E PDF

Engineering Calculation for Power
System Analysis
Page 1 of 178
CONTENTS
Modules
Pages
1. Load Flow Calculation.
3-16
2. Short Circuit Analysis.
17-47
Case1-ANSI/IEEE Method
Case2-IEC Method
3. Motor Starting Analysis.
48-66
4. Transient Stability Analysis.
67-96
Case1-Single Machine System

Case2-Multi Machine System
5. Relay Co-ordination.
97-107
6. Harmonic Analysis.
108-125
7. Ground Grid Analysis.
126-141
8. Optimal Capacitor Placement.
142-151
9. Arc Flash Analysis
152-164
10. Underground Raceway System
166-183
Page 2 of 178
1. LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
Page 3 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
Load flow solution analysis is essential for designing a new power system and planning of
the existing one for increased load demand, which determine the steady state operating
condition to calculate,
Voltage Profile - its magnitude in kV or % of nominal kV
Current flow throughout the System
MVA and /or MW plus Mvar power flows throughout each branch of the (i.e.
transformer, cables, line or series reactor etc) electrical system
Voltage drop and Power factor
Branch Losses i.e. MW & Mvar losses on each branch
Page 4 of 178
Input data required for LFA:

Sl.no
Component
1
2
3
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
12
Impedance
Required input
Nominal kv
Voltage rating, MVA sc, X/R ratio
1. Swing (slack) %v and del
2. Voltage Control (PV) MW, Mvar limits
3. Mvar Control (PQ) -MW, Mvar and Var limits
4. PF Control-MW and PF
Py kV, Sec kV, MVA, %Z Positive sequence Impedance,
%Tap, Tolerance and LTC settings
1. Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2. Rating-HP and kV
2. Rating-HP and kV
2. Rating-kV, MW, Mvar and PF
2. Ratings- kV, MW, Mvar and PF
3. Load Type-Motor Load or Static load
1. Length in ft/m/mile/km
2. Cable Type- Size, Insulation, kV and #/Cable
3. Impedance/conductor-Positive sequence
2. Parameter-Phase conductor
3. Impedance per phase-positive sequence
1.
Rating-HP, kV and rated Torque
2. Circuit Breakers-Rated kV
3. Fuses-Rated kV
4. Switches-Rated kV and amps
5. Contactors- Rated kV and amps
1) Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
2) Rating-kV, Max kV, Mvar Bank and No of Banks.
1) Rating-Amps and kV
2) Impedance- Positive sequence Z and X/R
Page 5 of 178
STEP by STEP Procedure for Load Flow Analysis

Step 1: Build the Single Line Diagram
Page 6 of 178
Step 2: Input Parameters/data for LFA

Power Grid:Nominal kV
kAsc
X/R
= 11kV
= 40 kA
= 14
Assume it is the base kV=11
Cable:Cable sizes and types are selected from the software library
Insulation
= XLPE
kV
= 15
Conductor type= CU
#/Cable
= 3/c
Size
= 300mm2
Length
= 0.836 km
Transformer:Primary kV = 11
Secondary kV = 0.433
MVA
= 10
%Z and X/R = Typical Value
Z Tolerance = If %Z <10 tolerance is 10
%Z >10 tolerance is 7.5 ( thumb rule)
Tap
= If needed. (To improve the bus voltage)
Lump Load:MW
=4
Mvar
=3
%PF
= 80
Load Type
= 100% Motor Load & 0% Static Load
Step 3: Data needed for Hand Calculation

Power Grid:X/R
MVAsc
= 14
= 762.102
Cable:R
X
Transformer:Z%
X/R
= 0.0801 /km
= 0.1273 /km
= 6.75
= 15.5
Page 7 of 178
Step 4: ETAP WITH HAND CALCULATION

1. To find Voltage Drop(Vd)
Formula: %Voltage drop= Delta V*100 --------------------------------------- eq1
To find Delta V:
Delta V= ( (Vr+ (RP+XQ/Vr) ^2+ (XP-RQ/Vr) ^2))-Vr ----------------------- eq2

Where:
Vr = Receiving end voltage
R = Resistance of the cable/transmission in p.u
P = Real Power in MW
Q = Reactive Power in Mvar
X = Reactance of the cable in p.u
S= Apparent power in p.u
We know that,
Base MVA
= 100 MVA
Base kV
= 11 kV
Nominal kV
= 11 kV
Load PF
= 0.8
R /km
= 0.0801
X /km
= 0.12736
Length
= 0.836 km
Assume Vr
= 1 p.u
To find Z base:
Zbase
= BasekV^2/Base MVA
= 11^2 / 100
Page 8 of 178
Z base = 1.21
= R*length / Zbase
= 0.0801*0.836 / 1.21
R = 0.0554
= X*length / Zbase
= 0.12726*0.836 / 1.21
X = 0.0879
To Find P, Q and S:
We know MW and Mvar of Lump load,
a. To find
MVA = (MW^2+Mvar^2)
= (4^2+3^2)
MVA=5.033
P
= MW/Base MVA
= 4 / 100
P=0.040
= Mvar/Base MVA
= 3 / 100
Q=0.030
= MVA/Base MVA
=5.033 / 100
S=0.0503
The following tabular columns are the results in p.u:

R
0.055
X
0.088
P
0.040
Q
0.030
S
0.0503
Page 9 of 178
To find % voltage drop:

eq 2=>
Delta V= ( (Vr+ (RP+XQ/Vr) ^2+ (XP-RQ/Vr) ^2))-Vr
Consider Vs=1 p.u
Assume Vr = 1 p.u
Substitute the above calculated values from the table in the eq2
Delta V= ( (1+ (0.055*0.040+0.088*0.030/1) ^2+ (0.088*0.040-0.055*0.030) ^2))-1
Delta V = 0.005
Note Vs Vr so we are finding the new Vr new
Vr new=Vr -Delta V-----------------------------------------------eq3
= 1- 0.005
Vr new=0.995
To find Voltage drop:
eq 1=>
Voltage drop= Delta V*100
= 0.005*100
Voltage drop (Vd) = 0.5
Page 10 of 178
2. To find cable loss:

Formula:
MW =R*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2------------------ eq 4
Mvar = X*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2------------------ eq 5
To find MW:
Eq 4=>
MW
=R*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

=0.055*0.0503*0.0503*100*(0.433/ 0.433) ^2
MW = 0.014
To Find Mvar:
Eq 5=>
Mvar
= X*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

=0.088*0.0503*0.0503*100*(0.433/ 0.433) ^2
Mvar = 0.022
Cable losses = MW+jMvar = 0.014+j0.022
Page 11 of 178
3. To find Transformer Losses
Formula:
MW =R*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2-------------------- eq 6
Mvar = X*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2-------------------- eq 7
We know that
Nominal kV
=11 kV
Source kA
=40 kA
X/R
=14
Base MVA
=100
Z%
= 6.75
X/R
= 15.5
To find transformer new %R, %X and %Z:

%R
=Z%* {(1/(X/R) ^2) +1}

=6.75* {1 / (15.5 ^2 +1)}
%R=0.43
%X
= {%Z^2 - %R^2}
= {6.75^2- 0.43^2}
%X=6.74
%Z
= {%R^2 + %X^2}
= {0.43^2 + 6.74^2}
%Z=6.75
To Find R, X, P, Q and S in p.u:

R
= %R / TFR MVA
Page 12 of 178
= 0.43/10
R=0.0434
X
= %X / TFR MVA
= 6.74/10
X=0.674
= PMW / Base MVA

= 4/100
P=0.04
= Q Mvar / Base MVA

= 3/100
Q = 0.03
= (P^2+Q^2)
= (0.04^2+0.03^2)
S=0.05
The following tabular columns are the results in p.u:

R
0.0434
X
0.674
P
0.04
Q
0.03
S
0.05
Page 13 of 178
To find MW:
eq 6=>
MW
=R*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

=0.0434*0.05*0.05*100*(11/11) ^2
MW = 0.011
To Find Mvar:
eq 7=>
Mvar
= X*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

=0.674*0.05*0.05*100*(11/11) ^2
Mvar = 0.199
Transformer losses = MW+jMvar = 0.011+j0.199
Page 14 of 178
Step 5: Run Load Flow Analysis with ETAP software
Page 15 of 178
Step 6: Summary Report.
Step 7: Comparison Table.

Hand Calculation
MW
Mvar
ETAP Result
MW
Mvar
Cable Losses
0.014
0.022
0.015
0.02
Transformer Losses
0.011
0.199
0.012
0.188
Cable Voltage drop
0.5
0.5
Page 16 of 178
2. SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

(IEEE / ANSI AND IEC METHOD)
Page 17 of 178
CASE 1:-ANSI / IEEE METHOD

INTRODUCTION:
The ETAP Short-Circuit Analysis program analyzes the effect of 3-phase, line-to-ground,
line-to-line, and line-to-line-to-ground faults on electrical distribution systems. The program
calculates the total short circuit currents as well as the contributions of individual motors,
generators, and utility ties in the system. Fault duties are in compliance with the latest
editions of the ANSI/IEEE Standards (C37 series).
Purpose of Short-Circuit Studies:

A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device Interrupting capability
Protect equipment from large mechanical forces (maximum fault kA)
I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
Elements that Contribute Current to a Short-Circuit:
Generator
Power Grid
Synchronous Motors
Induction Machines
Lumped Loads
(with some % motor load)
Inverters
I0 from Yg-Delta Connected Transformer
Elements that do Not Contribute Current in PowerStation:
Static Loads
Motor Operated Valves

Page 18 of 178
All Shunt Y Connected Branches
Short-Circuit Phenomenon:
Page 19 of 178
v(t)
i(t)
di
Vm Sin( t )
dt
equation 1 yields the following
v(t) Ri L
RL
-
i(t)
expression
Solving
(1)
t
Vm
Vm
sin( t - )
sin( - )
Z
Z

Steady
State
Transient
(DC Offset)
Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI
Slide 9
Symmetrical Faults:
The ETAP Short-Circuit Analysis program analyzes the effect of 3-phase
Symmetrical faults on electrical distribution systems. The program calculates the total short
circuit currents as well as the contributions of individual motors, generators, and utility ties in
the system. Fault duties are in compliance with the latest editions of the C37 series which
calculates
Momentary symmetrical fault current in kA
Interrupting symmetrical fault current in kA
Unsymmetrical Faults:
The ETAP Short-Circuit Analysis program also analyzes the effect of 3-phase
unsymmetrical Faults like
Line to Ground fault
Double line fault
Double line to ground fault.
Page 20 of 178
Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate momentary short-circuit current and protective device
duties at the cycle after the fault.
1 to 4 Cycle Network
This network is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuits current and protective device
duties 1.5-4 cycles after the fault.
30-Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate the steady-state short-circuit current and settings for
over current relays after 30 cycles of the fault.
Device Duty and Usage of Fault Currents from Different Networks:
HV Circuit Breaker
LV Circuit Breaker
Fuse
SWGR / MCC
Relay
Cycle Currents
(Sub transient Network)
Closing and Latching
Capability
Interrupting Capability
Interrupting Capability
Bus Bracing
Instantaneous Settings
1 to 4 Cycle Currents
(Transient Network)
Interrupting
Capability
-
Page 21 of 178
ANSI Calculation Standard Compliance:

ETAP short circuit calculation per ANSI/IEEE Standards fully complies with the latest
ANSI/IEEE and UL Standards, as listed below:
Standard
EEE C37.04
Pub. Year
Title
1979(1988)
Standard Rating Structure for AC High-Voltage Circuit
IEEE C37.04f
1990
Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis and
IEEE C37.04g
1986
Supplements
IEEE C37.04h
1990
IEEE C37.04i
1991
IEEE C37.04
1999
IEEE C37.010
1979, 1988,1999
IEEEC37.010b
1985
Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis
IEEE C37.010e
1985
and Supplements
IEEE C37.010
1999
IEEE C37.13
1990
Standard Application Guide for AC High-Voltage
Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers

Used in Enclosures
IEEE C37.013
1997
Standard for AC High-Voltage Generator Circuit

Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis
IEEE C37.20.1
1993 2002
Standard for Metal Enclosed Low-Voltage Power

Circuit Breaker Switchgear
IEEE Std 399

IEEE Std 141
1990 & 1997

1986, 1993, 2002
Power System Analysis the Brown Book

Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants the
Red Book
IEEE Std 242
1986 & 2001
IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and

Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems the Buff Book
UL 489_9
1996, 2000, 2002
Standard for Safety for Molded-Case Circuit Breakers,

Molded-Case Switches, and Circuit-Breaker Enclosures
Page 22 of 178
Input data required for SCA:

Sl.no
1
2
3
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
12
Impedance
Required input
Nominal kv
1. Swing %v and del
2. Voltage Control MW, Mvar limits
3. Mvar Control-MW, Mvar and Var limits
5. Imp/Model-Impedance(Xd,Xd, Xd, Xo, X2 and X/R)
1. Rating-Py kV, Sec kV, MVA
2. Impedance-%Z (+Ve & -Ve sequence Impedance)
3. Tolerance
4. Tap-Fixed Tap and LTC settings
5. Grounding-Py and Sec.
2. Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
3. Model-%LRC, %PF.
4. Model-Parameters-X0, X/R
3. Model-Impedance(Xd,Xo,Xd,X2, X/R)
1. Rating-HP, kV and rated Torque
1. Circuit Breakers-Rated kV, Amps, Interrupting kA
2. Fuses-Rated kV, Size, Amps, Interrupting kA
3. Switches-Rated kV , BIL ratings and amps
4. Contactors- Rated kV, Interrupting kA and amps
2. Rating-kV, Max kV, Mvar Bank and No of Banks.
1. Rating-Amps and kV
2. Impedance- Positive sequence Z and X/R
Page 23 of 178
Step 1: Build the single line diagram using ANSI / IEEE method
Page 24 of 178
Step 2: Input Parameters/data for short circuit Analysis

= 33 kV
MVAsc
= 750 kA
X/R
= 14
kAsc
= 13.12
Length
= 4.85km
= 0.1ohms/km
= 0.1ohms/km
Cable:-
Transformer:Primary kV
= 33 kV
Secondary kV = 6.3 kV
MVA
= 15 MVA
Base MVA
= 1 MVA
Z%
= 14.38
X/R
= 24.94
LRC
= 400%
Input MVA
= 5.676
LRC
= 550%
Input MVA
= 1.282
Motor 1:-
Motor 2:-
Page 25 of 178
Step 3: Apply Fault.

Apply fault at the bus 4 by opening the short circuit study case editor and open the
motor side circuit breaker, because the Calculation 1 was done without motor contribution.
Step 4: Check with Hand Calculation.

First step to find Grid, Cable and Transformer reactance. Sum of this will get the
Total reactance, using this we can find out the symmetrical fault current at the faulted bus.
Calculation 1: Without motor contribution.

Formulae:
Isymm=MVAsc/3*kV----------------------------------eq 1
MVAsc=symm fault level *1.6 ----------------------eq 2
Symm fault level=1/ XTOTAL----------------------------------------eq 3
To find XTOTAL
XTOTAL= Xgrid+ Xcable+ XTFR---------------------------------------eq 4
i.e. total reactance of all components in the system.
Xgrid =Base MVA/MVAsc
=1/750
Xgrid=0.0013 p.u
Xcable = Rohm/km*L/100
=0.1*4.85/100
Xcable=0.00485 p.u
XTFR =%Z/ (100*MVA)
=14.38/ (100*15)
XTFR=0.009587p.u
Page 26 of 178
Total reactance
XTOTAL = Xgrid+ Xcable+ XTFR
=0.0013+0.00485+0.009587
XTOTAL =0.011485----------------------------eq 5
To find Symmetrical fault level substitute 5 in eq 3.
Symm fault level
=1/ XTOTAL
=1/ XTOTAL
=1/0.011485
=87.68MVA--------------------------------eq 6
Then find MVAsc at the faulted bus

For this substitute eq 6 in eq 2
MVAsc=symm fault level *1.6

=87.68*1.6
MVAsc=140.28 --------------------------------eq 7
To find Symmetrical Fault Current
Substitute 7 in eq 1.
Isymm=MVAsc/3*kV
=140.28/ (3*6)
Symmetrical fault current (Isymm) =13.49 kA (without motor contribution)
Page 27 of 178
Step 5: Run Short Circuit Analysis without motor contribution
Page 28 of 178
Step 6: Build the single line diagram using ANSI / IEEE method
Page 29 of 178
Step 7: Compare hand calculation with ETAP software.

Calculation 2: With motor contribution.
Formulae:
Isymm=MVAsc/3*kV------------------------------------eq 8
MVAsc=Base MVA/ XM
----------------------------eq 9
XM = Xd1'' / rated input MVA---------------------------eq 10

Xd''=1/LRC p.u--------------------------------------------eq12
Where
MVAsc =Short Circuit MVA at the faulted bus
kV =Nominal kV at the faulted bus.
Xm = Motor reactance
Xd'' = Dynamic reactance of the motor.
LRC =Locked Rotor Current
MOTOR 1:
w.k.t
LRC =400% =4 p.u
Input MVA
= 5.676 MVA
Bus kV
=6 kV
Base MVA
=1
To find Xd''
Xd''=1/LRC p.u
Xd''
=1/4
Xd1''=0.25
Then find the reactance of the motor 1
XM1
= Xd1'' / rated input MVA

= 0.25/5.676
XM1=0.0440
Substitute the above values in eq 9
Page 30 of 178
Then find the MVA at the faulted bus
MVAsc
= Base MVA/ XM1

= 1/0.0440
MVAsc=22.70
Then to find the short circuit current by motor 1 contribution
KAm1 =MVAsc/ ( (3)*kV)

=22.70 / ( (3)*6)
KAm1=2.18 kA, short circuit current due to motor 1 contribution.
MOTOR 2:
w.k.t
LRC =550% = 5.5 p.u
Input MVA
= 1.282 MVA
Bus kV
= 6 kV
Base MVA
=1
To find Xd''
Xd''=1/LRC p.u
Xd''
=1/5.5
Xd2''=0.1818
Then find the reactance of the motor 2
XM2
= Xd2'' / rated input MVA

= 0.1818/1.282
XM2=0.1418
Then find the MVA at the faulted bus
MVAsc
= Base MVA/ XM2

= 1/0.1418
Page 31 of 178
MVAsc=7.051
Then to find the short circuit current by motor 2 contributions
KAm2 =MVAsc/ ( (3)*kV)

=7.051 / ( (3)*6)
KAm2=0.678 kA, short circuit current due to motor2 contribution.
Note:-Sum of all the short circuit current without motor contribution and with motor
contribution gives the total fault current in the faulted bus.
From the above results w.k.t
Symmetrical fault current
= 13.49 kA without motor contribution--------- eq 13
Short circuit current by motors
= 2.858 kA (KAm1+ KAm2) --------------------- eq 14
Sum of above two equations 13 & 14

We get the total Symmetrical fault current
KAsc Total
=13.49+2.858
=16.45 kA
Symmetrical fault current (Isymm) =16.45 kA (with motor contribution)
Page 32 of 178
Step 8: Run short circuit Analysis with motor contribution.
Page 33 of 178
Hand Calculation
ETAP Result
%
Difference
Methods
With
Contribution
ANSI/IEEE
Method
13.49
Without
contribution
2.858
With
contribution
Without
contribution
13.7
2.858
0.21
Page 34 of 178
CASE 2:- IEC METHOD

INTRODUCTION:
The ETAP Short-Circuit Analysis program analyzes the effect of 3-phase, line-to-ground,
line-to-line, and line-to-line-to-ground faults on electrical distribution systems. The program
calculates the total short circuit currents as well as the contributions of individual motors,
generators, and utility ties in the system. Fault duties are in compliance with the latest
editions of the IEC Standards (IEC 60909 and others).
Purpose of Short-Circuit Studies:

A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device Interrupting capability
Protect equipment from large mechanical forces (maximum fault kA)
I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
Elements that Contribute Current to a Short-Circuit:
Generator
Power Grid
Synchronous Motors
Induction Machines
Lumped Loads
(with some % motor load)
Inverters
I0 from Yg-Delta Connected Transformer
Page 35 of 178
Elements that do Not Contribute Current in PowerStation:
Static Loads
Motor Operated Valves
All Shunt Y Connected Branches
IEC Short-Circuit Calculation (IEC 909):
Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current (I"k)
Peak Short-Circuit Current (ip)
Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current (Ib)
Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (Ik)
ETAP checks the protective device rated making and breaking capacities against the fault
currents and flags inadequate devices.
Types of SC Faults
Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
Three-Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Ground Fault
Page 36 of 178
Types of Short-Circuits
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition to which at least one synchronous machine

contributes a prospective initial short-circuit current which is more than twice the
generators rated current, or a short-circuit condition to which synchronous and
asynchronous motors contribute more than 5% of the initial symmetrical shortcircuit current ( I"k) without motors.
Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
Page 37 of 178
This is a short-circuit condition during which the magnitude of the symmetrical ac
component of available short-circuit current remains essentially constant
Page 38 of 178
IEC Calculation Standard Compliance:

Standard
Pub. Year
Title
IEC 62271-100
2003
High-voltage switchgear and control gear Part 100: Highvoltage alternating-current circuit breakers
IEC 62271-200
2003
High-voltage switchgear and control gear Part 200: AC

metal-enclosed switchgear and control gear for rated voltages
above 1 kV and up to and including 52 kV
IEC 62271-203
2003
High-voltage switchgear and control gear Part 203: Gasinsulated metal-enclosed switchgear for rated voltages above
52 kV
IEC 60282-2
IEC 61363-1
1997
1998
High-voltage fuses Part2: Expulsion fuses

Electrical installations of ships and mobile and fixed offshore
units Part 1: Procedures for calculating short-circuit currents
in three-phase a.c.
IEC 60909-0
2001
Short-Circuit Currents in Three-phase a.c. systems - Part 0:

Calculation of Currents (including 2002 corrigendum 1)
IEC 60909-1
2002
Short-circuit currents in three-phase a.c. systems - Part 1:

Factors for the calculation of short-circuit currents according
to IEC-60909-0
IEC 60909-2
1992
Electrical equipment - Data for short-circuit current

calculations in accordance with IEC 909 (1988)
IEC 60909-4
2000
Short-circuit currents in three-phase a.c. systems Part 4:

Examples for the calculation of short-circuit currents
IEC 60947-1
2004
Low voltage switchgear and control gear, Part 1: General

rules
IEC 60947-2
2003
Low voltage switchgear and control gear, Part 2: Circuit

breaker
Page 39 of 178
Input data required for SCA:

Sl.no
1
2
3
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
12
Impedance
Required input
Nominal kv
1. Swing %v and del
5. Imp/Model-Impedance(Xd,Xd,Xd,Xo,X2 and X/R)
3. Tolerance
3. Model-%LRC, %PF.
3. Model-Impedance(Xd,Xo,Xd,X2,X/R)
Page 40 of 178
Step 1: Build the single line diagram using IEC method
Page 41 of 178
Step 2: Input Parameters/data for short circuit Analysis

= 33 kV
X/R
= 14
kAsc
= 40
Transformer:Primary kV
= 33 kV
Secondary kV = 0.433 kV
MVA
= 2.5 MVA
Base MVA
= 100 MVA
Z%
= 6.25 %
X/R
= 10.67
Step 3: Apply Fault

Apply fault at the bus 2
Step 4: Compare hand calculation with ETAP result

Formulae:
1. Intial Symmetrical Short circuit current (I''k)
I''k =C*Vn/ (3)*Zt--------------------------eq 1

Where
C- Voltage factor.
Vn- Nominal bus kV at the fault bus.
Zt- Equivalent impedance at the fault location.
Page 42 of 178
2. Peak Short circuit current (Ip)
Ip = I''k * (2) + I''k* (2)*e (-t/) ---------------eq 2

. = 1000*X/R/ (2**f) -------------------------------eq 3
Where
Tmin- is the minimum delay time of the PD.
f- is the frequency in Hz.
3. Symmetrical Breaking current (Ib)
Ib = I''k-----------------------------------------------eq 4
The below shows the calculated for source and transformer
SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATION
Calculation Of Impedance Upto Fault In PU
PU source
(100/MVAsc)*(old kV/new
Zs
0.047615 kV)^2
Xs
0.047494 (Zs^2-Rs^2)
Rs
0.003392 (Zs^2/((X/R)^2+1)
x/R
14 Xs/Rs
PU Transformer
Zt
2.721571 %Z/MVA
Xt
2.709696 (Zt^2-Rt^2)
Rt
0.253955 (Zt^2/((X/R)^2+1)
x/R
10.67 Xt/Rt
PU TOTAL
Z
2.769174 (X^2+R^2)
X
2.75719 Xs+Xt
R
0.257347 Rs+Rt
x/R
10.7139 X/R
Calculation Of Impedance Upto Fault In ohms
Source Z Values in Ohm
Z ohm
X ohm
R ohm
x/R
Total Upto Fault Z in Ohm
Z ohm
X ohm
R ohm
x/R
0.476314
0.475104
0.033936
14
Zs*(New kV)^2/Base MVA

Xs*(New kV)^2/Base MVA
(Zs^2/((X/R)^2+1)
Xohm/Rohm
0.004769
0.004749
0.000443
10.7139
(X^2+R^2)
X*(sy new kV)^2/Base MVA
R*(sy new kV)^2/Base MVA
Xohm/Rohm
Page 43 of 178
We know that
New Zohm
=0.00477
New X/R
=10.714
= 1.1
Vn
= 0.415kV
Zt
= 0.00477
as per IEC for < 1001 V
To find Intial Symmetrical Fault Current (I''k).

eq 1=>
I''k =C*Vn / (3)*Zt

=1.1*0.415*1000 / (1.732*0.00477)
Intial Symmetrical fault current I''k = 55.26 kA
To find Peak Short Circuit Current (Ip).

eq 3=>
= 1000*X/R/ (2**f).
= 1000*10.713/ (2*3.14*50)
=34.10-------------------------------------------------eq 5
Substitute eq 5 in eq 2
eq 2=>
Ip = I''k * (2) + I''k* (2)*e (-t/)

Ip =55.26*1.414+55.26*1.414*exp (-10/34.10)
Peak short circuit current Ip =136.44
Page 44 of 178
To find Symmetrical Breaking Current (Ip).

eq 4=>
Ib= Ip
w.k.t
Ip =136.44
I.e. The symmetrical short circuit breaking current (Ib) is equal to the initial
symmetrical short circuit current.
So substitute in eq 4, we get
Symmetrical Breaking current Ib =136.44 kA
Step 5: Comparison Table
Intial Symmetrical Fault Current
Hand Calculation
ETAP Result
55.26
55.8 kA
136.44
131 kA
I''k
Peak Short Circuit Current Ip
Page 45 of 178
Step 6: Run Short Circuit Analysis for three phase fault to find Intial
symmetrical rms.
Page 46 of 178
Step 7: Run Short Circuit Analysis for three phase fault to peak short circuit current.
Page 47 of 178
3. MOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS
Page 48 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
During the motor starting period, the starting motor appears to the system as small
impedance connected to a bus. It draws a large current from the system, about six times the
motor rated current, which therefore results in voltage drops (dips) in the system and
imposes disturbances to the normal operation of other system loads. Since the motor
acceleration torque is dependent on motor terminal voltage, in some cases the starting motor
may not be able to reach its rated speed due to extremely low terminal voltage. This makes it
necessary to perform a motor starting analysis. The purpose of performing a motor starting
study is two fold:
To investigate whether the starting motor can be successfully started under the
operating conditions.
To see if starting the motor will seriously slow down the normal operation of other
loads in the system.
ETAP provides two types of motor starting calculations:
Static Motor Starting:In Static Motor Starting, the starting motors are modeled by the locked-rotor
impedance during acceleration time, simulating the worst impact on normal operating loads.
This method is suitable for checking the effect of motor starting on the system when the
dynamic model is not available for starting motors.
Dynamic Motor Acceleration:In the Dynamic Motor Acceleration calculation, the starting motors are represented
by dynamic models and the Motor Acceleration module simulates the entire process of motor
acceleration. This method is used to determine if a motor can be started and how much time
is needed for the motor to reach its rated speed, as well as to determine the effect of voltage
dips on the system.
Page 49 of 178
Static versus Dynamic:
Use Static Model When
Concerned with effect of motor starting on other loads
Missing dynamic motor information
Use Dynamic Model When
Concerned with actual acceleration time
Concerned if motor will actually start
Motor Modeling:
1. Operating Motor
Constant KVA Load
2. Starting Motor
During Acceleration Constant Impedance
Locked-Rotor Impedance
Circuit Models
Characteristic Curves
After Acceleration Constant KVA Load
Motor modelling is of different types in ETAP

1. CKT Model
The following are the various of CKT models
a. Single Cage Rotor

Single1 constant rotor resistance and reactance
Page 50 of 178
b. Single Cage Rotor

a. Single2 - deep bar effect, rotor resistance and reactance vary
with speed [Xm is removed]
c. Double Cage Rotor

a. DB1 integrated rotor cages
Page 51 of 178
d. Double Cage Rotor

a. DB2 independent rotor cages
Page 52 of 178
2. Characteristic Model
Motor Torque, I, and PF as function of Slip-Static Model
Calculation Methods
Static Motor Starting
Time domain using static model
Switching motors modeled as Zlr during starting and constant kVA
load after starting
Run load flow when any change in system
Dynamic Motor Starting
Time domain using dynamic model and inertia model
Dynamic model used for the entire simulation
Requires motor and load dynamic (characteristic) model
Page 53 of 178
Input data required for MSA:

Sl.no
1
2
3
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
Required input
Nominal kv
1. Swing %v and del
5. Imp/Model-Impedance(Xd,Xd,Xd,Xo,X2 and X/R)
3. Tolerance
3. Model-%LRC, %PF.
5. Load Model-Type
6. Inertia-Motor, Load
Page 54 of 178
CASE STUDY-1
STEP 1: Draw a SLD with a motor.
Page 55 of 178
1.0 TO MODEL THE MOTOR BY CURVE APPROACH

STEP 2: Input data taken as per siemens data sheet enclosed.
Datas taken from the motor data sheet for calculating the load Model
1. Operating and starting Data:P.U
Operating Voltage
Units
kV
Locked rotor current (LRC)
4.2
420
Amps
Locked rotor torque
0.59
59
Break down torque
1.7
170
Tmax
Starting Voltage
1.0
100
%V
Sync. Speed (Ns)
1500
RPM
Full load speed (Nr)
1489
RPM
Motor
6000
kW
50
Hz
Frequency
2. Efficiency / Power Factor as per the data sheet enclosed:Load %
P.F %
Efficiency %
100
89
97
75
90
97.1
50
89
96.6
3. Counter Torque as per the data sheet enclosed:Speed p.u
Torque p.u
0.0
0.140
0.2
0.090
0.4
0.150
0.6
0.230
0.8
0.340
1.0
0.465
4. Moment of inertia of Machine and External load is 0.345/1.000 1m2

5. Machine Drive for Turbo-Compressor So TL N2
Page 56 of 178
STEP 3: FINDING THE CURVE TYPE LOAD TORQUE:To find the Speed Vs Torque Characteristics consider the following motor data (as per the data
sheet) for given motor as a Turbo-Compressor load type where load torque is proportional to
square of speed (i.e. TL N2)
To find for 100 % LF and 85 % LF
1)
At 100% Load factor.
Formulae:
Top= T fl ----------------------------- eq 1
N fl = S fl = {1- % Sfl/100} -------- eq 2
Nop= N fl ----------------------------- eq 3
Sfl = (N s - N r) / N s ---------------- eq 4
% Sfl = 100* Sfl -------------------- eq 5
Where
Top =Operating Torque in p.u
T fl =Full load Torque in p.u
Nop=Operating Speed in p.u
N fl=Full load Speed in p.u
Sfl=Full load Slip in p.u
Ns=Synchronous Slip in p.u
Nr-Rated Slip in p.u
F-frequency in Hz
P-number of poles
To find Top
eq 1=>
Top = T fl= 100% =1.0 PU
Page 57 of 178
To find Full load Slip

eq 4=>
Sfl = (N s - N r) / N s
= (1500-1487)/1500
Sfl = 0.0087 (PU)
% Sfl = 100* Sfl
% Sfl = 0.87 %
for 100 % Load Factor
To find Full load Speed (N fl)

eq 2=>
N fl = S fl = {1- % Sfl/100}
= {1- 0.87/100}
N fl = 0.9913 PU.
w.k.t
Nop = N fl = 0.9913 PU
Top = T fl =1.0 PU (full load in this case)
Case 1: LOAD TORQUE VERSUS SPEED TABLE AT 100 % LF

W.k.t from the above calculation
Top= 1.0 PU
Nop=0.9913 PU
Then calculate the below table for Speed Vs Torque in p.u.
Page 58 of 178
Table 1:
Speed in PU
Torque in PU
REMARKS
0.15
Stiction Torque of 15 % (TL at Nr = 0)
0.20
0.1
= (0.20/Nop)^2 x Top = (0.20/0.9913)^2*1= 0.10(Adjusted)
0.40
0.163
= (0.40/Nop)^2 x Top = (0.40/0.9913)^2*1= 0.163
0.60
0.366
= (0.60/Nop)^2 x Top = (0.60/0.9913)^2*1= 0.366
0.80
0.651
= (0.80/Nop)^2 x Top = (0.80/0.9913)^2*1= 0.651
0.9913
1.0
(Nop= N fl)
(Top = Tfl )
1.0
1.01756
We already find out the Operating Speed & Torque At FL

for 100 % LF.
= (1.0/Nop)^2 x Top= (1/0.9913)^2*1= 1.017
2)
At 80% Load factor.
Formulae:
Top= T fl ----------------------------- eq 6
N op = S op = {1- % Sop /100} ------- eq 7
(Sop / S fl) = 0.80 ---------------------- eq 8
To find Top
eq 6=>
Top = T fl= 80% =0.8 PU
To find Operating Slip (Sop)
eq 8=>
(Sop / S fl) = 0.80
Sop = 0.80 x S fl
We already know that S fl = 0.87 % from eq 4
Sop = 0.80 x S fl
% Sop = 0.80 x 0.87
% Sop = 0.696 %
To find Operating Speed (Nop)
eq 7=>
N op = S op = {1- % Sop /100}
Page 59 of 178
= {1- 0.696 /100}

Nop= 0.9930 PU.
Case 2: LOAD TORQUE VERSUS SPEED TABLE AT 80 % LF
W.k.t from the above calculation
Top= 0.80 PU
Nop=0.9930 PU
Then calculate the below table for Speed Vs Torque in p.u for 80 % Load factor
Table 2:
Speed in PU
Torque in PU
REMARKS
0.15
Stiction Torque of 15 % (TL at Nr = 0)
0.20
0.1
=(0.20/Nop)^2xTop = (0.20/0.9926)^2*0.80= 0.10(Adjusted)
0.40
0.129
= (0.40/Nop)^2 x Top = (0.40/0.9926)^2*0.80= 0.129
0.60
0.292
= (0.60/Nop)^2 x Top = (0.60/0.9926)^2*0.80= 0.292
0.80
0.5191
= (0.80/Nop)^2 x Top = (0.80/0.9926)^2*0.80= 0.5191
0.9930
0.80
(Nop= N fl)
(Top = Tfl )
1.0
0.8112
We already find out the Operating Speed & Torque At FL

for 80 % LF.
= (1.0/Nop)^2 x Top= (1/0.9930)^2*0.80= 0.8112
By using the above case 1 and 2 models the load in curve type between Torque Vs Speed,
for our convenience convert the PU Speed into Percentage of Speed.
As per the table 1 the below table shows the Speed Vs Torque Characteristics for 100% LF.
% Speed p.u
%Torque TL
15
20
10
40
16.3
60
36.6
80
65.1
Page 60 of 178
99.13
100
100
101.7
STEP 4: MODEL THE LOAD AS PER THE ABOVE TABLE FOR 100%LF
STEP 5: MODELLING THE MOTOR

As per the data given in the data sheet go to the Parameter estimation in the motor model and
enter the Locked rotor Values (Starting Current, pf and Torque), Break down Torque and Full
load values (like slip, pf and Efficiency) as given in the data sheet and make estimate and update.
The etap will automatically model the circuit as per the input given.
Page 61 of 178
STEP 6: TO FIND MOTOR INERTIA CONSTANT (J = wr2) in kg-m2 or lb-ft

H = KE/MVA (MW-s/MVA)--------------------------------eq 1
KE = [. J. (2. .Ns / 60) ^2] x 10 -6 (MW-sec) -------------eq 2
MVA= MW/( PF * ) -----------------------------------------------eq 3
Note: The PF & values are in PU
W.k.t
wr2 = J=1000 kg-m2
Ns=1500 RPM
P= 6 MW
To find MVA
eq 3=>
MVA= MW/( PF * )
MVA= (6* 0.97)/ 0.89
MVA=6.95 MVA
To find KE
eq 2=>
KE = [. J. (2. .Ns / 60) ^2] x 10 -6

KE= [0.5*1000*(2*pi ()*1500/60) ^2] x 10 -6
KE=12.340 MW-sec
To find H
Page 62 of 178
eq 1=>
H = KE/MVA
H=12.340/6.95
H=1.775 MW-s/MVA
STEP 7: HAND CALCULATION.

w.k.t
Slip
= 0.0073 p.u
MVA = 6.950
R1
= 1.13%
X1
= 16.79%
R2fl
= 0.7%
X2fl
= 14.56%
R2start = 2.98%
X2start = 6.75%
Xm
= 546.62%
To find Zbase.
Zbase = kV^2/MVA
= 6*6/6.950
Zbase = 5.1798
To find R1, X1, R2fl, X2fl, R2start, X2start, and Xm in ohms.

R1=Zbase*% R1/100
=5.1798*1.13/100
R1=0.0585
X1=Zbase*% X1/100
=5.1798*16.79/100
X1=0.869
Page 63 of 178
R2fl =Zbase*% R2fl /100

=5.1798*0.7/100
R2fl =0.036
X2fl =Zbase*% X2fl /100
=5.1798*14.56/100
X2fl =0.754
R2start =Zbase*% R2start /100
=5.1798*2.98/100
R2start =0.154
X2start =Zbase*% X2start /100
=5.1798*6.75/100
X2start =0.349
Xm =Zbase*% Xm /100
=5.1798*546.62/100
Xm =28.31
The below shows the calculated for to find speed and Current.
Parameters
Values
Formulae
R2(s)
0.04
1/[1/R2st+(1/R2fl-1/R2st)*(1-S)^2]
X2(s)
0.74
1/[1/X2st+(1/X2fl-1/X2st)*(1-S)^2]
R2eq
4.44
R2(s)/s*Xm^2/[(R2(s)/S)^2+(X2(s)+Xm)^2
X2eq
1.46
Xm*[R2(s)^2/S^2+X2(s)^2+X2(s)*Xm]/[(R2(s)/S)^2+(X2(s)+Xm)^2]
Z2eq
4.67
(R2eq^2+X2eq^2)
Rt
4.50
R1ohm+R2eq
Page 64 of 178
Xt
2.33
X1ohm+X2eq
Zt
5.06
(Rt^2+Xt^2)
Angle of Zt
0.48
tan-1(Xt/Rt)
Zt in degree
27.34
Angle of Zt*180/pi()
p.f
0.89
Cos(angle of Zt)
Is in Amps
684.06
N in RPM
1488
V*1000/((3)*Zt)
(1-0.008)*Ns
By using the above table calculates the Starting Current, Speed by varying the Time and Slip
Speed in
RPM
Time in
sec
Slip in
PU
Is in
Amps
0
75
150
225
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1455
1470
1485
1488
0.000
0.926
1.530
2.040
2.515
3.483
4.579
5.936
7.833
11.070
18.020
23.360
24.040
24.100
24.180
24.240
1.000
0.950
0.900
0.850
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.020
0.010
0.008
0.008
2828.37
2825.61
2820.93
2814.30
2805.67
2781.88
2747.99
2701.58
2639.07
2554.63
2436.45
2238.84
1396.06
858.17
712.70
684.06
Note: Slip and Starting Current are in PU.
Page 65 of 178
STEP 8:- Comparision Table:

Sl.no
Hand Calculation
ETAP Calculation
Time in
Speed in
Is in
Time in
Speed in
Is in
Sec
RPM
Amps
Sec
RPM
Amps
2.515
300
2805.67
2.515
300
2800.52
7.833
900
2639.07
7.833
900
2610.69
18.02
1200
2436.45
18.02
1200
2416.54
24.10
1470
858.17
24.10
1470
839.69
24.24
1488
684.06
24.00
1488
678.26
Page 66 of 178
4. TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS
Page 67 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
The ETAP Transient Stability Analysis program is designed to investigate the system
dynamic responses and stability limits of a power system before, during, and after system
changes or disturbances. The program models dynamic characteristics of a power system,
implements the user-defined events and actions, solves the system network equation and
machine differential equations interactively to find out system and machine responses in time
domain.
Stability Limits:
There are two types of stability limit for a power system, namely steady-state stability
limit and transient stability limit.
1. Steady-State Stability Limit

The steady-state stability is defined as the stability of a system under conditions of
gradual or small changes in the system. This stability can be either found by the load flow
calculation for a steady-state operation, or determined by a transient stability study if there
are system changes or disturbances involved. The system is said to be steady-state stable if,
following any small and/or gradual disturbances, all synchronous machines reach their
steady-state operating condition identical or close to the pre-disturbance operating
conditions. The steady-state stability limit for any synchronous machine is when its power
angle is less than 90 degrees.
2. Transient Stability Limit

Transient or dynamic stability is defined as the stability of a system during
and after sudden changes or disturbances in the system, such as short-circuits, loss of
generators, sudden changes in load, line tripping, or any other similar impact. The system is
said to be transient stable if following a severe disturbance, all synchronous machines reach
their steady-state operating condition without prolonged loss of synchronism or going out of
step with other machines. The transient stability limit for any synchronous machine is its
power angle is less than 180 degrees.
Page 68 of 178
Causes of Instability Problems:

The major causes to industrial power system instability problems include, but are not
limited to:
Short-circuits
Loss of a tie connection to a utility system
Loss of a portion of in-plant co-generation (generator rejection)
Starting a motor that is large relative to the system generating capacity
Switching operations of lines, capacitors, etc.
Impact loading (motors and static loads)
A sudden large step change of load or generation
Consequences of Instability Problems:

The consequences of power system instability problems usually are very severe and
can range from permanent damage on equipment and shutting down processes, all the way to
causing a whole area power outage. Some typical consequences are listed below:
Area-wide blackout
Interruption of loads
Low-voltage conditions
Damage to equipment
Relay and protective device malfunctions.
Page 69 of 178
Rotor Angle Responses:
Case 1: Steady-state stable
Case 2: Transient stable
Case 3: Small-signal unstable
Case 4: First swing unstable
Generator Modeling:
Machine-Equivalent Model / Transient Model / Sub transient Model
Page 70 of 178
Exciter and Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
Prime Mover and Speed Governor
Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
Typical synchronous machine data:
Page 71 of 178
Case Study 1:
A power transmission and distribution system feeding an industrial plant with its own
on-site generation and double busbar arrangement. Normally the busbar coupler is open and
grid infeed is via the non-priority busbar No. 2. On-site generation and a major 5000 hp
induction motor are connected to busbar No. 1. Other smaller motor loads are connected to
busbars 3, 4 and 5.The computer data files represent the grid infeed as a generator with
transient reactance equal to the short circuit reactance Xd and a very large inertia constant
of 100 MJ/MVA. The large induction motors connected to busbars 1 and 5 are represented in
detail in order that slip and current variations during disturbance may be studied. These
motor load torque/speed characteristics are assumed to follow a square law. The two groups
of smaller 415 V motors connected to busbars 3 and 4 are not to be studied in detail and are
represented as constant kVA loads. On-site generator No. 1 is represented simply by its
transient reactance and inertia constant and site conditions are assumed to allow full rated
output during all case studies.
Case study 1
The system is operating with industrial plant on-site generator No. 2 not connected.
Generator No. 1 is delivering full power at near unity power factor. A three phase fault is
imagined to occur on the 6.6 kV feeders to busbar 3 at point (F). The protection and circuit
breaker are such that total fault duration of 0.35 seconds is obtained. Clearance of the fault
disconnects busbar 3 and its associated step-down transformer from busbar 1 and all other
loads are assumed to remain connected.
The study says that the rotor angle of generator 1 is seen to increase during the fault
period. Shortly after fault clearance, a return towards the original operating load angle
position is seen. The generator terminal voltage is also seen to recover towards prefault
value. The on-site generator No. 1 is therefore stable to this particular fault condition.
The behavior of the 5000 hp induction motor load under these fault conditions. During the
fault the slip increases. However, shortly after fault clearance the terminal voltage recovers
and the slip reduces towards the prefault value. Similar behavior for motors 2 and 3 is shown
in Fig. 1.18c. The main motor loads therefore seem to be able to operate under the fault
condition; the smaller motor loads have not been studied. The situation in this configuration
is therefore stable and only one busbar is lost as a result of the fault.
Page 72 of 178
INPUT DATA REQUIRED FOR MSA:

Sl.no
1
2
3
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
Required input
Nominal kv
1. Swing %v and del
5. Imp/Model-Impedance(Xd,Xd,Xo,X2 and X/R)
-Dynamic (Xd, XL, Xq, Td0, Sbreak, S100.
6. Inertia
7. Governor
8. Exciter
3. Tolerance
3. Model-%LRC, %PF.
5. Load Model-Type
6. Inertia-Motor, Load
4. Exciter
Page 73 of 178
12
Impedance
CASE-1(SINGLE MACHINE SYSTEM)

STEP 1: CONSTRUCT THE SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM FOR SINGLE
MACHINE.
STEP 2: INPUT PARAMETERS:

Generator in feed:
Operation Mode: Swing
MW=8.5
Rated real power
Page 74 of 178
kV=132
Rated Voltage
%PF=85
Rated PF
MVA=100
Rated Power
Poles=4
Rated poles in 60 Hz frequency
Xd'=5%
This is the direct-axis transient reactance in percent (saturated value,

machine base)
X2=12%
This is the negative sequence reactance in percent (machine base)
X0=10%
This is the zero sequence reactance in percent (machine base)
Gen Type= Turbo

Rotor Type= RR
Xd=100%
This is the direct-axis synchronous reactance in percent (saturated

value, machine base)
XL=11%
This is the armature leakage reactance in percent (machine base)
Xq=92%
This is the quadratic-axis synchronous reactance in percent (saturated

Tdo=5.6
This is the direct-axis transient open-circuit time constant in seconds.
Sbreak=0.8
This is the per unit of terminal voltage at which the generator saturation
curve skews from the air-gap line.
S100=1.07
This is the saturation factor at 100% terminal voltage.
Damping=5
This is the shaft mechanical damping term in percent MW change due

to 1 Hz deviation in speed (% MW/Hz). Typical values range from 2%
(short shaft) to 10% ( long shaft)
Grounding=Star
Inertia=100
This is the total inertia of the generator shaft.
Generator 1:
Operation Mode: Voltage Control
MW=8.5
Rated real power
kV=6.6
Rated Voltage
Page 75 of 178
%PF=85
Rated PF
MVA=10
Rated Power
Poles=4
Xd'=20%

machine base)
X2=12%
X0=10%
Gen Type= Turbo

Rotor Type= RR
Xd=100%

XL=8%
Xq=92%

Tdo=5.6
Sbreak=0.8
S100=1.07
S120=1.08
This is the saturation factor at 120% terminal voltage
Damping=5

Grounding=Star
Inertia=7.5
Page 76 of 178
Generator 2:
Operation Mode: Voltage Control
MW=2.125
Rated real power
kV=6.6
Rated Voltage
%PF=85
Rated PF
MVA=2.5
Rated Power
Poles=4
Xd'=25%

machine base)
X2=12%
X0=10%
X/R=48%
This is the armature X/R ratio (X/Ra)
Rotor Type= RR
Gen Type= Turbo
Xd=110%

XL=11%
Xq=108%

Tdo=5.6
Sbreak=0.8
S100=1.07
S120=1.08
This is the saturation factor at 120% terminal voltage
Damping=5

Grounding=Star
Inertia=?As per
Page 77 of 178
Transformer T1 (Connected between Bus6 and Bus1)

MVA=10
This value is used as the base MVA for the transformer impedance
Primary kV=132
Primary voltage rating
Secondary kV=6.6
Secondary Voltage rating
Max MVA=10
Enter Max MVA of the transformer
%Z=10
This is he positive sequence impedance for the transformer
%X/R=15.5
Enter typical value
Py=Star Sy=delta
(SOLID)

MVA=3
Primary kV=6.6
Secondary kV=0.415 Secondary Voltage rating

Max MVA=3
%Z=8
%X/R=10.67
Enter typical value
Py=Star Sy=delta
(SOLID)

MVA=5
Primary kV=6.6

Max MVA=3
%Z=8
%X/R=12.14
Enter typical value
Py=Star Sy=delta
(SOLID)
Page 78 of 178

MVA=6
Primary kV=6.6

Max MVA=6
%Z=8
%X/R=12.85
Enter typical value
Py=Star Sy=delta
(SOLID)
Lumped load- Lump 1 (Connected to Bus 4):

MVA=5.556
Rated MVA
MW=5
Rated real Power
%PF=90
P.F=MVA/MW
Load type
Constant KVA=100%
Lumped load- Lump 31 (Connected to Bus 3):

MVA=2.223
Rated MVA
MW=2
Rated real Power
%PF=90
P.F=MVA/MW
Load type
Constant KVA=100%
Induction Motor Mtr2 (Connected to Bus 5)

HP=2500
Enter the machine output (shaft) rating in horsepower (HP) or kW
kV=6.6
Rated voltage
Induction Motor Mtr4 (Connected to Bus 9)

HP=5000
Enter the machine output (shaft) rating in horsepower (HP) or kW
kV=3.3
Rated voltage
Page 79 of 178
STEP 3: CREATE THE EVENT IN THE STUDY CASE EDITOR BY APPLYING

3 FAULT AND REMOVING FAULTS WITH A TIME INTERVAL.
STEP 4: HAND CALCULATION WITH ETAP.
Formulae:
New angle= R+ Delta degree-------------------------------------------------eq 1
R = Pa* t^*/ (4*H) -------------------------------------------------------------eq 2
Delta degree=tan-1((XP-RQ)/ (Vt^2+ (RP+XQ))*180/-------------eq 3
Where
Pa- is the accelerating power
t- is the time in seconds.
H- inertia constants of the machine (MW-seconds/MVA)
Vt-terminal voltage
R- is the rotor angle degrees.

w.k.t
Nominal kV
= 6.6 kV
Base MVA
= 10 MVA
Frequency
= 60 Hz
Power Factor = 0.9

H
=4
Xd'
= 0.2 p.u
Xd''
= 0.12 p.u
= 0.0025 p.u
Xd''/R
= 48
Xd=X
= 0.2
Generator 1 Data
Generator Voltage=1.0 p.u
MW
= 8.5
Page 80 of 178
Mvar
= 4.12
To find MVA
MVA = (MW^2+Mvar^2)
= (8.5*8.5+4.12*4.12)
MVA=9.44
To find Zbase
Zbase =kV^2/Base MVA
=6.6*6.6/10
Zbase=4.356
To find P, Q, and S in p.u

P
= MW/Base MVA
= 8.5 / 10
P=0.85
= Mvar/Base MVA
= 4.12 / 10
Q=0.41
So w.k.t
Vt =1.0 p.u Terminal Voltage
R=0.0025 p.u
P=0.85 p.u
X=0.2 p.u
Q=0.41 p.u
To find field excitation Voltage (Efd)

Efd= ( (Vt+ (RP+XQ/Vt) ^2+ (XP-RQ/Vt) ^2))-Vt
= (1+ (0.0025*0.85+0.2*0.41/1) ^2+ (0.2*0.85-0.0025*0.41/1)^2)
Efd=1.098
To find Delta degree i.e. intial angle in degrees.
Page 81 of 178
eq 3=>
Delta degree=tan-1((XP-RQ)/ (Vt^2+ (RP+XQ))*180/

=tan-1((0.2*0.85-0.0025*0.41)/ (1*1+ (0.0025*0.85+0.2*0.41))*180/3.14
deg=8.908
To find the rotor angle
eq 2=>
R = Pa* t^*/ (4*H)
Note: =2**f
= 0.85*0.42*0.42*2*3.14*60/ (4*7.5)
R = 1.8845 in radian
Note: t- is the fault clearing time
To find the rotor angle in degree

R in degree = in radian * 180/
=1.8845*180/3.14
R in degree =107.95 in degree

Hence New angle in degree.
eq 1=>
New angle= R+ Delta degree

= 107.95+8.908
New Power angle=116.86
Page 82 of 178
STEP 5: RUN THE TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS.
Page 83 of 178
STEP 6: PLOT THE TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS.

As per the event enter in the study case editor by applying three phase fault at Bus flt and
clear the fault after a time interval and check the critical clearance time by varying the event
time (here it is taken as 0.35s) and check with the graph shown in fig 1, in which time the
system becomes instable, before that point time is the critical clearance time shown in the fig
2. The X-axis shows the time in seconds and Y-axis shows the rotor angle in degree.
Fig 1
Fig 2
Page 84 of 178
STEP 7: COMPARISION TABLE:

The below table shows below the fault clearance time and the rotor angle in degree.
As per Hand
As per ETAP
Comparison
Calculation
T in sec
G1 in degree
G1 in degree
0.42
116.86
118.35
1.49
Note: The final Critical Fault Clearance time 0.42, if it exceeds this time the system becomes
instability, to remain in steady state stability the fault want to cleared with in this time.
Page 85 of 178
CASE-2 (Multi Machine System)

Introduction:
In this study it is assumed that a decision has been made to use surplus industrial plant gas to
generate more electrical power and thus reduce grid infeedtariffs. A 2.5 MVA generator No.
2 is added to busbar 1. This machine has a relatively low inertia constant compared to the
existing on-site generator No. 1. No changes are proposed to the existing protection or circuit
breaker arrangements. Both site generators are supplying full load.
Figure 1.19 shows the consequences of an identical fault at (F) under these new system
conditions. Figure 1.19a shows generator 1 to continue to be stable. Figure 1.19b shows
generator 2 has become unstable. The duration of the fault has caused generator 2 to lose
synchronism with generator 1 and the grid infeed. The ensuing power surging
is not shown in Fig. 1.19 but can be assumed to jeopardize the operation of the whole of the
power system.
Acting as a consultant engineer to the industrial plant owner what action do you recommend
after having carried out this analysis?
1. Do you have anything to say about protection operating times for busbar 5 feeder or
generator 2 breaker?
2. The client, not wishing to spend more money than absolutely necessary,queries the
accuracy of your analysis. Generator 2 is a new machine and good manufacturers data is
available including AVR characteristics, saliency, saturation, damping and stator resistance.
Would you consider a further study under these conditions with more accurate generator
modelling?
This study demonstrates the need to review plant transient stability whenever major
extensions or changes are contemplated. In this example a solution could be found by
decreasing protection and circuit breaker operating times.
Alternatively, if generator 2 has not already been purchased a unit with a similar inertia
constant to generator 1 (if practicable) could be chosen.
Page 86 of 178
STEP 1: RUN THE TRANSIENT STABILITY WITH TWO MACHINE

SYSTEM.
Page 87 of 178
STEP 2: HAND CALCULATION WITH ETAP.

Generator 2 Data
MW
= 2.125
Mvar
= 1.31
To find for Generator 1

Formulae:
R = Pa* t^*/ (4*H) -------------------------------------------------------------eq 2
Where
Pa- is the accelerating power
t- is the time in seconds.
H- inertia constants of the machine (MW-seconds/MVA)
Vt-terminal voltage
R- is the rotor angle degrees.

w.k.t
Nominal kV
= 6.6 kV
Base MVA
= 10 MVA
Frequency
= 60 Hz
Power Factor = 0.9

H
=4
Xd'
= 0.2 p.u
Xd''
= 0.12 p.u
= 0.0025 p.u
Xd''/R
= 48
Xd=X
= 0.2
Generator 1 Data
Page 88 of 178
MW
= 8.5
Mvar
= 4.12
To find MVA
MVA = (MW^2+Mvar^2)
= (8.5*8.5+4.12*4.12)
MVA=9.44
To find Zbase
Zbase =kV^2/Base MVA
=6.6*6.6/10
Zbase=4.356

P
= MW/Base MVA
= 8.5 / 10
P=0.85
= Mvar/Base MVA
= 4.12 / 10
Q=0.41
So w.k.t
R=0.0025 p.u
P=0.85 p.u
X=0.2 p.u
Q=0.41 p.u

= (1+ (0.0025*0.85+0.2*0.41/1) ^2+ (0.2*0.85-0.0025*0.41/1)^2)
Efd=1.098
Page 89 of 178

eq 3=>

=tan-1((0.2*0.85-0.0025*0.41)/ (1*1+ (0.0025*0.85+0.2*0.41))*180/3.14
deg=8.908
eq 2=>
R = Pa* t^*/ (4*H)
Note: =2**f
= 0.85*0.4*0.4*2*3.14*60/ (4*7.5)
R = 1.8845 in radian

=1.8845*180/3.14

eq 1=>

= 107.95+8.908
To find for Generator 2

Formulae:
R = Pa* t^*/ (4*H) -------------------------------------------------------------eq 2
Page 90 of 178
w.k.t
Generator 2 Data
Generator Voltage
=1.0 p.u
Base MVA
=2.5
MW
= 2.125
Mvar
= 1.316
To find MVA
MVA = (MW^2+Mvar^2)
= (2.125*2.125+1.03*1.03)
MVA=2.36

P
= MW/Base MVA
= 2.125 / 2.5
P=0.85
= Mvar/Base MVA
= 1.316 / 2.5
Q=0.527
So w.k.t
R=0.0025 p.u
P=0.85 p.u
X=0.25 p.u
Q=0.527 p.u

= (1+ (0.0025*0.85+0.25*0.527/1) ^2+ (0.25*0.85-0.0025*0.527/1)^2)
Efd=1.154
Page 91 of 178
eq 3=>

=tan-1((0.25*0.85-0.0025*0.527)/ (1*1+ (0.0025*0.85+0.25*0.527))*180/3.14
deg=10.614
eq 2=>
R = Pa* t^*/ (4*H)
Note: =2**f
= 0.85*0.4*0.4*2*3.14*60/ (4*3)
R = 4.273
in radian

=4.273*180/3.14

eq 1=>

= 244.8+10.613

In this above calculation done for this transient stability analysis the Gen 1 remains in stable
and Gen 2 becomes instable in this case change the inertia of Gen 2 equal to Gen 1 i.e.
H=7.5=G1=G2 and run the stability. Now you will find both the machine are in stable state.
Note: The inertia of the Generator 2 is 3 as recommended by the Bayliss IEEE case study.
Then check run the stability and plot the graph and check the condition. The generator 1
remains stable and generator 2 becomes unstable as shown in below diagram.
STEP: 3
Page 92 of 178
For the same transient stability but with equally loaded machines, which is another
simulation carried out for the purpose of the note, the power swings in step-2 plotted shows
stable machine response and instable machine response. See the dotted line shows foe
generator 2, which becomes instable and the continuous line is for generator 1 which remains
stable as per the previous case study. Next change the instable machine inertia i.e., generator
2 inertia equal to generator 1 inertia i.e., 7.5, check the system stability or not, which is
shown in below step-3. The machines swing together and there will be no relative rotor angle
swing between them and both machines are seen to recover back to original operating
condition as soon as the electrical fault is cleared.
Page 93 of 178
STEP 4: CHANGE THE INERTIA OF THE GENERATOR 2.

Consider
H=7.5

eq 2=>
R = Pa* t^*/ (4*H)
Note: =2**f
= 0.85*0.4*0.4*2*3.14*60/ (4*7.5)
R = 1.709
in radian

=1.709*180/3.14

eq 1=>

= 97.92+10.613
Now the Generator 2 becomes stable by changing the inertia value equal to generator 1
Note: The final Critical Fault Clearance time 0.4, if it exceeds this time the system becomes
instability, to remain in steady state stability the fault want to cleared with in this time. So
this time want to set in the relay, which will operate the circuit breaker.
Page 94 of 178
STEP 5:
See the machines, generator 1 and generator 2 becomes stability because of by changing the
inertia of Generator H1=Generator H2. Now we want to find the Critical fault clearance time
same as we done before in the case 1 i.e., single machine system.
Page 95 of 178
SUMMARY OF THE DISCUSSION:

In order to ensure stable operation, based on details given in the above discussions, the
normal established industry practice for multiple generators in parallel is to operate them :
with equal loading if the machines are of the same rating

OR
with loads shared in equal proportion of their ratings, if the operating machines
are of unequal rating
The risks involved in paralleling machines with unequal loading are the possible loss of
synchronism between machines with possible shaft damage due to large torque swings that
will occur under transients associated with close up 3 phase electrical faults that may not be
cleared quickly in unit protection.
Page 96 of 178
5. STAR-PROTECTIVE DEVICE
COORDINATION
Page 97 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
Star is a fully integrated system protective device coordination and selectivity module within
ETAP. Star represents a new concept in performing steady-state and dynamic device
coordination, protection, and testing. This is achieved by utilizing intelligent one-line
diagrams, comprehensive device libraries, and an integrated multi-dimensional database.
Star enables power engineers to easily and efficiently perform protective device
coordination studies. The built-in intelligent features provide informed and reliable
recommendations regarding the feasibility of the devices under consideration. Engineers can
quickly realize possible design issues and make informed decisions to improve system
reliability, increase system stability, and boost financial savings. Stars short-circuit and
sequence-of-operation calculations are conducted and reported using the settings of the study
case selected in the toolbar. This allows you to switch between study cases without having to
reset the study case options each time. This feature is designed to organize your study efforts
and save you time.
The current/time tripping characteristics of IDMT over current relays may need to be
varied according to the tripping time required and the characteristics of other protection
devices used in the network. For this purpose, IEC 60255 defines a number of standard
characteristics as follows.
Standard Inverse (SI)
Very Inverse (VI)
Extremely Inverse (EI)
Define Inverse (DI)
Objectives:
Enables system engineers to easily & efficiently perform protective device

coordination studies
Provide an accurate and realistic operating characteristic, time, and state of

protective devices
Offers insight into troubleshooting false trips, relay mis-operation, and miscoordination
Page 98 of 178
Aids system engineers & planners to quickly realize possible design issues &
make informed decisions
INPUT DATA REQUIRED FOR INSTRUMENTATION COMPONENTS:

Sl.no
Components
Parameters
1. Input-Current-Py and Sy amps.
2. Output-Interlock-Add device id and action.
Over Current Relay
3. OCR-Library-Select manufacture.
4. TCC kA- Calculated or user-defined.
Multi functional Relay
3. OCR-Select Library-Select manufacture.

4. OLR-Select Library-Select manufacture.

Reverse Power Relay
1. Info-Interlock- Add device id and action.

2. Settings-Real/Reactive Power-Over/Under power.
Frequency Relay
1. Interlock-Over/Under frequency interlock.
Voltage Relay
1. Interlock- Over/Under Voltage Control interlocks.

Motor Relay
3. OLR-Select Library-Select manufacture.

Current Transformer
1. Rating-ratio(Py & Sy)

2. Burden in VA or ohms
Potential Transformer
1. Info-Ratings(Py & Sy kV)
INPUT DATA REQUIRED FOR SLD:

Sl.no
1
2
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Required input
Nominal kv
Page 99 of 178
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
12
Impedance
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
1.
2.
Swing %v and del

Voltage Control MW, Mvar limits
Mvar Control-MW, Mvar and Var limits
PF Control-MW and PF
Rating-Py kV, Sec kV, MVA
Impedance-%Z (+Ve & -Ve sequence Impedance)
Tolerance, Tap
Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
Model-%LRC, %PF.
Rating-HP and kV and select MFR details.
Rating-kV, MW, Mvar and PF
Ratings- kV, MW, Mvar and PF
Load Type-Motor Load or Static load
Length in ft/m/mile/km
Cable Type- Size, Insulation, kV and #/Cable
Impedance/conductor-Positive sequence
Length in ft/m/mile/km
Parameter-Phase conductor
Impedance per phase-positive sequence
Rating-HP, kV and rated Torque
Circuit Breakers-Rated kV, Amps, Interrupting kA
Fuses-Rated kV, Size, Amps, Interrupting kA
Switches-Rated kV , BIL ratings and amps
Contactors- Rated kV, Interrupting kA and amps
Rating-kV, Max kV, Mvar Bank and No of Banks.
Rating-Amps and kV
Impedance- Positive sequence Z and X/R
Page 100 of 178
Typical Procedure:
A typical procedure for organizing data before beginning coordination studies by computer it as
follows.
1. Note motor horse power, full load power, acceleration time and locked rotor current.
2. For each protective device: note short circuit current, full load current and voltage level at
each device. List device manufacture and type and program file name for the device.
3. For each low-voltage breaker, indicate long time, short time, instantaneous. Note settings
if existing device.
4. For each fuse, note rating.
5. For each relay, note tap settings, CT ratio, tap and time dial, if know, and whether relay
has instantaneous.
6. For each transformer, note kVA, fan cooled rating, impedance, and transformer
connection.
7. For cable damage curves: note cable size, conductor material, and cable insulation.
Feature & Capabilities
Illustrate system wide coordination.
Automatic layout of the one-line diagram in Star TCC View.
Click & drag curves to adjust settings.
Phase & ground coordination modes.
Automatic current & voltage scaling.
Integration of short circuit analysis with protective devices.
Motor starting curves based on motor acceleration studies.
Comprehensive relay interlocks.
User-definable display options.
Graphical time-difference calculator.
Fixed point/damage curve modeling.
Graphical printing/plotting.
Comprehensive print functionality, legends, & device labeling.
Page 101 of 178
Step 1: Construct the SLD for Protective Device Coordination.
Step 2: Enter the input Parameters for all the components including current transformer
(CT) ratio depend upon the transformer primary and secondary full load amps and the relay
(Over current relay) details by selecting the manufacture from the library and relay operation for
to operate the circuit breaker CB2
Page 102 of 178
SYSTEM PARAMETERS:Voltage
: 33KV, 50 Hz
Fault MVA level
: 800.2 MVAsc
Fault kA
: 14 kA
X/R ratio
: 40
TRANSFORMER:Primary
: 33 kV
Secondary
: 11 kV
Capacity
: 10 MVA
Impedance
: 8.35
To Find
Formulae:
Py FLA= KVA/ ( (3)*Py kV)
Sy FLA=KVA/ ( (3)*Sy kV)
Transformer Full Load Amps
Py FLA= KVA/ ( (3)*Py kV)
=10000/ (1.723*33)
=175 Amps
Sy FLA=KVA/ ( (3)*Sy kV)
=10000/ (1.723*11)
=962.3 Amps
CT-RATIO:Primary
: 200
Secondary
:1
Burden
: 2.5 VA
Page 103 of 178
RELAY DATA:Type
: ALSTOM
Model
: P139
Functions
: Over Current relay.
Application
: Protection, monitoring and control of motors,

transformers and lines
Step 3: Run the SLD for Protective Device Coordination.

Run the SLD after applying fault on bus 2. The run and update short circuit kA for the
system relay and run the system for coordination.
Page 104 of 178
Step 5: Create star view for the system.

Then select the relay want to co-ordinate and go to create star view and find out the Time Vs
Current in the graph. The below graph shows the Time Vs Current Characteristics curve.
Page 105 of 178
Step 6: Check with the hand Calculation.

Formulae:
For Extremely Inverse Relay Characteristic
t=TMS*(80/Ir^2-1) -----------eq 1
I=CT ratio * Ir ------------------eq 2
#Note: As per IEC 60255 standards
Consider
TMS =0.9
Ir
=1.1
CT ratio=200
Where
TMS-Time Multiplier Setting.
Ir-Relay Current Settings.
I-Relay current in Amps.
To find t in seconds
eq 1=>
t=TMS*(80/Ir^2-1)
=0.9*(80/ (1.1*1.1-1))
t=342.86 sec
To find I in amps
eq 1=>
I=CT ratio * Ir
=200*1.1
I=220 amps
The below table shows current with respect to time for different relay current.
Extremely Inverse
EI
80
Page 106 of 178
CT ratio
TMS
200
0.9
relay current settings Ir Sec t

1.1
1.5
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12.5
15
20
31
342.86
57.60
24.00
9.00
4.80
3.00
2.06
1.50
1.14
0.90
0.73
0.46
0.32
0.18
0.13
1
Amps
220
300
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2500
3000
4000
6200

Sl.no
Hand Calculation
t in sec
ETAP Calculation
I in Amps
I in Amps
0.9
1800
1796
1.5
1400
1402
2.06
1200
1199
1000
1005
4.8
800
799.6
9.0
600
598.2
Page 107 of 178
6. HARMONIC ANALYSIS
Page 108 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
Harmonics are voltages and/or currents present in an electrical system at some multiple of the
fundamental frequency. (IEEE Std 399, Brown Book). Because of the wide and ever increasing
applications of power electronic devices, such as variable speed drives, uninterruptible power
supplies (UPS), static power converters, etc., power system voltage and current quality has been
severely affected in some areas. In these areas components other than that of fundamental
frequency can be found to exist in the distorted voltage and current waveforms. These components
usually are the integer multipliers of the fundamental frequency, called harmonics. In addition to
electronic devices, some other nonlinear loads, or devices including saturated transformers, arc
furnaces, fluorescent lights, and cycloconverters are also responsible for the deterioration in power
system quality.
The presence of harmonics in a power system can give rise to a variety of problems including
equipment overheating, reduced power factors, deteriorating performance of electrical equipment,
the incorrect operation of protective relays, interference with communication devices, and in some
cases, circuit resonance to cause electric apparatus dielectric failure and other types of severe
damage. Even worse, harmonic currents generated in one area can penetrate into the power grid
and propagate into other areas, resulting in voltage and current distortions for the entire system.
This phenomenon has become a major concern for power quality due to the ever-increasing usage
of electronic devices and equipment in power systems.
Some of the main features of the ETAP Harmonic Load Flow Study are summarized below:
Harmonic order up to 73rd
Model harmonic voltage source
Model harmonic current source
Generation of harmonic source based on device parameters for VFD, UPS, charger,
inverter, SVC and HVDC
User-selected harmonic source inclusion by device categories
Calculation of various harmonic indices based on IEEE standards
Total harmonic distortions (THD) for both bus voltages and branch current
Total RMS value for both bus voltages and branch currents
Total arithmetic summation value (ASUM) for both bus voltages and branch currents
Telephone influence factors (TIF) for both bus voltages and branch currents
Page 109 of 178
Automatic filter sizing based on different criteria.
Classification of Harmonics
Harmonics may be classified as:
1. Characteristic Harmonics
Generally produced by power converters
Page 110 of 178
2. Non-Characteristic Harmonics
Typically produced by arc furnaces and discharge lighting (from non-periodical
waveforms)
Reducing System Harmonics:

Add Passive Filters
Shunt or Single Tuned Filters
Broadband Filters or Band Pass Filters
Provide low impedance path for harmonic current
Least expensive
Increase Pulse Numbers
Increasing pulse number of convert circuits
Limited by practical control problems
Page 111 of 178
Apply Transformer Phase Shifting
Using Phase Shifting Transformers
Achieve higher pulse operation of the total converter installation
In PowerStation
Phase shift is specified in the tab page of the transformer editor
Distortion Limits:
Recommended Practices for Utilities (IEEE 519):
Bus Voltage At PCC
Individual Distortion
Total Voltage Distortion
THD (%)
THD (%)
69 kV and below
3.0
5.0
69.001 kV through 161kV
1.5
2.5
1.0
1.5
161.001 and above

In PowerStation:
Specify Harmonic Distortion Limits in Harmonic Page of Bus editor.
Page 112 of 178
CASE 1-WITHOUT FILTER

STEP 1: DRAW THE SLD FOR HARMONIC ANALYSIS:
STEP 2: INPUT PARAMETERS REQUIRED FOR HARMONIC ANALYSIS:

POWER GRID:Page 113 of 178
Voltage
: 33KV, 50 Hz
Fault MVA level
: 1000 MVAsc
Fault kA
: 999 kA (some infinity)
X/R ratio
: 40
TRANSFORMERs:Primary
: 33 kV
Secondary
: 6.6 kV
Capacity
: 10 MVA
Impedance
: 8.35 %
LOAD DETAILS:- ( Static Load)

kV
: 6.6 kV
Amps
: 220 amps
%PF
: 80 %
STEP 3: CALCULATION TO CREATE HARMONIC LIBRARY:
FORMULAE:h=np1----------------------------------------eq 1
%Ih=100/h------------------------------------eq 2
Where
h=harmonic order from 1 to n.
p=number of pulses. (in this case p=12)
%Ih= magnitude of harmonic current.
To find harmonic order
Consider n= 1
eq 1=>
h=np-1
=1*12-1
h=11
Page 114 of 178
Consider n= 1
eq 1=>
h=np+1
=1*12+1
h=13
in the same method do for 2 to n, upto 73rd harmonics
To find magnitude of harmonic Current for above order 11th and 13th order.
eq 2=>
%Ih=100/h
=100/11
%Ih =9.09
%Ih=100/h
=100/13
%Ih =7.69
So do for upto 73rd harmonic. we get
n
Harmonic
Order , h
Magnitude
%lh
11
9.091
13
7.692
23
4.348
25
4.000
35
2.857
37
2.703
Using the above table create the harmonic library for current source and update in the static load
component.
STEP 4: CALCULATION TO FIND THE INDIVIDUAL HARMONIC CURRENT:
FORMULAE:Ih= I*%Ih/100 -------------------------eq 3

Where
Page 115 of 178
I = Load current in Amps (Static load)

h= harmonic order
w.k.t
I= 220 amps (i.e. static load current)
To find harmonic Current
eq 3=>
Ih= I*%Ih/100
=220*9.09/100
Ih=20 Amps
In same method do for different harmonic order. we get
Harmonic
Order , h
11
13
23
25
35
37
Magnitude
%Ih
9.091
7.692
4.348
4.000
2.857
2.703
Harmonic
current, Ih
20.00
16.92
9.57
8.80
6.29
5.95
Page 116 of 178
STEP 5: RUN THE HARMONIC LOAD FLOW TO FIND THE HARMONIC CURRENT
FOR DIFFERENT ORDER:
STEP 6: HAND CALCULATION TO FIND % VHD AND % IHD:

Page 117 of 178
Harmonic
%Ih
Ih, Current
Phase Volt
Xhnet
Xheq
Vh drop
Isys
Vh square
Isys square
1
220
3810.62
0.26
0.26
11
9.09
20.00
13
7.69
16.92
23
4.35
9.57
25
4
8.80
35
2.86
6.29
2.87
2.87
3.40
3.40
6.01
6.01
6.53
6.53
9.15
9.15
57.50
57.50
220
20.00
14520851.9 3306.16
48400 400.00
57.50
57.50
57.50
57.50
16.92
9.57
8.80
6.29
3306.16
3306.16 3306.16 3306.16
286.39
91.49
77.44
39.51
19836.94
930.188
37 Formulae
2.7 h/100
5.95 220*%Ih/100
VL/Sqrt(3)
9.67 Total reactance
9.67 Xeq=Xnet
57.50
5.95
3306.16
35.35
Ih* Xheq
Isys=Ih
Vh*Vh
Isys*Isys
Vh^2
Isys ^2
To find THD Voltage in Bus
Formulae:
%THD= [( ( Vh^2)/Vph]/100----------------------eq 4
Where
THD= Total Harmonic Distortion.
Vh= is the voltage drop
Vph= phase Voltage
To find % THD
We know that from the above table
Vh^2=19836.94
eq 4=>
%THD= {( ( Vh^2)/Vph}/100
= {(19836.94)/3810.62}/100
THD Voltage =3.691%
Page 118 of 178
To find THD Branch Current
Formulae:
%THD= [( ( Isys^2)/Vph]/100----------------------eq 5
To find % THD
We know that from the above table
Isys^2=930.188
eq 5=>
%THD= {( ( Isys^2)/Vph}/100
= {(930.188)/3810.62}/100
THD Current= 13.86%
Page 119 of 178
STEP 7: RUN THE HARMONIC LOAD FLOW:
Page 120 of 178
CASE 2-WITH FILTER

STEP 8: ADD HARMONIC FILTER:
Page 121 of 178
STEP 9: PARAMETERS NEEDED FOR SIZING THE FILTER

Harmonic Order
= 11th Order
Harmonic Current
= 20
Existing PF
= 80
Desired PF
= 89
Load MVA
= 2.5 MVA
i.e. from the table Page 113
Note: Load MVA and Existing PF are taken after running the Load Flow Analysis. Enter all
the know values and size the filter, ETAP will automatically size the filter based on the order
of the Harmonic with respective current. After sizing and updated the values enter the
inductor Q-factor
STEP 10: RUN THE HARMONIC LOAD FLOW WITH FILTER.
Page 122 of 178
Page 123 of 178
STEP 11: HARMONIC ANALAYSIS PLOT WITHOUT FILTER:
STEP 12: HARMONIC ANALAYSIS PLOT WITH FILTER:
Page 124 of 178
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY:

From the above steps we conclude that the harmonices can be suppressed by sizing the filter.
So different order different filter want to be size seperately with respect to harmonic order
and harmonic current .
Page 125 of 178
8. GROUND GRID SYSTEMS
Page 126 of 178
Introduction:
This design calculation note evaluates the GIS (Gas Insulated Substation) ground grid
requirements to be considered in order to control the substation grid potential rise
gradient to safe and tolerable values so as to avoid shock or injury to any substation
operating personnel due to grid potential rise that occurs during an earth fault.
The object of the substation grounding design is to provide as nearly as possible a surface
under and around the substation, which shall be at a uniform potential during an earth
fault. This is achieved by providing a ground grid or mat comprising of a number of
adequately spaced, square or rectangular meshes of bare copper grounding conductor
buried in the soil around the substation, and connected to requisite number of ground rod
electrodes.
Standards:
The assessment of HV substation grounding has been based on the consideration of
ground grid touch and step potential rise gradient, as per the following standards:
BS 7354:1990: Code of practice for Design of high voltage open-terminal stations.

ANSI/IEEE STD.80-1986: IEEE Guide for Safety in AC
Methods:
The Ground Grid Systems module utilizes the following four methods of computation:
FEM - Finite Element Method
IEEE 80-1986
IEEE 80-2000
IEEE 665-1995
Page 127 of 178
IEEE Methods
Empirical method; limited applications
Handles 2 layers plus protective surface material (1 layer for touch potential)
Rectangular and triangular shapes only, with vertical and horizontal conductors
One ground grid only
Rods; but arrangements are not flexible
Calculates required parameters
Typical IEEE Grid
Finite Element Method
Handles 2 layers plus a protective surface material
Any shape
Multiple interconnected ground grids
Rod location modeled in detail
Calculates required parameters at all points
Graphic potential profile
Page 128 of 178
The Ground Grid Systems module calculates the following:
The Maximum Allowable Current for specified conductors.
The Step and Touch potentials
The tolerable Step and Mesh potentials and compares them with actual, calculated
Step and Mesh potentials (IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665).
Graphic profiles for the absolute Step and Touch voltages, as well as the tables of the
voltages at various locations (Finite Element Method).
The optimum number of parallel ground conductors and rods for a ground grid.
The Ground Resistance and Ground Potential rise (GPR).
Designing of Earthing (or Grounding) Grid

In designing the grounding grid for a substation, it is necessary to obtain the following
information about the system
Use network of bare conductors buried in the earth
Encompass all area within the substation fence and extend at least 3 feet outside
Perform soil resistivity test
Surface material at least 4 inches
Determine fault current using short circuit
Determine maximum clearing time
Size conductors
Conductor should be buried a minimum of 18 inches to 59.1 inches
Vertical ground rods should be at least 8 ft. long
Determine if touch and step voltages are below tolerable limits
Few iterations may be required to determine correct grid design
Step 1 Soil Resistivity Analysis:The resistivity of earth varies within extremely wide limits, between 1 and 10,000 ohmmeters. To design the most economical grounding system for a substation, it is necessary
to obtain accurate data on the soil resistivity and its variation at the station site. The
following are the steps to done to find soil resistivity.
Done at a number of places in the substation
Page 129 of 178
Several layers with different resistivity
Lateral surface changes are more gradual than vertical changes
Wenner Four-Pin Method
Step 2 Grid Area:
Area should be as large as possible
Increasing area is more effective than adding additional conductor to reduce grid
resistance
Outer conductor should be placed on the boundary of substation
Fence should be placed a minimum of 3 feet inside
Square, rectangular, triangular, T-shaped, or L-shaped grids
Step 3 Ground Fault Currents:The maximum ground fault current constitutes a major factor in the grounding system
design. This determines the cross-section of the grounding conductor as well as total rise
of the grounding system potential. The potential gradients are also a function of this
current.
L-G fault on substation bus or transmission line
Interested in maximum amount of fault current expected to flow into the ground grid
Determine maximum symmetrical rms fault current.
Step 4 Fault Clearing Time:There are many considerations which influence the choice of fault clearing time such as
the system stability, the type of switchgear and relay used.
The Russian practice is to adopt 0.2 sec as the time of clearing the fault whereas in
U.S.A, the trend is towards adopting 4 sec i.e. the same duration as is used for short time
rating of switchgear. The short time rating of switch gear as per Indian and British
practice is based on 3 seconds; therefore 3 sec time may be adopted as the fault clearing
time for grounding calculation.
Typical Shock Situations
Page 130 of 178
Typical Values:
Page 131 of 178
Page 132 of 178
INPUT DATA REQUIRED FOR DESIGNING GGS IEEE METHOD IN ETAP:For Soil Editor
Soil resistivity of upper layer ohm-m
Soil resistivity of lower layer ohm-m
Material
Depth in ft
For Conductor:
Length of area provided with bare buried conductor, Lx, Ly in feet
Breadth of area provided with bare buried conductor
Depth of burial of conductor in ft
Conductor cross section area of buried copper conductor
Length of Conductor
Number of conductors in X and Y direction
Size of the conductors in mm2 or AWG/kcmil
Type of conductors
For Rod:
Total number of earth pits
Rod depth in feet
Diameter of ground rods in inch
Arrangement of the rod
Type of the rod.
Page 133 of 178
STEP 1:- DRAW THE SLD FOR GGD:-
Page 134 of 178
STEP 2:- CALCULATION FOR TOLERABLE TOUCH AND STEP POTENTIAL.
TO FIND TOLERABLE TOUCH:

FORMULAE:Etouch= (Rk +Rf /2)*Ik ---------------------------------- eq1
Rf =3*s* Cs
-------------------------------------------- eq2
Ik= 0.116/ (ts) ------------------------------------------ eq3

Where
Rk= Body Resistance as per IEEE 80
Rf = Foot Resistance
Ik = Tolerable Body current as per IEEE 80
Cs= Surface layer Derating factor.
ts = Duration of Shock as per section 7.4.8 of BS 7345 as per IEEE 80
s = Surface resistivity (Crushed rock and insulated mat)

w.k.t
Cs= 0.886
taken from ETAP.
s = 2000
ts = 0.2
Rk= 1000 as per IEEE 80 for 50kg body weight.
To find Ik
eq3=>
Ik= 0.116/ (ts)

=0.116/0.2
Ik =0.082
Page 135 of 178
To find Rf
eq2=>
Rf =3*s* Cs
=3*2000*0.886
Rf =5316
To find Etouch
eq2=>
Etouch= (Rk +Rf /2)*Ik

= (1000+3*s* Cs /2)* 0.116/ (ts)
= (1000+1.5*s* Cs)* 0.116/ (ts)
= (116+0.174*s* Cs)/ (ts)
= (116+0.174*2000*0.886)/ 0.2
Etouch =948.83
TO FIND STEP POTENTIAL:
FORMULAE:Estep= (Rk +2Rf )*Ik
Rf =3*s* Cs
----------------------------------- eq4
------------------------------------------- eq5
Ik= 0.116/ (ts) ------------------------------------------ eq6

Where
Rk= Body Resistance as per IEEE 80
Rf = Foot Resistance
Ik = Tolerable Body current as per IEEE 80
Cs= Surface layer Derating factor.
ts = Duration of Shock as per section 7.4.8 of BS 7345 as per IEEE 80
s = Surface resistivity (Crushed rock and insulated mat)

w.k.t
Cs= 0.886
s = 2000
Page 136 of 178
ts = 0.2
Rk= 1000 as per IEEE 80 for 50kg body weight.
To find Ik
eq6=>
Ik= 0.116/ (ts)

=0.116/0.2
Ik =0.082
To find Rf
eq5=>
Rf =3*s* Cs
=3*2000*0.886
Rf =5316
To find Estep
eq4=>
Estep= (Rk +2Rf )*Ik

= (1000+6*s* Cs)* 0.116/ (ts)
= (116+0.696*s* Cs)/ (ts)
= (116+0.0.696*2000*0.886)/ 0.2
Estep =3017.15
STEP 3:- CALCULATION FOR TO FIND GROUND GRID RESISTANCE USING
SCHWARZS FORMULA.
FORMULAE:Rg=R1+R2-R12/ (R1+R2-2R12) ---------------------------------------------------------eq7

R1 = [/ (*Lc)]*[ln (2*Lc/h') + K1*(Lc/A) - K2] ------------------------------eq8
R2 = [a/ (2*n* *dr)]*[ln (8*dr/d2) - 1 + 2*K1*(dr/A)*(n - 1)]------eq9
Page 137 of 178
R12 = [a/ ( *Lc)]*[ln (2*Lc/dr) + K1*(Lc/A) - K2 + 1] ------------------eq10

Where
Rg = ground grid resistance
Lc = Total Length of buried conductor
dr = rod depth
d2 = diameter of ground rod in m.
= soil resistivity of upper layer
a = apparent soil resistivity
Lc = total length of buried conductor
A = Area of plot
n = no of ground rods
w.k.t
= 1000 ohm-m
a =355.26 ohm-m
Lc = 3433m
h' = 0.0687
A= 1250m2 ie., 50*25 m
n = 6997
dr = 2.7m
d2 = 0.02m
K1=1.1
K2=4.88
To find R1
eq8=>
R1 = [/ (*Lc)]*[ln (2*Lc/h') + K1*(Lc/A) - K2]
= [1000/(3.14*3433)]*[ln(2*3433/0.0687)+1.1*(3433/1250)-4.88]
R1=10.518 ohm
To find R2
Page 138 of 178
eq9=>
R2 = [a/ (2*n* *dr)]*[ln (8*dr/d2) - 1 + 2*K1*(dr/A)*(n - 1)]
= [355.26/(2*6997*3.14*2.7)]*[ln(8*2.7/0.02)-1+2*1.1*(2.7/1250)*( /1250-1)^2]
R2=3.453 ohm
To find R12
eq10=>
R12 = [a/ ( *Lc)]*[ln (2*Lc/dr) + K1*(Lc/A) - K2 + 1]
= [355.26/(3.14*3433)]*[ln(2*3433/2.7)+1.1*(3433/1250)-4.88+1]
R12=3.649 ohm
To find R12
Eq7=>
Rg=R1+R2-R12/ (R1+R2-2R12)
=10.518+3.453-3.649/(10.518+3.453-2*3.649)
Rg= 4.88 ohm.
STEP 4:- CALCULATION FOR TO FIND GROUND POTRNTIAL RISE (GPR).
FORMULAE:GPR=Rg*IG----------------------------------------------------eq11
IG=Df *If--------------------------------------------------------eq12
Where
Rg= grid resistance in ohms
If= rms symmetrical current in amps.
IG=Maximum grid current in amps
Df = is the decrement factor for the entire duration of fault
Page 139 of 178
w.k.t
If=40kA
Rg=4.92 ohms
Df= 1.125
X/R=20
tf=0.2s
To find IG
eq12=>
IG=Df *If
=1.125*13.475
IG=15.156 kA
To find GPR
eq11=>
GPR=Rg*IG
=4.88*15.156*1000
GPR=73991.28 Volts
Page 140 of 178
STEP 5: SUMMARY FROM ETAP:
STEP 6: COMPARISION BETWEEN HAND CALCULATION Vs ETAP:

Hand Calculation
ETAP Results
Tolerable Touch Volts
948.83
948.8
Tolerable Step
3017.15
3017.2
Rg in Ohm
4.88
4.883
GPR in Volts
73991.28
74003.5
Volts
Page 141 of 178
OPTIMAL CAPACITOR PLACEMENT
Page 142 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
The majority of power systems operate at a lagging power factor due to inductive
loads and delivery apparatus (lines and transformers). Power systems are inductive in nature,
and require additional reactive power flow from the power grid. But excessive reactive power
demands result in reduced system capacity, increased losses, and decreased voltage, as well
as higher operating costs. Shunt capacitor banks are able to compensate for var requirements,
but bank size, location, the capacitor control method, and cost considerations are important
issues that need to be optimized during the design phase. An ideal solution would be a
capacitor placement tool able to weigh all these factors and that considers load levels. This
solution should also be able to place capacitors for voltage support and power factor
correction, while minimizing the total cost of installation and operation. ETAP now provides
just such an application in its Optimum Capacitor Placement (OCP) module.
KEY FEATURES:
Calculate the most cost-effective installation locations and best bank size
Minimize total installation and operation cost
Consider voltage support and power factor correction
Evaluate Capacitor control method
Allow review of capacitor impact on the system
Employ most advanced optimum techniques
FLEXIBLE OPERATION:
Show available locations
Apply user-selected load categories
Utilize individual and global constraints
Handle unlimited network configurations
Use only user selected installation locations
Constrain maximum capacitors installed at a location to user specified quantity
CAPABILITY:
Page 143 of 178
Advanced graphic user interface
User friendly input and output
Instantly view new capacitors
Speed and precision control
Integrated load flow results
Standard Crystal reports
REPORTING:
Capacitor properties
Capacitor locations and sizes
Load flow results for maximum, average and minimum loads
Branch capacity release
Cost summary
Page 144 of 178
REQUIRED DATA FOR OPTIMAL CAPACITOR PLACEMENT:

Sl.no
1
2
3
Component
Bus
Power Grid
Syn Generator
Transformer
Motor
Syn Motor
Static Load
Lump Load
Cable
Transmission Line
9
10
MOV
Protective Devices
11
Capacitor
12
Impedance
13
Capacitor
Required input
Nominal kv
5. Swing (slack) %v and del
6. Voltage Control (PV) MW, Mvar limits
7. Mvar Control (PQ) -MW, Mvar and Var limits
1). Py kV, Sec kV, MVA, %Z Positive sequence
Impedance,
2). %Tap, Tolerance and LTC settings
4. Rating-HP and kV
4. Rating-HP and kV
7. Circuit Breakers-Rated kV
8. Fuses-Rated kV
9. Switches-Rated kV and amps
10. Contactors- Rated kV and amps
3) Status- Continuous , Intermittent or Spare
4) Rating-kV, Max kV, Mvar Bank and No of Banks.
5) Loading Category ID and % Loading
6) Equipment Cable data
3) Rating-Amps and kV
4) Impedance- Positive sequence Z and X/R
1) Rated kV, kvar/bank and number of banks
2) Loading Category ID and % Loading
3) Equipment cable data
Page 145 of 178
STEP 1:- DRAW THE SLD FOR OCP ANALYSIS:
Page 146 of 178
STEP 2:- INPUT DATAS FOR OCP ANALYSIS:

Power Grid (U1=U2):
Rated kV
=13.8 kV
MVAsc
=50 MVAsc
X/R
=8
Transformer (T1):
Primary kV =13.8 kV
Secondary kV=4.16 kV
MVA
=15 MVA
Impedance
=Typical
X/R
=Typical
Transformer (T2):
Primary kV =13.8 kV
Secondary kV=4.0 kV
MVA
=15 MVA
Impedance
=Typical
X/R
=Typical
Generator (G2):
Operating Mode= Voltage Control
MW
= 20 MW
kV
=4.16 kV
Page 147 of 178
Cable 1=2:
Length
= 100 ft
= 0.556
=0.044
Lump 1
MVA
=8 MVA
kV
=4.16 kV
%PF
=85%
Lump 2
MVA
=8 MVA
kV
=4.0 kV
%PF
=85%
STEP 3:- ADD THE VOLTAGE CONSTRAINT CANDIDATE BUSES:

The main constraints for capacitor placement are to meet the load flow constraints. In
addition, all voltage magnitudes of load (PQ) buses should be within the lower and upper
bars. Load Power Factor (PF) should be greater than the minimum. It may be a maximum
power factor bar.
Page 148 of 178
STEP 4:- RUN THE OCP ANALYSIS:
STEP 5:- CAPACITOR INSERTION:

By running the optimal capacitor placement analysis. It will suggest the capacitor
ratings in kvar,amps, Xc and no of banks depend upon the voltage constraits in the buses.
After doing this analysis place the capacitor banks and again run the analysis. Now we can
identified the buses which under voltage constraints by placing the capacitor banks as per
the system suggestuion we will reduce the voltage constraints. Bus 1 is the voltage
constraint buses in this case.
Page 149 of 178
STEP 6:- HAND CALCULATION:
FORMULAE:Kvar=Kvar/bank*( # no of Banks)
-------------------------------eq 1
Amps=kvar/(sqrt(3)*kV) amps
-------------------------------eq 2
Xc=10^3* (kV^2/kvar) ohms
-------------------------------eq 3
F = 10^6/(Xc*2**f)
-------------------------------eq 4
w k.t
kV= 4.16 kV
Kvar= 2215.65 Kvar
To find Capacitor Current
eq 2=>
Amps =kvar/(sqrt(3)*kV)
=2215.65/(sqrt(3)*4.16)
=307.50 amps
To find Capacitor Reactance
eq 3=>
Xc
=10^3* (kV^2/kvar)
=10^3*(4.16^2/2215.65)
=7.81
Page 150 of 178
To Find Farad
eq 4=>
= 10^6/(Xc*2**f)
=10^6/(7.81*2*pi()*60)
=339.63 F
STEP 6:- COMPARISION TABLE:

Hand Calculation
ETAP Results
No of Banks
12
12
Kvar/Banks
200
200
Amps
307.5
320.5
Xc
7.81
7.6
339.63
353
Page 151 of 178
ARC FLASH ANALYSIS
Page 152 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
The ETAP Arc Flash Analysis module incorporates the latest software technology available
to investigate a worker potential exposure to arc flash energy, which may be required for the
purpose of injury prevention and determination of appropriate levels of Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE). The incident energy and flash protection boundaries are determined based
on the following two available standards for arc flash analysis:
National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) 70E-2000 and 2004
IEEE Standards 1584-2002 & IEEE 1584a 2004.
ETAP Arc Flash is a fully integrated module that takes advantage of all the capabilities
already built into ETAP. The program automatically determines the bolted Short-circuit
current. It also calculates the individual arcing current contributions and arc fault clearing
time of all the protective devices involved in the arc fault by interfacing with ETAP Star
(Protective device selectivity and coordination module). In addition, ETAP determines
automatically the system grounding configuration and other information required to
determine the most adequate and conservative hazard analysis results. All the automation
dramatically reduces the time required to perform an arc flash analysis according to the
standards.
STANDARDS:
Select either the ANSI or IEC standard. There is no IEC arc flash standard, but selecting IEC
will change the arc flash results since the short-circuit currents used to calculate the arc flash
results are determined based on IEC 60909 standards.
DEFINITIONS:
Bolted Fault Current ( Bus Fault Current) - The bolted fault current is the current that
would flow through a short circuit consisting of two conductors bolted together. It is the
maximum current available to flow through a short circuit. This information is used to
calculate the arc fault currents. Bolted fault currents should be determined for each piece of
equipment likely to require maintenance or inspection while energized.
Note: If the nominal kV is greater than 15kV, the Bolted Current is equal to Arcing Current.
Arc Fault Current - The current that flows through an arcing fault is usually significantly
less than the bolted fault current, due to greater resistance. Arc fault current calculations are
based on voltage, bolted fault current, conductor gap distance, and other factors. IEEE 1584
presents two formulas for calculating arc fault currents, one for use with 0.208-1 kV systems,
and the other for systems between 1 and 15 kV.
Page 153 of 178
Working Distance The working distance is the distance from a

potential arc source to a worker's face and chest. It
is a critical quantity in determining the flash hazard
boundary, as even an increase of a few inches in
working distance can cause a significant drop in
incident energy. 18 inches is the working distance
most commonly assumed in calculations, but
efforts should be made to determine actual working
distances. Some usual working distances are shown
in the table at right.
Working
distance
Equipment class
Low-voltage
switchgear
24"
15 kV/5 kV
switchgear
36"
Low-voltage MCCs
and panelboards
18"
Cables
18"
Flash Protection Boundary - Distance at which the incident energy level equals 1.2 cal/cm2
for fault clearing time greater than 0.1 seconds. For voltages greater than 1000V, use 1.5
cal/cm2 for clearing times that are 0.1 seconds or faster.
Incident Energy - Incident energy is defined in NFPA 70E as "the amount of energy
impressed on a surface, a certain distance from the source, generated during an electrical arc
event." In an arc flash hazard study, the "surface" is the worker's body at the assumed
working distance. Incident energy is expressed in calories/cm2
Equipment Type
Open air
D (Distance Exponent)
2.0
Low-voltage (.208-1 kV) switchgear
1.473
High-voltage (1-15 kV) switchgear
0.973
Low-voltage MCCs and panels
1.641
Cables
2.0
Limited Approach Boundary - A shock protection boundary not to be crossed by

unqualified persons unless escorted by a qualified person.
Restricted Approach Boundary - A shock protection boundary to be crossed by only
qualified persons. When crossed the use of shock protection techniques and equipment is
required.
Page 154 of 178
Prohibited Approach Boundary - A shock protection boundary only to be crossed by

qualified persons. When crossed the same protection is required as if direct contact is made
with the live part.
TRADITIONAL METHODS FOR REDUCING ARC FLASH HAZARDS:
Reducing the Arcing Current
Increasing the working distance
Reducing the Clearing Time
ARC FLASH CALCULATION BASED IEEE STD 1584-2002
Page 155 of 178
Page 156 of 178
4. NFPA 70E Hazard/Risk Category:
Page 157 of 178
5. Protective Clothing Characteristics based on NPFA-70E-2004 Application.
Page 158 of 178
STEP 1: Draw SLD For Arc Flash Analysis:
STEP 2: Inputs Required For Arc Flash Analysis:
Page 159 of 178
STEP 3: Run the Analysis after completing the Relay coordination.

STEP 4: Hand Calculation For Arc Flash Analysis using IEEE Std: For Bus B
1. To find Incident Energy (E): by Lee Method
FORMULAE:- as per equ 9
E=5.12*105VIbf(t/D2)
Where
E= Incident Energy in Cal/cm2
V=System Voltage
Ibf=Bolted fault current in kA ( Symmetrical RMS)
t=Fault Clearing Time (FCT) in Seconds.
D=Distance from the possible arc current in mm
w.k.that
D=1 inch
*1 inch= 25.4 mm, so 18 inch= 457.2 mm
V=20 kA
Ibf= 3.557 kA
t=0.099 Sec
To find Incident Energy:-
E=5.12*105VIbf(t/D2)
=5.12*100000*20*3.557*(0.099/457.2^2)
Incident Energy(E) =17.25 Cal/cm2
2. To find Arcing Current (Ia):
IgIa=0.00402+0.983IgIbf
Where
Ig=log10
Ia= Arcing Current in kA
Ibf=Bolted fault Current in kA
Page 160 of 178
w.k.t.,
Ig = log10=1
Ibf=3.557 kA
To find Arcing Current:IgIa=0.00402+0.983IgIbf
1*Ia=0.00402+0.983*3.557
Arcing Current (Ia)=3.50 kA
3. To find the Flash Protection Boundary (DB): by Lee Method

DB=Sqrt(5.12*105VIbf(t/EB) in mm
Where,
V= System Voltage
Ibf = Bolted fault current in kA ( Symmetrical RMS)
t = Fault Clearing Time (FCT) in Seconds.
EB = Incident Energy at the boundary in Cal/cm2
*As per the satandard IEEE 1584-2002 EB =1.2 Cal/cm2
W.k that,
V=20 kA
Ibf= 3.557 kA
t=0.099 sec
EB =1.2 Cal/cm2
Page 161 of 178
To find Flash Protection Boundary:DB=Sqrt(5.12*105VIbf(t/EB)

=Sqrt((5.12*100000*20*1.2*(0.099/3.557))
DB = 1734.2 mm
1 mm = 0.00328 ft
So 1734.2 mm= 17342.2*0.00328
DB = 5.68 ft
4. Hazard/Risk Categories:
The System Bus B is under Category is 3 as per the standard (see the above sidebar 3)
the incident energy is between the range of 8-25 Cal/cm2
STEP 5: Run Arc Flash Analysis:
Page 162 of 178
STEP 6: ETAP Report:
STEP 7: Alert Report
Page 163 of 178
STEP 8: Comparision Table:

Hand Calculation
ETAP
Calculation
Difference
Incident Energy
17.25 Cal/cm2
17.31 Cal/cm2
0.06 Cal/cm2
Arcing Current
3.5 kA
3.557 kA
0.05 kA
Flash Boundary
5.68 ft
5.71 ft
0.03 ft
Page 164 of 178
UNDERGROUND RACEWAY SYSTEM

ANALYSIS
Page 165 of 178
INTRODUCTION:
Cable derating analysis is an important part of power system design and analysis. When you
are designing a new system, this determines the proper size of cables to carry the specified
loads. When performing an analysis of an existing system, it examines cable temperatures
and determines their ampacities.
ETAP provides five types of calculations for cable derating analysis, namely, steady-state
temperature calculation, uniform-ampacity cable ampacity calculation, uniform-temperature
cable ampacity calculation, cable sizing, and transient temperature calculation. The steadystate temperature calculation is based on the IEC 60287 or the NEC accepted Neher-McGrath
method.
The cable ampacity calculation and cable sizing are based on the NEC accepted NeherMcGrath method only. The transient temperature calculation is based on a dynamic thermal
circuit model. All of these calculations can handle multi-raceway systems and consider the
effect of heat generated by neighboring cables and external heat sources.
Underground Raceway System GUI:

The
UGS
presentation
is
conceptually
cross-section
of
desired
raceways,
conduits/locations, cables, and heat sources, which are in the same vicinity which was as
shown in the below Fig 1. The UGS presentation allows you to graphically arrange raceways,
conduits, cables, and external heat sources to represent cable routing and to provide a
physical environment to conduct cable ampacity derating studies.
Each UGS presentation is a different cross-section of the underground system. This is a
different concept than the multi-presentation of the one-line diagram, where all presentations
have the same elements.
Page 166 of 178
Fig 1
You can create as many UGS presentations as you wish. There is no limit on the number of
raceways and heat sources that can be created/added in one presentation. In UGS, each
presentation acts independently. If you add a raceway to a UGS presentation, this raceway
will not be shown in the other UGS presentations. However, raceways from any UGS
presentation can be added to the other UGS presentations as existing raceways. Also, if you
delete a raceway from a UGS presentation into the Dumpster, this raceway can be added to
other UGS presentations as an existing raceway.
Page 167 of 178
Cable Derating Calculation Methods:

ETAP provides five types of cable derating calculations, namely, steady-state temperature
calculation,
uniform-ampacity
ampacity
calculation,
uniform-temperature
ampacity
calculation, cable sizing, and transient temperature calculation.

In the calculations, all conductors from the same cable branch are presumed to equally share
the total line current. They can be located in the same conduit/location or different
conduits/locations in the same raceway. Note: The cables located in different
conduits/locations in general will not have the same temperature, even though they carry the
same load current. However, if they are located in the same conduit/location, the calculated
temperature will be the same.
The raceway system can contain several raceways and external heat sources. The calculation
considers the mutual heat effect of cables in the same raceway as well as in different
raceways. It also considers the heat effect from external heat sources.
Steady-State Temperature Calculation:

The Steady-State Cable Temperature calculation determines the temperature of all the cable
conductors involved in the raceway system under a specified loading condition. The
calculation is based on the IEC 60287 standard or the NEC accepted Neher-McGrath
approach, which employs a thermal circuit model to represent heat flow situations. It is
assumed that the cables have been carrying the specified load long enough that the heat flow
has reached its steady-state and no more changes of temperature will occur throughout the
raceway system. The cable temperature calculated is dependent on raceway system
configuration, cable loading, and the location of each particular cable.
Page 168 of 178
Cable Ampacity Calculations:

The Cable Ampacity calculation determines the maximum allowable load current that the
cables in a raceway system can carry under the specified system conditions and the cable
conductor temperature limit. ETAP provides two approaches to ampacity calculation:
Uniform-Ampacity calculation and Uniform-Temperature calculation. Both approaches
employ the NEC accepted Neher-McGrath method to calculate cable temperature, but they
differ in the criteria used to determine the maximum allowable load current.
Uniform-Ampacity (UA) Ampacity Calculation
This approach is based on the equal loading criterion for ampacity calculation. It determines
the maximum allowable load currents when all the cables in the system are equally loaded to
the same percentage of their base loading. The base load is obtained from the Cable Library
for the appropriate system configuration type, such as duct bank or directly buried raceways.
The calculation involves an iterative process of cable temperature calculation and load
adjusting, as listed below.
1.
Determine an initial loading level based on the base ampacity from the Cable Library and using cable
derating factors for the given configuration.
2.
Calculate cable temperature as in the steady-state temperature calculation described above.
3.
Check cable temperature values against the cable temperature limit.
4.
If the temperature of the hottest cable is within close range of the temperature limit, the solution has
been reached. If not, adjust the cable loading uniformly at the same percentage, either increasing or
decreasing the loading in order to make the highest cable temperature come closer to the temperature
limit. Then go to back to step 2 to recalculate cable temperature.
If the Update Currents from Ampacity Calc option is checked in the study case, the cable
allowable current is updated by the calculated ampacity.
Page 169 of 178
Uniform-Temperature (UT) Ampacity Calculation

This approach is based on the equal temperature criterion for ampacity calculation. It
determines the maximum allowable load currents when all the cables in the system have their
temperature within a small range of the temperature limit. Since all the conductors in a cable
branch are assumed to equally share the load current, in the case where these conductors are
not located in the same conduit/location, they may not have the same temperature. When this
situation occurs, the temperature of the hottest conductor in this cable branch will be used to
represent this cable branch.
The calculation involves an iterative process, which adjusts cable loading current in each
iteration so that the cable temperature approaches the temperature limit. The load adjustment
in each step is determined based on the gradient of cable temperature change and therefore
offers fast convergence to the solution. The following steps are involved in the calculation:
1.
Determine an initial loading level based on the base ampacity from the Cable Library and using cable
derating factors for the given configuration.
2.
Calculate cable temperature as in the steady-state temperature calculation described above.
3.
Check cable temperature values against the cable temperature limit. If the temperature values of all the
cables are within close range of temperature limit, the solution has been reached. If not, determine the
load change required for the cable temperature to approach the temperature limit based on the gradient
of cable temperature change.
4.
Update the cable loading and go back to step 2 to recalculate cable temperature.
If the Update Currents from the Ampacity Calculation option is checked in the study case,
the cable allowable current will be updated by the calculated ampacity.
If for any of the cables the Fixed Current option from the Loading page of the Cable Editor
is checked then Uniform Temperature calculations cannot be conducted. In this situation
ETAP stops the calculations and provide an error message informing the user that UGS
contains a cable with fixed ampacity.
Page 170 of 178
Cable Sizing UGS:

The Cable Sizing calculation determines the minimum size for each cable that will carry the
specified load current without violating the cable temperature limit. The cables considered as
candidates for cable sizing are the ones that are flagged as available cables in the Cable
Library of the same cable type, that is, they have the same voltage, insulation, conductor
type, etc., as the cable to be sized.
The calculation is an iterative process involving repetitively adjusting the cable size and
calculating cable temperature. The cable temperature calculation is done in the same way as
the steady-state temperature calculation described above. If there are no available alternative
sizes for a cable, the cable will be considered not changeable.
If a solution is reached, calculation results will be reported in the output report and the
cables involved in the study will be changed to the new sizes if the Update Size option is
checked in the study case.
Cable Derating Required Data:

1. Underground Raceway System Data
The data for the underground raceway system can be entered from the Underground System
editor. The minimum requirement for underground system data includes soil type, soil
thermal resistivity, and ambient temperature.
2. Raceway Data
Two types of raceways are supported in the current version of ETAP: Duct Bank Raceway
and Direct Buried Raceway. Raceway data can be entered from the Raceway page of the
Raceway editor. The minimum requirement for raceway data includes raceway dimension,
raceway fill type, and its thermal resistivity.
You can run studies with raceways that contain no cables. However, you cannot run studies if
the raceway contains unassigned cables (cables that are assigned to a raceway but are not
located in a specific conduit or location).
Page 171 of 178
3. Conduit/Location Data
The data for conduit/location can be entered into the Location page of the Raceway editor. A
conduit/location can be empty (contain no cables).
Conduit
A conduit can only be placed in a duct bank raceway. The minimum requirements for conduit
data include location, type, outside diameter, and thickness.
Location
A location is a specified space in a direct buried raceway in which cables are placed.
Location can only be assigned to a direct buried raceway. The only requirement for location
data is its location.
4. Cable Data
Cable data is entered into several pages of the Cable editor.
a). Data from the Info Page

The cable type data must be available before performing any cable derating calculation. You
can select cable type from the Cable Library by clicking on the Library button.
Other data that are needed for cable derating calculations and that can be entered into the
Info page include the cable size and the number of conductors per phase.
Special attention should be given to the Link to Library box. When this box is checked, the
cable derating calculation will extract the cable physical data directly from the Cable Library;
otherwise it will use the data from the Physical page of the Cable editor.
b).PhysicalPage
This page is designed especially for entering parameters employed in cable derating
calculations. These parameters describing the physical aspect of a cable are required to
Page 172 of 178
calculate cable electrical resistance, thermal resistance of different layers, dielectric losses,
etc.
c).LoadingPage
The data entered in this page describe the loading condition of a cable. The Transient Load
Profile data is used for transient temperature calculation. The Operating Load or the first
current value in the Transient Load Profile list are used, depending on the selection in the
Cable Derating Study Case, as the initial or steady-state load current in the transient
temperature calculation, steady-state temperature calculation, and cable sizing.
The Load Factor is used in all types of cable derating calculations to represent cyclic load
conditions.
The Projection Multiplication Factor is used to modify cable loading in the transient
temperature calculation, steady-state temperature calculation, and cable sizing, if the
corresponding option is checked in the Cable Derating Study Case.
The Sheath/Armor Current is specified as a percentage of the load current. It represents the
situation where the sheath/armor is intentionally utilized to carry part of the load current. In
all other situations, sheath/armor current should be set to zero. The Sheath/Armor Current is
considered by the Neher-McGrath method only.
d).AmpacityPage
The Application Multiplication Factor is used to modify cable loading in the transient
temperature calculation, steady-state temperature calculation, and cable sizing, if the
corresponding option is checked in the Cable Derating Study Case.
5. External Heat Source Data
The external heat source data required for cable derating calculations include the location of
the external heat source, its outside diameter, and its temperature.
Page 173 of 178
STEP 1: Create an single line diagram with some cables.
Page 174 of 178
STEP 2: Enter the cable input dates as per the data sheet given below.
Cable Datas for 300mm2:
Basic Datas:
Cable Length
: 1.5 km
Resistance
: 0.079 / km.
Reactance
: 0.1 / km.
Cable Data Sheet
Fig 2
Page 175 of 178
Physical Dimensions:Rdc
: 60.1
Cable OD
: 10.8 cm
Conductor OD
: 2.37 cm
Insulation Tickness
: 8 mm
Sheath tension
: 4.4 mm
Jacket tension
: 4.5 mm
Cable weight
: 18710 kg/km
Max. cable tension
: 7.2 kg/ mm2
Max. SW pressure
: 355 kg/m
Loading:Operating Load/current (we can get this by running load flow analysis)
a. Cable 1 : 87.8 Amps
b. Cable 2 : 267.3 Amps
c. Loading current for sizing: Select operating current.
UGS Load factor
: 100%
STEP 3: Create the Underground raceway system.

Fig 2.
Page 176 of 178
Procedure to create the UG raceway system

1. Select the New direct buried or Duct bank raceway from the right side toolbar (see fig 2) and
place in the design location window. In this case select direct buried with required size.
2. Double click on the raceway and enter the fill type and fill RHO ( Termal resistance of fill
material) in C-cm/Watt. Here in this case its Sandy dry and 90 respectively.
3. Select and place the new conduit inside the receway with required size in this case the size of
the conduit is 13cm.
4. After that click on the existing cable from the menu and place inside the conduit.
5. Goto Cable derating study case by selecting the edit study case and select the required
informations. Here in this case the method of calcualtion is Neher-McGrath method.
6. Run the UG Raceway System one by one see (fig 3) Steady-state temperature, UG Ampacity
calcualtion, UT Ampacity calc, cable sizing and Transient temeperature calculation.
STEP 4: Run the Underground raceway system.

Fig 3.
Page 177 of 178
STEP
5:
Output
Report
Manager.
Note:-
1. From the above summary report shows that the required size of the cable for the system is
35mm2 and 95mm2 with respect to the load current. The derating current or Ampacity of the
cable is 87.8 and 267.30 amps for cable1 and cable 2 respectively.
Page 178 of 178

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Engineering Calculation for Power

1. Load Flow Calculation.

2. Short Circuit Analysis.

4. Transient Stability Analysis.

Case1-Single Machine System

7. Ground Grid Analysis.

8. Optimal Capacitor Placement.

9. Arc Flash Analysis

10. Underground Raceway System

1. LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

Input data required for LFA:

STEP by STEP Procedure for Load Flow Analysis

Step 2: Input Parameters/data for LFA

Assume it is the base kV=11

Step 3: Data needed for Hand Calculation

Step 4: ETAP WITH HAND CALCULATION

Delta V= ( (Vr+ (RP+XQ/Vr) ^2+ (XP-RQ/Vr) ^2))-Vr ----------------------- eq2

The following tabular columns are the results in p.u:

To find % voltage drop:

2. To find cable loss:

=R*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

= X*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

Cable losses = MW+jMvar = 0.014+j0.022

3. To find Transformer Losses

To find transformer new %R, %X and %Z:

=Z%* {(1/(X/R) ^2) +1}

To Find R, X, P, Q and S in p.u:

= PMW / Base MVA

= Q Mvar / Base MVA

The following tabular columns are the results in p.u:

=R*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

= X*S^2*Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

Transformer losses = MW+jMvar = 0.011+j0.199

Step 5: Run Load Flow Analysis with ETAP software

Step 6: Summary Report.

Step 7: Comparison Table.

Cable Voltage drop

2. SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

CASE 1:-ANSI / IEEE METHOD

Purpose of Short-Circuit Studies:

Verify protective device close and latch capability

Verify protective device Interrupting capability

Protect equipment from large mechanical forces (maximum fault kA)

I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)

Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination

Elements that Contribute Current to a Short-Circuit:

I0 from Yg-Delta Connected Transformer

Elements that do Not Contribute Current in PowerStation:

Motor Operated Valves

All Shunt Y Connected Branches

Copyright 2003 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Momentary symmetrical fault current in kA

Interrupting symmetrical fault current in kA

Line to Ground fault

Double line fault

Double line to ground fault.

Device Duty and Usage of Fault Currents from Different Networks:

ANSI Calculation Standard Compliance:

Standard Rating Structure for AC High-Voltage Circuit

Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis and

Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis

Standard Application Guide for AC High-Voltage

Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit Breakers

=RS^2Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

= XS^2Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

=RS^2Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2

= XS^2Base MVA*(Base kV/Nominal kV) ^2