BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

IN METALWORKING
1. Rolling
2. Other Deformation Processes Related to
Rolling
3. Forging
4. Other Deformation Processes Related to
Forging
5. Extrusion
6. Wire and Bar Drawing

Bulk Deformation
Metal forming operations which cause significant
shape change by deforming metal parts whose
initial form is bulk rather than sheet
Starting forms:
Cylindrical bars and billets,
Rectangular billets and slabs, and similar
shapes
These processes stress metal sufficiently to
cause plastic flow into desired shape
Performed as cold, warm, and hot working
operations

Importance of Bulk Deformation

In hot working, significant shape change can
be accomplished
In cold working, strength is increased during
shape change
Little or no waste - some operations are near
net shape or net shape processes
The parts require little or no subsequent
machining

Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes

1. Rolling slab or plate is squeezed between
opposing rolls
2. Forging work is squeezed and shaped
between opposing dies
3. Extrusion work is squeezed through a die
opening, thereby taking the shape of the
opening
4. Wire and bar drawing diameter of wire or bar
is reduced by pulling it through a die opening

ROLLING
Deformation process in which work thickness is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls.
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between
workpart and rolls
Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

Basic Rolling Process

Metal is passed
between two rolls that
rotate in opposite
directions
Friction acts to propel
the material forward
Metal is squeezed and
elongates to
compensate for the
decrease in crosssectional area

Schematic representation of the hot-rolling process, showing

the deformation and recrystallization of the metal being rolled.

Types of Rolling
Based on work temperature (RECRYSTALLIZATION
TEMPERATURE):
Hot Rolling most common due to the large amount of
deformation required
Cold rolling produces finished sheet and plate stock
In hot rolling, temperature control is required for successful forming
Temperature of the material should be uniform
Rolling is terminated when the temperature falls to about 50 to 100
degrees above the recrystallization temperature
Ensures the production of a uniform grain size
Cold rolling products sheet, strip, bar and rod products with smooth
surfaces and accurate dimensions

HOT ROLLING AND GRAIN STRUCTURE

RECRYSTALLIZATION IN HOT ROLLING

One effect of a hot-working rolling operation is the
grain refinement brought about by recrystallization.
The coarse structure is broken up and elongated by
the rolling action. Because of the high temperature,
recrystallization starts immediately and small
grains begin to form. These grains grow rapidly until
recrystallization is complete.

Types of Rolling
Based on workpiece geometry:

Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a

rectangular cross section

Shape rolling - square cross section is

formed into a shape such as an I-beam

Rolled Products
Hot-rolled products have little directionality in their
properties

Hot-rolled products are therefore uniform and have

dependable quality
Surfaces may be rough or may have a surface oxide
known as mill scale in hot rolling
Dimensional tolerances vary with the kind of metal and
the size of the product in hot rolling.

Cold-rolled products exhibit superior surface finish

and dimensional precision

ROLLING OF STEEL
FIRST, Steel has been cast into molds (INGOTS).
The ingot remains in molds until the solidification is about
complete and then removed. While still hot, the ingots are
placed in gas-fired furnaces called soaking pits, where they
remain until attaining working temperature of about 1200C.

The ingots are taken to the rolling mill where, because of the
large variety of finished shapes (plates, sheets, bar stock,
structural shapes, or foils) to be made, they are first hot
rolled into intermediates shapes as blooms (blum, ktk),
billets (billet, ubuk), and slabs (yass ktk).

INTERMEDIATE SHAPES
-A bloom has a square cross section with a minimum
size of 150 by 150 mm. About 30 passes are required
to reduce a large ingot into a bloom.
-A billet is smaller than a bloom and may have any
square section from 40 mm up to the size of a bloom.
-Slabs may be rolled from either an ingot or a bloom.
They have a rectangular cross-sectional area with a
minimum width of 250 mm and a minimum thickness
of 40 mm. The width is always three or more times
the thickness, which may be as much as 380 mm.
Plates, skelp, and thin strips are rolled from slabs.

ROLLING OF STEEL

Flowchart of Rolling Operations

Flow chart for the production of

various finished and semifinished
steel shapes. Note the abundance
of rolling operations.

Rolled Products Made of Steel

Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.

FLAT ROLLING

Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.

FLAT ROLLING
In rolling, the quantity of metal going into a roll and out of it is the
same, but the area and velocity are changed. Thus, stock
enters the rolls with a speed less than the peripheral roll speed.
The metal emerges from the rolls traveling at a higher speed
than it enters.

Q1= Q2 = A1V1 = A2V2

Q1 = Quantity of metal going into roll ; Q2 = Quantity of metal
leaving roll
A1 = area of an element in front of roll; A2 = Area of an element
after roll
V1 = Velocity in element before roll; V2 = Velocity in element after
roll

Flat Rolling Terminology

Reduction ratio (indirgeme/haddeleme oran) (r) =

d t o tf r

d
to

where d = draft; to = starting thickness; and tf = final

thickness

SHAPE ROLLING
Work is deformed into a contoured cross section
rather than flat (rectangular)
Accomplished by passing work through rolls
that have the reverse of desired shape
Products include:
Construction shapes such as I-beams,
L-beams, and U-channels
Rails for railroad tracks
Round and square bars and rods

10

SHAPE ROLLING

Rolling Mills
Equipment is massive and expensive
Rolling mill configurations:
Two-high two opposing rolls
Three-high work passes through rolls in both
directions
Four-high backing rolls support smaller work
rolls
Cluster mill multiple backing rolls on smaller
rolls
Continuous (Tandem) rolling mill sequence of
two-high mills

11

Rolling Mill Configurations

Various roll configurations

used in rolling operations.

Rolling Mill Configurations

Roll arrangements used in rolling mills. A, Two-high mill, continuous reversing. B,

Four-high mill with backing-up rolls for wide sheets. C, Three-high mill for back-andforth rolling. D, Cluster mill using four backing-up rolls.

12

Rolling Mill Configurations

Most primary rolling is done in either a two-high

reversing
mill or a three-high continuous rolling mill.

In the two-high reversing mill the piece passes through the rolls,
which are then stopped and reversed in direction, and the operation
is repeated. At frequent intervals the metal is turned 90 on its side
to keep the section uniform and to refine the metal throughout.

2-high rolling mill

Three-High Rolling Mill and Four-High Rolling Mill

(b) 3-high rolling mill

(c) four-high rolling mill

13

WHY SMALLER ROLLS?

The effect of roll diameter on length of contact for a given reduction.

Smaller diameter rolls

produce less length of
contact for a given
reduction and require less
force to produce a given
change in shape
HOWEVER Smaller cross
section provides a reduced
stiffness
Rolls may be prone to flex
elastically because they
are only supported on the
ends

Cluster Mill
Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll diameters

Various configurations of rolling mills: (d) cluster mill

14

CONTINOUS (Tandem) Rolling Mill

A series of rolling stands in sequence

Continuous (Tandem) Rolling Mills

Billets, blooms, and
slabs are heated and
fed through an
integrated series of
nonreversing rolling
mills
Synchronization of
rollers may pose issues
Typical roll-pass sequences used in producing structural shapes.

15

Thread Rolling
Bulk deformation process used to form threads
on cylindrical parts by rolling them between
two dies
Important commercial process for mass
producing bolts and screws
Performed by cold working in thread rolling
machines
Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
Higher production rates
Better material utilization
Stronger threads and better fatigue
resistance due to work hardening

THREAD ROLLING

Thread-rolling processes: (a) flat dies and (b) two-roller dies.

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Thread Rolling (FLAT DIES)

Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle.

Ring Rolling
Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller
diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter
As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal
elongates, causing diameter of ring to be enlarged
Hot working process for large rings and cold working
process for smaller rings
Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for
railroad wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and
rotating machinery
Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation,
strengthening through cold working

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Ring Rolling

Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the diameter
of a ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of process.

FORGING (DVME)
Deformation process in which work is compressed between
two dies
Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from about
5000 B C
Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears,
aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts
Forging is adaptable to carbon and alloy steels, wrought
iron, copper, and aluminum and magnesium alloys.
Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic
form of large parts that are subsequently machined to final
shape and size

18

Classification of Forging Operations

Cold vs. hot forging:
Hot or warm forging most common, due to
the significant deformation and the need to
reduce strength and increase ductility of work
metal
Cold forging advantage: increased strength
that results from strain hardening
Impact vs. press forging:
Forge hammer - applies an impact load
Forge press - applies gradual pressure

HOT FORGING
The number of blows required varies according to
the size and shape of the part, the forging qualities
of the metal, and the tolerances required.
Forging temperature for steel is 1100-1250C.
Advantages of the hot forging operation include a fine
crystalline structure of the metal, closing of any voids,
reduced machining time, and improved physical properties.

Disadvantages include scale inclusions and the high

cost of dies, which prohibits short-run jobs.

19

Types of Forging Dies

Open-die forging - work is compressed between
two flat dies, allowing metal to flow laterally with
minimum constraint
Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or
impression that is imparted to workpart
Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created
Flashless forging - workpart is completely
constrained in die
No excess flash is created

OPEN-DIE Forging

(a) open-die forging.

20

Open-Die Forging
Compression of workpart between two flat dies
Similar to compression test when workpart has
cylindrical cross section and is compressed along
its axis
Deformation operation reduces height and
increases diameter of work
Common names include upsetting or upset
forging
The accuracy of open-die forging is not high and
complicated shapes can not be obtained.

Open-Die Forging with No Friction

If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces,
then homogeneous deformation occurs, so that
radial flow is uniform throughout workpart height and
true strain is given by:

ln

ho
h

where ho= starting height; and h = height at some

point during compression
At h = final value hf, true strain is maximum value

21

Open-Die Forging with No Friction (HAPPENS

ONLY UNDER IDEAL CONDITIONS)

Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart under ideal

conditions in an open-die forging operation: (1) start of process with
workpiece at its original length and diameter, (2) partial compression,
and (3) final size.

Open-Die Forging with Friction

Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral
flow of work, resulting in barreling effect
In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced
due to heat transfer at and near die surfaces, which cools
the metal and increases its resistance to deformation

Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open-die forging, showing pronounced barreling:

(1) start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape.

22

(Top) Illustration of the

unrestrained flow of
material in open-die
forging. Note the barrel
shape that forms due to
friction between the die
and material.
(Middle) Open-die forging
of a multidiameter shaft.
(Bottom) Forging of a
seamless ring by the
open-die method.

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IMPRESSION-DIE Forging

Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of desired part shape

Closed-impression die forgings have better utilization of material than open (flat)
dies, better physical properties, closer tolerances, higher production rates, and less
requirement of operator skill.
Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity into small gap between die
plates. Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an important function during
compression:
As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into gap, constraining
material to fill die cavity
In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling against die plates

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Impression-Die Forging

Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just prior to initial contact

with raw workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final die
closure, causing flash to form in gap between die plates.

Impression-Die Forging
The dies are shaped to control the flow of metal
The die halves are matched and separately attached to the movable ram
and the fixed anvil. The forging is produced by impact or pressure, which
compels the hot and pliable metal to conform to the shape of the dies.
Metal flows and completely fills the die

Schematic of the impression-die forging

process, showing partial die filling and
the beginning of flash formation in the
center sketch and the final shape with
flash in the right-hand sketch.

25

Impression-Die Forging Practice

Several forming steps often required, with separate die
cavities for each step
Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform
deformation and desired metallurgical structure in
subsequent steps and final steps bring the part to final
geometry
First impression is called edging, fullering, or bending
Intermediate impressions are for blocking the metal to
approximately its final shape
Final shape is given in its final forging operation
Impression-die forging is often performed manually by
skilled operator under adverse conditions

Impression-Die Forging Practice

separate die cavities
Impression drop-forging dies
and the product resulting from
each impression. The flash is
trimmed from the finished
connecting rod in a separate
trimming die. The sectional view
shows the grain flow resulting
from the forging process.

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Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of impression-die forging compared to
machining from solid stock:

Higher production rates

Less waste of metal
Greater strength
Favorable grain orientation in the metal

Limitations of impression-die forging:

Not capable of close tolerances
Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features needed
Upon completion all forgings are covered with scale (kabuk, tufal) and
must be cleaned. This can be done by pickling in acid (asitle
temizleme), shot peening (bilyal dvme), or tumbling (deirmen),
depending on the size and composition of the forgings.

FLASHLESS FORGING
Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose
cavity does not allow for flash
Flashless forging can be performed if the metal is
deformed in a cavity that provides total confinement
Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity volume
within very close tolerance
Process control more demanding than impression-die
forging
Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
Often classified as a precision forging process

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Flashless Forging

Three types of forging (c) flashless forging.

Flashless Forging

Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece, (2)
partial compression, and (3) final punch and die closure.

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Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)

(ahmerdanda dvme, serbest dvme)
Apply impact load against workpart
Two types:
Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling weight
of a heavy ram
Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized
air or steam
The two principal types of drop-forging hammers are the gravity drop (dm ahmerdan)
and the steam hammer (buhar ahmerdan). In the gravity-type hammer, the impact pressure
is developed by the force of the falling ram as it strikes upon the lower fixed die. It utilizes air
or steam to lift the ram. In the steam hammer the ram and hammer are lifted by steam, and
the force of the blow is controlled by throttling the steam. These hammers operate at over 300
blows/min. The capacity of steam hammers range from 2-200 kN (i.e. up to 20 t force).

Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil into

floor of building
Commonly used for impression-die forging

Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)

Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and heating units at the right of the
scene

29

Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)Details

Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for impression-die forging.

Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)

(Left) Double-frame drop hammer. (Right) Schematic diagram

of a forging hammer.

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Forging Presses (stroke restricted machines)

(presle dvme)
Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression operation
Press forging is used for large or thick products
Slow squeezing action penetrates completely through the metal.
Press forging employs a slow squeezing action in deforming the
plastic metal as contrasted to the rapid impact blows of a hammer.
Produces a more uniform deformation and flow
Longer time of contact between the die and workpiece
Dies may be heated (isothermal forging)
Presses are vertical type and either mechanically or hydraulically
operated.
Types:
Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive motor into linear motion of
ram. Faster
Hydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates ram. More controllable
Screw press - screw mechanism drives ram

Forging Presses
For small press forgings closed-impression dies are used,
and only one stroke of the ram is normally required to perform
the forging operation.
In the forging press a greater proportion of the total energy
input is transmitted to the metal than in a drop hammer press.
Much of the impact of the drop hammer is absorbed by the
machine and foundation.
Most press forgings are symmetrical in shape with surfaces that
are smooth, and they provide a closer tolerance than is
obtained by a drop hammer. However, many parts of irregular
and complicated shapes can be forged more economically by
drop hammers. Forging presses are often used for sizing
operations on parts made by other processes.

31

UPSET FORGING (yma, iirme)

Upset Forging is used to form heads on nails, bolts,
and similar hardware products. It increases the
diameter of a material by compressing its length
More parts produced by upset forging than any
other forging operation
Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called
headers or formers
Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is
headed, then piece is cut to length
For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to
form threads

UPSET FORGING (Heading)

Upset forging entails gripping a bar of uniform section in dies and applying
pressure on the heated end, causing it to be upset or formed to shape.
The length of the stock to be upset cannot be more than two or three times
the diameter or else the material will bend rather than bulge out to fill the die
cavity.

32

Upset Forging (Heading)

An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or similar hardware

item The cycle consists of: (1) wire stock is fed to the stop, (2)
gripping dies close on the stock and the stop is retracted, (3) punch
moves forward, (4) bottoms to form the head.

Upset Forging (Heading)

Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a) heading a nail

using open dies, (b) round head formed by punch, (c) and (d) two
common head styles for screws formed by die, (e) carriage bolt head
formed by punch and die.

33

Upset Forging Rules

RULE 1: The length of the unsupported material that can be gathered or upset in one blow without injurious buckling
should be limited to three times the diameter of the bar.
RULE 2: Lengths of stock greater than three times the diameter may be upset successfully provided that the diameter
of the upset is not more than 1 times the diameter of the bar.
RULE 3: In an upset requiring stock length greater than three times the diameter of the bar, and where the diameter
of the cavity is not more than 1 times the diameter of the bar (the conditions of rule 2), the length of the unsupported
metal beyond the face of the die must not exceed the diameter of the bar.

Swaging
Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece radially
inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies
Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock
Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of
internal diameter of tubular parts

Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the dies rotate as they hammer the work In
radial forging, the workpiece rotates while the dies remain in a fixed orientation as they
hammer the work.

34

Swaging
Also known as rotary
swaging and radial
forging
Uses external
hammering to reduce
the diameter or produce
tapers or points on
round bars of tubes

Schematic of the roll-forging process showing the two shaped rolls

and the stock being formed.

Swaging
Tube being
reduced in
a rotary
swaging
machine.

A variety of swaged parts, some with internal details.

Basic components and motions of a rotary swaging machine.

(Note: The cover plate has been removed to reveal the interior
workings.)

35

Roll Forging
Round or flat bar stock is
reduced in thickness and
increased in length
Produces products such
as axles, tapered levers,
and leaf springs
Little or no flash is
produced
Roll-forging machine in operation

Rolls from a roll-forging machine and the various

stages in roll forging a part.

Trimming
Cutting operation to remove flash from workpart
in impression-die forging
Usually done while work is still hot, so a
separate trimming press is included at the
forging station
Trimming can also be done by alternative
methods, such as grinding or sawing

36

Trimming After Impression-Die Forging

Trimming operation (shearing process) to remove the flash after

impression-die forging.

EXTRUSION
Compression forming process in which work metal is forced to flow
through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape
Some metals, notably lead, tin, and aluminum, may be extruded cold,
whereas others require the application of heat to render them plastic
or semisolid before extrusion.
In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross
sections
Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube
Rods, tubes, molding trim, structural shapes, brass cartridges (fiek),
and lead-covered cables are typical products of metal extrusion.
Two basic types:
Direct extrusion
Indirect extrusion

37

EXTRUSION
Almost unlimited lengths of a continuous cross section can
be produced, and because of low die costs production runs of
150 m may justify its use.

Typical
shapes
produced
by
extrusion

EXTRUSION TYPES
Direct extrusion
Solid ram drives the entire billet to and through a stationary die
In direct extrusion, the ram and billet both move and friction between
the billet and the chamber opposes forward motion.
Must provide power to overcome friction

Indirect extrusion
A hollow ram pushes the die back through a stationary, confined billet
For indirect extrusion, the billet is stationary. There is no billetchamber friction, since there is no relative motion.

38

Direct Extrusion
A heated round billet is placed into the die chamber and
ram placed into position. The metal is extruded through
the die opening until only a small amount remains.

Direct extrusion.

Direct Extrusion
Metal is compressed and
forced to flow through a
shaped die to form a
product with a constant
cross section
May be performed hot or
cold
A ram advances from one
end of the die and causes
the metal to flow plastically
through the die
Commonly extruded metals:
aluminum, magnesium,
copper, and lead

Direct extrusion schematic showing the

various equipment components.

39

Comments on Direct Extrusion

Also called forward extrusion
As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of
billet remains that cannot be forced through die
opening
This extra portion, called the butt, must be
separated from extrudate by cutting it just beyond
the die exit
Starting billet cross section usually round
Final shape of extrudate is determined by die
opening

40

Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes in Direct

Extrusion

(a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross

sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross sections.

Direct Extrusion of Hollow Shapes

Mandrels may be
used to produce
hollow shapes or
shapes with multiple
longitudinal cavities

Two methods of extruding hollow shapes using internal mandrels. In part (a) the
mandrel and ram have independent motions; in part (b) they move as a single unit.

41

INDIRECT EXTRUSION
Indirect extrusion is similar to direct extrusion except that the extruded part is forced
through the ram stem. Less force is required by this method because there is no
frictional force between the billet and the container wall. The weakening and
complexity of the ram when it is made hollow and the difficulty of providing good
support for the extruded part constitute limitations of this process.

Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a hollow cross
section.

Comments on Indirect Extrusion

Also called backward extrusion and reverse
extrusion
Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
Lower rigidity of hollow ram
Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it
exits die

42

Advantages of Extrusion
Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion
Limitation: part cross section must be uniform
throughout length
Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and
warm extrusion
Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion
In some operations, little or no waste of material

Hot vs. Cold Extrusion

Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above
its recrystallization temperature
Reduces strength and increases ductility of
the metal, permitting more size reductions
and more complex shapes
Cold extrusion - generally used to produce
discrete parts
The term impact extrusion is used to
indicate high speed cold extrusion

43

Extrusion Ratio
Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as

rx

Ao
Af

where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional

area of the starting billet; and Af = final crosssectional area of the extruded section
Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion

Extrusion Die Features

(a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion; (b) effect of die angle on ram
force.
Low die angle - surface area is large, which increases friction at die-billet

interface. Higher friction results in larger ram force.

Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow during reduction. Turbulence
increases ram force required
Optimum angle depends on work material, billet temperature, and lubrication.

44

Orifice Shape of Extrusion Die

Simplest cross section shape is circular die
orifice
Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure
As cross section becomes more complex,
higher pressure and greater force are required
Effect of cross-sectional shape on pressure
can be assessed by means the die shape
factor Kx

Extrusion Presses
Either horizontal or vertical
Horizontal more common

Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically

driven, which is especially suited to
semi-continuous direct extrusion of long
sections
Mechanical drives - often used for cold
extrusion of individual parts

45

Forces in Extrusion
Lubrication is important
to reduce friction and
act as a heat barrier
Metal flow in extrusion
Flow can be complex
Surface cracks, interior
cracks and flow-related
cracks need to be
monitored
Process control is
Diagram of the ram force versus ram position for both
direct and indirect extrusion of the same product. The
important
area under the curve corresponds to the amount of
work (force x distance) performed. The difference
between the two curves is attributed to billet-chamber
friction.

WIRE AND BAR DRAWING

Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it
through a die opening
Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in
drawing (it is pushed through in extrusion)
Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also
plays a significant role since metal is squeezed as it passes
through die opening

46

Wire, Rod, and Tube Drawing

Schematic of wire
drawing with a
rotating draw block.
The rotating motor on
the draw block
provides a
continuous pull on
the incoming wire

Tube drawing with a floating plug.

Schematic drawing of the rod-or bar-drawing process.

Cold-drawing smaller tubing from larger tubing. The die

sets the outer dimension while the stationary mandrel
sizes the inner diameter.

Area Reduction in Drawing

Change in size of work is usually given by area
reduction:

Ao Af
Ao

where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao =

original area of work; and Ar = final work

47

Drawing Practice and Products

Drawing practice:
Usually performed as cold working
Most frequently used for round cross sections
Products:
Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences,
coat hangers, and shopping carts
Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging,
and other processes

Wire Drawing vs. Bar Drawing

Difference between bar drawing and wire
drawing is stock size
Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod
stock
Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire
sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) are
possible
Although the mechanics are the same, the
methods, equipment, and even terminology are
different

48

Bar Drawing
Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock is
pulled through one die opening
Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight
cylinder
Requires a batch type operation

Bar Drawing Bench

Hydraulically
operated draw
bench for drawing
metal bars.

Wire Drawing
Wire is made by cold-drawing hot-rolled wire or rod through one or
more dies to decrease its size and increase the physical properties.
Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies
(typically 4 to 12 successive dies) separated by accumulating
drums. The end is grasped by tongs (maa, ene) on a drawbench
and pulled through to such length as may be wound around a
drawing block or reel. The number of dies in the series will depend
on the kind and final diameter of metal or alloy being processed.
Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock
through upstream die
Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is
achieved by the series
Annealing sometimes required between dies to relieve work
hardening

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WIRE DRAWING

Wire Drawing machine and a drawing reel

WIRE DRAWING
Cross section through a typical carbide
wire-drawing
die
showing
the
characteristic regions of the contour. The
dies are usually made from tool steels or
tungsten carbide, although diamond dies
can be used for drawing small diameters.

Schematic of a multistation synchronized wire-drawing machine. To prevent accumulation or

breakage, it is necessary to ensure that the same volume of material passes through each station in a
given time. The loops around the sheaves between the stations use wire tensions and feedback
electronics to provide the necessary speed control.

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WIRE DRAWING
Wire drawing is often determined by the following
relationships:
Reduction in area (r) [%] = ((Ao - Af)/Ao)x100
where Ao and Af are the original and final area of the
wire.

Features of a Draw Die

Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to prevent scoring of work
and die
Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing occurs
Bearing surface - determines final stock size
Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief angle (half-angle) of
about 30

Draw die for

drawing of
round rod or
wire

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Preparation of Work for Drawing

Annealing to increase ductility of stock
Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface and
draw die
Pointing to reduce diameter of starting end to
allow insertion through draw die

IMPACT EXTRUSION
Impact Extrusion (svama ekstrzyon): In impact extrusion a
punch is directed to a slug (or blank) (taslak) with such a force
that the metal from the slug is pushed up and around it.
Most impact extrusion operations, such as the manufacture of
collapsible tubes (shaving cream, toothpaste, paint pigment
tubes) are cold-working ones.

Production
of
toothpaste
tube by
impact
extrusion

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Impact Extrusion
A metal slug is
positioned in a die
cavity where it is struck
by a single blow
Metal may flow forward,
backward or some
combination
The punch controls the
inside shape while the
die controls the exterior
shape

Backward and forward extrusion

with open and closed dies.

Impact Extrusion
(a) Reverse
(b) Forward
(c) Combined
forms of cold
extrusion.

Forming a Bolt with Cold-Forming Sequence

Steps in the forming of a

bolt by cold extrusion, cold heading, and thread rolling.

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Cold-Forming Sequence Examples

Cold-forming sequence involving cutoff, squaring, two

extrusions, an upset, and a trimming operation.

Typical parts made by upsetting and related operations.

Piercing
Thick-walled seamless tubing can be made by rotary
piercing
Heated billet is fed into the gap between two large,
convex-tapered rolls
Forces the billet to deform into a rotating ellipse

Principle of the
Mannesmann process
of producing seamless
tubing.

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Other Squeezing Processes

Roll extrusion- thin walled cylinders are produced from
thicker-wall cylinders
Sizing-involves squeezing all or select regions of products
to achieve a thickness or enhance dimensional precision
Riveting- permanently joins sheets or plates of material by
forming an expanded head on the shank end of a fastener
Staking-permanently joins parts together when a segment
of one part protrudes through a hole in the other
Coining- cold squeezing of metal while all of the surfaces
are confined within a set of dies
Hubbing- plastically forms recessed cavities in a workpiece

Other Squeezing Processes

The roll-extrusion process: (a) with
internal rollers expanding the inner
diameter; (b) with external rollers
reducing the outer diameter.

Joining components by riveting.

Permanently attaching a shaft to a plate by staking.

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Other Squeezing Operations

The
coining
process.

Hubbing a die block in a hydraulic press. Inset shows

close-up of the hardened hub and the impression in the
die block. The die block is contained in a reinforcing ring.
The upper surface of the die block is then machined flat
to remove the bulged metal.

Summary
There are a variety of bulk deformation
processes
The main processes are rolling, forging,
extrusion, and drawing
Each has limits and advantages as to its
capabilities
The correct process depends on the desired
shape, surface finish, quantity, etc.

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