5
179.5
<0.01
<0.01
S
mg/l
P
mg/l
0.3
2.95
0.425
7.8
1.25
2.725
3.075
1.3
7.825 2.125
7.925 <0.03
8.075 <0.03
8.15
8.425 19.925
7.85
8.1
7.85
7.95
7.875 <0.03
7.8
7.775 <0.03
7.975 2.05
8.025 <0.03
7.925 0.45
Al
mg/l
2.25
1.48
1.26
6.18
6.67
10.7
4.6
3.34
4.4
5.56
4.37
5.83
5.12
1.62
0.81
7.91
Sumof
(NO3/NO2)
mg/l
42.9
Coliform
(MPN)
Per100ml
E.Coli
(MPN)
Per100ml
163
1.28
2.25
5.49
5.95
8.78
1.369
34SOH
35SOH
36SOH
37SOH
38SOH
39LWA
1.747
28SHM
0.612
0.691
27SHM
33SOH
29
26KBH
21.7
16.31
25KBH
32SHM
9.57
24KBH
10.43
7.98
23KBH
31SHM
6.67
22KBH
7.21
4.48
21SWQ
30SHM
3.86
20SWQ
2.01
3.14
19SWQ
29SHM
1.429
18SWQ
8.33
8.77
8.24
8.03
9.05
8.68
8.46
7.49
7.79
8.23
8.44
8.22
8.43
7.64
7.77
7.82
8.2
7.79
7.92
7.94
8.07
8.04
84.25
71.75
nd
1632.5
735
487.5
213.5
422.5
231
277.5
83.25
35.25
142.5
905
685
320
292.5
141.5
48.25
1312.5
1310
46.75
465
330
415
62
27.5
nd
1652.5
510
4343.75 2106.25
173.75
102
50.5
3600
2200
1047.5
1285
480
427.5
287.5
410
121.25
35.25
105.75
89.25
282.5
6.625
11.475
13.45
420
141.25
575
23
34
18.175
415
210.25
136
68.5
93
36
48.25
27.75
30.25
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.1
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.025
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.025
<0.001
<0.001
0.05
0.075
<0.001
0.05
<0.001
0.075
<0.001
<0.001
0.05
<0.001
<0.001
0.025
0.025
<0.001
<0.001
0.025
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.8
0.675
0.775
0.9
0.725
0.75
0.725
0.65
0.7
16.875
0.675
0.75
0.825
0.725
0.725
0.7
0.775
0.85
0.7
0.775
0.775
0.725
3.05
2.65
4.3
<0.001
1.9
2.1
0.275
4.6
<0.001
37.5
1.5
2.625
0.6
4.125
2.55
0.15
0.975
2.15
3.975
<0.001
<0.001
4.175
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.05
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.325
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.025
0.6
<0.0001
0.375
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
0.3
<0.0001
158
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.6
0.725
0.475
0.4
0.425
0.275
0.5
0.65
0.125
11.875
0.475
0.05
0.55
0.425
0.65
0.325
0.625
0.3
0.35
0.475
<0.001
0.575
<0.001
0.025
<0.001
0.325
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.3
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
3.55
<0.001
1.3
0.375
0.275
<0.001
0.175
<0.001
0.6
<0.001
44.375
1.775
0.95
0.025
<0.001
0.4
1.025
1.125
1.6
<0.001
0.65
15.4
<0.001
13.725
8.7
18.375
15.05
7.875
13.05
8.825
11.65
10.1
329.375
13.175
13.25
9.55
17.1
16.075
17.675
13.8
13.8
15.35
10.025
<0.004
13
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
0.225
<0.01
51.5
527.5
1365
660
212.25
129.25
<0.03
772.5
1565
4256.25
170.25
<0.03
49
2800
1997.5
827.5
1215
112
213
867.5
8.15
72.25
3.275
4.3
<0.03
4.95
<0.03
5.55
7.9
7.8
7.75
7.95
7.85
8.1
2.675
2.125
2.95
2.5
1.45
0.65
8.8
7.725 5.625
8.225 0.125
202.5 138.75
8.1
8.175 0.65
7.85
7.975 0.5
7.975 4.7
7.7
8.05
8.05
7.725 <0.03
3.725 <0.03
8.075 0.3
4.23
0.02
0.49
0.35
0.76
2.1
1.7
0.99
0.23
3.8
1.47
3.13
0.24
4.44
2.29
5.71
4.01
15.14
3.42
2.86
4.2
164
4.48
5.56
5.91
11.01
1.141
2.15
5.42
10.07
18.7
24.2
41LWA
42LWA
43LWA
44LWA
45SHN
46SHN
47SHN
48SHN
49SHN
50SHN
7.19
7.62
7.39
7.96
8.01
8.54
8.04
8.29
8.84
8.31
8.46
812.5
2420
270
347.5
195.25
129.75
602.5
410
154.5
139
130
4.48
1.639
1.718
2.68
2.05
2.2
2.75
7.04
7.41
10.69
1SAL
3SAL
6SAL
9SAL
13SAL
16SAL
31SAL
33SAL
34SAL
37SAL
7.38
7.3
7.31
7.68
7.46
7.36
7.33
7.99
7.43
7.36
1620
880
930
297.5
285
231.25
340
222.75
183.5
582.5
WateranalysisfromSalalah2011
1.467
40LWA
277.5
200.5
187.75
76.25
61.75
61
84.5
56
43.75
117
2357.5
1040
915
412.5
134.5
5.325
762.5
400
425
335
49.25
517.5
705
590
327.5
187.5
213.5
234.25
188.5
183.75
320
1015
365
480
202
116.75
33
360
64
166.5
110.5
37.5
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.025
<0.001
<0.001
0.05
0.025
0.05
<0.001
0.025
0.15
0.025
<0.001
<0.001
0.05
0.075
0.075
0.05
0.075
<0.001
0.05
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.025
0.575
0.4
0.55
0.45
0.425
0.5
0.625
0.225
0.325
0.6
0.35
0.5
0.35
0.5
0.55
0.8
0.775
0.825
0.7
0.8
0.775
4.6
2.175
4.725
3.7
4.575
4.675
2.475
2.875
0.85
3.2
2.925
0.675
2.775
3.325
2.725
2.05
1.15
1.625
4.525
3.5
2.075
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.075
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.25
0.325
0.475
0.35
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
159
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.225
0.5
0.35
0.225
0.35
0.2
0.35
0.275
0.45
0.25
0.3
0.425
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.55
0.7
0.425
0.375
0.375
0.35
0.925
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.3
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.05
0.05
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.275
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.45
1.125
0.45
0.25
<0.001
0.275
5.5
7.075
7.375
8.15
8.525
8.975
8.75
7.9
7.25
9.625
14.475
12.425
10.525
12.125
10.65
11.2
10.725
12.425
8.65
8.85
12.675
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
455
792.5
502.5
350
83.5
97.5
62.75
94.25
135.75
100.5
255
795
80.5
38
65.5
156.75
407.5
290
<0.03
39.75
257.5
1.5
4.125
1.4
4.35
<0.03
9.45
1.6
7.45
<0.03
4.55
3.05
8.95
4.825
8.625 6.325
8.675 5.375
8.725 8.025
8.675 6.35
8.55
8.45
8.525 3.125
8.725 11.4
8.55
8.75
8.5
8.65
8.675 0.85
8.05
8.1
7.925 5.975
7.975 3.125
8.05
7.95
9.07
9.92
10.12
8.54
10.91
13.65
10.93
13.19
11.46
9.15
5.79
12.42
7.24
2.18
16.52
3.52
3.56
6.03
2.89
1.29
4.29
>200.5
11.1
3.1
>200.5
4.2
165
3.27
4.29
5.29
4.07
130SAL
132SAL
134SAL
136SAL
8.73
101SAL
4.08
7.61
98SAL
127SAL
3.67
95SAL
6.35
2.74
92SAL
124SAL
7.29
73SAL
3.9
7.06
70SAL
122SAL
4.42
66SAL
3.23
4.97
63SAL
120SAL
7.56
60SAL
1.935
15.9
43SAL
104SAL
6.7
40SAL
7.5
7.8
7.34
7.25
7.68
7.26
7.63
7.51
7.49
7.4
7.45
7.72
7.41
7.44
7.45
7.72
7.98
7.46
7.68
7.32
18375
735
520
365
557.5
845
572.5
390
230.75
1430
1157.5
417.5
317.5
1195
1155
680
817.5
1242.5
2600
852.5
4250
170
131.25
109.75
116
170
107.5
98
52.25
214.5
192
108.25
72.25
162.25
185.5
114.75
125
197.25
390
192
6562.5
262.5
280
260
260
390
241
255
215.5
340
507.5
427.5
280
262.5
262.5
190
217
275
412.5
482.5
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.075
0.05
0.025
<0.001
0.05
0.075
0.05
0.025
<0.001
0.05
<0.001
0.05
<0.001
0.075
0.05
0.1
0.05
10.625
0.425
0.55
0.55
0.475
0.425
0.275
0.375
0.525
0.375
0.425
0.55
0.325
0.425
0.325
0.5
0.45
0.575
0.4
0.45
53.75
2.15
3.65
3.3
4.025
3.5
4.4
6.025
3.275
3.075
2.175
4.275
3.575
1.85
1.575
7.75
2.925
3.625
3.2
4.75
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.075
<0.001
0.275
0.3
0.2
0.075
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
160
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
10
0.4
0.25
0.3
0.15
0.225
0.375
0.3
0.35
0.525
0.4
0.15
0.45
0.15
0.175
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.6
0.475
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
1.65
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.35
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
0.35
<0.001
326.25
13.05
12.85
13.525
9.625
11.55
10.2
10.65
6.85
6.9
8.375
8.725
7.475
8.575
7.625
8.3
10.35
7.275
9.6
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
3643.75
145.75
37
30.25
74.75
151
96.25
68.75
109
257.5
472.5
475
231.25
236
168.25
133.5
152
207
350
300
5.075
5.975
5.75
5.75
3.6
2.1
3.3
4.7
6.475
5.275
217.5 131.875
8.7
8.625 0.65
8.6
8.575 1.075
8.4
8.475 4.3
8.475 12.175
8.575 1.675
8.8
8.7
8.55
8.6
8.875 5.225
8.575 <0.03
8.6
8.725 4.575
8.6
8.575 0.975
8.7
9.41
9.98
5.47
7.38
8.91
6.5
8.54
7.2
7.38
5.62
7.77
10.59
9.34
15.21
8.58
7.13
12.06
7.11
4.76
6.38
3.1
5.3
40.6
6.4
4.2
4.2
8.7
165.2
9.9
8.7
23.8
>200.5
19.2
4.2

FCKupload File Books Annex1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

FCKupload File Books Annex1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

OMAN SALINITY STRATEGY (OSS)

Oman Salinity Strategy

ASSESSMENT OF SALINITY PROBLEM

Oman Salinity Strategy

Assessment of Salinity Problem

Ministry Of Agriculture And Fisheries (Maf), Sultanate Of Oman

His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Eng. Saud Al Farsi (Co-leader)

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

9.4 SoilqualityofAlBatinahagricultureregionandmanagementissues,2011survey 7378

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Table22.Simulatedvariationsofinlandsaltencroachmentwithtime. .............................. 102

Figure 60. Measured groundwater salinity for the year 1997..............................................................70

Box 1. Dams recharge efficiency..........................................................................................................43

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

improve understanding of trends in salinity change, it is recommended that land cover

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

less than 7.07%. Because these areas also contain Calciorthids

Land having limitations in total which affect Urban

Figure 1. Land suitability classes for irrigated agriculture in the

406 393 386

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Figure 11. Locatio

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Soil samples weere collected

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Low salinityy water (C1)) < 250 S//cm: can be

An overrall assessmeent of wateer samples from

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Figure35.OverallwaterpHdistributionclassesinAlBatinah governorates (2011)

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman Salinity Strategy Annex1: Physical Resources in the Sultanate of Oman

An assessment study on dam recharge efficiency was

WiT, where (w) is Catchment width, (i)