Difference between Pressure and Stress in

Physics
Key difference: Pressure and Stress are two different types of forces that are constantly working
against each other. Pressure is a type of external force that is exerted over a surface area of a material,
whereas stress is a type of internal force that acts over a cross sectional area within the material.

Pressure and Stress are two different types of forces that are constantly working against each other.
Force is an unbalanced force that produces acceleration. There are two main types of forces: internal
force and an external force.
Pressure is a type of external force that is exerted over a surface area of a material, whereas stress is
a type of internal force that acts over a cross sectional area within the material.

Essentially, pressure is the force that is exerted by an object

on the area that it impacts, whereas stress is the force that an object pushes back with when it is
being deformed, i.e. has force acting on it. For example: Imagine a ball hitting a wall. As the ball hits

the wall, it exerts pressure on the wall. Stress the force that the wall exerts back. This is what allows
the ball to bounce back.

Comparison between Pressure and Stress in Physics:

Pressure

Definition according to
Wikipedia

Definition
Symbol
SI unit
Formula

Stress
Stress is a physical quantity
Pressure is the ratio of force that expresses the internal
to the area over which that
forces that neighboring
force is distributed.
particles of a continuous
material exert on each other.
Pressure is the external force Stress is an internal force
acting over a surface area of a acting over a cross sectional
material.
area within the material.
P or p
P or p
Pascal (Pa)
Pascal (Pa)
P=F/A
P=F/A

BASICS OF PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS: A

PRESENTATION
Contents

Objectives of Pipe Stress Analysis

Governing Codes and Standards
Stresses in a Piping System
Reducing Piping Stresses
Basic Allowable Stress
Loads on a Piping System
Work Flow Diagram
Stress Criticality & Analysis Method
Piping Stress Analysis using Software Caesar II
Type of Supports
Questionnaire

Objectives of Pipe Stress Analysis:

Structural Integrity:

Design adequacy for the pressure of the carrying fluid.

Failure against various loading in the life cycle . Limiting stresses below code allowable.

Operational Integrity:

Limiting nozzle loads of the connected equipment within allowable values.

Avoiding leakage at joints.
Limiting sagging & displacement within allowable values.

Optimal Design:

Avoiding excessive flexibility and also high loads on supporting structures. Aim towards an
optimal design for both piping and structure.

Governing Codes and Standards:

Codes and Standards specify minimum requirements for safe design and construction (i. e.
provides material, design, fabrication, installation and inspection requirements.)
Following are the codes and standards used for Refinery Piping:

1. ASME B31.3: Process piping Code

2. ASME B31.1: Power Piping Code
3. Centrifugal Pumps: API 610

4. Positive Displacement Pumps: API 676

5. Centrifugal Compressors: API 617
6. Reciprocating Compressors: API 618
7. Steam Turbines: NEMA SM23/ API 612
8. Air Cooled Heat Exchanger: API 661
9. Fired Heaters: API 560
10. Flat Bottom Welded Storage Tanks: API 650
11. Heat Exchangers: TEMA/ Vendor Specific.
12. Vessel/Column: Vendor Specific
Stresses in a Piping System:

Sources for generation of stress in a Piping System:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Weight
Internal/External Pressure
Temperature change
Occasional Loads due to wind, seismic disturbances, PSV discharge etc.
Forces due to Vibration.

Sustained Stresses are the stresses generated by sustained loads. (e.g. Pressure , Weight).
These loads are present continuously throughout plant life.
Resistive force arising out of sustained stresses balance the external forces keeping the
system in equilibrium. Exceeding sustain allowable stress value causes catastrophic failure of
the system.
As per ASME B 31.3, (clause 302.3.5) The sum of the longitudinal stresses, SL, in any
component in a piping system, due to sustained loads such as pressure and weight, shall not
exceed the product Sh x W . Where, Sh=Basic allowable stress at maximum metal
temperature expected during the displacement cycle and W=weld joint strength reduction
factor.
Pressure Stresses are taken care of by calculating and selecting proper pipe thickness. The
pressure thickness (t) of a straight pipe can be obtained as per ASME B31.3 from the
equation (Clause 304.1.2) mentioned in Fig.1:

Fig. 1: Equation for Thickness Calculation for Straight Pipe based on ASME B 31.3

Change in length of a pipe of length L due to temp change (T) is given by L=L
T Here, =Co efficient of thermal expansion = change in length of unit length element due
to unit change in temp.
Two values in Code (Table C1 and C3 in ASME B31.3 Appendix C):
Table C1 denotes total linear thermal expansion between 700 F to Indicated temp
(unit=in/100ft).
Table C3 denotes mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion between 700 F to indicated
temp (in/in/0F).
Expansion stresses are generated when the free thermal growth due to temperature change is
restricted. These are self limiting or relenting.
SIF( Stress Intensification Factor): This is the ratio of the maximum stress intensity to the
nominal Stress. SIF factors for different components can be obtained from Appendix D of
ASME B31.3.
Displacement Stress Range due to thermal expansion is calculated based on equation SE = (
(lSal + Sb)^2+ (2*St)^2)^0.5 per equation 17 from ASME B31.3( clause 319.4.4).
This SE value shall not exceed SA value where SA= Allowable Displacement Stress Range.
As per ASME code B 31.3 (Clause 302.3.5) the allowable displacement stress range (SA)
can be given by the equation (Fig.2):

Fig.2: Equation for Displacement Stress Range Allowable

Here, f= Stress range reduction factor and Sc=basic allowable stress at minimum metal temp

When Sh > SL , the allowable stress range is calculated by the following equation (Fig. 3):
SL=Longitudinal Stress due to sustained loads.

Fig.3: Equation for Liberal Displacement Stress Range Allowable

Occasional Stresses are generated by the occasional loads such as Wind, seismic, PSV
discharge etc.
This loads act in a piping system for very small period of time, usually less than 10% of total
working period.
As per ASME B31.3 clause 302.3.6 The sum of the longitudinal stresses, SL, due to
sustained loads, such as pressure and weight, and of the stresses produced by occasional
loads, such as wind or earthquake should be 1.33 times the basic allowable stress, Sh
Code does not explicitly explain the stresses generated due to vibration.

The vibration problems are solved by engineering judgment and experience.

Reducing Piping stresses:

Supports for Weight

Flexibility for thermal loading Eg. Expansion Loops.

Flexibility check (as per clause 319.4.1, ASME B 31.3): Refer Fig. 4

Fig.4: Flexibility Check Equation for Simple Systems

Basic Allowable Stress:
Minimum of (As per ASME B 31.3)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

1/3rd of Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of Material at operating temperature.

1/3rd of UTS of material at room temperature.
2/3rd of Yield Tensile Strength (YTS) of material at operating temperature.
2/3rd of YTS of material at room temp.
100% of average stress for a creep rate of 0.01% per 1000 hr.
For structural grade materials basic allowable stress=0.92 times the lowest value obtained
from 1 through 5 above.

Loads on a Piping System:

There are two types of loads which acts on a piping system: Static loads and Dynamic Loads

Fig.1: Examples of Static Loads

Static loads are those loads which acts very slowly and the system gets enough time to react against
it. Examples of static loads are shown in Fig.1

Fig.2: Examples of Dynamic Loads

On the other hand dynamic loads acts so quickly that the system does not get enough time to react
against it. Examples of dynamic loads are shown in Fig.2
Work Flow Diagram:
The interaction of Piping Stress team with other disciplines in any organization are shown in Fig 3

Fig.3: Inter Departmental Interaction with Stress Team

Stress Criticality and Analysis Methods:

Highly Critical Lines (Steam turbine, Compressor connected pipelines): By Computer

Analysis
Moderately Critical Lines (AFC connected lines): By Computer Analysis
Low critical Lines : Visual/Simple Manual Calculation/Computer analysis and
Non Critical Lines: Visual Inspection

Stress Analysis using Caesar II :

Inputs:

Stress Isometric from Layout Group

LDT And P&ID from Process
Equipment GA and Other detailed drawings from Mechanical
Process flow diagram/datasheet if required from process
Piping Material Specification
PSV/ Control Valve GA and Datasheet from Instrumentation
Soil Characteristics from civil for underground analysis
Nozzle load limiting Standards
Plot Plan for finding HPP elevation and equipment orientation.
Governing Code

Analysis:

Checking the completeness of the piping system received as a stress package.

Node numbering on stress Iso.
Filling the design parameters (Design temp, pressure, Ope. Temp, Min. Temp, Fluid density,
Material, Line Size and thickness, Insulation thk and density, Corrosion allowance etc) on
stress Iso.
Modeling the piping system in Caesar using parameters from stress Iso.
Analyzing the system and obtaining results.

Conclusion & Recommendation : Whether to accept the system or to suggest necessary changes in
layout and supporting to make the system acceptable as per standard requirements.
Output:

Final marked up Isos to Layout

Support Loads to Civil
Spring Hanger Datasheets.
Datasheets for Special Supports like Sway brace, Struts, Snubbers etc.
SPS drawings
Stress Package final documentation for records

Type of Supports:

Rest
Guide
Line Stop
Anchor
Variable Spring Hanger
Constant Spring Hanger
Rigid Hanger
Struts
Snubbers
Sway Braces etc

Questionnaire:

What are the various types of loads which cause stresses in the piping system?
Which code do we refer for Refinery Piping?
Which standard governs the design of Pumps?
The coefficient of thermal expansion of a substance is 1.8 mm/m/Deg.F. What is its value in
mm/mm/Deg.C.?
Calculate the minimum pipe thickness of a seamless 10 NB A106- Gr B material with
design pressure of 20 bars. (Design Temp= 350 degree C and Corrosion allowance= 1.6 mm)

Basis for deciding Stress critical lines

Basis for deciding Stress critical lines:
Stress analysis is a complex task and in any process unit there are a huge number of lines exist which
runs from one location to other. Analyzing all lines will take a lot of time which in turn will increase
the engineering time and corresponding cost. So every engineering organization in this field has set
up some guidelines for deciding which lines are to be stress analyzed using software (Caesar II,
Autopipe, Caepipe or Rohr II).
The main factors which decide stress critical lines are as follows:

Line design/operating/upset temperature

Equipment connection
Pipe and Equipment material
Pipe condition
Pipe thickness
Design/Upset pressure

Every organization has their own guidelines and the guidelines vary from project to project. The
following write up will provide few criteria for deciding stress critical lines. This is only a idea of
how the differentiation occurs. Users are requested to check project specific documents for use in
any project.
Mostly the critical lines for which stress analysis is to be performed by formal computer analysis
consists of the following lines:

All Pump (Centrifugal-API/ANSI, gear pump, Screw pump) suction and discharge piping (4
inch and larger).
Centrifugal Compressor inlet and outlet piping.
Lines to and from steam generators.
Reciprocating pump and compressor suction and discharge piping.
Piping requiring expansion joints or other proprietary expansion devices.
Steam and Gas Turbine inlet and outlet piping.
Air Cooler inlet and outlet piping (3 inch and larger).
Process Heater inlet and outlet piping
Lines classified as category M as per ASME B31.3.
Piping subjected to high cyclic temperature conditions.
All jacketed lines.
Lines that require nozzle load compliance as stipulated per applicable codes or equipment
Vendor allowable (Heat exchanger, Pressure Vessel Connected systems).
Lines subject to dynamic loading (relief lines, line with large pressure drop at control valves,
surge pressure, slug flow, churn, two phase flow, water hammer, flashing, etc.)
All Fiberglass, aluminium alloy, refractory or elastomer lined piping.
All piping systems connected to FRP, plastic, glass lined steel or brittle equipment
Lines subjected to non-thermal movements (Expected differential settlement between
structures, structure-equipment, etc., process equipment growth, header growth, tower
growth or other significant displacements, etc.)

All lines 8 and larger operating above 150 deg. C (300 deg. F) and greater.
All lines 20 and larger operating above 80 deg. C (200 deg. F) and greater.
All lines 36 and larger.
All lines operating below -45 deg. C (-50 deg. F) which require special cold supports.
All plastic lined piping systems. Special attention shall be given to add enough additional
supports to limit the external forces and moments in the flange connections to avoid an extra
risk of flange leaks
Lines with special design requirements
All Safety pressure relieving systems 4 inch and larger (not including thermal reliefs)
Lines judged by the lead piping engineer/stress engineer as not having sufficient inherent
flexibility
In addition, the piping effects of other conditions such as temperature gradients that could
cause thermal bowing or where piping is connected to equipment with significant thermal
growth may warrant detailed computer analysis.
For thin wall piping, if the D/T ratio exceeds 100, following requirements are applicable:
o Design and support of piping systems using this specification should be reviewed by
a stress engineer. Support and spans of thin wall piping systems are not covered by
current Project practices and therefore must be designed for each application.
o Stub-in connections per 304.3.2 thru 304.3.4 of ASME B31.3, are not allowed for run
pipe with D/T greater than or equal to 100 and the branch diameter is greater than one
half of the header diameter.
Lines connected to non-ferrous equipments.
Underground process lines with more than 30 degree difference in between design and
ambient temperature.
All vertical lines connected to vertical vessels that require pipe supports or guides from that
vessel.
All lines 4 inch and larger subject to external pressure or vacuum conditions.
All lines subject to vibration, as specified by Process, due to high velocity flow, high
pressure drop, water hammer or mixed phase flow.
All lines that are connected to equipment constructed of thermoset or thermoplastic materials
or that is glass, refractory, or elastomer lined.
All pressure containing non-metallic lines.
All flare line headers

Lines for which an Alternative Leak Test has been specified.

Many organisations have the practice of dividing these critical lines into three groups based on their
criticality:

Highly critical lines or group C1 lines: Must be reviewed thoroughly

Moderately Critical lines or group C2 lines and
Lower critical lines or group C3 lines

Points to consider while checking a stress

system using Caesar II
In most of the organization there is a 3 tier process for every stress system for maintaining quality of
analyzed stress systems. Normally stress system is performed by one (junior or senior), checked by
some other (must be experienced enough) and finally approved by the lead stress engineer. Even
though the main points which need to be considered is well known to every piping stress engineers,
but still some important points could be missed at the specific moments during stress analysis or
checking. So a checklist can be prepared and referred during the process for proper quality control.
The following article will provide an insight of the main points which a stress engineer must check
during analyzing a system. Request you to inform me additional points which i may have missed
while writing this article by replying in comments section.
Important points to consider while checking any stress system:

1. Whether the input for pipe material, pipe diameter, pipe wall thickness, pipe temperatures
(operating, design and upset), pressures (design and hydro-test), insulation thickness,
corrosion allowance, fluid density, insulation density is correct?
2. Whether the input for above design parameters for equipment and nozzles are correct?
3. Whether SIFs for Tee, bend/elbow, cross and trunnions are taken correctly?
4. Whether flanged elbow is considered where required?
5. Whether actual weight of control valves/non standard rigid items/valve actuators are
considered appropriate?
6. Whether equipment has been modeled with correct dimensions from general arrangement
drawing?
7. Whether trunnion modeling is done following in-house work instructions?
8. Whether settlements/displacements have been considered where required? Normally
settlement is used for storage tanks and thermal displacements are used for compressors,
turbines and packaged items?
9. Whether proper parameters have been used for seismic and wind analysis?
10. Whether friction has been included when significant?
11. Whether the expansion stress range has been checked in between maximum and minimum
temperatures for which the piping system will be subjected?
12. Whether the effect of friction on sliding support loads been considered?
13. Whether the use of low friction pads been properly marked if used?
14. Whether the analysis is performed for the system with and without friction to check the effect
of friction (to determine the worst case) as friction is not something that can be relied on?
The harmful effects of friction need to be considered but not the benefits.
15. Whether the Caesar plot and isometric plot are matching with 3D plot?
16. Whether the loads on connected equipment are within allowable limit?
17. Whether the thermal effects of pipe supports, equipment supports been considered?
18. Whether the flange weight include weight of bolting? In large size piping bolt weights
become significant?

19. Whether all possible load cases (start up, shutdown, regeneration, any special process
consideration) are considered in analysis?
20. Whether proper ambient temperature is used for the location?
21. Whether spring are modelled properly and selected considering all operating temperature
cases?
22. Whether adequate documentation in case of gapped restraints (or any special consideration)
are mentioned in isometric clearly to assure that supports will be installed in that manner in
construction site?
23. Whether there is a possibility of elastic follow up or strain concentration condition?
24. Whether radial thermal expansion has been considered for line sizes greater than 24 inch
NB?
25. Whether hot sustained check has been performed?
26. Whether pressure thrust has been considered while using expansion joints?
27. Whether flanged elbows has been considered?
28. Whether sustained deflection and thermal displacements are within limit specified by project
document?
29. Whether the SIF limitation been considered for large D/t piping?
30. Whether pressure stiffening of bends has been considered in analysis?
31. Whether flange leakage has been performed as per specification?
32. Whether change in pipe length due to internal pressure has been considered?
33. Whether all stresses are are within code limits?
34. Whether variability of springs are within 10% near rotary/critical equipments and 25% for
others?
35. Whether thermal displacements more than 50 mm are marked on isometric?
36. Whether support loads are checked and discussed with layout/design?
37. Whether feasibility of all supports has been checked?
38. Whether routing change and special support requirements has been clearly marked in stress
isometric and informed to layout/design group?
39. Whether spiders are modelled properly at appropriate intervals for jacketed pipes?
40. Whether weight of hot tapping machine and related equipments are considered in specific
situations?
41. Whether alignment checking (WNC file) has been performed for all rotary equipments as per
API RP 686?
42. Whether PSV forces are considered for open discharge PSV systems?
43. Whether Hot-Cold and Operating-Standby philosophy has been used when required?

Van Ha Saturday 26 October 2013, 3:20 pm

To be added if possible:
1. Low point during sustain/ope case for required no pocket line
2. Low point during sustain/ope case for required free drain line
Questions:
What is your meaning in item 23, 24, 40???

Reply

Anup Kumar Dey Monday 28 October 2013, 4:29 am

Thanks for your reply. Yes you are right those two points need to be checked.
Regarding point no 24:
For line sizes 24 inch and more the radial thermal growth should be considered by modeling a rigid
element of length=pipe radius.
Regarding point no 40:
When hot tapping is used for taking any branch connection from an existing line the weight of the
machine need to be

Procedure to restore the corrupted Caesar II

file?
Those who are extensively using Caesar II software must have noted that sometimes few Caesar II
files got corrupted due to some reason. And modeling the same file from isometric again is time
consuming. At the same time the man hour used is lost without any fruitful result. The same
happened to me yesterday. Unconsciously I deleted the required file and i was a bit worried as i had
to redo the modeling again.
In such situation you can easily restore the complete Caesar model without much pain. This write up
will try to explain the method of restoring the Caesar II file which is corrupted or deleted by mistake.
However this will only work if you have performed the run function at least once. The load cases
what you made will be lost and you have to make new load cases for the analysis. And i feel thats
better as making load cases does not take much time.
Whenever you prepare any Caesar file and then run the file for analysis a backup file of the stress
system is automatically generated in the PC. Later that back up file can be used to restore the
required Caesar file again.The steps are as follows:
1. Click the open button on Caesar II and you will get the following screen.

2. Now click on the System button on the right side as shown in the above picture.
3. After that page up button on top and you will get the following screen.

4. Now Click on the back up file as shown in the above figure and choose your file. You must
remember the file name to restore the same. Choose the latest file as per date and time to get the
most updated information.
5. The Caesar file will be restored for you. Now save that file to the location where you want that to be and
make the load cases as per your requirement for analysis. Hope this helps you to resolve few of your
problems and save man hour.

Co-Efficient of Friction for pipe supporting

during Stress Analysis using Caesar II
All piping stress engineers must be aware that while modeling supports or restraints in Caesar II
input spreadsheet we have to enter the frictional co-efficient. The value of this co-efficient depends
on the supporting surface material and surface roughness. During project bidding stage (ITB
Document) the client generally provides the information regarding which friction factor to be used
for which surface. Also every EPC organisation prepares their own guideline for using standard
friction factor in case not available in ITB document. The following write up will try to provide an
idea regarding which co-efficient of friction to be used in what situation. This can be used as a guide
only. However project specific data or information will override any word mentioned here.

Coefficient of friction factor depending upon the supporting interface (i.e, junction between
Top of Steel and Bottom of Pipe or Bottom of Shoe/Cradle) shall be applied at all vertical
restraint (+Y or Y supports) locations as mentioned below. But if ITB for any project
provides separate data then those data shall be considered.
o
o
o
o
o
o

Carbon Steel to Carbon Steel: 0.3

Polished Stainless Steel to Polished Stainless Steel/Graphite: 0.15
Teflon to Teflon/ Polished Stainless Steel: 0.10
Concrete to Carbon Steel: 0.4
Pipe to Roll Support: 0.01
Teflon to Carbon Steel: 0.2

There is various philosophy among EPC companies regarding the use of co-efficient of
friction for guide and directional anchor supports. Some organisation prefer not to use any
frictional co-efficient for horizontal supports. However if used the same can be taken from
the above table (normally 0.3 is used if no special arrangement is made).

No friction factor to be used while supporting using rigid hangers.

In case when Sliding Plate is required, put the comment as (PTFE/Graphite) Sliding Plate
Required and mention friction factor =0.1 /0.15 respectively depending on temperature on
stress sketch. Use Teflon (PTFE) Slide plate up to a Temp of 204 degree Centigrade, above
which use graphite plate (up to 540 degree Centigrade).

Normally the friction factor shall not be applied when modeling bottom type spring. But
sometimes ITB document/Client could insist for friction modeling of bottom type springs, in
that situation friction factor could be applied as per requirement.

When the pipe/shoe is supported on the welded rod on the structure then friction factor of
0.25 shall be considered.

To know the actual effect of friction on piping stress analysis refer the article Treatment of Support
Friction in Pipe Stress Analysis published by Mr L C Peng. Click here to download and read the
same.

Static Method of Seismic Analysis of Piping

System using Caesar II
Basis for Seismic Analysis:
The criteria for line selection for seismic analysis are normally mentioned in the ITB documents if
the construction site falls under seismic zone. If the same is not mentioned then on a broad respect
following lines can be considered:

Lines with outside diameter 6 and larger.

Transfer line/Two phase flow lines.
Strain sensitive equipment: Compressor, Turbine and Pump.
Heater and Cold box connected lines.
Steam & flare header system in pipe rack.
Other lines considered important as per stress engineers decision.

As per code ASME B 31.3 the longitudinal stresses generated due to sustained and occasional loads
should be within 1.33 times Sh (Basic allowable stress at hot temperature) value. So We have to add
Sustained stress and occasional stress such that the scalar combination of the same remains within
the limit specified by the code. Normally the nozzle load checking is not required for seismic
analysis. However few companies need the nozzle load checking at seismic condition for static
equipments. Sometimes the allowable nozzle load can be increased by 50% for checking in
occasional cases. However nozzle load checking is not required at seismic case for rotating
equipments. The following article will describe steps to perform the static method of seismic
analysis in Caesar II.
The first step in static seismic analysis is to collect the seismic coefficient. Sometimes the value of
seismic coefficient is provided directly and sometimes enough data is provided to calculate the same.
The following equation (as per IS 1893) can be used to calculate the seismic co-efficient:

Here
Spectral Acceleration Coefficient (Sa/g) = 2.5 (Examples are shown for the sake of a
typical value calculation)
Zone Factor (Z)
Response Reduction Factor (R)
Importance factor (I)
Horizontal Seismic Coefficient (Ah)

= 0.16
=3
= 1.75
= 0.12 (X & Z Direction)

This co-efficient value need to be entered in Caesar spreadsheet as shown below:

Caesar Spreadsheet showing the input of Seismic Co-efficient

Normally Y component is not entered. However few clients may require the input of the same. in
that case follow guidelines provided by them.
To perform seismic analysis open the Caesar II spreadsheet and click on uniform loads as shown in
the below mentioned figure.

Caesar II Spreadsheet showing Seismic Analysis

After that prepare the load cases for seismic analysis. The load cases normally prepared are shown in
the figure attached below:

Load Cases for Seismic Analysis

Once you prepared the required load cases simply run the file and check the stresses for Code
compliance as mentioned below:

Caesar Output window for Seismic Analysis

Check restraint summary for load cases L8 to L11 in the above mentioned figure and check stresses for load
case L16 to L19.

Static Method of Wind Analysis of Piping

systems in Caesar II using Pressure Vs
elevation Method
Wind analysis is performed based on Client/ITB requirement. Wind load is an occasional load which
normally occurs less than 20% of plant operating time. There are two methods for wind analysisStatic and Dynamic. In this article I will try to explain the static method of wind analysis using
Caesar II of COADE Inc following Pressure Vs Elevation Profile.
Criteria for selection of lines for Wind Analysis:
Criteria should be mentioned in ITB document. As a guideline the following can be followed after
verification from client:

Lines with outside diameter 10 and larger (including insulation) running on 10 m and above.
Steam / Flare header on the pipe rack.
Other lines considered important as per stress engineers decision.

However if lines are covered by some shelter or other structures then wind analysis can be ignored
for those lines.
Data Required for Wind Analysis:
For wind analysis you must have following data from the client.

Wind shape factor: Normally for pipe elements the data varies from 0.6-0.8. Check in ITB
what value it says to use.
Pressure Vs Elevation Profile: Sometimes client provides this profile directly and sometimes
provides equation and data to calculate the profile. A typical wind profile will be shown in
diagram while explaining the steps required while analyzing using Caesar II.
Elevation of the line under analysis. If HPP elevation is other than 0 you have to reduce HPP
from line global elevation to get actual elevation.

What to check:
As per code B 31.3 we have to check code compliance of the calculated stress (Sustained +Wind).
The allowable stress for wind analysis is 1.33 times Sh values. However sometimes client requires to
check the nozzle loading in Operating+ Wind cases (W+T+P+Win) for static equipment. Normally
client does not require wind load checking for rotating equipment.
Steps for Static Analysis in Caesar II

Most of the steps are mentioned in attached images. All are self explanatory. However if you face
any problem in understanding please reply in comments section.

Model the piping system under analysis from piping isometric drawings.
Enter elevation of the first node in global coordinates.
Click on Wind/Wave check box on Caesar II Spreadsheet and mention wind shape factor as
shown in Fig. 1

Fig.1: Caesar Spreadsheet for Wind Analysis

Now run the analysis and go to the load case editor and select Pressure Vs Elevation as
shown in Fig. 2

Fig. 2: Load Case Editor showing Wind Pressure Vs Elevation

In next step enter the pressure vs elevation profile in consistent unit and enter wind direction
cosines as shown in Fig. 3. Normally wind analysis is performed considering wind flow from
North, South, East and West direction. Accordingly Enter +1 or -1 in X or Z direction. Wind
analysis is generally not considered in vertical direction.

Fig. 3: Load Case Editor showing input of pressure vs elevation profile

Refer Fig. 4 and prepare the highlighted load cases additionally for wind analysis. Load
cases for L17 to L20 are for code compliance checking and load cases from L5 to L8 for
support and Nozzle load checking.

Fig. 4: Load cases for Wind Analysis

Refer Fig 5 and make the combination method as scalar or absolute for the shown load cases.

Fig. 5: Load case Editor showing load case combination method.

In the final stage run the analysis and check results. If failing make suitable adjustments to
qualify the same.

Major Stress related differences in Between

2012 edition and 2010 edition of ASME B 31.3
Every new code always comes with more clarifications, new updated references related to codes &
standards, additional updates to the basic allowable stresses, and newly added listed materials, So
ASME B 31.3 is not an exception. In the new edition of 2012 code there are lots of substantive
changes with respect to 2010 edition of ASME B31.3, Process Piping. This article will try to list
down the changes which are important for a piping stress engineer.
1.Displacement Stress Range Allowable:
The allowable displacement stress range is now limited to 414 MPa (60,000 psi) in the current 2012
edition. Normally High strength steels have higher tensile and yield strengths and so certainly higher
allowable stresses. Accordingly, they also have higher allowable displacement stress ranges while
calculated using the old code formula. But, these Materials have Fatigue strengths which is similar to
the common steels, that is why this limit is added in 2012 edition.
2. Stress Equation for Flexibility :
The axial stress is added to the flexibility stress equation. Earlier (in 2010 edition) the same was addressed
by Appendix P only. While Axial stress may not be that important in most piping systems, it can be
significant for jacketed or buried piping.

3. Category D Fluid Service:

The definition of Category D fluid service is revised to include piping system with design minimum
temperatures below -29 degree Centigrade (-20 degree Fahrenheit) if the lower temperature is
generated from ambient conditions.
4. Preheating:
The 2012 edition changed recommended preheat temperatures to required preheat Temperatures
. All metals now must be preheated to 10 degree centigrade (50F) or higher before welding.
The above are important changes for a stress engineer. Additionally following few changes can be
noted:
1. New Appendix Appendix N: Application of ASME B31.3 internationally is added.
2. Appendix H And J has been revised.
3. Welding Qualification: Earlier Restrictions to acceptance of previously qualified welding procedures are
removed. Use of Specific language about use of standard welding procedures is added as permitted by
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX.
4. Owners Inspector: The qualification needs for an Owners Inspector are broadened in the current 2012
Edition.

Must have Load cases for stress analysis of a

typical piping system using Caesar II
The main objectives of stress analysis is to ensure
A. Structural Integrity (Design adequacy for the pressure of the carrying fluid,Failure against various
loading in the life cycle and Limiting stresses below code allowable.)
B. Operational Integrity (Limiting nozzle loads of the connected equipment within allowable values,
Avoiding leakage at joints, Limiting sagging & displacement within allowable values.)
C. Optimal Design (Avoiding excessive flexibility and also high loads on supporting structures. Aim
towards an optimal design for both piping and structure.)
To meet these objectives several load cases are required during stress analysis. This article will guide
all the beginners with the methodology to build several load cases which will be required for stress
analysis.
In this article we will use following notations for building load cases:
WW=water filled weight of piping system,
HP=Hydrotest Pressure,
W=weight of pipe including content and insulation,
P1=Internal Design pressure,
T1=Operating
T2=Maximum temperature,

temperature,

T3= Minimum temperature,

WIN1, WIN2, WIN3 AND WIN4: wind loads acting in some specific direction,
U1, U2, U3 AND U4: uniform (seismic) loads acting in some specific direction.
While analysis at a minimum the stress check is required for the below mentioned cases:
a. Hydrotesting case: Pipelines are normally hydrotested before actual operation to ensure absence
of leakage. Water is used as the testing medium. So during this situation pipe will be subjected to
water
weight
and
hydrotest
pressure.
Accordingly our first load case in Caesar II will be as mentioned below

1.

WW+HP

HYD

b. Operating case: When operation starts working fluid will flow through the piping at a
temperature and pressure. So accordingly our operating load cases will be as mentioned below:
2.
3.
4.

W+T1+P1
W+T2+P1
W+T3+P1

OPE
OPE
OPE

for operating temperature case

for maximum system temperature case
for minimum system temperature case

c. Sustained Case: Sustained loads will exist throughout the plant operation. Weight and pressure
are known as sustained loads. So our sustained load case will be as follows:
5.

W+P1

SUS

d. Occasional Cases: Piping may be subjected to occassional wind and seismic forces. So to check
stresses
in
those
situations
we
have
to
build
the
following load cases:
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
direction
11.
direction
12
direction
13
direction

W+T1+P1+WIN1
W+T1+P1+WIN2
W+T1+P1+WIN3
W+T1+P1+WIN4
W+T1+P1+U1

OPE
OPE
OPE
OPE
OPE

Considering wind from +X direction

Considering wind from -X direction
Considering wind from +z direction
Considering wind from +z direction
Considering seismic from +X

W+T1+P1-U1

OPE

Considering seismic from +X

W+T1+P1+U2

OPE

Considering seismic from +X

W+T1+P1-U2

OPE

Considering seismic from +X

While stress analysis the above load cases form load case 6 to load case 13 is generated only to
check loads at node points.
To find occasional stresses we need to add pure occassional cases with sustained load and then
compare with code allowable values. Following sets of load cases are built for that purpose.
14.
L6-L2
OCC
Pure wind from +X direction
15.
L7-L2
OCC
Pure wind from -X direction
16.
L8-L2
OCC
Pure wind from +z direction
17.
L9-L2
OCC
Pure wind from -z direction
18.
L10-L2
OCC
Pure seismic from +X direction
19.
L11-L2
OCC
Pure seismic from -X direction
20.
L12-L2
OCC
Pure seismic from +z direction
21.
L13-L2
OCC
Pure seismic from -z direction
22.
L14+L5
OCC
Pure wind+Sustained
23.
L15+L5
OCC
Pure wind+Sustained

24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.

L16+L5
L17+L5
L18+L5
L19+L5
L20+L5
L21+L5

OCC
OCC
OCC
OCC
OCC
OCC

Pure wind+Sustained
Pure wind+Sustained
Pure seismic+Sustained
Pure seismic+Sustained
Pure seismic+Sustained
Pure seismic+Sustained

Load cases from 22 to 29 will be used for checking occasional stresses with respect to code B 31.3
allowable (=1.33 times Sh value from code). Use scalar combination for load cases 22 to 29 above
and algebraic combination for others as shown in figure attached below:

e. Expansion Case: Following load cases are required for checking expansion stress range as per
code
30.
31.
32.
33.

L2-L5
L3-L5
L4-L5
L3-L4

EXP

EXP
EXP
EXP
for complete stress range

The above load cases (from 30 to 33) are used to check expansion stress
The above mentioned load cases are minimum required load cases to analysis any stress system. Out
of the above load cases the load cases mentioned in point number 1, 5, and 22-33 are used for stress

check. And load cases mentioned in point number 1 to 13 are used for checking restraint forces,
displacements and nozzle load checking.
Few additional load cases may be required for PSV connected systems, Rotary equipment connected
systems.
Seismic and Wind analysis may not be required every time. So those load cases can be deleted if the
piping system does not fall under the purview of seismic and wind analysis by project
specification. However to perform wind and seismic analysis proper related data must have to be
entered in Caesar II spreadsheet (Will be discussed in my future posts).
If the stress system involves use of imposed displacements (D) and forces (F) then those have to be
added with the above load cases in the form of D1, D2 or F1, F2 as applicable.
It is a better practice to keep
1. Hydro and sustained stresses below 60% of code allowable
2. Expansion and occasional stresses below 80% of code allowable
3. Sustained sagging below 10 mm for process lines and below 3 mm for steam, two phase and flare
lines
4. Design/Maximum displacement below 75 mm for unit piping and below 200 mm in rack piping.

Mikey Monday 12 May 2014, 1:48 am

Thanks for your article. What about externally imposed displacements from wind or seismic cases
per B31.3 par. 319.2.1 (c)? Those displacements seem not to be typically considered. Not just with
your example, but in pretty much every model that Ive seen this code requirement is not followed.
Why not? In your example, you omitted the requirement to do L2-L3 and L2-L4. Displacement and
range cases all start from ambient. In reality, standby lines often become operational with thermal
load and fluid contents load, but those lines are not starting from ambient, they are coming into a
system which has already displaced due to thermal and weight loads. How to consider lines starting
and shutting down within an operational system that has already displaced?
Same with shutdown. Removal of thermal and pressure load starts from a displaced position, not
ambient starting point

11 most important questions & answers from

ASME B 31.3 which a Piping stress engineer
must know
ASME B 31.3 is the bible of process piping engineering and every piping engineer should frequently use this
code for his knowledge enhancement. But to study a code similar to B 31.3 is time consuming and also
difficult because the contents are not at all interesting. Also every now and then it will say to refer to some
other point of the code which will irritate you. But still every piping engineer should learn few basic points
from it. The following literature will try to point out 11 basic and useful points from the code about which
every piping engineer must be aware.
1. What is the scope of ASME B 31.3? What does it covers and what does not?

Ans: Refer to the ASME B 31.3-Process Piping section from my earlier post.
Link: http://www.whatispiping.com/?p=44
Alternatively refer the below attached figure ( Figure 300.1.1 from code ASME B 31.3)

2. What are the disturbing parameters against which the piping system must be designed?
Ans: The piping system must stand strong (should not fail) against the following major effects:

Design Pressure and Temperature: Each component thickness must be sufficient to withstand most
severe combination of temperature and pressure.
Ambient effects like pressure reduction due to cooling, fluid expansion effect, possibility of moisture
condensation and build up of ice due to atmospheric icing, low ambient temperature etc.
Dynamic effects like impact force due to external or internal unexpected conditions, Wind force,
Earthquake force, Vibration and discharge (Relief valve) reaction forces, cyclic effects etc.
Component self weight including insulation, rigid body weights along with the medium it transport.
Thermal expansion and contraction effects due to resistance from free displacement or due to
thermal gradients (thermal bowing effect) etc.
Movement of pipe supports or connected equipments etc.

3. How to calculate the allowable stress for a carbon steel pipe?

Ans: The material allowable stress for any material other than bolting material, cast iron and malleable iron
are the minimum of the following:

1. one-third of tensile strength at maximum temperature.

2. two-thirds of yield strength at maximum temperature.
3. for austenitic stainless steels and nickel alloys having similar stressstrain behavior, the lower of two
thirds of yield strength and 90% of yield strength at temperature.
4. 100% of the average stress for a creep rate of 0.01% per 1 000 h
5. 67% of the average stress for rupture at the end of 100 000 h
6. 80% of the minimum stress for rupture at the end of 100 000 h
7. for structural grade materials, the basic allowable stress shall be 0.92 times the lowest value
determined (1) through (6) above.
4. What is the allowable for Sustained, Occasional and Expansion Stress as per ASME B 31.3?
Ans: Calculated sustained stress (SL)< Sh (Basic allowable stress at maximum temperature)
Calculated occasional stress including sustained stress< 1.33 Sh
Calculated expansion stress< SA = f * 1.25( Sc + Sh) SL+
Here f =stress range factor, Sc =basic allowable stress at minimum metal temperature and SL=calculated
sustained stress. The sustained stress (SL) is calculated using the following code formulas:

Here,
Ii = sustained in-plane moment index. In the absence of more applicable data, Ii is taken asthe greater of
0.75ii or 1.00.
Io = sustained out-plane moment index. In the absence of more applicable data, Io is taken as the greater of
0.75io or 1.00.
Mi = in-plane moment due to sustained loads, e.g.,pressure and weight
Mo = out-plane moment due to sustained loads, e.g.,pressure and weight
Z = sustained section modulus
It = sustained torsional moment index. In the absence of more applicable data, It is taken
as 1.00.
Mt = torsional moment due to sustained loads, e.g.,pressure and weight
Ap = cross-sectional area of the pipe, considering nominal pipe dimensions less allowances;

Fa = longitudinal force due to sustained loads, e.g.,pressure and weight

Ia = sustained longitudinal force index. In the absence of more applicable data, Ia is taken as 1.00.
5. What are steps for calculating the pipe thickness for a 10 inch carbon steel (A 106-Grade B) pipe
carrying a fluid with design pressure 15 bar and design temperatre of 250 degree centigrade?
Ans: The pipe thickness (t) for internal design pressure (P) is calculated from the following equation.

Here, D=Outside diameter of pipe, obtain the diameter from pipe manufacturer standard.
S=stress value at design temperature from code Table A-1
E=quality factor from code Table A-1A or A-1B
W=weld joint strength reduction factor from code
Y=coefficient from code Table 304.1.1
Using the above formula calculate the pressure design thickness, t.
Now add the sum of the mechanical allowances (thread or groove depth) plus corrosion and erosion
allowances if any with t to get minimum required thickness, tm.
Next add the mill tolerance with this value to get calculated pipe thickness. For seamless pipe the mill
tolerance is 12.5% under tolerance. So calculated pipe thickness will be tm/(1-0.125)=tm/0.875.
Now accept the available pipe thickness (based on next nearest higher pipe schedule) just higher than the
calculated value from manufacturer standard thickness tables.
6. How many types of fluid services are available for process piping?
Ans: In process piping industry following fluid services are available..

Category D Fluid Service: nonflammable, nontoxic, and not damaging to human tissues, the design
pressure does not exceed 150 psig, the design temperature is from -20 degree F to 366 degree F.
Category M Fluid Service: a fluid service in which the potential for personnel exposure is judged to
be significant and in which a single exposure to a very small quantity of a toxic fluid, caused by
leakage, can produce serious irreversible harm to persons on breathing or bodily contact, even
when prompt restorative measures are taken.
Elavated Temperature Fluid service: a fluid service in which the piping metal temperature is
sustained equal to or greater than Tcr (Tcr=temperature 25C (50F) below the temperature
identifying the start of time-dependent properties).

Normal Fluid Service: a fluid service pertaining to most piping covered by this Code, i.e., not subject
to the rules for Category D, Category M, Elevated Temperature, High Pressure, or High Purity Fluid
Service.
High Pressure Fluid Service: a fluid service for which the owner specifies the use of Chapter IX for
piping design and construction. High pressure is considered herein to be pressure in excess of that
allowed by the ASME B16.5 Class 2500 rating for the specified design temperature and material
group.
High Purity Fluid Service: a fluid service that requires alternative methods of fabrication, inspection,
examination, and testing not covered elsewhere in the Code, with the intent to produce a controlled
level of cleanness. The term thus applies to piping systems defined for other purposes as high purity,
ultra high purity, hygienic, or aseptic.

7. What do you mean by the term SIF?

Ans: The stress intensification factor or SIF is an intensifier of bending or torsional stress local to a piping
component such as tees, elbows and has a value great than or equal to 1.0. Its value depends on component
geometry. Code B 31.3 Appendix D (shown in below figure) provides formulas to calculate the SIF values.

8. When do you feel that a piping system is not required formal stress analysis?
Ans: Formal pipe stress analysis will not be required if any of the following 3 mentioned criteria are satisfied:
1. if the system duplicates, or replaces without significant change, a system operating with a successful
service record (operating successfully for more than 10 years without major failure).
2. if the system can readily be judged adequate by comparison with previously analyzed systems.
3. if the system is of uniform size, has no more than two points of fixation, no intermediate restraints,
and falls within the limitations of empirical equation mentioned below:

Here,
D = outside diameter of pipe, mm (in.)
Ea = reference modulus of elasticity at 21C (70F),MPa (ksi)
K1 = 208 000 SA/Ea, (mm/m)2 = 30 SA/Ea, (in./ft)2
L = developed length of piping between anchors,m (ft)
SA = allowable displacement stress range
U = anchor distance, straight line between anchors,m (ft)
y = resultant of total displacement strains, mm (in.), to be absorbed by the piping system
9. How will you calculate the displacement (Expansion) stress range for a piping system?
Ans: Expansion stress range (SE) for a complex piping system is normally calculated using softwares like
Caesar II or AutoPipe. However, the same can be calculated using the following code equations:

here
Ap = cross-sectional area of pipe
Fa = range of axial forces due to displacement strains between any two conditions being evaluated
ia = axial stress intensification factor. In the absence of more applicable data, ia p 1.0 for elbows, pipe bends,
and miter bends (single, closely spaced, and widely spaced), and ia =io (or i when listed) in Appendix D for

other components;
it = torsional stress intensification factor. In the absence of more applicable data, it=1.0;
Mt = torsional moment
Sa = axial stress range due to displacement strains= iaXFa/Ap
Sb = resultant bending stress
St = torsional stress= itXMt/2Z
Z = section modulus of pipe
ii = in-plane stress intensification factor from Appendix D
io = out-plane stress intensification factor from Appendix D
Mi = in-plane bending moment
Mo = out-plane bending moment
Sb = resultant bending stress

10. What do you mean by the term Cold Spring?

Ans: Cold spring is the intentional initial deformation applied to a piping system during assembly to
produce a desired initial displacement and stress. Cold spring is beneficial in that it serves to balance
the magnitude of stress under initial and extreme displacement conditions.
When cold spring is properly applied there is less likelihood of overstrain during initial operation;
hence, it is recommended especially for piping materials of limited ductility. There is also less
deviation from as installed dimensions during initial operation, so that hangers will not be displaced
as far from their original settings.
However now a days most of the EPC organizations does not prefer the use of Cold Spring while
analysis any system.
11. How to decide whether Reinforcement is required for a piping branch connection or not?

Ans: When a branch connection is made in any parent pipe the pipe connection is weakened by the
opening that is made in it. So it is required that the wall thickness after the opening must be
sufficiently in excess of the required thickness to sustain the pressure. This requirement is checked
by calculating the required reinforcement area (A1) and available reinforcement area (A2+A3+A4)
and if available area is more than the required area then no reinforcement is required. Otherwise
additional reinforcement need to be added. The equations for calculating the required and available
area are listed below for your information from the code. Please refer the code for notations used:

Methods for checking flange leakage

Introduction:

Leakage is a function of the relative stiffnesses of the flange, gasket and bolting.
Flanges are designed to remain leak free under hydrostatic test pressure when cold and under
operating pressure when hot.

The design of flanges (ASME B 16.5) does not take into account the bending moment in the
pipe. This generates wire drawing effect on the mating surface of the flange. Hence,
additional flexibility is to be provided when a flange joint is located near a point of high
bending moment. So, Leakage checking is required.

Process Piping Flanges are designed in accordance with BPV code, Section VIII, Division 1, appendix
2, using allowable stress and temperature limits of ASME B 31.3.

Analysis Criteria:
The criteria regarding when flange leakage checking is required should be mentioned in the ITB documents
or project specs. But as a general practice the following can be used:

Flanges with rating 600 or more

Flanges with rating 300 and size greater than 24 inch
Pipe flanges carrying caterogy M fluid service
Pipe flanges carrying Hydrogen or other flammable fluid
PSV lines with NPS 6 inch or more
Flanges in Jacketed Piping
Flanges where stress engineer finds a very high bending moment

Analysis Methodology:
Two widely used methods are practiced in prevalent Process Industry. These are
1. Pressure Equivalent method based on ASME B 16.5 pressure temperature table and
2. ASME BPVC Sec VIII Div 1 Appendix 2 method.
Pressure Equivalent Method:
In this method the axial force (F) and bending moment (M) on the flange is converted into equivalent
pressure (Pe) using following equations.
Equivalent Pressure for Axial force, Pe1=4F/G^2
Equivalent Pressure for bending moment, Pe2=16M/G^3
Here G=diameter at location of gasket load reaction =(Gasket OD+ID)/2 when bo<=6 mm
=(Gasket OD-2b) when bo>6 mm.

Here bo=basic gasket seating width as given in table 2-5.2 of ASME sec VIII:
Now add these two equivalent pressures with pipe design pressure (Pd) to find total pressure
(Pt=Pd+Pe1+Pe2) and enter into the ASME B 16.5 pressure temperature rating table associated with flange
material. If Pt is less than the allowed pressure on the rating table corresponding to the associated
temperature then flange will not leak.
ASME BPVC Sec VIII Div 1 Appendix 2 method:
In this method flange stresses (longitudinal hub stress, radial flange stress and tangential flange stress) are
calculated based on code provided equations/formulas. These calculated stresses are then compared with
allowable stresses as given in BPVC code Sec VIII Div 1 Appendix 2, Clause 2-8.
For calculating flange stresses one need to calculate the flange moment which is dependent on bolt load.
Bolt load has to be calculated for two design conditions; operating & gasket seating, and the most severe
will govern. For more details of the equations and calculation methodology the above mentioned code can
be referred. Click on the following title if you are interested in Caesar II methods for flange leakage analysis
using a) Pressure Equivalent Method and b) ASME Section VIII method

Methods for flange leakage checking by

Pressure Equivalent Method using Caesar II
Few days back I had published a post on Methods for checking flange leakage. In that article the I had
mentioned the theoritical background (analysis criteria, basic theory behind flange leakage checking,
analysis methodology etc) for checking flange leakage. So click here to refer the article once again before
you proceed on this article. In this current write up I will explain the step by step method for performing
flange leakage analysis methodology following Pressure Equvalent Method using Caesar II.

Fig. 1: Typical flange in Caesar II model

Caesar II methodology for Pressure Equivalent method:

Model the stress system from stress isometric. After modelling is complete select the flange
which need checking as per pressure equivalent method. In Fig. 1, node 20-30 and node 3040 denotes the flange assembly. And flange leakage checking is required for node 30.
Now select the Flange Node(From/To/Both) and Calculation Type as shown in Fig. 2.
Select Flange Class/Grade through Read from File button and refer to ASME B 16.5/
ASME B 16.47 material tables.
Required data will automatically be filled. By default the value of G will be taken as the
mean gasket diameter. User to update the value of G as per ASME B 16.20 & ASME Sec.
VIII Div. 1, Appendix 2, Table 2-5-2. based on following equation:
o b0 = 1/4, G = Mean diameter of the gasket contact face
o b0 > 1/4, G = Outside diameter of gasket contact face less 2b, b=basic gasket width
from code. check the above mentioned link for details.

Fig. 2: Caesar II Spread sheet typical input

Now go to the load case editor and select the temperature at which flange leakage checking
to be performed as shown in Fig. 3. Now run the analysis to check the results. In case the
generated stress exceeds the allowable results will be shown in red colour. Check Fig. 4 for
output results.

Fig. 3: Load Case Options module in Caesar II

Fig. 4: Caesar II flange leakage pressure equivalent output

Flange Leakage checking in Caesar II using

ASME Section VIII method
Normally this method is performed when the analysis in pressure equivalent method shows failure in
Caesar II. Pressure equivalent method being too conservative does not provide us the actual realistic
results. Hence this method is widely accepted where pressure equivalent method shows a failure.
The steps involved are mentioned below:

After performing static analysis click the Analysis and then click Flanges in CAESAR II
as shown below.

Provide a file name and select the proper Flange Type in the section as mentioned in the
PMS. Input the flange parameters as shown below:

Press the key Ctrl+F to select the concerning Size and Rating. Few data will automatically
filled from Caesar II database. However it is good practise to confirm the data from
governing code.
Flange Class is the flange pressure rating and is required for checking P-T Rating of
Equivalent Pressure.
Flange Grade: Select Material Group No. as per ASME B 16.5 Table 1A list of material
specification. Following table can be used as reference:

Refer to the applicable flange code ASME 16.5 or ASME B 16.47 and update automatically
filled flange data. Take special care while inputing for Small End Hub Thickness& Large

End Hub Thickness. Small End Hub Thickness must be equal to the Pipe Thickness.
Large End Hub Thickness must be equal to (X-B) where X is Hub Diameter and B Flange
ID.
Enter hub Length h=(Y-tf) where Y is length through Hub and tf is flange thickness.
Now it is the turn to enter the Bolts and gasket parameters. Take parameters from ASME B
16.20 or ASME B 16.21 as shown below:

Check Bolt Circle Diameter, Number of Bolts and Bolt Diameter, suggested by CAESAR II
in reference with ASME B 16.47, 16.5.
Correctly input for Gasket information in conjunction with ASME B 16.20 or 16.21 as
applicable.
For Effective Gasket Modulus, press Shift+? Key and then follow High End in Help
statement. Leak Pressure Ratio m, Gasket Seating Stress y shall be in accordance with ASME
SECTION VIII Div.1. Values for Caesar II help can be taken by pressing Shift+?.
For Nubbin Width in the right side, Leave blank for Welding Neck Type and input Ring joint
width as per the ring no. as described on ASME B 16.20 Table 3 TYPE R RING GASKET
DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES for ring type joint.
Facing Sketch/ Facing Column can be inputted as follows mentioned below:

Now input the material data as shown below:

Select the material of Flange and bolt, and Input design temperature.

Flange Allowable & Bolt Allowable at design and ambient temp can be taken from CAESAR
II database for particular flange and bolt material.

Flange Modulus of Elasticity shall be taken from table C-6 of ASME B-31.3.which is given
in millions of psi convert it to consistent unit
Use 1.0 for Flange Allowable Stress Multiplier and 2.0 for Bolt Allowable Stress Multiplier.
Use project specific data if available.
Now Input Design Pressure, Axial Force, Bending Moment from Static analysis of the
Caesar file as shown below:

Now run the analysis to study the output results. Normally If safety Factor is less than one
then joint failure is predicted and in output this is shown by a * mark.

If result shows failure then try to reduce the bending moment or axial force and reanalyse. If
that is not possible check if the flange rating can be increased.

Flange Leakage Evaluation based on NC

3658.3 Method using Caesar II
NC 3658.3 Method for flange leakage evaluation can only be applied if the following two conditions
are met:
1. Flanges, bolts and Gaskets used are designed based on as specified in ASME B 16.5a and
2. Boting material must have a allowable stress value at 100F(38C) >=20000 psi (138 MPa)
(High Strength Bolting)
Governing Equation:
By NC 3658.3 method the generated external moment (Mfs) is limited to a value as provided by the
below mentioned equation:
Mfs<=3125(Sy/36000)C X Ab (in U.S. Unit)
Here Sy=Yield strength of flange material at temperature
and Ab= Bolt area
The ratio of Sy/36000 has to be taken less than unity.
So it is obvious from the above equation that we have to enter the bolt area and yield strength as
input into Caesar II Spreadsheet.
Evaluation steps followed in caesar II:

Select Flange Node(From/To/Both) and Calculation Type(NC-3658.3) as shown in Fig. 1.

Input Bolt circle diameter from ASME B 16.5.

Input Yield Strengths at temperature from ASME BPVC code Section II Part D Table Y1.

Calculate the Bolt Area (Ab) as shown below and input in required place:

Bolt area, Ab is the total cross-sectional area of the bolts at the root of thread or section of
least diameter under stress.
Calculate the bolt area as mentioned below :
Droot = D1bsc 2*0.21650635P &
D1bsc = Dbsc 2*h
Where
Droot = Root diameter of bolt
Dbsc = Basic major (nominal) dia of bolt (as per ASME B1.1, para 8.3)
D1bsc = Basic Minor diameter (as per ASME B1.1, para 8.3)
h = Height of thread (as per ASME B1.1, Table 5)
P = Pitch of Bolt (as per ASME B1.1, Table 1)
Root Area of bolt (Ab) = n x (pi/4* Droot* Droot)
Where n = No. of bolts

Fig.1: Input Spreadsheet from Caesar II for flange leakage check by NC 3658.3 method

Now go to the Load Case Option Editor (Fig.2) and select flange analysis temperature
based on operating/design conditions and click the Run button for analysis.

Select the Load Case(s) for which Flange Leakage Check has to be performed and see
the results. If the ratio of Flange Stresses to Allowable Stress is less than 100 % (See
Fig. 2), Then the flange is within allowable limit and should not produce leakage. If it
is more than 100%, Then try to reduce moments at the flange by re-analysis of the
system and recheck using the above method.

Fig.2: A typical Caesar II flange leakage analysis report

Functions of Gaskets for leak proof Flanged

joints
Gasket is one of the basic elements for flanged joints in piping system of process plants. A gasket can be
defined as a material or combination of materials clamped between two separable mechanical members of
a mechanical joint (flanged joint) which produces the weakest link of the joint. Gaskets are used to create a
static seal between two stationary members of a mechanical assembly (the flanged joint). The gasket
material flows (interpose a semi-plastic material between the flange facings) into the imperfections
between the mating surfaces by an external force (bolt tightening force) and maintain a tight seal (seals the
minute surface irregularities to prevent leakage of the fluid) under operating conditions. The amount of flow
(seal) of the gasket material that is required to produce a tight seal is dependent upon the roughness of the
surface. The gasket must be able to maintain this seal under all the operating conditions of the system
including extreme upsets of temperature and pressure. Therefore, it is important to ensure proper design
and selection of the gaskets to prevent flange-leakage problems and avoid costly shutdowns of the process
plants. The following article will try to explain the main points related to gaskets.

Working philosophy of a gasket to prevent leakage:

Refer the above figure which shows the three major forces acting on the gasket. Normally the gasket is
seated by tightening the bolts on the flanges before the application of the internal pressure. Upon the
application of the internal pressure in the joint, an end force (Hydrostatic end force) tends to separate the
flanges and to decrease the unit stress (Residual stress) on the gasket. Leakage will occur under pressure if
the hydrostatic end force is sufficiently great and the difference between hydrostatic end force and the boltload reduces the gasket load below a critical value. To explain it in more clear language we can say that
there are three principal forces acting on any gasketed joint. They are:

Bolt Load which applies the initial compressive load that flows the gasket material into surface
imperfections to form a seal.

The hydrostatic end force, that tends to separate flanges when the system is pressurized.
Internal pressure acting on the portion of the gasket exposed to internal pressure, tending to blow
the gasket out of the joint and/or to bypass the gasket under operating conditions.

Even though there are other shock forces that may be created due to sudden changes in temperature and
pressure. Creep relaxation is another factor that may come into the picture. The initial compression force
applied to a joint must serve several purposes.

It must be sufficient to initially seat the gasket and flow the gasket into the imperfections on the
gasket seating surfaces regardless of operating conditions.
Initial compression force must be great enough to compensate for the total hydrostatic end force
that would be present during operating conditions.
It must be sufficient to maintain a residual load on the gasket/flange interface.

Now from a practical standpoint, residual load on the gasket must be X times internal pressure if a tight
joint is required to be maintained. This unknown quantity X is what is specified as the m factor in the
ASME Pressure Vessel Code and will vary depending upon the type of gasket being used. Actually the m
value is the ratio of residual unit stress (bolt load minus hydrostatic end force) on gasket to internal pressure
of the system. The larger the value of m, the more assurance the designer has of obtaining a tight joint.
Gasket Types:

Gaskets can be grouped into three main categories as follows:

Non-metallic Gaskets: Usually composite sheet materials are used with flat face flanges and low
pressure class applications. Non-metallic gaskets are manufactured non-asbestos material or
Compressed Asbestos Fibre (CAF). Non-asbestos types include arimid fibre, glass fibre, elastomer,
Teflon (PTFE) and flexible graphite gaskets. Full face gasket types are suitable for use with flat-face
(FF) flanges and flat-ring gasket types are suitable for use with raised face (RF) flanges.
Semi-metallic Gaskets: Semi-metallic gaskets are composites of metal and non-metallic materials.
The metal is intended to offer the strength and resiliency while the non-metallic portion of a gasket
provides conformability and sealability. Commonly used semi-metallic gaskets are spiral wound,
metal jacketed, Cam profile and a variety of metal-reinforced graphite gaskets. Semi metallic gaskets
are designed for the widest range of operating conditions of temperature and pressure. Semimetallic gaskets are used on raised face, male-and female and tongue and groove flanges.
Metallic Gaskets: Metallic gaskets are fabricated from one or a combination of metal to the desired
shape and size. Common metallic gaskets are ring-joint gaskets and lens rings. They are suitable for
high-pressure and temperature applications and require high bolt load to seal.

Common gasket configurations:

Aside from the choice of gasket material, the structure or configuration of the gasket is also significant.
Following are descriptions of four major types.

Graphite foil: The physical and chemical properties of graphite foil make it suitable as a sealing
material for relatively arduous operating condition. In an oxidizing environment, graphite foil can be
used in the temperature range of 200 to +500C, and in a reducing atmosphere, it can be used at
temperatures between 200 and 2,000C. Because graphite foil has no binder materials, it has
excellent chemical resistance, and is not affected by most of the commercially used common
chemicals. It also has very good stress-relaxation properties.
Spiral-wound: As the name implies, the spiral-wound gasket is made by winding a preformed-metal
strip and a filler on the periphery of a metal winding mandrel. All spiral-wound gaskets are furnished
with a centering ring. In addition to controlling compression, these rings serve to locate the gasket
centrally within the bolt circle. Inner rings are used where the material (such as a gasket with PTFE
filler) has a tendency for inward buckling. The ring also prevents the buildup of solids between the
inside diameter of the gasket and the bore of pipe. Under vacuum condition, the ring protects
against damage that would occur if a pieces of a broken component were drawn into the the
system. Spiral-wound gaskets can operate at temperatures from 250 to 1,000C, and pressures
from vacuum to 350 bar. Spiral-wound gaskets up to 1-in. diameter and up to class number 600
require a uniform bolt stress of 25,000 psi to compress the gasket. Larger sizes and classes require
30,000 psi to compress the gasket.
Ring-joint: Ring-joint gaskets are commonly used in grooved flanges for high-pressure-piping
systems and vessels. Their applicable pressure range is from 1,000 to 15,000 psi. These gaskets are
designed to give very high gasket pressure with moderate bolt load. These joints are not generally
pressure-actuated. The hardness must be less than that of the flange material so that proper flow of
material occurs without damaging flange surfaces. The most widely used ring-joint gaskets are of
the oval and octagonal type. Oval-type gaskets contact the flange face at the curved surface and
provide a highly reliable seal. However, the curved shape makes it more difficult to achieve accurate
dimensioning and surface finishing. Oval gaskets also have the disadvantage that they can only be
used once, so they may not be the best choice for sealing flanges that have to be opened routinely.
On the other hand, because they are constructed of only straight faces, octagonal-type gaskets are
usually less expensive, they can be dimensioned more accurately, and are easier to surface finish
than the oval-type gasket. However, a greater torque load is required to flow the gasket material
into imperfections that may reside on the flange faces. Octagonal gaskets can be used more than
once.
Corrugated-metal: This type of gasket is available in a wide range of metals, including brass, copper,
coppernickel alloys, steel, monel, and aluminium. Corrugated metal gaskets can be manufactured to
just about any shape and size required. The thickness of the metal is normally 0.25 or 0.3 mm, with
corrugations having a pitch of 1.6, 3.2, and 6.4 mm. The sealing mechanism is based on point
contact between the peaks of the corrugations and the mating flanges

Gasket Standards:

Following standards are normally adopted for specifying gaskets.

ASME B16.21 Non-metallic flat gaskets for pipe flanges.

ASME B16.20 Metallic Gaskets for steel pipe flanges, Ring Joint, Spiral Wound and Jacketed

IS2712 Specification for compressed Asbestos fibre jointing.

BS 3381 Sprial Wound Gaskets to suit BS 1560 Flanges

Selection of Gaskets:

The gasket material selected should be one which is not adversely affected physically or chemically
by the service conditions.
The two types of gaskets most commonly known are ring gaskets and full face gaskets. The latter as
the name implies, covers the entire flange face and are pierced by the bolt holes. They are intended
for use with flat face flanges. Ring gaskets extend to the inside of the flange bolt holes and
consequently are self centering. They are usually used with raised face or lap joint flanges but may
also be used with flat-faced flanges.
Flat-ring gaskets are widely used wherever service condition permits because of the ease with which
they may be cut from flat sheet and installed. They are commonly fabricated from such materials as
rubber, paper, cloth, asbestos, plastics, copper, lead, aluminum, nickel, monel, and soft iron. The
gaskets are usually made in thickness from 1/64 to 1/8 in. Paper, cloth and rubber gaskets are not
recommended for use above 120 C. Asbestos-composition gaskets may be used up to 350 C or
slightly higher, ferrous and nickel-alloy metal gaskets may be used up to the maximum temperature
rating of the flanges.
Upon initial compression a gasket will flow both axially and radially. The axial flow is required to fill
depressions in the flange facing and prevent leakage. Radial flow serves no useful purpose unless
the gasket is confined. Where a flange joint is heated, a greater gasket pressure is produced due to
the difference between the flange body and the bolts. This greater pressure coupled with the usual
softening of the gasket material at elevated temperatures causes additional axial and radial gasket
flow. To compensate for this, the flange bolts are usually re-tightened a second or third time after
the joint is heated to the normal operating temperature. A thick gasket will flow radially to a far
greater extent than a thin gasket. Some thin gaskets show practically no radial flow at extremely
high unit pressures. Consequently, for high temperatures a thin gasket has the advantage of
maintaining a permanent thickness while a thick gasket will continue to flow radially and may leak,
in time, due to the resulting reduced gasket pressure. However in attempting utmost utilization of
thin gasket advantage, one may find that gasket selected has insufficient thickness to seal the
irregularities, in the commercial flange faces. The spiral wound asbestos-metallic gasket combines
the advantages of both the thick and thin gasket. Although a relatively thick gasket (most common
types are 0.175 thick) its spirally laminated construction confines the asbestos filler between axially
flexible metal layers. This eliminates the radial flow characteristics of a thick gasket and provides the
resiliency to adjust to vary service conditions. Spiral wound gaskets are available with different filler
materials such as Teflon, grafoil etc. to suit fluid compatibility. Spiral wound gaskets used with raised
face flanges usually have an inner metal ring and an outer centering ring.
Laminated gaskets are fabricated with a metal jacket and a soft filler, usually of asbestos. Such
gaskets can be used up to temperatures of about 400 C to 450 C and require less bolt load to seat
and keep tight than solid metal flat ring gaskets.
Serrated metal gaskets are fabricated of solid metal and have concentric grooves machined into the
faces. This greatly reduces the contact area on initially tightening thereby reducing the bolt load. As
the gasket is deformed, the contact surface area increases. Serrated gaskets are useful where soft
gaskets or laminated gaskets are unsatisfactory and bolt load is excessive with a flat-ring metal
gasket. Smooth-finished flange faces should be used with serrated gaskets.
Corrugated gaskets with asbestos filling are similar to laminated gaskets except that the surface is
rigid with concentric rings as with the case of serrated gaskets. Corrugated gaskets require less

seating force than laminated or serrated gaskets and are extensively used in low-pressure liquid and
gas service. Corrugated metal gaskets without asbestos may be used to higher temperature than
those with asbestos filling.
Two standard types of ring-joint gaskets are available for high-pressure service. One type has an oval
cross section, and the other has an octagonal cross section. These rings are fabricated of solid metal,
usually soft iron, soft steel, monel, 4-6% chrome, and stainless steels. The alloy-steel rings should be
heat treated to soften them.
It is recommended that ring joint gasket be used for class 150 flanged joints. When the ring joint or
spiral wound gasket is selected, it is recommended that line flanges be of the welding neck type.

Parameters affecting Gasket performance:

The performance of the gasket is affected by a number of factors. All of these factors must be taken into
consideration when selecting a gasket:

The Flange Load: All gasket materials must have sufficient flange pressure to compress the gasket
enough to insure that a tight, unbroken seal occurs. The flange pressure, or minimum seating stress,
necessary to accomplish this is known as the y factor. This flange pressure must be applied
uniformly across the entire seating area to achieve perfect sealing. However, in actual service, the
distribution around the gasket is not uniform. The greatest force is exerted on the area directly
surrounding the bolts. The lowest force occurs mid-way between two bolts. This factor must be
taken into account by the flange designer.
The Internal Pressure: In service, as soon as pressure is applied to the vessel, the initial gasket
compression is reduced by the internal pressure acting against the gasket (blowout pressure) and
the flanges (hydrostatic end force). To account for this, an additional preload must be placed on the
gasket material. An m or maintenance factor has been established by ASME to account for this
preload. The m factor defines how many times the residual load (original load minus the internal
pressure) must exceed the internal pressure. In this calculation, the normal pressure and the test
pressure should be taken into account.
Temperature: The effects of both ambient and process temperature on the gasket material, the
flanges and the bolts must be taken into account. These effects include bolt elongation, creep
relaxation of the gasket material or thermal degradation. This can result in a reduction of the flange
load. The higher he operating temperature, the more care needs to be taken with the asket material
selection. As the system is pressurized and heated, the joint deforms. Different coefficients of
expansion between the bolts, the flanges and the pipe can result in forces which can affect the
gasket. The relative stiffness of the bolted joint determines whether there is a net gain or loss in the
bolt load. Generally, flexible joints lose bolt load.
Fluid: The media being sealed, usually a liquid or a gas with a gas being harder to seal than a liquid.
The effect of temperature on many fluids causes them to become more aggressive. Therefore, a
fluid that can be sealed at ambient temperature, may adversely affect the gasket at a higher
temperature. The gasket material must be resistant to corrosive attack from the fluid. It should
chemically resist the system fluid to prevent serious impairment of its physical properties.
Surface Finish of the Gasket: The surface finish of a gasket which consists of grooves or channels
pressed or machined onto the outer surface governs the thickness and compressibility required
by the gasket material to form a physical barrier in the clearance gap between the flanges. A finish
that is too fine or shallow is undesirable, especially on hard gasket materials, because the smooth
surface may lack the required grip, which will allow extrusion to occur. On the other hand, a finish
that is too deep will yield a gasket that requires a higher bolt load, which may make it difficult to

form a tight seal, especially when large flange surfaces are involved. Fine machining marks applied
to the flange face, tangent to the direction of applied fluid pressure can also be helpful. Flange faces
with non-slip grooves that are approximately 0.125 mm deep are recommended for gaskets more
than 0.5 mm thick; and for thinner gaskets, grooves 0.065 mm deep are recommended. Under no
circumstances should the flange-sealing surface be machined with tool marks extending radially
across the gasket-sealing surface; such marks could allow leakage.

Gasket Thickness: For a given material, it is a general rule that a thinner gasket is able to handle a
higher compressive stresses than thicker one. However, thinner materials require a higher surface
finish quality. As a rule of thumb, the gasket should be at least four times thicker than the maximum
surface roughness of the flange faces. The gasket must be thick enough to occupy the shape of the
flange faces and still compress under the bolt load. In situations where vibration is unavoidable, a
thicker gasket than the minimum required should be employed.
Gasket Width: In order to reduce the bolt load required to produce a particular gasket pressure, it is
advisable not to have the gasket wider than is necessary. For a given gasket stress, a raised face
flange with a narrow gasket will require less pre-load, and thus less flange strength than a full-face
gasket. In general, high-pressure gaskets tend to be narrow.
Stress Relaxation: This factor is a measure of the materials resiliency over a period of time, and is
normally expressed as a percentage loss per unit of time. All gasket material will lose some resiliency
over time, due to the flow or thinning of the material caused by the applied pressure. After some
initial relaxation, the residual stress should remain constant for the gasket.
Gasket Outer Diameter: For two gaskets made of the same material and having the same width, the
one with a larger outer diameter will withstand a higher pressure. Therefore, it is advisable to use a
gasket with an external diameter that is as large as possible.

Alignment Check Methodology in Piping Stress

Analysis using Caesar II
Alignment Checking this term is quite familiar with piping engineers and all construction
engineers. During piping installation at construction site it is expected that equipment flange should
match perfectly (aligned) with the piping flange so that during bolting no problem occurs. But
achieving that perfect alignment is very difficult to achieve. If this alignment for rotary equipments
are not proper then there may be several problems in future during operation which may lead to
vibration of equipment/piping system or in some situation equipment failure. American Petroleum
Institute code API RP 686 provides the data for acceptable deviation from the ideal perfect
alignment. As per the code if the vertical and horizontal deviation of piping flange and rotary
equipment flange center line is within 1.5 mm and parallelism (rotation) is within 0.0573 degree then
the alignment is accepted otherwise means to be devised to bring the deviation within those values.
While performing stress analysis of rotary equipment connected piping systems in Caesar II we can
very easily ensure this limitation. The following write up will describe the step by step method of
doing the same.
Alignment check of nozzle flange shall be performed for all Rotating Equipments like Centrifugal
Compressor, Steam Turbine, Centrifugal Pumps, Gear Pumps etc as per following procedure.
Steps for performing Alignment checking:

Ensure correct weight of the pipe (with proper thickness), Support weight (dummy pipe),
Weight of valves, flanges and any in-line items.
Consider Insulation density carefully (equivalent insulation density to be correctly fed with
insulation & cladding weight, Check insulation on dummies for cold insulated lines).
Model all branch piping (like drip legs etc.) greater than 2 inches.
Discuss with piping lead engineer for requirement of any maintenance flanges (Normally for
steam turbine or centrifugal connected lines the maintenance flange is recommended) and
include it if required.
Minimize the sustained load on equipment nozzle as much as possible during static analysis
run of the Caesar model.
Normal industry practice is to analyse the Alignment checking in separate file. So rename the
static file as Filename_Alignment.C2
Make the equipment nozzle anchor flexible or remove the displacement if anchor was not
modeled.
Wherever spring support is used, define spring rate and cold load in case of variable effort
spring & Constant effort support load in case of constant effort spring.
After performing the above create one additional load case in Caesar II as mentioned below:
WNC+H
WNC

SUS
SUS

System with spring hanger

System without spring hanger

Set the spring hanger as As designed.(Two load cases can be generated for spring As
designed and rigid condition)

Now run the analysis and check the displacements of the nozzle at the above mentioned load
case and limit them within below mentioned values:
Vertical deflection (Normally DY):
Horizontal displacement (sqrt sum of DX and DZ):
Parallelism (sqrt sum of RX and RZ) :

+/- 1.5 mm
+/- 1.5 mm
0.0573 degree.

In case the above limitations are not met then re-analyse by readjusting the spring and other
supports and do the simulation.
Alignment check is to be performed for both inlet and outlet lines.
Alignment check must be performed with spring under both in As designed and in
locked condition.
To avoid small misalignment in vertical direction first support from rotary equipment nozzle
is used either a spring support or an adjustable type support

arun Thursday 23 January 2014, 12:16 pm

Please clarify my following doubts

1)is anywhere mentioned the allowable displacement ?
2) please elaborate the below statement Set the spring hanger as As designed.(Two load cases can
be generated for spring As designed and rigid condition) ?
Reply

Anup Thursday 23 January 2014, 4:10 pm

1. allowable displacements are mentioned in API RP 686

2. As designed means spring should not be in locked condition.
Reply

Mario Wednesday 2 April 2014, 10:04 pm

Wrong
Api 686 specify to not use the spring unlock.
Reply


Mikey Monday 12 May 2014, 1:04 am

This modeling approach doesnt seem correct.

The amount of misalignment is determined by field measurement, not analysis. If in fact, the
connecting piping is offset from the equipment flange by the allowable 1.5mm in the Y or Z
direction for example, then the correct way to analyze that would be to assign an internal strain equal
to 1.5mm in that direction, exactly like a cold spring load but out-of-plane. The piping flange would
need to be pulled in order to be aligned with equipment flange, and that pulling would create a strain
load.
Not sure if Caesar can consider an out-of-plane strain. P-Delta would be needed in order to properly
consider a strain load. Strain load would be added to other applied loads.
Reply

Arun Friday 22 August 2014, 11:43 pm

I have come across many installations. From manufacturers end they will requesting us to release
spring during parallelity check. I never allowed that, I take guarantee and will show parallelity only
with spring in locked condition. Parallelity is only for fabrication and erection check, not for design.

Nozzle Loading of Various Equipments and

means for reducing them
Introduction:
One of the major difficulty piping stress engineers face while analyzing any piping system is to keep
piping side loads or external loads (forces and moments are combinedly mentioned as loads) on
equipment nozzle connection within allowable limits. All equipments to which piping system is
connected is categorized in two groups. a) Static Equipments and b) Rotary Equipments.
Nozzle Loads for Static Equipments:
Most of the prevailing EPC organizations follow a project specific table as allowable values for
static equipments (made of Steel, ferrous material) like pressure vessels (Columns, Horizontal
vessels, Drums, Reactors, Filters, Scrubbers, sometimes Tanks which are not within API 650 scope,
etc) and shell and tube heat exchangers or similar equipments. The table is generated based on the
following two parameter: the nozzle diameter and flange rating. In some organizations the table
value is multiplied with some factors (normally 0.75) while checking nozzle loads for shell and tube
heat exchangers.
Normally mechanical department send these load tables to the equipment manufacturer indicating
that the nozzle connections must be designed to resist at a minimum the table values. The equipment
vendor reproduces the values in the equipment general arrangement drawing to avoid any confusion
at a later stage.
For cases while the static equipment does not fall on the types mentioned in the above criteria the
nozzle loads has to be obtained from equipment vendor or from some ASME B 31.3 code specified
standards. Few of such type of equipment and nozzle connection is listed below for your reference:

Jacketed nozzles connected to Normal pressure vessels: Loads to be obtained from

manufacturer, in case the piping side load is more than allowables the loads has to be
forwarded to vendor for FEA/vendor acceptance.
Jacketed nozzles connected to Jacketed pressure vessels: Loads to be obtained from
manufacturer, in case the piping side load is more than allowables the loads has to be
forwarded to vendor for FEA/vendor acceptance.
Pressure vessels made of non ferrous (Aluminium is more common) materials: Loads to
be obtained from equipment vendor.
Nozzles connected to Air Fin Fan Cooler: Loads are mentioned in API 661, discuss with
vendor (check internal project specification) if any factor is to be used (Normally a factor of
2 or 3 is used in some organization).
Nozzles connected to Plate Fin Heat Exchanger: Refer API 662 for nozzle loads (There are
2 tables in the standard depending on fluid service (normal service and severe service), check
carefully which table to be used)
Tangential nozzles connected to Pressure Vessels: Loads have to be taken from
manufacturer.
Nozzles whose axis is not perpendicular to Vessel axis: Obtain allowable loads from
vendor.

Nozzles connected to API Tanks with diameter more than 36 meter: Refer API 650 for
nozzle loads (No standard table is provided for load values, you have to determine the loads
from equations.)
Nozzles connected to Fired Heaters: Refer API 560 for allowable nozzle loads. Sometimes
a factor of 2 or 3 is used for multiplying the table values. Refer project specification for the
same or discuss with vendor.
Nozzles connected to Miscellaneous Equipments (Cold Box, Flaker system, Packaged
items, Spherical Equipments, Cooling Tower etc): Arrange limiting loads from Vendor.

Nozzle Loads for Rotary Equipments:

Normally rotary equipments are designed based on some code specified standards and accordingly
the limiting loads has to be taken from respective standards. Few of such commonly used
equipments are mentioned below:

Centrifugal Pumps: For pumps which are designed based on API standard, allowable loads
has to be taken from API 610 (If loads are more than allowable values as specified in table 5
of the standard, perform appendix P). Allowable load values upto nozzle size 16 inch is
provided in the table. For higher sizes ANSI standard is used. If the pumps are not designed
as per API standard (now a days non API pumps are most frequently used due to its lower
costs) obtain loads from vendor. Sometimes ANSI/HI 9.6.2 is used for nozzle loads in
absence of data.
Positive displacement (Screw pumps, gear pumps etc) pumps: Use API 676 for allowable
nozzle loads. Loads can be taken from vendor.
Reciprocating Pumps/Compressors: Obtain the allowable nozzle loads from vendor.
Centrifugal Compressors: Use API 617 for equipment nozzle loads. Note that combined
analysis must be performed for proper functioning of the compressor. Sometimes vendor
permits more loads so discuss with them.
Steam Turbine: Refer NEMA SM 23 or API 612 for allowable nozzle loads. Dont forget to
perform combined nozzle load checking. Sometimes vendor permits more loads so discuss
with them.
Positive displacement compressors: Refer API 619 or manufacturer allowable loads.
Gas Turbine: Loads to be obtained from manufacturer.

Means for Reducing Nozzle Loads:

Now if the nozzle load on equipment is found to be more than the allowable values as specified
above, first try to get a feel of the reason of the increased load and then try to apply any of the
following alternatives to reduce the nozzle loads:

Try to reduce the nozzle load by adding additional flexibility in the piping system (Could be
followed if the load is arising because of less flexibility)
If the load is due to the weight of the piping system, provide additional support.
Try to direct the thermal expansion away from the equipment by providing proper restraints
(guide or directional anchors).
If the load is more because of friction then try to use PTFE/graphite/Mirror polished SS
plates to reduce frictional loads.
In extreme situation expansion joint or cold spring (normally not preferred) can be applied.

Sometimes hot modulus of elasticity can be used to calculate equipment nozzle loads.

Even after all trial and error if it is not possible to reduce the loads within allowable limits then
forward the actual load values (increased by at least 20% if all piping data is not final) to vendor for
FEA analysis and their acceptance.

Step by Step Methods for WRC 107 and WRC

297 Checking in Caesar II
Introduction:
Whenever Pressure Vessel or Heat exchanger (Static Equipments) nozzle loads exceeds the
allowable values provided by Vendors (Equipment manufacturer) or standard project specific tables
(guidelines), the piping stress professional is permitted to use WRC 107/297 (or any other FEA) to
check the stresses at the Nozzle-Shell junction point and check the stresses with allowable values
provided by Codes. If the stresses are found to be within allowable limit then the load and moment
values can be accepted without any hesitation. However there are some boundary conditions which
must be met before using WRC. This small write up will try to explain the required details for
performing WRC 107 and WRC 297 using Caesar II and step by step method for performing WRC
check.Both WRC 107 and WRC 297 deal with local stress states in the vicinity of an attachment
to a vessel or pipe. As indicated by their titles, WRC-107 can be used for attachments to both
spherical and cylindrical shells while WRC-297 only addresses cylinder to cylinder connections.
While both bulletins are used for nozzle connection. WRC-107 is based on un-penetrated shell,
while WRC-297 assumes a circular opening in vessel. Furthermore, WRC-107 defines values for
solid and hollow attachments of either round and rectangular shape for spherical shells but drops the
solid/hollow distinction for attachments to cylindrical shells. WRC-297, on the other hand, is
intended only for cylindrical nozzles attached to cylindrical shells.
Boundary condition for using WRC 107:
To determine whether WRC 107 bulletin can be used for local stress checking the following
geometry guidelines must be met:
1. d/D<0.33
2. Dm/T=(D-T)/T>50 (Here, T=Vessel Thickness, Dm=mean diameter of vessel)
Boundary condition for using WRC 297:
To determine whether WRC 107 bulletin can be used for local stress checking the following
geometry guidelines must be met:
1. d/D<=0.5
2. d/t>=20 and d/t<=100 (Here t=nozzle thickness)
3. D/T>=20 and D/T<=2500
4. d/T>=5
5. Nozzle must be isolated (it may not be close to a discontinuity) not within 2(DT) on vessel and
not within 2(dt) on nozzle
Difference between WRC 107 and 297:
The major differences other than the boundary conditions mentioned above are listed below:

1. WRC 107 calculates only the vessel stresses while WRC 297 calculates Vessel stresses along with
nozzle stresses.
2. WRC 297 is applicable only for normally (perpendicular) intersecting two cylindrical shells
whereas WRC 107 is applicable for cylindrical as well as spherical shells of any intersection.
3. The attachments for WRC 297 checking must be hollow but WRC 107 analyzes cylindrical or
rectangular attachments which can be rigid or hollow.4. WRC 297 is not applicable for nozzles
protruding inside the vessel (Fig 1), Tangential Nozzle (Fig2), Nozzle at angle (Fig 3).

5. Typically, WRC-107 is used for local stress calculations and WRC-297 is used for flexibility
calculations.
Limitations of WRC:
Other than boundary conditions mentioned above there are few more limitations as mentioned
below:
1. Neither bulletin considers shell reinforcement nor do they address stress due to pressure.
2. CAESAR II ,PVElite & CodeCalc will not extrapolate data from the charts when geometric
limitations mentioned above are exceeded. Extrapolated data may not be appropriate.

Inputs required for performing WRC checking:

The following documents must be ready with you before you start to perform WRC 107/297
checking:
1. Equipment Details/ General Arrangement Drawing
2. Nozzle details
3. Line list
Step by Step methods for performing WRC 107/ WRC 297 calculation in Caesar II:
Step 1: Perform Static analysis of the stress system and find out the nozzle loads required for
checking local stresses.
Step 2: Enter into the WRC module from Caesar II. Provide a file name for your job

Step 3: Following screen will appear. Enter the Nozzle data as mentioned below:

Step 4: Now enter the vessel details i.e, diameter, wall thickness, corrosion allowance and material.

Step 5: Input vessel and Nozzle direction cosines, Internal design pressure and load and moments
values from Caesar static analysis output (Sustained, Expansion and occasional as applicable).

Step 6: On options it is suggested not to change any parameter. Now click on analysis to read the
results. The output will inform you whether WRC checking is passing or failing. Use results as per
your requirement.

For entering loads and moments as per local convention following description and figure can be used
for converting global forces into local forces:

As shown in fig, Stretch your right hand with Middle finger along the Vessel Centerline. Index
Finger should parallel to nozzle centerline and should point in a direction from nozzle towards
entering vessel. And Thumb should be perpendicular to both. Then1.Direction of Index Finger
represents +P.
2.Direction of Middle Finger represents +VL
3.Direction of Thumb represents +VC
4.ML will be positive if by applying right hand thumb rule to ML, direction of thumb is same as that
of VC.
5.MC will be positive if by applying right hand thumb rule to MC, direction of thumb is opposite to
direction of VL.
6.MT will be positive if by applying right hand thumb rule to MT, direction of thumb is opposite to
direction of P.Get the loads and moments from CAESAR output. Compare the direction of Forces
and Moments in CAESAR output with conventional Force and Moment directions and enter the
values of P, VL, VC, MT, MC and ML accordingly.

10 points to keep in mind while using project

specific pressure vessel nozzle load tables
during stress analysis.
Every EPC company must have project specific pressure vessel nozzle loading tables which are used
for comparing allowable nozzle loads for vessels, columns or towers, heat exchangers, Drums or any
similar type of equipments. Normally forces and moments at the nozzle and shell interconnection are
provided in a tabulat format. These force and moment values are decided based on the following
major factors:
1. Nozzle diameter
2. Connected flange rating
3. Equipment and nozzle thicknesses.
4. Equipment diameter etc.

Using these tables are quite simple. However we must keep in mind few points while using those
tables. This article will list out few important points for usring these table easily.
1. Before checking the tables, find out the load and moment directional drawing from which we have
to corelate the Caesar II axis.
2. Each nozzle, including those designated spare but with the exception of man-holes and
instrument nozzles shall be designed to withstand the forces and moments specified herein. The
indicated loads are to be considered to act at the shell/head to nozzle intersection.
3. For nozzles matching with any global direction (other than head nozzles) compare the values
mentioned on the tables with global force values in CAESAR II output.
4. For inclined nozzles in horizontal plane (with respect to any global direction) there are 2 options
a) Compare loads mentioned on the tables above with local element forces in CAESAR II output. On
that case local X force will be radial force, compare other directions to get proper forces.
b) Otherwise rotate the CAESAR II input model to match the nozzle axis with any global Caesar II
axis and compare the loads and moments.

5. For Head nozzles (nozzle axis and equipment axis same direction) compare Mx and Mz as
per [{(Mx)2+(Mz)2}] [{(ML)2+(MC)2}]
6. In case of any vessels in packaged area , these values shall not be applicable and nozzle loading
shall be coordinated with vendor .
7. In case of any licensor / proprietary item , these values shall not be applicable and nozzle loading
shall be confirmed by them.
8. Allowable for self reinforced nozzle shall be more than as mentioned in above table . In that case
allowable shall be exercised from vendor.
9. For jacketed nozzles loads are to be confirmed from vendor.
10. This tables are not applicable for checking loads at flange faces.

Hot Sustained Stress (Lift-Off) Checking in

Caesar II
Hot Sustained Stress Checking in Caesar II
In Laymans term Sustained means always present. So sustained stresses are the stresses which are
present in the system throughout its operating cycle. Weight of piping system and Pressure inside the
pipe are examples of sustained loads which generate sustained stresses in the system. So what is hot
sustained case?
While analyzing a piping system you many times will come across with few supports which will
take load in sustained case but are not taking load in operating and design temperature cases (Refer
Attached Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 for one such typical example). The support is lifting at that point in
temperature case i.e. supports are not contributing in load and stress distribution while in in
operating condition. Still in that situation the weight of pipe and pressure inside the system will
induce sustained stresses. So in my opinion, hot sustained stress is the sustained stress in pipe
operating situation. And we must ensure that the system stress will not fail because of those supports
not sharing any load. That is why many organization make it mandatory to check sustained stresses.

Fig.1: Caesar II Restraint summary showing lifting supports

Methods of Sustained stress checking:
I have come across with two different methods of hot sustained stress check in various organization:
1. Conventional Method followed by many organizations:

In first method the analyst has to run the static analysis as per conventional method.
Now go to restraint summary and note down the support nodes which are lifting or not taking
any vertical load (Sometimes small positive value may be there due to guide and line stop
frictions, in that case check the vertical displacement if it shows positive value consider the
same as lifting).
Make a separate Caesar file with name FILE NAME_HOT SUSTAINED.
Open the input screen and delete all lifting supports from the nodes you noted down. Delete
only +Y support, Guide and line stops will be there.
Run the analysis and check sustained stress.
If sustained stress is within allowable limit accept the file as it is else change the support
location or routing to make the system safe.

Fig.2: Caesar II Plot showing lifting support

2. New method followed by very few organizations:

In this method analyst will check the hot sustained stress in the same main file (No need to
create separate file). Some additional load cases are required. Lets assume we will check hot
sustained stress in design temperature, T1 condition (means we will check which supports are
lifting in design temp case). So the below mentioned cases is required for hot sustained stress
checking
L1:
L2:
L3:

W+T1+P1
T1
L1-L2

OPE
OPE/EXP
SUS

Check the stresses for load case L3, if the same is within allowable limit then accept the file
else make the system safe.

Notes:
1. Now you may be thinking whether to mark deleted supports in isometric or not. You must
mark those supports. As we have not deleted the supports in actual practice. Supports will be
there at site, We simply ensured that without those supports also system will be safe.
However if you want to delete those supports that can be done if all other stress criteria can
met.
2. Whether we need to check expansion stresses in hot sustained file too? In my opinion if we
are using liberal stress for expansion stress range checking then it is better to check
expansion stress (along with sustained stress) in hot sustained file. Otherwise it is not
required as system wont fail in expansion case even after removing those supports.

Mikey Monday 16 June 2014, 10:54 pm

Neither the traditional approach nor the new method are valid from a mathematical or
engineering standpoint. The traditional approach overlooks a very obvious and important
aspect of load distribution in a nonlinear analysis, and that is the fact that piping loads can
redistribute significantly without completely lifting off. A pipe support which supports 4,000
lbs in ambient condition may support only 500 lbs under W+T1. It didnt lift off, but the
weight redistribution was significant, and traditional approach ignores this.
The new method is similarly flawed. Linear algebraic subtraction between nonlinear load
cases is invalid.

Spring hanger selection and design guidelines

for a Piping engineer using Caesar II
Introduction:
Spring hangers are an integrated part of Piping Industry. The use of spring hangers for supporting
pipe weights are welknown to every piping engineer. Whenever some rigid supports are not taking
load due to its thermal movement or rigid supports are creating bad effect to equipment connection
Piping engineers suggest the use of a spring hanger to share some of the loads and to keep the piping
system safe. Selection of the appropriate type of hanger support for any given application is
governed by the individual piping configuration and job requirements. There are two types of Spring
hangers. a) Variable Spring Hanger- Loads vary throughout its operating range and b) Constant
Spring hanger: Load remains constant throughout its operating range.
The following write up will provide a simple guideline for selection of both Variable and constant
Spring hanger while analysing a piping system using Caesar II.
Selection Procedure of Variable Effort Springs:

1.Determine the hot load required and the pipe movement (up or down).
2.Estimate the travel range from the catalogue.
3.Select the smallest spring size which has the hot load within the working travel (mid range).
4.Ensure that the cold load lies within the working range of the spring i.e. between the two dark
black lines shown in the selection chart.
Calculate the cold load as follows:
Cold Load = Operating Load + Movement x Spring Rate (For pipe movement up)
Cold Load = Operating Load Movement x Spring Rate (For pipe movement down)
5.If the Cold load lies beyond the working range in the selection chart, then select higher spring size
or the next travel range.
6. Check the variability in selected spring

Generally for non critical systems, the variability is limited to 25% through out the total travel. For
critical systems such as steam connections terminating at turbines and pipes connected to rotating
equipment
Like compressor etc. variability is limited to 10%.If the variation exceeds the allowed value, choose
higher size spring or smaller spring rate at same load range.
7.Select the type and check the feasibility of the spring depending on space available and type of
structure available.

Selection procedure of Constant effort springs:

Constant Effort spring shall be selected where the vertical movement exceeds 50 mm, or where it is
necessary to restrict transfer of load to adjacent terminal of equipment or where the Spring
variability exceeds 25%.

1.

Determine the load and the total movement.

Total movement = design movement + over travel
Over travel = 20% of the design movement or 25mm whichever is higher.
2. Select the spring from the load chart keeping in mind that the spring selected must lie within the
working range (Between red and black line)
3. Select the type and check the feasibility of the spring depending on space available and type of
structure available.
4. The Spring box must be able to move freely without any restriction.
5. Stress Engineer must check the eccentricity (See Fig 1 below) of the spring load flange and the
spring base plate while providing foundation information to civil.

Spring Selection procedure in Caesar II:

1. CAESAR-II Default Setting for Hanger Selection:
Before making input for spring selection it is always better to make a default Caesar setting for
hanger design.

2.

Fig 2. Caesar II Default hanger setting

CAESAR-II Auxiliary Spreadsheet setting for Hanger Selection

During spring selection at a particular node the following auxiliary spreadsheet appears. The setting
of this spreadsheet is to be done as illustrated in below diagram.

Fig. 3 Caesar II Auxiliary spreadsheet for hanger selection

NOTE-1: Maximum Allowed Travel Limit:
This field is used to specify a limit on the amount of travel a variable support hanger may
undergo. CAESAR will be forced to select a Constant Effort Spring if the movement exceeds the
limit in this field, even though a variable effort spring would have fulfilled our purpose.
Constant effort hangers can be designed forcefully by inputting a very small number i.e. 0.001 in this
field.
NOTE-2: Free Code:
Anchor or Restraints from equipment connections which are very near to the hangers are usually
freed during the hanger design restrained weight run, so that loads normally going to the equipment
nozzle are carried by the hanger.
The hanger can be designed to take almost the full weight of the pipe between the anchor and the
hanger
Using this field enter the node number & the direction in which free code is to be used.
Free Codes are:1.Free the anchor or restraint in the Y direction only.
2.Free the anchor or restraint in the Y and X directions only.
3.Free the anchor or restraint in the Y and Z directions only.
4.Free all translational degrees of freedom for the anchor or restraint. (X,Y and Z)
5.Free all translational and rotational degrees of freedom for the anchor or restraint. (X, Y, Z, RX,
RY, and RZ).Refer Figure below.

The option 5 above usually results in the highest adjacent hanger loads, but should only be used
when the horizontal distance between the hanger and the anchor is within about 4 pipe diameters as
shown in Fig 4.

Fig. 4 Maximum Spring distance for using Free Code

NOTE-3: Number of hangers at location:
For better stability, the base type spring support of 24 and larger is used with 2 spring cans.
Few important points to keep in mind while Spring selection:

For can type springs the spring height should be kept minimum from stability point of view.
If spring height is less the moment on spring will reduce and tilting of spring (Fig. 5) can be
avoided or significantly minimized.
The spring which has lower spring rate will have lower load variation.
While designing the spring hanger the sustained sagging should be minimized within +/-1
mm so that original piping system is not strained much.

Fig. 5 Effect of Spring Height

TBE of vendor Spring hangers: Main points to

consider before placing an order
Introduction:
I am sure all Piping engineers are aware with the term TBE i.e, Technical Bid Evaluation. Whenever
any piping item is to be purchased from vendor before placing final order it is required to check the
items from technical view point to satisfy that the item is meeting all technical requirements for
which the item is intended. In a similar way all spring hanger (both variable and constant) quotations
received from spring vendors are checked thoroughly. The following write up will provide a
guideline about the major points which must be checked for the Spring hangers to work properly.

Spring hot load, Cold load, Spring rate, Variability: It is intended that vendor datasheet
should meet the client datasheet exactly. If in the start of project the spring vendor is decided
and the offer is taken from that decided vendor then all the above mentioned data will match
exactly. However sometimes it is not possible to determine the spring vendor at start of the
project and all springs are designed based on any standard spring vendor (such as Lisega,
Carpentar and Patterson, PTP, Anvil or any other) and when finally order is placed from
some other vendor the data varies. So in this context Piping Engineer (Materials engineer or
Stress engineer) should check the acceptability of each Spring hanger. Normal practise is to
match the hot load exactly. And because of different spring rate depending on vendor the
cold load will vary. However it is required to match the Spring rate as nearer as possible So
the Cold load will also be nearer to the client datasheet value. A mismatch of roughly +/-5%
is acceptable for Static equipment and Centrifugal Pump connected lines. For highly strain
sensitive critical rotary equipment like Steam turbine, Centrifugal compressor etc connected
lines the stress engineer should input the exact offer values and check the stress results. In
addition to the above it is to be checked that the hot load and cold load lies within the range
provided by the catalogue. The variability is also to be checked and to be kept within 25%
(10% for rotary equipment connected lines).

Overall Spring Height with all attachments: One of the major points which sometimes
missed out for checking is Elevation or overall spring height (In certain cases Spring casing
diameter). One should critically check the actual space available and the space required for
placing the spring hanger. If the overll height with all attachments is more than the available
space in construction site then the Spring hanger need to be rejected or vendor is required to
provide separate revised offer for that spring. During initial design phase it is better to keep
some extra space for the spring hanger assembly as that can be later adjusted after receipt of
actual vendor offer by adjusting rod length for top mounted springs or by adjusting dummy
length or shoe height for bottom mounted springs.

Attachment materials: The spring hanger (top mounted Springs) attachments which will be
directly in contact with the pipe like lug, clamp etc should of similar material as that of pipe.
This must be ensured while doing TBE.

PTFE or SS plate requirements: Sometimes for bottom mounted spring hangers PTFE or
SS plate is required above the spring load flanges. While performing TBE it is to be checked
whether the PTFE/ SS plate of proper dimension is provided by vendor or not as well as
provided as a loose item or attched with load flange. The height of this items to be included
in over spring height while designing or making datasheet.

Other Miscellaneous data: Few other miscellaneous data are required to be checked which
are listed below:
o Whether the items supplied are corrosion resistant or not?
o Whether Spring coil is coated or not?
o Whether all testing requirements are met?
o Vendor should properly indicate the cold (Blue mark) and hot loads (Red mark)
properly
o Whether travel stoppers/preset pins are properly installed or not?
o Whether all items are painted as per gorerning or not?

Any additional data from experienced engineers are welcome. Please provide your input in
comments section.

Details about CAESAR II Error: Material is

Outside the Temperature Range.
The Problem/Error:
While working with Caesar II software, many of you must have received a message stating that the
material is outside the temperature range (Refer Fig. 1) even though you know/believe that you are
operating your piping system within allowed temperature limits in CAESAR II.

Fig. 1: Figure showing typical CAESAR II Error: Material is Outside the Temperature
Range.
You are sure that you have entered temperatures that are allowed for the material, but still the error
is showing. The main reason could be found easily if you check the ambient temperature used for
stress analysis of that material. Normally most of the piping codes publish material expansion
coefficient data from 70 degree F onwards that is why it is the CAESAR II default ambient
temperature value. So if you have used ambient temperature less than 70 degree F (21.12 degree C)
you may find the above mentioned error while running the Caesar file because it could be a case of
missing expansion coefficient data in the material database.
The Solution:
So what can you do in such situations? Well, you have two choices:

Increase the ambient temperature to 70 F, which may not be acceptable and thus not allowed
because due to harsh environment condition you may have selected a lower ambient
temperature.
Add the missing expansion coefficient to the material database. This could be the right
approach.

Changing the Ambient Temperature:

If you plan to change the ambient temperature, open the piping input spreadsheet and select
Environment->Special Execution Parameters. Refer Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: Figure showing the procedure to change the ambient temperature

Changing the Expansion Co-efficient:
To update or add the expansion coefficient for the specific material you have to follow the following
steps:

From the CAESAR II main menu, select Utilities-> Tools->Materials (Refer Fig. 3-1)
It will open the material database editor. Then in the Material Database Editor, select
Material->Edit (Refer Fig. 3-2)

Next, in the search box type in the material number and click Search or press Enter on the
keyboard (Refer Fig. 3-3).
Double-click on the Material Name that corresponds to the piping code you are using (Refer
Fig. 3-3).

Fig. 3: Figure showing the editing procedure for a typical material in Caesar II database value

On double clicking the material name a window similar to Fig 4 will open and the screen will
be available for editing. The highlighted cell shows that the expansion coefficient does not
exist below 70 F. In this case, you have to extrapolate the value for the mentioned
temperature and add it here. Take precaution to edit the cell because the piping codes may
have restrictions on the minimum metal temperature that you are allowing for the given
material.

Fig. 4: Caesar II material database editor.

Now simply type in your calculated extrapolated value and then select Material->Save.
Now change the Applicable Piping Code (Fig. 4) to the right of the material Name to ALL
CODES, and select Material->save again.

At this point you are ready to use this material in your CAESAR II input file. Remember that these
changes do not affect the CAESAR II material database as the changes are stored in a user-defined
database. However, user-defined materials are used by default in place of the CAESAR II material
entries when new files are created.
When you next open your input file you will be prompted that the material properties have changed
as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5: Prompt showing that material properties have changed.

You should select the No-Update option (Fig. 5) to read in the new material properties and begin using your
material in your input file. Now the error checker will not show the earlier material error and problem will
be solved.

Caesar II Error: Could Not Open

TEMPMAT: Why this is generated and steps
to overcome it
Sometimes, while working with Caesar II software during opening a CAESAR II Piping Input files,
many of you might have come across an error similar to the one shown in Fig. 1 (Could not open
TEMPMAT). In this context you click on Ok button and proceed for your analysis. But every time
you open the input spreadsheet the same error appears each time which is very annoying. So this
small article will highlight the steps which you can take to avoid such error.

Fig.1: Caesar II TEMPMAT Error

Now what the TEMPMAT is and how this error is generated. Basically, whenever the piping input
file is opened a temporary material properties file, TEMPMAT is created for easier access to the
material properties from the Caesar II material database. The file gets automatically closed and
deleted when the Analysis begins or when the Piping Input file is closed by the user.
There could be various reasons for this error. The most probable cause for this error is an access
violation or insufficient user access rights. The probable reasons and remedies for this error are listed
below:
1. If sometimes while running the Caesar file, the run does not complete or while opening the
input spreadsheet the input window does not open due to some reason, i.e, Caesar II program
does not complete its intended operation you will find the error to appear when you close the
file and try to open again.
2. If the Piping Input file is on a shared network drive (Such as in some server as people often
keep files in common server for easy access to all stress engineers) with several users having
access to it at the same time the same error generates. In such situation it is recommended to
create a UserID string in the C2 configuration file (Miscellaneous Options Category, User
ID value) for each user PC. The UserID should be between 2 and 4 characters long and must
not contain any special characters (stars, dots, etc.) or spaces. This is NOT a password of any
kind; and is NOT a personal key. This UserID must be unique to the machine where
CAESAR II program is running. After adding the value, Save and Exit the Configuration
Editor (use the blue diskette button on the upper left of the toolbar). All the CAESAR II
intermediate workflow items will be appended with this unique UserID string to distinguish
them from other users files.
3. If the job (Piping Input file) is located on a local machine, then verify the job directory user
permissions to allow full access (create/modify/delete files and folders).
4. If the job (the Piping Input file) was recovered from a storage device (such as CD/DVD, or a
backup drive), then the file would be read-only by default. So verify that the job itself is not
write-protected or read-only.
5. If still the problem persists simply restart your PC and the problem will not appear.

Practical changes in Caesar II version 7.0

(2014) with respect to its earlier version
Many of you may be aware that Caesar II 2014 has been released and most of you have not yet got
chance to use it. Fortunately I have got chance to use the same. So in this article I wish to share the
practical changes which I can find while using latest version of the software. Hope it will be helpful
for you.

In configuration settings under SIFs and Stresses they have rearranged the earlier options. No
change is found but they have grouped the option in some categories. Refer Fig. 1 to have a
look into it.

Fig.1: Configuration setting windows in Caesar II version 7.0

The latest version uses ASME B 31.3-2012 code equations and hence to calculate stresses it
requires several additional data for branch connections. Accordingly the SIF input window
has been modified as shown in Fig. 2. The additional data windows are highlighted in the
figure.

Fig. 2: Input spreadsheet for entering SIFs in Caesar II-2014

While creating load cases if you click on recommend it is creating maximum-minimum

temperature expansion type load case on its own. In earlier versions we had to do that
manually. So number of load cases is now increasing. Refer Fig. 3 ti find Caesar II
recommended load cases for a typical piping system handling three different temperatures,
T1, T2 and T3. The additional expansion load cases are highlighted for your reference.

Fig. 3: Caesar II-2014 recommended load cases for a typical piping system.

Now you dont require remembering the node numbers for measuring distance between two
points in Caesar II. Similar to Navisworks or SPR or 3D design softwares (PDS, PDMS etc)
now it is possible in Caesar II to click two points for measuring distances between them. The
distance and clicked points will be highlighted in Caesar II similar to design softwares. Refer
Fig. 4 for checking the same.

Fig. 4: Measuring distance between two nodes in Caesar II-2014

In latest version whenever you change any properties in input spreadsheet the same is
immediately updated in graphics. No need to click on the same parameter to view the
updated properties. For example if you look temperature T1 in graphics window and then
change temp of some part of the line same is reflected in real time.

Many of you may be aware that Caesar II 2014 has been released and most of you have not yet got
chance to use it. Fortunately I have got chance to use the same. So in this article I wish to share the
practical changes which I can find while using latest version of the software. Hope it will be helpful
for you.

In configuration settings under SIFs and Stresses they have rearranged the earlier options. No
change is found but they have grouped the option in some categories. Refer Fig. 1 to have a
look into it.

Fig.1: Configuration setting windows in Caesar II version 7.0

The latest version uses ASME B 31.3-2012 code equations and hence to calculate stresses it
requires several additional data for branch connections. Accordingly the SIF input window
has been modified as shown in Fig. 2. The additional data windows are highlighted in the
figure.

Fig. 2: Input spreadsheet for entering SIFs in Caesar II-2014

While creating load cases if you click on recommend it is creating maximum-minimum

temperature expansion type load case on its own. In earlier versions we had to do that
manually. So number of load cases is now increasing. Refer Fig. 3 ti find Caesar II
recommended load cases for a typical piping system handling three different temperatures,
T1, T2 and T3. The additional expansion load cases are highlighted for your reference.

Fig. 3: Caesar II-2014 recommended load cases for a typical piping system.

Now you dont require remembering the node numbers for measuring distance between two
points in Caesar II. Similar to Navisworks or SPR or 3D design softwares (PDS, PDMS etc)
now it is possible in Caesar II to click two points for measuring distances between them. The
distance and clicked points will be highlighted in Caesar II similar to design softwares. Refer
Fig. 4 for checking the same.

Fig. 4: Measuring distance between two nodes in Caesar II-2014

In latest version whenever you change any properties in input spreadsheet the same is
immediately updated in graphics. No need to click on the same parameter to view the
updated properties. For example if you look temperature T1 in graphics window and then
change temp of some part of the line same is reflected in real time.

Enhanced capabilities of Caesar II version7.0

Those who are using Caesar II software might be aware that new version of Caesar II, version 7.0
has come into market from 2014 onwards. The latest CAESAR II release providess a lot of
important new and extended capabilities in response to market requirements of piping industry. Also
it helps to get direct feedback from the growing CAESAR II user community.
The major changes which have been made to CAESAR II, version 7.0 with respect to its earlier
versions are mentioned below:

The Latest Piping Codes are used.

Caesar II internal Material Databases are Updated compared to its previous version.
Updated to support the 2012 Edition of the ASME B31.1 code. This includes material
property updates.
Updated to support the 2012 Edition of the ASME B31.3 code. This includes a new equation
for calculating expansion stress cases as mentioned in latest B 31.3 code with new SIF and
index values.
This vesion will support the 2012 Edition of the ASME B31.8 code.
ASME B31.8 code interpretation to use either of the two combined biaxial stress equations
for restrained pipe, as referred to in Paragraph 833.4, instead of using the maximum of the
two has been updated. Now user can specify this using the Yield Stress Criterion
configuration setting in the SIFs and Stresses section of the Configuration Editor.
This version is updated to support ASME B31.5 2013 Edition.

Updated to support the 2012 Edition of the EN 13480 code. This work included addressing
bend pressure stiffening and changes to the longitudinal pressure stress equation, among
other revisions.
Updated the Material database, as required for piping code updates.
The flange rating for in-line flange checks per EN 1092-1:2013 and ANSI B16.5 2009 has
been updated
Added support for ANSI 16.5 2009 metric flange ratings.
Fatigue curves as indicated in the 2013 Edition of ASME Section VIII, Div. 2. has been
added
The content for the ASME B31.3 code update and B163 to 1400F is used

Modeling and User Interface

Quick global property changes (such as for temperature and pressure) from the Legend
dialog box in the 3D model has been incorporated.
Distance command to measure between two points in the 3D model without requiring the
input of node numbers has been enhanced.
Added a new Global menu in piping input, which includes the Block commands. These
commands are also accessible through the Block Operations toolbar and the right-click
context menu from the List>Elements dialog box.
Enhanced the Structural Steel Wizard to display units for various input fields, added more
tool bar icons, and enhanced input grid usability.
Graphics issues of earlier versions has been addressed.
Completed minor usability enhancements based on customer feedback.

Static and Dynamic Analysis

Revised the Static Analysis (Load Case Editor) to automatically recommend Expansion
(EXP) stress range load cases for better coverage of multiple operating conditions.
Provided an option for users to select the allowable corresponding to temperature for the
specified Occasional (OCC) load case for B31.3 jobs.
Added support for in-line flange check evaluations for MAX and ABS load case
combinations.

Interoperability

Added the ability to import multiple supports at the same location from the Import PCF or
Intergraph Smart 3D PCF interfaces.
Enhanced the hanger table for support design with LISEGAs LICAD software in the Data
Export Wizard (Export to MS Access).

Post-Processing

Added output filters for flanges so that you can identify the most overstressed flanges.
Updated to show the actual Stress Indices (I) that are used for sustained and occasional static
load cases for ASME B31.3 code.

Updated the Generate Stress Isometrics (CAESAR II Isogen module) with I-Configure 2014
(5.0).

Documentation/Help

Updated the Quick Reference Guide with dates and information for all piping code updates
made in CAESAR II 2014.
Updated the F1 help in the Static Output Processor.

Technical Changes
The following technical changes were made for this release, which may affect the numeric results:

Added a new equation for calculating expansion stress cases with new SIF and index values
to support the 2012 Edition of the ASME B31.3 code.
Addressed bend pressure stiffening and changed the longitudinal pressure stress equation,
among other revisions to support the 2012 Edition of the EN 13480 code.
Updated the minimum wall thickness equation for ASME B31.8 Chapter VIII to consider the
longitudinal joint efficiency (using the Eff input box).
Updated the ASME B31.8 code interpretation to use either of the two combined biaxial stress
equations for restrained pipe, as referred to in Paragraph 833.4, instead of using the
maximum of the two. You can specify this using the Yield Stress Criterion configuration
setting in the SIFs and Stresses section of the Configuration Editor.
Revised the calculations for SIFs in non-corroded conditions when the CODETI piping code
is selected, based on clarification from French Code Committee.
Revised the Static Analysis (Load Case Editor) to automatically recommend Expansion
(EXP) stress range load cases for better coverage of multiple operating conditions.
Provided an option for users to select the allowable corresponding to temperature for that
particular Occasional (OCC) load case for B31.3 jobs.
Added support for in-line flange check evaluations for MAX and ABS load case
combinations.
Resolved an issue in Structural Input where the software did not process UNIF values as
gravitational multipliers (G loads) after you added the GLOAD command into the input
stream. The software uses the gravitational multiplier (G load) value for all UNIF values
when you add the GLOAD command into the input stream.

Points which should be incorporated while

making Flexibility Specification
Every Organization prepares their own flexibility specification to cater as a guideline for stress
analysis of critical lines and for uniformity of jobs performed by stress engineers. From project to
project this specification may vary slightly but overall the contents are almost similar. In this article I
will explain the points which must be addressed/ included while making flexibility specification.

Scope/Purpose: All engineering documents must inform its end user what the content is all
about and must start with Scope or Purpose. In this part document will supply the
information about how the user will be benefited from the document. What is the purpose of
preparing the document? What points are covered in the document and which points are
excluded?
Abbreviations and Definitions: Mention the detail names of abbreviated terms. Definitions
are also required to provide in this section.
Reference Documents: In this section specification will inform the references used for
making the specification. The Specification will list all the codes and standards, in house
work instruction or specifications which will be used in the project.
Criteria for Stress Analysis: In this part mention the minimum criteria which have to be
adhered to while performing stress analysis. Code equations which need to be followed etc.
Stress Critical line list: In this section mention the criteria for deciding stress critical lines.
The factors like line size, temperature, equipment connection etc which forces the stress
engineer to consider the system for stress analysis using Caesar II software.
Analysis Software: In this part mention which software (Caesar II, AutoPIPE, CaePIPE etc)
to use for that specific project. The version of the software must be included. It is always
better to perform the analysis with latest version of the software.
Analysis Parameters: In this point explain the required parameters for analysis like:
o Installation temperature: Mention the installation or ambient temperature of the
location where the project site.
o SIF for 45 degree branch connections: Inform the engineers to use any specific
criteria for calculating SIF for 45 degree branch connections.
o PSV Reaction Force: Inform the engineer how to calculate the PSV reaction forces.
Any dynamic load factor if need to be used.
o Slug Loads/Two Phase flow: Inform if any specific requirement is there for two
phase flow lines like frequency of the system need to be maintained above 4-5 Hz, for
Slug flow if dynamic analysis to be performed etc.
o Wind Loads: Mention the criteria for wind loads (whats the size), what shape factor
to consider, which code to follow and parameters to be used etc.
o Seismic Loads: The criteria, code for seismic analysis, whats the seismic coefficient etc.
o Tank Settlement: if any settlement value has to be considered for analysis of tank
piping. Settlement data is normally obtained from Civil Department from soil
investigation report.
o Friction Effects: What will be the friction co-efficient for various contact surfaces?

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

o
o

Displacements of Tie-in Points: Criteria for consideration of tie in points and battery
limit conditions.
Thermal Displacements of Equipment: If equipment to be modelled or
displacement values to be used.
Support Lift Off: Any criteria for hot sustained checking or using appendix P on B
31.3?
Insulation Density: Any guideline for value of insulation density throughout the
project.
Pipe Sagging: Accepted value of pipe sagging in sustained case. For example for
process lines 10 mm and for flare and steam lines 3 mm.
Flange Leakage Checking: Criteria and method for flange leakage checking if any.
Allowable Nozzle Loads: If any multiplication factor to be used along with standard
allowable loads. For example twice API 610 values for Centrifugal Pumps, 3 times
API 617 for Centrifugal compressors, and Twice API 661 for Air Fin Coolers etc.
WNC Checking: Criteria for alignment/ anchor free analysis and accepted
displacement values if any for rotary equipment. If springs to be kept in unlocked
condition.
Modelling Criteria: If guide and line stops to be modelled without friction and gap,
if any density to be considered for flare headers during modelling etc.
Stress Analysis Documentation: In this section briefly describe which reports
(Example input echo, restraint summary, stress summary etc.) to be submitted to
clients as final stress analysis document of each stress system.
Any guidelines for supporting of piping system.

The above points are the minimum required points. Additionally you can add many more points depending
on project requirements. So, hope by now you will be able to produce flexibility specification of your own.

Trunnion Checking or Dummy Checking

during stress analysis of a piping system
Trunnion supports are one of the most frequently used pipe supports in process piping industry. This
support is widely used in piping industry due to its ease of construction and erection. The construction and
erection of a dummy supports is very easy because you have to simply weld a pipe (normally one or more
size less than the parent pipe to which it is to be welded) with the parent pipe. However the load bearing
capacity of this supports are not as comparable to civil supports. So every stress engineer must check the
weld point from failure viewpoint and investigate the ability to carry the piping load (mostly the tangential
and longitudinal load and corresponding moment). The chances of weld failure increases with increase in
trunnion length ot trunnion height.

The load carrying capability of trunnion mainly depends on the following factors:

Parent pipe and trunnion/dummy pipe diameter: With increase in pipe size the load
carrying capacity increases.
Parent pipe thickness: With increase in pipe thickness the load carrying capability
increases.
Parent pipe material: With increase in parent pipe material allowable strength (Sh) the load
carrying capability increases.
Design temperature: With decrease in design temperature the load carrying capability
increases.
Parent pipe corrosion allowance: With decrease in corrosion allowance the load carrying
capability increases.
Design pressure: With decrease in design pressure the load carrying capability increases.
Trunnion/dummy pipe height: With decrease in trunnion height the load carrying
capability increases.

There are various ways in which trunnion checking can be done. However the Kellogg Method of
trunnion checking using excel spreadsheet is the most common among EPC organizations. In some
organization trunnion checking by WRC method is prevalent. In this article i will try to explain the
steps and formulas used while trunnion checking using Kellogg method.Steps for Trunnion
Checking:

First of all run the static analysis in Caesar II to obtain the load values at trunnion nodes from
output processor. It is better practice to take the maximum value from all load cases
(Sustained, operating, design, upset, hydro etc)
After that we need to calculate the bending stress generated on the pipe shell based on the
following Kellogg equation:
Sb=(1.17 * f * R )/ (t1.5) (1)

Here,
Sb=bending stress in pipe shell
R=Outside radius of pipe shell

t=Corroded pipe thickness (actual pipe thickness-corrosion allowance) plus thickness of reinforcement pad
f=loading per unit length
Now from Caesar we will get three forces with respect to each trunnion; longitudinal forces,
circumferrential forces and axial forces. So according we have to calculate three f values as
mentioned below:
Loading due to longitudinal bending, fL=ML/ ( r2 ) (2)
Loading due to circumferrential bending, fC=MC/ ( r2 ) ..(3)
and Loading due to axial force, fA=P/ (2 r)..(4)
Where,
ML=Longitudinal force obtained from Caesar * trunnion effective length
MC=Circumferrential force obtained from Caesar output * trunnion effective length
P=direct axial force obtained from Caesar II output.
and r=outside radius of trunnion.

Next step to to calculate all bending stresses using equation (1) for longitudinal (SL) , axial
(SA) and circumferential (SC) forces as calculated from equation (2), (3) and (4).
Now Calculate longitudinal Pressure Stress (SLP=PD/4t) and Hoop Stress (SCP=PD/2t).
Now combine all these forces for proper load cases as shown below and compare the
combined value with allowable stress value (Normal industry practice is to take 1.5
times Sh value as the allowable stress value where Sh is the basic allowable stress at design
temperature from code ASME B 31.3).

SL+ SA + SLP <= 1.5 * Sh

SC+ SA + SCP <= 1.5*Sh
And Trunnion Stress<=Sh
Here trunnion stresses should be calculated as=[{32*Trunnion OD*(ML2+MC2)} / {*(Trunnion
OD4-Trunnion ID4)}]
While checking trunnions or dummies you can find that major chunk of trunnions fails due to
circumferrential loads. So orient or place the trunnion is such a way that the circumferrential force
on the trunnion becomes very less to permit/allow greater trunnion heights. Otherwise try to reduce
trunnion height or increase trunnion size if possible. In my future post I will post one practical case
study explaining the trunnion calculation methods.

Prakash Mahajan Friday 6 December 2013, 11:40 pm

Hi Anup,
The articles are very usefull to all Piping engineers. Every one uses trunnions for supporting the
piping.
I am stuckup with one problem on How to calculate temperature for Trunnion support Or Shoe
support?
Generally we ambient temp. for modelling trunnion in CAESAR. But i am looking for article on
how to calculate trunnion element OR shoe element temperature. Please provide your valuable
details on it. Can we use Skirt temp calculation for calculating the trunnion temperature?

Thanks & Regards..

Prakash Mahajan.
Jacobs Engineering India Pvt. Ltd.
Reply

Anup Saturday 7 December 2013, 12:33 pm

The best method for calculating trunnion/shoe temperature is performing an FEA analysis to
get realistic results.
For approximate methods normally process piping people use 40 degree centigrade of
temperature drop per inch (25 mm) of length in case of non insulated trunnion/shoe (part
outside insulation) and 4 degree centigrade drop per inch inside insulation.
Anyway i will try to find out more on this topic.
Reply

Somnath Wednesday 29 January 2014, 4:09 pm

Dear Prakash,
Can u please send me the Skirt temp calculation method ?
I want it for Distillation column piping Analysis in CAESAR II.
Your reply in this regard is highly appreciated.
Reply

Somnath Monday 3 February 2014, 5:12 pm

Dear Prakash,

Can u please send me the Skirt temp calculation method ?

I want it for Distillation column piping Analysis in CAESAR II.
Your reply in this regard is highly appreciated.
Reply

Han Friday 28 February 2014, 6:44 pm

Hi Anup, Please clarify below point please. 1)The last formula as=[{32*Trunnion
OD*(ML2+MC2)} / {*(Trunnion OD4-Trunnion ID4)}] is not relevant to MW Kellogg.
2)As looking at this formula s unit, we found out N/mm3 and it is not a stress unit.
Regards
Han
Reply

Andrew Corilla Tuesday 1 April 2014, 8:07 am

Dear HAN,
Stress in Trunnion is as per Flexural Stress Formula S=Mc/I ,
where:
M=combined moment (ML^2+MC^2)^0.5
c=distance from centroidal axis to outside fiber(OD/2)
I=moment of inertia about the centroidal axis (pi x (OD^4-ID^4)/64.
The outcome unit would be N/m^2 which is a unit of stress.

Piping Elbows and Bends: A useful detailed

literature for piping engineers
Piping Elbows and Bends are very important pipe fitting which are used very frequently for
changing direction in piping system. Piping Elbow and Piping bend are not the same, even though
sometimes these two terms are interchangeably used.A BEND is simply a generic term in piping for
an offset a change in direction of the piping. It signifies that there is a bend i.e, a change in
direction of the piping (usually for some specific reason) but it lacks specific, engineering
definition as to direction and degree. Bends are usually made by using a bending machine (hot
bending and cold bending) on site and suited for a specific need. Use of bends are economic as it
reduces number of expensive fittings.An ELBOW, on the other hand, is a specific, standard,
engineered bend pre-fabricated as a spool piece (based on ASME B 16.9) and designed to either be
screwed, flanged, or welded to the piping it is associated with. An elbow can be 45 degree or 90
degree. There can also be custom-designed elbows, although most are catagorized as either short
radius or long radius.
In short All bends are elbows but all elbows are not bend
Whenever the term elbow is used, it must also carry the qualifiers of type (45 or 90 degree) and
radius (short or long) besides the nominal size.
Elbows can change direction to any angle as per requirement. An elbow angle can be defined as the
angle by which the flow direction deviates from its original flowing direction (See Fig.1
below).Even though An elbow angle can be anything greater than 0 but less or equal to 90But still a
change in direction greater than 90 at a single point is not desirable. Normally, a 45 and a 90
elbow combinedly used while making piping layouts for such situations.

Fig.1 A typical elbow with elbow angle (phi)

Elbow angle can be easily calculated using simple geometrical technique of mathematics. Lets give
an example for you. Refer to Fig.2. Pipe direction is changing at point A with the help of an elbow
and again the direction is changing at the point G using another elbow.

Fig.2 Example figure for elbow angle calculation

In order to find out the elbow angle at A, it is necessary to consider a plane which contains the arms
of the elbow. If there had been no change in direction at point A, the pipe would have moved along
line AD but pipe is moving along line AG. Plane AFGD contains lines AD and AG and elbow angle
(phi) is marked which denotes the angle by which the flow is deviating from its original direction.
Considering right angle triangle AGD, tan(phi) = ( x2 + z2)/y
Similarly elbow angle at G is given by : tan (phi1)= (y2 +z2)/x
Elbow Radius:
Elbows or bends are available in various radii for a smooth change in direction which are expressed
in terms of pipe nominal size expressed in inches. Elbows or bends are available in three radii,
a. Long radius elbows (Radius = 1.5D): used most frequently where there is a need to keep the
frictional fluid pressure loss down to a minimum, there is ample space and volume to allow for a
wider turn and generate less pressure drop.
b. Long radius elbows (Radius > 1.5D): Used sometimes for specific applications for transporting
high viscous fluids likes slurry, low polymer etc. For radius more than 1.5D pipe bends are usually
used and these can be made to any radius.However, 3D & 5D pipe bends are most commonly used
b. Short radius elbows (Radius = 1.0D): to be used only in locations where space does not permit use
of long radies elbow and there is a need to reduce the cost of elbows. In jacketed piping the short
radius elbow is used for the core pipe.
Here D is nominal pipe size in inches.
There are three major parameters which dictates the radius selection for elbow. Space availability,
cost and pressure drop.
Pipe bends are preferred where pressure drop is of a major consideration.
Use of short radius elbows should be avoided as far as possible due to abrupt change in direction
causing high pressure drop.
Minimum thickness requirement:
Whether an elbow or bend is used the minimum thickness requirement from code must be met. Code
ASME B 31.3 provides equation for calculating minimum thickness required (t) in finished form for
a given internal design pressure (P) as shown below:

Fig.3: Code equation for minimum thickness requirement calculation

Here,
R1 = bend radius of welding elbow or pipe bend
D = outside diameter of pipe
W = weld joint strength reduction factor
Y = coefficient from Code Table 304.1.1
S = stress value for material from Table A-1 at maximum temperature
E = quality factor from Table A-1A or A-1B
Add any corrosion, erosion, mechanical allowances with this calculated value to get the thickness
require
End Connections:
For connecting elbow/bend to pipe the following type of end connections are available

Butt welded: Used alongwith large bore (>=2 inch) piping

Socket welded: Used alongwith pipe size
Screwed:
Flanged:

Butt welded Elbows:

Pipe is connected to butt welded elbow as shown in Fig. 4 by having a butt-welding joint.
Butt welded fittings are supplied with bevel ends suitable for welding to pipe. It is important
to indicate the connected pipe thickness /schedule while ordering. All edge preparations for
butt welding should conform to ASME B16.25.
Dimensions of butt welded elbows are as per ASME B16.9. This standard is applicable for
carbon steel & alloy steel butt weld fittings of NPS 1/2 through 48.

Fig.4: A typical Butt-Welded Elbow

Dimensions of stainless steel butt welded fittings are as per MSS-SP-43. Physical dimensions
for fittings are identical under ASME B16.9 and MSS-SP-43. It is implied that the scope of
ASME B16.9 deals primarily with the wall thicknesses which are common to carbon and low
alloy steel piping, whereas MSS-SP-43 deals specifically with schedule 5S & 10S in stainless
steel piping.
Dimensions for short radius elbows are as per ASME B16.28 in case of carbon steel & low
alloy steel and MSS-SP-59 for stainless steel.
Butt welded fittings are usually used for sizes 2 & above. However, for smaller sizes up to
1-1/2 on critical lines where use of socket welded joints is prohibited, pipe bends are
normally used. These bends are usually of 5D radius and made at site by cold bending of
pipe. Alternatively, butt welded elbows can be used in lieu of pipe bends but usually smaller
dia lines are field routed and it is not possible to have the requirement known at initial stage
of the project for procurement purpose. So pipe bends are preferred. However, pipe bends do
occupy more space and particularly in pharmaceutical plants where major portion of piping is
of small dia. and layout is congested, butt welded elbows are preferred.
Butt welded joints can be radiographed and hence preferred for all critical services.
Material standards as applicable to butt welded fittings are as follows:

ASTM A234:
This specification covers wrought carbon steel & alloy steel fittings of seamless and welded
construction. Unless seamless or welded construction is specified in order, either may be furnished at
the option of the supplier. All welded construction fittings as per this standard are supplied with
100% radiography. Under ASTM A234, several grades are available depending upon chemical
composition. Selection would depend upon pipe material connected to these fittings.
Some of the grades available under this specification and corresponding connected pipe material
specification are listed below:

ASTM A403:

This specification covers two general classes, WP & CR, of wrought austenitic stainless steel fittings
of seamless and welded construction.
Class WP fittings are manufactured to the requirements of ASME B16.9 & ASME B16.28 and are
subdivided into three subclasses as follows:
WP SManufactured from seamless product by a seamless method of manufacture.
WP W These fittings contain welds and all welds made by the fitting manufacturer including
starting pipe weld if the pipe was welded with the addition of filler material are radiographed.
However no radiography is done for the starting pipe weld if the pipe was welded without the
addition of filler material.
WP-WX These fittings contain welds and all welds whether made by the fitting manufacturer or by
the starting material manufacturer are radiographed.
Class CR fittings are manufactured to the requirements of MSS-SP-43 and do not require nondestructive examination.
Under ASTM A403 several grades are available depending upon chemical composition. Selection
would depend upon pipe material connected to these fittings. Some of the grades available under this
specification and corresponding connected pipe material specification are listed below:

ASTM A420:

This specification covers wrought carbon steel and alloy steel fittings of seamless & welded
construction intended for use at low temperatures. It covers four grades WPL6, WPL9,
WPL3 & WPL8 depending upon chemical composition. Fittings WPL6 are impact tested at
temp 50 C, WPL9 at -75 C, WPL3 at -100 C and WPL8 at -195 C temperature.
The allowable pressure ratings for fittings may be calculated as for straight seamless pipe in
accordance with the rules established in the applicable section of ASME B31.3.
The pipe wall thickness and material type shall be that with which the fittings have been
ordered to be used, their identity on the fittings is in lieu of pressure rating markings

Piping Elbow or Bend SIF (Stress

Intensification Factor)
The term SIF is too confusing for many of the piping engineers. Thats why the following article is
taken to explain the bend SIFs in simple language.
Every piping Engineer who possess a little basic of Piping Stress Analysis theory must be aware of
the term SIF or Stress Intensification Factor. The term indicates a multiplier of Bending and
Torsional stresses. This Intensifier acts local to a piping Component ( tees, elbows, bends, Olets ,etc)
and Its value depends on component geometry. The minimum value of SIF is 1.0. It is widely used
by piping stress engineers in places where the actual stress calculation is quite difficult due to its
difficult geometry (Varying thickness, cross section, curvature etc) as unlike straight Pipes the
simple Beam theory is not applicable. So in this situation it is required to assume additional stresses
by suitably incorporating a SIF. The following article will provide an example of SIF calculation of
piping elbow or piping bends following process piping code ASME B31.3.

Stress Intensification Factor for a Piping Bend/Elbow:

In laymans language the SIF of a bend or elbow can be defined as the ratio of bending stress of an
elbow to that of straight pipe of same diameter and thickness when subjected to same bending
moment. Whenever the same bending moment is applied to a bend because of ovalization the
bending stress of the elbow will be much higher than that of strainght pipe. That is why the SIF
value will always be greater than or equal to 1.0 (for straight pipe).
THe process piping code ASME B 31.3 provides a simple formula to calculate the SIF of a bend or
elbow. As per that code
SIF in-plane = 0.9 / h^(2/3)
SIF out-plane = 0.75 / h^(2/3)
Here h=T R1 / r2^2
h =Flexibility characteristics, dimensionless
T =Nominal wall thickness of bend, in
R1 =Bend radius, in

r2 =Mean radius of matching pipe, in

The inplane and outplane concept for a bend can be obtained from the attached figure from code or
in laymans language the same can be explained as follows:
The in-plane bending moment is the bending moment which causes elbow to close or open in the
plane formed by two limbs of elbow.
In a similar way the out plane bending moment can be defined as the bending moment which causes
one limb of elbow to move out of the plane keeping other limb steady.
From the above mentioned equations the following can be interpreted:
For the same pipe size and same pipe thickness
1. A short radius elbow is having more SIF as compared to a long radius elbow.
2. With increase in bend radius the SIF decreases and finally reaches to 1.0 for straight pipe.
3. The SIF for a 45 degree elbow and a 90 degree elbow is same as bend radius is same.
4. With increase in nominal pipe thickness or schedule the SIF of a bend (90 degree) keeps on
decreasing till its value is equal to 1.0.

Consideration of Flanged Bend while modeling

in Caesar II
You must be aware that in most of the situation flanges are attached near elbows or bends (Near
Control Valve assembly and equipment nozzles). This rigid attachment exerts a severe restraining
force to the flexibility of the bend, thus reducing the flexibility of the bend and increasing the force
and moment in the nearby support or nozzle. Code provides a currection factor C1 and C2 to take
care of the same effect. In caesar the same can be easily taken care by modeling flanged elbow as
mentioned below.
Sometimes dummy attachments at elbow also provides similar effect that is why few organization
have the practice of using flanged elbow while modeling the trunnions from elbow
Single or Double Flange Option should be applied to Stress Analysis, if there is any flanges or
valves (heavy/rigid body) within two diameters of the ending weld point of the bend.

Fig. 1: Criteria for using Flanged Bend in Caesar II

Fig. 2: Caesar model showing the flanged bend application criteria

Stress Analysis of Pump Piping (Centrifugal)

System using Caesar II
Every process piping industry uses several pumps in each process unit. Sometimes the analysis is
very critical. In this article I will try to elaborate the method followed for stress analysis of a
centrifugal pump piping system. The stress system consists of typical discharge lines of two
centrifugal pump (Pump A and Pump B). Fluid from this two pumps are pumped into a heat
exchanger. As per P&ID only one pump will operate at a time, other pump will be a stand by pump.
I will explain the stress analysis methodology in three parts:- a) Modeling of Pump b) Preparation of
analysis Load cases and c) Analysing the output results.

Fig. 1: Sample pump piping model as it looks in Caesar II

A. Modeling of Pump:
For modeling the pump we require vendor general arrangement drawing or outline drawing. All
rotary equipments are modeled as a weightless rigid body in Caesar II. From the outline drawing we
need to take the dimensions till some fixed point. Let us take the example of the outline drawing
shown in figure 2.

Fig. 2: Sample outline drawing for a centrifugal pump

From the above drawing we can get the dimensions for elements 10-5000 as 8.5 inch and element
5000-5020 as 6.19 inch. At node 5020 we will provide fixed anchor. During modeling of the above
elements we need to use line size and thickness as diameter and thickness of the equipment. Line
temperature and pressures as equipment properties. We have to provide anchor (with cnode) at node
10 for checking nozzle loads which we will compare with the allowable value as provided in Fig. 3
below:

Fig. 3: Allowable nozzle load values as mentioned in Equipment GA drawing

In absence of allowable load value the Pump design code (API 610 for API pumps, ANSI HI 9.6.2
for non API pumps) can be followed for the same.
After the pump is modeled as rigid body the piping modeling need to be done from pump-piping
interconnection flanges.
B. Preparation of Analysis Load Cases:
Along with normal load cases two additional load cases need to be prepared. Normally in refinery
and petrochemical industry one pump operates and other acts as a stand by pump. So we have
prepare load cases as follows:
1. Hydrostatic case (WW+HP

HYD)

2. Operating case with both pump operating (W+T1+P1

OPE)

3. Operating case with total system in maximum design temperature ( W+T2+P1

OPE)

4. Operating case with pump A operating and pump B Stand by (W+T3+P1

OPE)

5. Operating case with pump B operating and pump A Stand by (W+T4+P1

OPE)

6. Operating case with total system in minimum design temperature ( W+T5+P1

OPE)

Next all normal load cases like static seismic, static wind, etc are to be built as per stress analysis or
flexibility specification.

When pump A is in operating condition and pump B stand by then normal pipe operating
temperature has to be inserted till Tee connection for pump A and ambient temperature will be the
input input for pump B as shown in Fig. 4. Similarly reverse the input when pump B is operating.

Fig. 4: Operating-Stand By Temperature profile for two pump system

After equipment is modeled completely start modeling the piping following dimensions from piping
isometric drawings. Try to make a closed system. Normally pump lines are connected to some
vessel, tank or heat exchangers. So it will create a close system. Then run the analysis to check
stresses, displacements and loads.

C. Analysing the output Result:

Once Caesar completes its iteration process we can see the output results in output window. At
nozzles (the nodes which we anchored with a cnode) we can check the force values. These values we
have to compare with the allowable values. If the actual values are less than the allowable values
then the nozzle is safe. Otherwise we have the make changes in supporting or routing to bring the
nozzle load values within allowables. A sample output restraint is provided in Fig. 5 for your
reference.

Fig 5. Typical output results for two pump system

As can be seen from the above figure that we are checking nozzle loads in load case 2, 4, 5 and 6.
For rotary equipments normally nozzle qualification in design or upset temperature is not required.
Special Consideration for Rotary Equipments:
Now we have to make one separate caesar file and we have to check sustained displacement at
nozzle at WNC (weight no content) case. This checking will ensure proper alignment of piping
flange and equipment nozzle flange. For detailed analysis steps follow this
link: http://www.whatispiping.com/alignment-check-methodology

Always remember to provide first piping support from pump nozzle as an adjustable support (or a
spring support) to aid in alignment.
In case of 3 pump system, normally two pumps will be operating and one pump will be stand by. So
input and prepare load cases accordingly

arun Thursday 23 January 2014, 11:45 am

the temperature distribution between Isolating valve and Tee section ambient of stagnant condition(I
consider (T+Tamp)/2)?
when Pump B is stand by it doesnt make any effect? while Pump A is standby itz make influence on
nozzle as it is long section.
Reply

Anup Thursday 23 January 2014, 4:12 pm

Average temp philosophy is considered if the line is insulated. Otherwise in the long run the
temp will drop and reach almost ambient condition

Centrifugal Pumps: Interview questions for a

Piping stress enginee
Common Interview Questions for Centrifugal Pumps asked are as follows:
Which API code govern the design of centrifugal pumps?
Ans: API 610
Can we accept the nozzle loads more than as specified in table 5 of API 610-2010?
Ans: Yes, External forces upto twice of the allowable loads as specified in table 5 of the standard
can be acceptable subject to the evaluation based on Appendix F.
What are the criteria for deciding nozzle loads in table 5?
Ans: For deciding nozzle loads two factors are considered
a) Casing distortion and
b) Shaft misalignment

Piping configurations that produce component nozzle loads lying within the ranges specified in
Table 5 limit casing distortion to one-half the pump vendors design criterion and ensure pump shaft
displacement of less than 250 m (0,010 in).

What does appendix F checking perform?

Ans: Appendix F checking ensures that any pump casing distortion will be within the vendors
design criteria and that the displacement of the pump shaft will be less than 380 m (0,015 in).
What is the allowble nozzle load for Non-API Pumps?
Ans: For non API pumps Vendor/Equipment manufacturer will provide allowable nozzle loading.
As an initial start one can assure 75% of API 610 table 5 mentioned values. Sometimes manufacturer
use ANSI code and provides loads based on that code. Normally two sets of allowable loads are
provided. First set is for each component nozzle checking and second set is for combined suction
and discharge load checking.

Stress Analysis of Centrifugal Compressor

Connected Piping Systems using Caesar II
Centrifugal compressors are considered to be one of the most critical equipments in the piping
industry. For increasing the pressure of gaseous fluids centrifugal compressors are widely used in
refineries and petrochemical complexes. From stress analysis point of view the compressor systems
are critical because:

Equipment being rotary it is prone to vibration.

The allowable nozzle loads are very less. Normally combined suction and discharge nozzle
analysis is required to be performed.
As the pressure increases due to compression the pipe thickness increases which increases
the rigidity of connected pipe and automatically the loads at nozzle increases.

However good part is that normally compressor connected pipes does not have much temperature.
In this article I will try to explain the procedure to analyse the method followed to analyse such
systems.

Fig.1: Typical Piping System Connected to Centrifugal Compressor

Inputs required for analysis:

The following documents are required while analyzing a compressor connected piping system.

Process P&ID.
Line List for line parameters.
Pipe Material Specification.
Equipment Vendor GA drawing.
Suction and discharge nozzle displacements in proper axes with direction.
Line isometrics.
Allowable nozzle loads.

Building the system in Caesar II:

In Fig. 1, a typical piping model connected to a centrifugal compressor and scrubber is shown. If we
have to analyse such systems then the following steps we have to follow:

Model the pipe from isometrics in similar way as you normally do for the other systems. Use
Line parameters from PMS and Line List. If the line is insulated then take exact density of
the insulating material as that value will impact the analysis. If fluid density is available then
use it otherwise leave it blank (zero density as normally gas). A Caesar plot of the above
system is shown below for your reference.

Fig. 2: Caesar Plot of the system shown in Fig. 1

It is very difficult to model the compressor using GA drawings and get the actual thermal
displacements at the nozzle points. So vendor provides the thermal displacement values at
operating temperature. So now find the compressor nozzle displacements from GA drawing
or mail communications and input the same at compressor nozzle node as shown in Fig 3.

Fig. 3: Caesar Spreadsheet Explaining the input of nozzle displacements.

Model the scrubbers taking data from Vendor GA.

Now prepare all the load cases and run the system statically to check the results. Make the
system stresses within code allowable limit. Make scrubber nozzles within vendor allowable.
Refer the next paragraphs for compressor nozzle qualification.

In general practice compressor nozzles are to be qualified by API 617 or NEMA SM 23. There are
three separate checking to ensure proper working of the compressor.
1. Individual component forces (Fx, Fy, Fz and Mx, My, Mz, each component at each nozzle) at
nozzle point must be within the limit specified in code. (For equations refer annex 2E of API
617)
2. The resultant force and resultant moment of each nozzle (suction and discharge separately)
must be within limit specified in code. (For equations refer annex 2E of API 617)
3. The combined resultants of the forces and moments of the inlet, sidestream, and discharge
connections resolved at the centerlines of the largest connection (resolution point) should not
exceed the limit specified in code. (For equations refer annex 2E of API 617)
Always remember that Caesar axis and API axis may not be same. So you need to convert the
allowable forces in proper Caesar axis and then compare. The API 617 axis system is reproduced in
Fig. 4 for your reference.

Fig. 4: Co-ordinate system as per API 617 for nozzle force and moments.

Centrifugal compressors are considered to be one of the most critical equipments in the piping
industry. For increasing the pressure of gaseous fluids centrifugal compressors are widely used in
refineries and petrochemical complexes. From stress analysis point of view the compressor systems
are critical because:

Equipment being rotary it is prone to vibration.

The allowable nozzle loads are very less. Normally combined suction and discharge nozzle
analysis is required to be performed.
As the pressure increases due to compression the pipe thickness increases which increases
the rigidity of connected pipe and automatically the loads at nozzle increases.

However good part is that normally compressor connected pipes does not have much temperature.
In this article I will try to explain the procedure to analyse the method followed to analyse such
systems.

Fig.1: Typical Piping System Connected to Centrifugal Compressor

Inputs required for analysis:
The following documents are required while analyzing a compressor connected piping system.

Process P&ID.
Line List for line parameters.
Pipe Material Specification.
Equipment Vendor GA drawing.
Suction and discharge nozzle displacements in proper axes with direction.
Line isometrics.
Allowable nozzle loads.

Building the system in Caesar II:

In Fig. 1, a typical piping model connected to a centrifugal compressor and scrubber is shown. If we
have to analyse such systems then the following steps we have to follow:

Model the pipe from isometrics in similar way as you normally do for the other systems. Use
Line parameters from PMS and Line List. If the line is insulated then take exact density of
the insulating material as that value will impact the analysis. If fluid density is available then
use it otherwise leave it blank (zero density as normally gas). A Caesar plot of the above
system is shown below for your reference.

Fig. 2: Caesar Plot of the system shown in Fig. 1

It is very difficult to model the compressor using GA drawings and get the actual thermal
displacements at the nozzle points. So vendor provides the thermal displacement values at
operating temperature. So now find the compressor nozzle displacements from GA drawing
or mail communications and input the same at compressor nozzle node as shown in Fig 3.

Fig. 3: Caesar Spreadsheet Explaining the input of nozzle displacements.

Model the scrubbers taking data from Vendor GA.

Now prepare all the load cases and run the system statically to check the results. Make the
system stresses within code allowable limit. Make scrubber nozzles within vendor allowable.
Refer the next paragraphs for compressor nozzle qualification.

In general practice compressor nozzles are to be qualified by API 617 or NEMA SM 23. There are
three separate checking to ensure proper working of the compressor.
1. Individual component forces (Fx, Fy, Fz and Mx, My, Mz, each component at each nozzle) at
nozzle point must be within the limit specified in code. (For equations refer annex 2E of API
617)
2. The resultant force and resultant moment of each nozzle (suction and discharge separately)
must be within limit specified in code. (For equations refer annex 2E of API 617)
3. The combined resultants of the forces and moments of the inlet, sidestream, and discharge
connections resolved at the centerlines of the largest connection (resolution point) should not
exceed the limit specified in code. (For equations refer annex 2E of API 617)

Always remember that Caesar axis and API axis may not be same. So you need to convert the
allowable forces in proper Caesar axis and then compare. The API 617 axis system is reproduced in
Fig. 4 for your reference.

Fig. 4: Co-ordinate system as per API 617 for nozzle force and moments.
Sometimes vendor allows using some factor. Always check with vendor at early stage of project and
agree on this.
Resolution point is the point with respect which all forces and moments of suction and discharge
nozzles will be resolved for combined study. As per code it is the flange face of largest compressor
nozzle (normally the suction nozzle). Measure the position (dimensions) of the other nozzle with
respect to this point for combined study. A typical diagram showing suction and discharge nozzles
from a GA drawing is reproduced in Fig. 5 for your understanding.

Fig. 5: Typical GA drawing showing suction and discharge nozzle.

Qualification of Compressor Nozzles:

From the above paragraph it is clear that to qualify the compressor nozzles you need to model and
analyse the discharge nozzle and connected piping system (discharge side piping is shown in Fig. 9).
So follow the same procedure as mentioned for suction nozzle and analyse.
Compressor nozzle loads are checked in NEMA SM 23 module of Caesar. To perform the same
click on Analysis and then NEMA SM23 as shown in Fig 6.

Fig. 6: Opening NEMA SM 23 module in Caesar II

The module will open the spreadsheet (Shown in fig. 7) where you have to enter the parameters of
suction and discharge nozzles, loads at suction and discharge nozzle and distance from resolution
point. Enter the factor of allowable increase if vendor allows to do so. Normally as per API 617 the
value is 1.85

Fig. 7: NEMA SM 23 spreadsheet in Caesar II

If you provide node number Caesar will automatically select the loads from your static analysis upon
clicking the proper load case.
After loads are provided for both suction and discharge nozzle click on the run button to see the
analysis results. It will show the results as passed or failed. If failed check the reason for failing and
reduce the same force or moment value to get it qualified. A typical output report is shown in Fig. 8
for your reference.

Fig.8: Typical Caesar Output of NEMA SM 23 module

Additional considerations for Compressor Piping Analysis:

Perform alignment check (Anchor free analysis) in a separate file and keep nozzle
movements within limit as specified in API RP 686.
In most of the cases supports near compressor suction and discharge nozzles are Spring
hangers. So create an additional load case as WNC+H- (SUS) type and qualify the nozzles in
that case too.
Normally Compressor nozzles are qualified in operating temperature (and sustained) only.
However if client asks you have to do so in design temperature case.

If variable springs are used to qualify Compressor nozzles keep the variability as low as
possible (less than 10%).
Normally modal frequency analysis is not required for centrifugal compressor connected
systems.
In general, Compressor nozzles are not required to qualify in occasional load cases.
Dont forget to request nozzle displacements at early stage of project.

Fig. 9: Compressor Discharge side piping of a typical system

Stress Analysis of GRP / GRE / FRP piping

system using Caesar II
GRP products being proprietary the choice of component sizes, fittings and material types are
limited depending on the supplier. Potential GRP vendors need to be identified early in design stage
to determine possible limitations of component availability. The mechanical properties and design
parameters varies from vendor to vendor. So it is utmost important that before you proceed for stress
analysis of such systems you must finalize the GRP/FRP/GRE vendor. Several parameters (Fig. 1)
for stress analysis have to be taken from vendor.
Stress analysis of GRP piping system is governed by ISO 14692 part 3. The GRP material being
orthotropic the stress values in axial as well as hoop direction need to be considered during analysis.
The following article will provide a guideline for stress analysis of GRP piping system in a very
simple format.
Before you open the input spreadsheet of Caesar II communicate with the vendor through mail and
collect the following parameters as listed in Fig.1.

Fig.1: Parameters required for stress analysis of GRP piping

The values shown in the above figure is for example only. Actual values will differ from vendor to
vendor. The above parameters are shown for a 6 pipe.
Inputs Required for Analysis:
For performing the stress analysis of a GRP piping system following inputs are required:

GRP pipe parameters as shown in Fig. 1.

Pipe routing plan in form of isometrics or piping GA.
Analysis parameters like design temperature, operating temperature, design pressure, fluid
density, hydro test pressure, pipe diameter and thickness etc.

Modelling in Caesar II:

Once all inputs as mentioned above are ready with you open the Caesar II spreadsheet. By default
Caesar will show B 31.3 as governing code. Now refer to Fig. 2 and change the parameters as
mentioned below:

Fig. 2: Typical Caesar II input spreadsheet for GRP Piping

Change the default code to ISO 14692.

Change the material to FRP (Caesar Database Material Number 20) as shown in Fig. 2. It
will fill few parameters from Caesar database. Update those parameters from vendor
information.
Enter pipe OD and thickness from vendor information.
Keep corrosion allowance as 0.
Input T1, T2, P1, HP and fluid density from line list.
Update pipe density from vendor information sheet, if vendor does not provide density of
pipe then you can keep this value unchanged.
On the right side below the code, enter the failure envelop data received from vendor.
Enter thermal factor=0.85 if pipe is carrying liquid, enter 0.8 if the pipe carries gas.
After you have mentioned all the highlighted fields proceed modelling by providing
dimensions from the isometric/piping GA drawing. Add supports at proper location from
isometric drawing.
Now click on environment button and then on special execution parameter. It will open the
window as mentioned in figure 3.

Fig. 3: Typical Special Execution parameters Spreadsheet.

Now Refer Fig. 3 and change the highlighted parts from available data.

Enter the GRP/FRP co-efficient of thermal expansion received from vendor

Calculate the ratio of Shear Modulus and Axial modulus and input in the location.
In FRP laminate keep the default value if data is not available.
After the above changes click on ok button.
While modelling remember to change the OD and thickness of elbows/bends.

Supporting of Piping Systems: Few Guidelines

Introduction:

Piping systems -Major Part of any hydrocarbon industry.

Pipes as irregular space frames usually not self supporting.
Proper pipe support knowledge during layout stage is advantageous.
Loads to be transmitted from pipe to supporting structures with the help of pipe supports.

Why Pipe supports are necessary ?:

To prevent..

Pipe stresses in excess to code allowable limits.

Leakages in flanged joints etc.
Excessive Line Vibrations.
Undesirable effects of Seismic loading.
Unintentional disengagement (lift off) of piping from its supports.
Excessive pipe sag (Normally more than 10 mm for process piping and 2.5 mm for power
piping).
Exposure of elements to temperature extremes, outside their design limit.
Undesirable line movements to protect sensitive equipment against overloading.
Excessive loading in support itself
To limit thermal expansion

Codes and Standards on pipe supports:

MSS-SP-58- Establishes the material, design, and inspection criteria to be used in the
manufacturing of standard pipe supports. (USA)
MSS-SP-69- Provides recommendations for the selection and application of pipe supports.
(USA)
MSS-SP-89- Provides recommendations for the fabrication and installation of pipe supports.
(USA)
BS-3974- Specification of pipe supports 1, 2, 3. (UK)
VGB-R-510 L- Standard supports guidelines. (Germany)
RCC-M- Specifications for pipe supports. (France)
MITI 501- Technical regulations (Japan)

Design and selection of pipe supports:

The complex requirement of todays support elements are, reliable functioning, maintenance
free operation, economic and easy installations, quick delivery of components and low unit
prices.
Major Criteria governing support hardware are Support function, Magnitude of expected
load, space limitations, design temp of piping system, expansion effects of piping systems,

piping attachment and supporting structure material compatibility, piping insulation,

suitability to environment, ease of operation, inspection and installation.
Layout considerations for Supports:

Group pipe lines so as to minimize the number of structures needed solely to pipe supports.
Route lines close to the possible point of supports ( i.e. grade or structure which is provided
for other purposes.)
Supports or braces to be located at or near neutral pts. (thermal null pts)
Supports to be located as near as possible to concentrated loads such as valves, flanges,
heavy actuators etc.
Piping susceptible to vibration such as compressor connected lines to be supported
independently. The use of hold down or similar supports offering resistance to motion and
providing some damping capacity to be used rather than hanging type supports.
Piping connected to top of vessel to be advantageously supported from the vessel to
minimize relative movement between supports and piping.
Always maintain the distance between supports as per project specification recommended
support span table. ( it is applicable to straight run pipe length only.) When change of
direction in a horizontal plane occur, it is suggested that the spacing be limited to times the
standard pipe span.
Sufficient space to be provided to facilitate support assembly installation, inspection and
maintenance.

General support terminology and basic function:

Restraint- Any device that prevents, resists, or limits the free thermal movement of piping.
Brace- A device primarily intended to resist displacement of piping due to forces other than
thermal expansion and gravity.
Anchor- A rigid restraint providing substantially full fixation.
Stop- A device which permits rotation but prevents translatory movements of piping.
Guide- A device which prevents the rotation about one or more axis.
Hold Down Support- A device which holds the pipe in position disallowing vertical upwards
movement or allows only decided upward movement.
Hanger- A support by which piping is suspended from a structure which functions by
carrying piping load in tension.
Resilient support- A support which includes one or more largely elastic members to carry
pipe sustain + thermal loads at the same time allowing pipe thermal movement in the desired
direction.
Sliding support- A device which is provided below piping to take gravity loads, offering no
resistance other than frictional to horizontal motion.
Rigid support- A support providing stiffness in at least one direction.
Damping element- A device which increases damping of a system offering high resistance
against rapid displacement, caused by dynamic loading while permitting essentially free
movement.

Types of Supports:Hanger Supports 1) Variable Hanger 2) Constant Hanger 3) Rigid Hanger.

Dynamically Loaded Supports 1) Struts 2) Snubbers 3) Sway Brace 4) Energy absorbers 5)

Pipe Clamps 6) Pipe whip / Hold down restraints.
Pipe Bearing Components 1) Pipe Saddle 2) Pipe Shoe 3) Pipe Trunnion 4) Wear Pad.
Threaded Members 1) welding nut 2) welded beam attachment 3) Clevis 4) Turn buckle 5)
Tie rod 6) Stud bolt, nut, locknut, spring washers etc.
Slide Bearing Plates Teflon, Stainless steel, graphite.
Pipe Supports for Cold Service.
Depending on Support Position-Primary Support and Secondary Support

Pipe Support Manufacturers:

Piping Technology and Products Ltd.

Carpenter and Paterson Ltd.
Lisega ltd.
Binder Group Ltd.
Pipe Support Group Ltd.
Sarathi Engg Ent Pvt Ltd.
Anvil Group etc to name a few

Support Engineering:
Minimum Data required to start supporting:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Piping GAD
Electrical and Inst cable trench/trays layouts
Civil and Structural drawings
Piping spec and line list
Insulation spec
Valves weights
Equipment connection displacements
Stress recommendations (Stress isometrics) and Support loads.

Pipe Span :
Typically piping is supported at regular intervals on steel supports embedded in concrete foundation
or directly on steel structure. The distance between supports is the span.
Basis for calculation of Maximum support span:
There are three main factors which affects the support span.

Stress
Deflection/ sagging and
Frequency of piping system (for two phase flow lines, reciprocating equipment connected
lines, vibrating lines etc.)

Guidelines for Typical Piping System:

1. Supporting of Stress Critical Lines:

Criteria for critical lines

Support location by Designers
Support type by stress engineer
Primary attachments and secondary supports by designers
Line stop/Guide gaps to be taken care

ii. Supporting of non critical lines:

Sr. designer to decide support type

Support span
Guide span
Concentrated loads e.g. valves, inst
Long piping leg, stress engineer to be consulted

iii. Supporting of Insulated Pipes:

No direct resting, pipe shoe to be provided

Min. clearance between the insulation and the supporting structure shall be at least 50 mm.

iv. Supporting of Non- Insulated Pipes:

Directly rested except following

Pipes with sizes larger than DN 600

CS pipes with less than SCH 20
SS pipes with less than SCH 10S
The pipe require a slope
Dissimilar material to avoid galvanic corrosion
Pipe to be supported on pipe shoe to avoid damaging to pipe wall

v. Vertical pipes:

Standard span chart does not apply

Supports to be located on the upper half of the portion (i.e. above C.G. of pipe)
Vertical guide spacing
Clamped supports with weld-on shear lugs to avoid the pipe slipping under the clamp

A Brief Description of Sway Brace, Strut and

Snubber (Dynamic Restraints) for pipe
supporting for process industries
Whenever unplanned dynamic events occur, dynamic restraints carry the responsibility of protecting
the piping and other components from damage.
Undesirable abrupt movement of the components in the system can be caused by:
Pressure shocks from valve operation/ PSV
Water hammer
Boiler events
Pipe breakage
Wind load
Mechanical vibrations transmitted from pumps, compressors, turbines or other process
equipments.
Seismic events
Fluid disturbances
Explosions etc.
Dynamic restraints are specially designed to absorb sudden increase in load from the pipe and
transfer into the structure and to dampen any opposing oscillation between the pipe and the structure.
These restraints are not intended to carry the weight of pipe work and should not impede the
function of the supports. Dynamic restraints are required to be very stiff, to have high load capacity
and to minimize free movement between pipe and structure.
The main supports that make up the dynamic restraints for process piping are1.

Sway Braces

2.

Hydraulic and Mechanical Snubbers

3.

Rigid Struts

4.

Clamps

5.

Welding Clevis etc.

In the following paragraphs we will discuss in brief about Sway Braces, Rigid Struts and Snubbers.
Sway Braces:
Sway braces can be defined as spring loaded units mounted on pipe work which are used to limit the
swaying or vibration induced by external forces (vibration force) by applying an opposing force on
the pipe. They are double acting variable spring units which can handle both tensile and compressive
loads. It is commonly used to allow unrestrained thermal movements while tuning the system
dynamically to eliminate vibration. It could be pre-loaded in the cold or installed position, so that
after thermal pipe movement (growth) it reaches the neutral position and the load on the system in
the operating (OPE) condition is negligible (almost zero).
The construction is fairly simple, the unit has two piston plates: one on either side of the helical coil
compression spring connected by a single piston rod.

Fig. 1: Schematic Representation of Sway Brace construction.

If a tensile load is applied, the top piston plate is pulled down causing the spring to compress & if a
compressive load is applied the thrust nut/rod coupling pushes the bottom piston plate to push up
which causes the spring to compress. Therefore in both of the situation the spring gets compressed
but due to design (see cut away section above) the unit is capable of handling both compressive &
tensile movements /forces.
The spring is pre-compressed (usually a full inch =25 mm) providing an initial force (preload) that
instantaneously opposes vibration. Whenever any movement from the sway brace neutral position
occurs it is opposed by a load equal to the pre-load plus travel from the neutral position times the
sway brace spring constant. To explain it further, if the piping load on the sway brace is less than pre

load then there will not be any line movement. If the load is equal to preload then the line will be on
the verge of movement, but then also the line will not move. If the load is more than the preload the
line will deflect causing the spring to compress further. The deflection of the spring / pipe in this
case will be as given in equation 1.
Pipe deflection= (piping load Pre load) / spring rate

Eqn 1

So there is no pipe movement if the load is less than the preload and with load in excess of preload
the deflection is as given in Eqn 1.
When sway brace with a preload P is installed in a pipe there is no force exerted by the sway brace
on the pipe. But for the pipe to have any movement in either direction along the line of sway brace
installation it will experience a reactive force equal to P plus travel from neutral position times the
sway brace spring constant. It is desired to have no force on the pipe during normal operation of the
pipe. So sway brace are normally attached during normal operation or adjusted to the nutral positon
during normal operating condition.
When maximum allowed travel (usually 3-in. / 75 mm in either direction) is reached the sway brace
locks preventing additional movement and act as a rigid restraint.
The preload for LISEGA sway braces can be adjusted as per requirement at site. But for C&P or
others the unit is shipped after adjusting required preload.
The effect of sway brace on the piping system is to increase the K value in the
equation
Mx2(t) +Cx(t) +Kx(t)=F(t)
This in turn will raise the natural frequencies of the vibratory modes & thus normally reduce the
response of the pipe to dynamic loads & vibrations.

The force required to restrain the pipe work can be calculated as follows:
If the pipework is vibrating with frequency f Hz at a maximum displacement (half amplitude) of x
mm then, in simple harmonic motion, the restoring force exerted by the pipework at maximum
displacement (kgf) = 42 f2 m x/1000 g. Where m is the equivalent mass of the pipework in kg.
It is likely that a Sway Brace having a preload greater than this value willfully restrain the pipe at the
support location, while a Sway Brace for which this value is greater than the preload, but less than
the maximum load will have a significant effect.
Manufacturers normally recommend a specific size of sway brace for a pipe nominal diameter. If the
exact restraining force required to control the piping vibration is known beforehand then a more
specific sway brace selection is possible. The energy necessary to control the piping system is
proportional to the mass, amplitude of movement and the external force which is causing the

vibration. From this relation the exact restraining force required to control the piping vibration can
be calculated and an appropriate sway brace size can be selected.
Sway braces need to be installed in operating condition. However, it can be installed in cold
condition. But for that case when the plant starts operating, the pipe may have thermal movements.
This may cause the spring in the sway brace to compress by an amount equal to the thermal
movement/displacement. At this point the sway brace will be exerting a force equal to the pre-load +
movement X spring constant. The load need to be released by doing Neutral adjustment. This can
be achieved by rotating the Rod coupling shown above in a direction such that the piston plate gets
released & rests against the end plate. In this situation the sway brace will not exert any force on the
pipe. During shut down, as the pipe cools & gets in to the cold position, the sway brace will exert a
force on the pipe as the spring will get compressed. To summarize,
Sustained loads on sway brace = Pre-Load + Hot Deflection * Spring Rate
In OPE case the displacement allows thermal expansion and the sway assumes neutral position
exerting zero or negligible load on the pipe. i. e, Operating case restraint loads on sway brace =~ 0.0
(does not restrain thermal expansion)

Main Application:

Sway Braces are mainly used to reduce pipe vibration amplitude and at the same time does not
increase the expansion stress in operating case. It prevents the pipe from vibrating at its resonant
frequency. Typical examples of using the sway braces are in the pipe line feeding the flare stack in a
refinery. When gases at very high pressures are passed in the pipe line in the flare stack, it tends to
vibrate & the sway brace will try & limit the vibrations. Every time the vibrating force has to act as
opposite to the sway brace preload+ the stiffness multiplied by distance moved from neutral
position. When the line movement exceeds the sway brace becomes rigid and act as a rigid guide in
that direction.
The spring stiffness and preload is fixed depending on pipe size. However for special applications
manufacturer can change those values as per requirement.
Click here to visit Caesar Modelling Procedure for Sway Brace

Struts:
When we need to limit the displacement which does not effect in increase of thermal stress in operating
condition or when the disturbed displacement is at an axis normal to the thermal displacement it is preferable

and less expensive to use a rigid strut or strut. Rigid struts are selected to suit the force that they will resist
and the space available to fit them. The anchor point to the structure is the most simple to select since it is
only dependent on the size of the rigid strut. The pipe attachment is dependant on both pipe size and strut size
but it is also influenced by the orientation of the strut relative to the pipe arrangement.

The strut is often more difficult to specify because it may be resisting forces in the three primary
axes, x, y and z. It is therefore necessary to use some simple trigonometry to resolve the given forces
into axial force acting on the strut and to calculate the actual length of the strut between the fixing
point and the pipe attachment. Because the strut is held between two pinned connections its ability to
resist compressive force is greater the shorter the strut is. A long strut will have a lower safe working
load in compression than a short strut. However its length does not affect the tensile load capacity of
the strut.

The strut is therefore selected by considering the direction and magnitude of the axial force and if
compressive forces are acting, the length between the fixing pins of the connections. After the the
strut size is selected, the welding clevis will automatically specified to suit the strut size. The pipe
attachment is selected now by considering the pipe size, the strut size and the connection
requirements between the strut and the clamp. It is essential that the strut can attach to the clamp
without obstruction and any thermal movements are able to occur without the strut interfering on the
clamp. Therefore it is very important to consider the transition of the assembly during all expected
displacements.

Main Application:
Rigid Struts are used in Turbine and Compressor connected lines near the nozzle connections to take
the advantage of very less friction. Otherwise struts can be used as a substitute for guide supports
where structure is not available for using standard guides.
Click here to check the modelling procedure of rigid Struts in Caesar II

Snubbers:

The use of snubbers (Also called shock absorber) is preferred in thermally operating piping systems.
In a dynamic event, snubbers instantaneously form a practically rigid restraint between the protected
component and the structure. Resulting dynamic energy can at once be absorbed and harmlessly
transferred while the operational displacements due to thermal expansion and contraction must not
encounter any noticeable resistance. Through the special function of the shock absorbers, thermal

displacements during normal operation remain unhindered (offers very little resistance to pipe
movement). When however a sudden impact load acts upon snubber internal braking device engage,
thus controlling the movement of pipe. Snubber is said to be lock up and in this condition the
snubber acts as a rigid restraint. When the load has dissipated, the snubber unlocks and again allows
gradual movement of the pipe. Depending on internal mechanism of working snubbers are of two
types:
1.

Hydraulic Snubbers and

2.

Mechanical Snubbers

1.

Hydraulic Snubbers:

Similar to an automobile shock arrestor the hydraulic snubber is built around a cylinder containing
hydraulic fluid with a piston (See Fig. 2) that displaces the fluid from one end of the cylinder to the
other.
Displacement of fluid results from the movement of the pipe causing the piston to displace within
the cylinder resulting in high pressure in one end of the cylinder and a relatively low pressure in the
other.
The velocity of the piston will dictate the actual difference in pressure.
The fluid passes through a spring-loaded valve, the spring being used to hold the valve open. If the
differential pressure across the valve exceeds the effective pressure exerted by the spring, the valve
will close. This causes the snubber to become almost rigid and further movement or displacement is
substantially prevented.
The hydraulic snubber is generally used when the axis of restraint is in the direction of expansion/
contraction of the pipe. The snubber is therefore required to extend/ retract with the normal operation
of the pipe work. The snubber has low resistance to displacement/ movement at very low velocities.
The resistance to normal thermal movements (pipe velocity less than 1 mm/Sec and with amplitude
of vibration less than 3 mm) is less than 2% of the rated load of the snubber.

Fig. 2: Hydraulic Snubbers.

1.

Mechanical Snubbers:

Whilst having the same application as the hydraulic snubber, retardation of the pipe is due to
centrifugal braking within the snubber. A split flywheel is rotated at high velocity which causes the
steel balls to be forced radially outwards. The flywheel is forced apart by the steel balls causing
braking plates to come together thus retarding the axial movement/displacement of the snubber.
Rotation of the flywheel is generated by the linear displacement of the main rod acting on a ballscrew or similar device.
Mechanical snubbers (See Fig. 3) are used in cases of applications where human access is restricted,
for instance due to high radiation atmosphere in the nuclear plant or due to high elevation point
where no scaffold is available & maintenance work is not easy to do. No maintenance service is
required for mechanical snubbers & are designed to generate the required resistance force instantly
on reaching threshold acceleration, to restrain a displacement of piping caused by an earthquake or
other dynamic events & resume its free movement as soon as the dynamic displacement is
suppressed while developing very little (a negligible level of) frictional resistance force during the
slow thermal displacement mode of piping.

Selection of Snubbers:

The snubber is influenced by the same factors that the rigid strut is, the magnitude and direction of
axial force, but it is also necessary to consider the thermal displacement the snubber have to
undergo.
Again it is necessary to use trigonometry for calculating the force and the length of the snubber
alongwith the actual displacement applied to the snubber. Displacements in the primary axes cannot
be combined simply to determine the snubber movement/displacement; it is necessary to calculate
the overall length of the snubber in the various installed and operating conditions in order to
determine the needed stroke.
After calculating the actual stroke it is good engineering practice to take a margin of excess travel at
each end of the design travel. So, Always select a snubber that is capable of allowing greater
displacement than is theoretically required.

Orientation of the snubber is also important for both hydraulic and mechanical types. Access to
either lubrication points or inspection points is normally required and must be considered during the
design and installation of the restraint. It may also be required to allow in-situ testing of the snubber
for validating its functionality and so access may be a permanent requirement.

Fig. 3: Mechanical Snubbers.

For selecting proper Snubber, determine the minimum required stroke by taking the anticipated
design movement and adding an allowance for excess travel. This allowance should normally be at
least 20% of the anticipated design movement. Then select a snubber where the cylinder stroke is
greater than or equal to the minimum required stroke and the applied loadings in tension and

compression are less than the allowable maximum loadings in tension and compression for the size
and length of snubber as shown in the catalogue. For intermediate lengths, allowable compressive
loadings may be determined by interpolation. The length of the snubber must be such that the
maximum angulations are not exceeded.
To calculate the required closed centres for the snubber, use the following formulae:
Closed Centres = Installed Centres X
Where X = (Stroke Design Movement in Extension) / 2

or

X = (Stroke + Design Movement in Compression) / 2

This method will result in the spare travel being distributed evenly on either side of the design
movement.

Main Application:
Snubbers are normally used for reducing the damaging effects of Earthquake events.

Snubber modelling in Caesar II

I had already explained the basics of snubber in one of my earlier post. A short description regarding
hydraulic and mechanical snubbers used in process piping industry are also discussed. Click here to read it
before checking the modelling procedure . In this article I will explain the step by step procedure for
modelling Snubber in Caesar II.
Static snubbers have a support restraint called SNB following a translational direction in the restraint type
field. When a snubber is entered, the restraint fields in Ceasar II change as follows: Gap and Mu are
disabled.
Snubbers are the translational restraints which provide resistance to displacement in static analysis of
occasional loads only. It is assumed that occasional loading is dynamic in nature, similar to a static seismic or
static wind loading. THIS SNUBBERS ARE INACTIVE FOR ALL EXPANSION SUSTAINED, AND OPERATING STATIC
CASES, AND ARE ACTIVE FOR ALL TYPES OF TRUE DYNAMIC ANALYSES, i.e. HARMONIC, MODAL, OR
SPECTRAL. These restraints will be active in all static load cases defined as occasional in the load case list.
Static snubbers may be directional, i.e. may be preceded by a minus or plus sign. The steps for modelling
Snubber is mentioned below:

Create a node where snubber is required to add. (Node 10)

Run the operating cases without defining a snubber at that node.

Note the displacement in all six degrees of freedom at the location (Node 10) where to add the
snubbers (Assume D1 is the displacement at that node at T1 temp and D2 at T2 temp).
From input piping spreadsheet click on restraint check box and define XSNB/ZSNB etc as per
requirement at node 10 with a distinct CNode 11. It will appear as a guide in Caesar Sketch.
Place displacements on the CNode (CNode 11) by activating displacement checkbox.
Modify the load cases by including D1 everywhere T1 displays and D2 where T2 appears for
Operating load cases.
For defining occasional stresses create the following load cases as given in Fig. 1.
Run the analysis to obtain results.

Fig. 1: Load Cases for systems having a Snubber.

Application: Snubbers are normally used for reducing the damaging effects of Earthquake events

Modeling of Sway Braces in Caesar II for

stress analysis
I have already published a post explaining the basics of Sway Braces in my earlier posts. Click here to visit it
again. In this article I will explain the procedure for modeling Sway Braces in Caesar II. As I have mentioned
already that Sway braces are spring (pre-loaded) loaded units to limit the swaying or vibration induced by
external forces by applying an opposing force on the pipe. The sway brace is simulated by use of bi-linear
restraint available in CAESAR II. It will be discussed in the following section.

Note: Refer this article along with the earlier article on Sway Brace for proper understanding.

Modeling in Caesar II:

The steps involved in modeling a sway brace in Caesar are as follows:
Select the sway brace from catalogue depending on given pipe nominal diameter or depending
on the force calculated to restrain the pipe work. (Fig. SB45 as per C&P catalogue, reproduced in
Fig. 1)

Fig.1: Sway Brace selection Table from C&P Catalogue.

Mark a node (Node 10-Fig.2) at the location in the piping system where sway brace will be
installed. Run Caesar analysis and note down the displacement of the point in specified direction
from cold to operating condition. For the sake of example, lets assume that CAESAR II calculated
displacement from cold to operating position is 0.5 inch in +X direction.
Now in CAESAR II input spread sheet (See Fig. 2) check the restraints box and define bi-linear
restraint (X2 for the assumed case) at Node 10 with CNode at 101. Here, K1 is the initial stiffness of
a bi-linear restraint. Do not enter anything on this cell as the restraint is assumed to be rigid. The
value of K2and Fy to be obtained from catalogue. Where, K2= Post yield stiffness of a bilinear
restraint. When the load on the support restraint exceeds Fy then the stiffness on the support restraint
changes from K1 to K2. Fy = Yield Load. If the load on the support restraint is less than Fy then
the initial stiffness K1 is used. If the load on the support restraint is greater than Fy then the
second stiffness K2 is used.

Define restraint X at node 10 with CNode at 101. Provide a gap of 3 inch (=distance the sway
brace is able to move in both positive and negative direction before it gets locked/ become fully rigid
depending on manufacturer= 3 inch as per C&P catalogue)
Check the displacement box and define the displacement for Node 101. It is the displacement for
node 10 as noted earlier (0.5 inch in X direction, leave other cells i.e., DY, DZ, RX, RY, RZ blank.).
Add D2 in sustained and operating load cases. Now run the analysis to obtain results.

Fig. 2: Caesar II Spread sheet for Sway brace modeling.

Modeling procedure of Rigid Strut in Caesar II

The steps involved in Strut modeling are as follows:

Find out the direction in which restriction of movement is required (Assume X direction) and
location of the strut installation. For reducing thermal loads to be carried by rigid struts it is
preferable to choose thermal null points if feasible.
Double click on restraints check box in Caesar spreadsheet and model restraint X with 0 mm
gap and with no friction. Keep stiffness K1 box blank.
Run Caesar Analysis and found out the force in that node.
Enter into any catalogue (like C&P, Lisega etc) and select appropriate rigid strut depending
on that force (For your reference strut selection table has been reproduced in Fig. 1 from
C&P Catalogue).
Obtain the stiffness value for the strut from the catalogue and enter this value in restraint
stiffness (K1) which u left blank in initial stage.
Run the analysis to obtain results.

Fig. 1: Strut Selection Table from C&P Catalogue.

Rigid Struts are used in Turbine and Compressor connected lines near the nozzle connections to take
the advantage of very less friction. Otherwise struts can be used as a substitute for guide supports
where structure is not available for using standard guides.

Supporting of Dual Insulated Piping System

During operation many times it happens that a piping system has to experience both hot and cold
operating temperatures depending upon specific process requirements. In such situations the piping
must have to be insulated using both hot and cold insulation i.e dual insulation. But this requirement
must has to be listed in related P & ID , Line list and Insulation Specification. Supporting of dual
insulated piping system is categorised in following two cases.
1. Supporting of hot and cold insulated pipe when pipe operating temperature is below 80
degree centigrade.
Supporting of dual insulated piping is somewhat different from normal pipe supporting. Here I will
describe the supporting philosophy for such piping system when pipe operating temperature is less
than 80 degree centigrade.When pipe is having both positive(+) & negative(-) temperature the hot
insulation is applied first and cold insulation is applied on it to prevent heat gain from outside the
pipe when pipe is operating below zero degree Centigrade.
When pipe is operating in negative temperature range then we have to prevent heat gain by pipe
through support from outside in that case we have to provide Craddle support. Note that High
Density Urethane craddle support can sustain temperature up to +80 degree Centigrade after which
the melting of the material starts.

For supporting please refer the attached drawing. Follow the below mentioned notes along with the
figure.
Notes:
1. Cradle Radius (R) is based on insulation thickness (T1+T2)
2. Bottom of Pipe shall be based on cradle thickness (T)
3. Temperature for HDPE cradle is less than +80 degree centigrade

2. Supporting of hot and cold insulated pipe when pipe operating temperature is more than 80
degree centigrade.
When the piping system faces temperature more than +80 deg. C which Polyurethane block cannot
sustain, we have to think of some other arrangement of supporting which allows higher operating
temperature in both positive & negative range.If we use metallic shoe/base support in that case we
have to protect cold insulation from higher temperature due to its temperature limitations which can
be done by carefully checking the temperature drop (Assume temperature drop or gain as 1.1 degree
centigrade per mm og length) through the support or by extending the hot insulation layer along the
shoe / base support up to extent of cold insulation temperature limitations. Refer below attached
figure to see the supporting philosophy for such cases. Follow the below mentioned notes while
reading the figure.
Notes for the figure:
1. Shoe width can be increased as per requirement.
2. While using one must check the temperature limitation of the cold support or cradle.
3. No damage to the cold insulation should be made while supporting.

Stress Analysis of PSV connected Piping

systems using Caesar II
PSV or pressure safety valves are very common to any process industry. To protect any equipment
from overpressure PSV systems are used in lines. Two types of PSVs are extensively used in process
industries: a) Open discharge PSV and b) Closed discharge PSV. Due to any uncertain event if
pressure of any equipment becomes higher than the set pressure of the installed PSV s then they pop
up and reduce the system pressure. During popong up activity the PSVs exert huge reaction force
over the system. During analysis of PSv connected stress systems we have to consider this reaction
force. This is the main reason that PSV connected systems become stress critical. The following
write up will try to explain the methods used during analysis of such systems using Caesar II.
Required Documents for analysis:

The following documents are required while inputting in Caesar II.

Stress isometrics
P&ID and line list
PSV datasheet with reaction force and PSV weights.
Equipment GA and datasheet if equipment is part of the stress system.

Reaction force Application philosophy:

Before we start the actual analysis we should first know the reaction force. Normal practice is to
obtain the reaction force from PSV vendor or manufacturer. However if during preliminary stage of
analysis data is not available then the reaction force for open discharge PSVs can be calculated using
the below mentioned formula (from API RP 520). But later it must be corrected for forces received
from vendor.

Fig.1: Typical Open discharge PSV connection

Reaction force at the point of discharge in lbf, F=[(W/366)* {K*T/(K+1)*M}]+A*P
Here, W=flow of any gas or vapour in lbm/hr
K=ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) at the outlet condition
T=temperature at the outlet in oR
M=molecular weight of the process fluid
A=area of the outlet at the point of discharge in inch^2
P=Static pressure within the outlet at the point of discharge in psig.
Cp and Cv=Specific heat at the constant pressure and at constant volume respectively.
For closed discharge PSV systems there is no specific method to calculate the reaction force.
Complex time history analysis can be used to exactly calculate the reaction force for closed
discharge PSV systems.
The reaction force application philosophy for open discharge PSV (PSV output discharges into
atmosphere) connected systems is same throughout the process industries. But for closed discharge
PSV connected system the force application philosophy varies from organisation to organisation.

Few organisation applies the reaction force for closed dischare PSVs but few organisations does not
consider it. So user to follow the company specific project guidelines is such cases.

Where to apply the reaction force:

The following figure (Fig. 2) shows the points where the reaction force is required to be applied for
open discharge PSVs.

Fig.2: Reaction force Application point for open discharge PSV connected systems.
Fig. 3 shows the application point (If required) of reaction forces for closed discharge PSV
connected systems.

Fig.3: Reaction force Application point for Closed discharge PSV connected systems.
Caesar II load cases for PSV connected systems:
PSV forces are considered as occassional forces. So occasional Stress due to PSV reaction force has
to be calculated and to be limited within 1.33 times Sh (As per code ASME B 31.3). Here Sh=Basic
allowable stress at hot condition. Based on company practise PSV reaction force is added either with
Design temperature case or with operating temperature case. Also some organisations have the
practise of making One PSV popping up and other stand by load cases. Accordingly make the load
cases as shown below:

Fig.4: Caesar II methodology to enter the reaction force

Fig.5: Caesar II simple load cases for analysis PSV connected system
The following load cases assumes two temperatures (T1=Operating temp, T2=design temp)
alongwith Wind and Seismic load cases:
L1.
WW+HP
HYD
L2.
W+T1+P1
OPE Operating temperature case
L3.
W+T2+P1
OPE-Design temperature case
L4.
W+T1+P1+F1
OPEOperating temp+PSV reaction ( PSV 1 poppoing
up)
L5.
W+T1+P1+F2
OPEOperating temp+PSV reaction ( PSV 2 poppoing
up)
L6.
W+T1+P1+WIN1
OPEOperating temp+Wind from North
L7.
W+T1+P1+WIN2
OPEOperating temp+Wind from South
L8.
W+T1+P1+WIN3
OPEOperating temp+Wind from East
L9.
W+T1+P1+WIN4
OPEOperating temp+Wind from West
L10.
W+T1+P1+U1
OPEOperating temp+Seismic from North
L11.
W+T1+P1-U1
OPEOperating temp+Seismic from South
L12.
W+T1+P1+U1
OPEOperating temp+Seismic from East
L13.
W+T1+P1-U1
OPEOperating temp+Seismic from West
L14.
W+P1
SUSSustained case
L15.
L4-L2
OCCPure PSV Reaction

L16.
L17.
L18.
L19.
L20.
L21.
L22.
L23.
L24.
L25.
L26.
L27.
L28.
L29.
L30.
L31.
L32.
L33.
L34.
L35.
L36.
Output Study:

L5-L2
L6-L2
L7-L2
L8-L2
L9-L2
L10-L2
L11-L2
L12-L2
L13-L2
L15+L14
L16+L14
L17+L14
L18+L14
L19+L14
L20+L14
L21+L14
L22+L14
L23+L14
L24+L14
L2-L14
L3-L14

OCCPure PSV Reaction

OCCPure Wind
OCCPure Wind
OCCPure Wind
OCCPure Wind
OCCPure Seismic
OCCPure Seismic
OCCPure Seismic
OCCPure Seismic
OCCPure Occasional+Sustained
OCCPure Occasional+Sustained
OCCPure Occasional+Sustained
OCCPure Occasional+Sustained
OCCPure Occasional+Sustained
OCCPure Occasional+Sustained
OCCPure Occasional+Sustained
OCCPure Occasional+Sustained
OCCPure Occasional+Sustained
OCCPure Occasional+Sustained
EXPPure Expansion
EXPPure Expansion

Check Code stresses for load cases L1, L14 and from L25 to L36. It is better to keep stresses
for L1 and L14 below 60% and for the rest within 80%.
Check forces for load cases from L1 to L14.

Few points to keep in mind:

It is a better practice to use 3 way restraints in both inlet and outlet piping of PSV connected
systems if feasible (As shown in figure 2 and 3 above). However if not possible then try to
provide 3 way restraint in outlet only by layout modification.
In normal operating case Safety valve inlet line temperature will be operating temperature up
to inlet of safety valve and Safety valve outlet line will be in ambient temperature up to the
header.
Sometimes a Dynamic Load Factor (DLF) of 2 is used for calculating PSV reaction force.
If any stress failure or abnormal routing changes are required, then certain local area from
header can be used average temperature for 2 meters or 5D which is higher (Safety valve
outlet joining at header junction point) and also shall be taken process engineers approval.
If required stress engineer shall provide R.F pad for the trunnion type support.
If connection of psv closed system is emerging from header with 45 put SIF for this tapping.
If required tapping point of the outlet line and outlet header shall be reinforced to reduce SIF.
In case of any safety valve assembly is placed on top platform of any vessel, Support can be
taken either from top platform or support can be arranged from the top portion of vessel
taking clip from the vessel. In both the cases the load and locations of support or clip

equipment vendor must be informed though the mechanical group along with the clip
information.
Do not provide spring below safety valve inlet line

Note: Please reply in comments in case of any confusion or if you want to add something

Flare systems: Major thrust points for stress

analysis
Flare system is a means of safe disposal of waste gases by burning them under controlled conditions.
Flare piping generally comprises of PSVs outlet piping, sub header piping & main header piping.
Design conditions considered for stress analysis are as per P&IDs, line list and specific information
related to flare if any by process.
A typical flare system consists of:

PSV outlet pipes, sub header connected to main flare header , main flare header connected to
knock out drum , outlet of flare knock out drum to flare stack.
A knockout drum to remove and store condensable and entrained liquids.
A single or multiple burner units and a flare stack.

The major thrust points which a stress engineer should consider carefully are listed below:

Fluid Density: Fluid density has to be taken from list list (Process Department). In absence
of data, 1/3rd water filled weight can be assumed for Caesar input.

Test Method: Flare lines are normally pneumatic tested. So, hydrotest weight is not required
to be considered. However in specific cases water filled weight has to be considered (Check
with Process department).

Supporting: Flare lines are normally provided with slopes as per Project specification. So
general practice is to support with Shoe/saddle supports. Supporting span to be maintained
such than sustained sagging should not exceed 3-5 mm. Structure below pipe support / shoe
height is to be planned to meet piping sloping/free draining requirement.

SIF: Normal industry practice is to take 45 degree/90 degree branch connections from Flare
Header: Proper SIF (both inplane and outplane) should be incorporated at branch connections
while entering data into Caesar II. SIF s can be calculated using Fe-SIF, Nozzle Pro, or some
other type of FEA software. Sometimes reinforcement may be required to reduce SIF value.

Temperature Gradient: In a flare system sometimes temperature gradient or profile

may exist when the hot contents flow into the subheader / main header which is at a lower
temperature ( confirmation with process if required ).

Flexibility: Piping shall be evaluated for flexibility. If necessary expansion loops shall be
provided. Expansion joints to be avoided. Flare piping loops are planned in horizontal plane
(4D bends) in order to ensure pipe slope/free draining requirement. However no of loops
should be minimised as much as possible.

Flare line routing and supporting to be planned in such a way that forces and moments on
flare knock out drum nozzle connections are minimized.
Sometimes Flare line may consist of two phoase flow. So Vibration/Accoustic analysis is
required to be performed and supporting to be strengthened.

Routing Of Flare And Relief Valve Piping

The purpose of this article is to provide a brief idea of Flare and Relief Valve piping highlighting the
important points. Due to long length of this article it will be published in several parts.
What are Relief Events?

External fire
Flow from high pressure source
Heat input from associated equipment
Pumps and compressors
Ambient heat transfer
Liquid expansion in pipes and surge

Potential Lines of Defense:

Inherently Safe Design

Low pressure processes
Passive Control
Overdesign of process equipment
Active Control
Install Relief Systems

What is a Relief System?

A relief device, and

Associated lines and process equipment to safely handle the material ejected

Why Use a Relief System?

Inherently Safe Design simply cant eliminate every pressure hazard

Passive designs can be exceedingly expensive and cumbersome
Relief systems work!

Code Requirements:

General Code requirements include:

ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Codes

ASME B31.3 / Petroleum Refinery Piping
ASME B16.5 / Flanges & Flanged Fittings

Relieving pressure shall not exceed MAWP (accumulation) by more than:

3% for fired and unfired steam boilers

10% for vessels equipped with a single pressure relief device
16% for vessels equipped with multiple pressure relief devices
21% for fire contingency

Locating Reliefs Where?

All vessels
Blocked in sections of cool liquid lines that are exposed to heat
Discharge sides of positive displacement pumps, compressors, and turbines
Vessel steam jackets

Choosing Relief Types

Relief Valves
Rupture Devices

Spring-Operated Valves:

Conventional Type

Fig.1: Conventional type PRV

Balanced Bellows Type:

Fig.2: Bonnet Bellow type PRV

Fig.3: A Typical Pressure Safety Valve

Pros & Cons:
Conventional Valve

Advantages

Most reliable type if properly sized and operated

Versatile can be used in many services

Disadvantages

Relieving pressure affected by back pressure

Susceptible to chatter if built-up back pressure is too high

Pros & Cons:

Balanced Bellows Valve

Advantages

Relieving pressure not affected by back pressure

Can handle higher built-up back pressure

Protects spring from corrosion

Disadvantages

Bellows susceptible to fatigue/rupture

May release flammables/toxics to atmosphere

Requires separate venting system

When to Use a Spring-Operated Valve

Losing entire contents is unacceptable

Fluids above normal boiling point

Toxic fluids

Need to avoid failing low

Return to normal operations quickly
Withstand process pressure changes, including vacuum

When to Use Both Types:

Need a positive seal (toxic material, material balance requirements)

Protect safety valve from corrosion
System contains solids

A Special Issue: Chatter

Spring relief devices require 25-30% of maximum flow capacity to maintain the valve seat in
the open position
Lower flows result in chattering, caused by rapid opening and closing of the valve disc
This can lead to destruction of the device and a dangerous situation

Chatter Principal Causes

Valve Issues

Oversized valve

Valve handling widely differing rates

Relief System Issues

Excessive inlet pressure drop

Excessive built-up back pressure

Rupture Devices

Rupture Disc
Rupture Pin

Conventional Metal Rupture Disc

Fig.4: Conventional Rupture Disc

Conventional Rupture Pin Device

Fig.5: Conventional Rupture Pin Device

Applicability of Caesar II for stress analysis of

lines having D/t ratio more than 100
Sometimes while working you may have come across situations when the pipe diameter to thickness
ratio becomes more than 100. These normally happen for very large size low pressure systems. Due
to low design pressure (of the order of 1 bar to 3 bar) calculated thickness is less. As for example
consider a flare line of 42 inch (or 48 inches) NPS with 3 bar design pressure. The selected thickness
is STD wall thickness i.e, 9.525 mm. So Diameter to thickness ratio is more than 100. Normally
Caesar II is widely used for stress analysis of all piping systems. But when you use the software for
stress analysis of such stress systems you will find a warning message similar to as shown in Fig. 1.
This warning message is generated for all Bend and Intersections in the pipe.

Fig. 1: Warning message of Caesar II while stress analysing line with D/t greater than 100
So whether you will proceed for stress analysis ignoring such warning messages. ASME B 31.3 does
not provide any equation for calculating the SIF values for lines with D/t exceeding 100 (Also
known as thin walled pipes). This restriction on D/t comes from the B31.1 and B31.3 piping codes
because they do not have computations for stress intensification factors above this threshold, largely
because the testing that was done by Markl had this same limitation. CAESAR II will continue to
use the existing code formulations for SIF calculation when a D/t ratio is greater than 100, but no
one knows if these relations are still valid. That is the reason Caesar II displays such warning
CAESAR II is a pipe flexibility analysis software package and as with all such packages, there are
limitations which should not be exceeded. It is always better to use some sort of FEA analysis for
analysing such systems and you will get accurate results. But considering the number of such stress
systems in any project (hardly one or two) purchasing costly FEA software may not get project
approval. So in such situation you may not have other options than to use Caesar II. So the analyst
can use Caesar II, but he needs to always bear the following points in mind:

Failure of thin wall piping is dominated by buckling phenomenon and the validity of the
flexibility analysis assumptions decrease. CAESAR II and other such flexibility analysis
programs (CAEPIPE, AUTOPIPE etc.) do not compute buckling because it is a localized
effect caused by imperfections in manufacture, uneven corrosion, pitting, or other defects.
CAESAR II considers the pipe to be homogeneous in cross-section with an even wall

thickness everywhere. So the analyst is encouraged to consider buckling separately from the
CAESAR II analysis for such systems.
Another problem with very thin-walled pipe is local deformation in the region of restraint.
When significant local deformation is likely at restraint locations, the load distribution will
no longer follow expectations as with homogeneous cross-sections and standard flexibility
analysis results should not be relied on. Normally it is a standard practice to use wear pads in
all support locations to reduce the possibility of local deformation at restraint points.
It is better to use a lowered allowable stress than what is allowed by the piping code in use.
For example the analyst can reduce the allowable value by 75% of the code allowable.
It is better to multiply the Caesar calculated SIF at intersections by 2.5-3.0 and input the
same manually at all three node points (Branch and header)

Stress Analysis of Column piping system using

Caesar II
Columns or Towers, used for distilling raw materials (Crude Oils) are very important equipments in
any process industry . Every process piping industry must have several columns. Lines of various
diameter and properties (Process Parameters) are connected to Columns at different elevations.
Stress analysis of all large bore lines connected to column are required to assess proper supporting
and nozzle loading. Looking to the construction of column, it has number of trays at different
elevation.
Temperature
at
each
tray
location
differs
based
on
process.
In the following article I will try to explain the methodology followed for stress analysis of Column
Piping using Caesar II.
Stress analysis of Column Piping will be discussed in following points: 1. Inputs required for
analysis 2. Temperature profile creation for the column/tower 3. Modelling in Caesar II 4.
Supporting of Column Connected piping system and 5. Nozzle load qualification.
1. Inputs required for Analysis: The following data are required while modeling and analysing
column connected lines:
a) Column G.A.drawing with all dimensions, nozzle orientation, materials etc.
b) Column temperature profile.
c) Line Designation Table/ Line list/Line Parameters and P&ID.
d) Column line ISO.
e) Allowable nozzle load table as specified in Project Specification.
2. Temperature profile for Column/Tower: Different organization uses different methods for
creating column temperature profile. Here I will describe two methods which are most widely used.
Temperature profiles for towers are normally created based on connected outlet lines. So in the
P&ID mark the big size (big size means nozzle size which will make consideration impact in
temperature change) column outlet nozzles. Then write down the operating and design temperatures
beside those lines from line list. Lets assume that there are three big size (N1, N2 and N3 as shown
in Fig. 1) outlet nozzles in a typical tower. So temperature profile for that column can be created as
shown in Fig. 1. This method is the most widely used method among prevailing EPC industries.

Fig. 1: Temperature profile creation for a typical tower- Method 1

Again the temperature profile of the above tower can be generated using the method mentioned in
Fig. 2. Many of the organizations use this method too.

Fig. 2: Temperature profile Creation for a typical Column -Method 2

Few organisation uses the operating and design temperatures mentioned in equipment GA as the
equipment operating and design temperature. However the above two methods mentioned will result
in thermal growth close to reality.
3. Modeling the Column/Tower in Caesar II: All equipment modeling are almost similar. Start
modeling the tower from the skirt and go up or start from nozzle of interest and go down till skirt as
per your choice. It is a better practice to use node number such a way that the equipment nodes can
easily be separated from the piping nodes. I personally model equipments starting from node
5000. Lets start from a typical nozzle flange. So model 5000-5020 as nozzle flange with nozzle
diameter and thickness as mentioned in equipment GA drawing. Sometimes vendor GA may not be
available (during initial phase of the project), so in such situation use engineering drawing as the
basis for modeling. Normally mechanical departments have minimum nozzle thickness chart based
on flange rating and corrosion allowance. Take nozzle thickness from that chart or otherwise assume
nozzle thickness as two size higher than the connected pipe thickness. Use temperatures as
mentioned in the above two diagrams (Fig. 1 or Fig. 2) from flange onwards, pressure, corrosion
allowance, materials, insulation thickness and density etc as mentioned in reference equipment
drawing. Then model 5020 to 10 as pipe element with length from reference drawing (Normally
nozzle projection from equipment centreline in provided, in that case calculate the nozzle length by
subtracting the equipment outside radius and flange length already modelled). Provide Anchor at
node 10 with Cnode at 5040. Providing node number for nozzles as 10, 20 etc will put all this nodes
at initial nodes in restraint summary which helps me in checking nozzle loads very quickly. You can
provide separate nodes if you wish. This completes the nozzle model. Now we will model the
equipment.
Model 5040 to 5060 as rigid body with zero weight with length=half of equipment OD, material as
provided in reference drawing, temperature as mentioned the above figures, pressure and other
parameters from reference equipment drawing. This element will take you to the center of the
equipment. From this part onwards simply model the equipment as pipe elements taking temperature
profile as mentioned in the above figures. Check diameter and thickness in reference drawing as
those values sometimes changes as you proceed from top towards skirt. Finally model the skirt as
pipe element with temperatures calculated as mention at the last paragraph of this topic and
pressures, fluid density, corrosion allowance as zero. Provide fixed anchor at bottom of skirt. Refer
Fig. 3 for a sample model of column. Different colors are for different temperatures.

Fig. 3: A simple model of a Tower in Caesar II

4. Supporting of Column Connected Piping System: The pipes are normally supported from
column itself. This type of supports are called cleat supports or clip supports. The first support from
column nozzle is a load taking support which carries the total vertical load of the pipe. Try to place
this load taking support as near to the nozzle as possible. Rest all are guide supports. As the clips are
connected to the tower body we have to model clips from column and connect the supports with a
Cnode to take the thermal effect of that location. The load bearing capacity of the clip supports are
normally standardized by support standard. So sometimes it may appear that the load at first load
taking support is exceeding the clip load bearing capability (This could happen if a very large size
line is connected towards the top of the column, overhead lines) . In those cases we have to take 2nd
support from nozzle as a load taking support as well. This support has to be a Spring hanger support
which will share part of the load of the first load taking support. From that point onwards guide
supports will be used based on standard guide span as specified in project specification. A sample
Caesar II model is shown in Fig 4 for your reference to explain the clip supports. Model the clip as
rigid body with zero weight with equipment properties when inside equipment and with ambient
temperature when outside equipment

Fig. 4: Caesar II model showing Clip/Cleat Supporting

5. Nozzle Load Qualification: Allowable nozzle loads are normally provided by equipment vendor
and mentioned in general arrangement drawing. Few organization has standard load table based on
nozzle diameter and flange rating. So compare your calculated loads at nozzle anchor point with this
allowabale values to find if calculated loads are acceptable or not. If loads are exceeding the
allowable values modify the supporting or routing to reduce your nozzle loads. In some situation
when routing change is not feasible perform WRC as mentioned in one of my last articles or perform

FEA (Nozzle Pro) to check whether generated stresses are acceptable. In extreme cases send your
nozzle loads to vendor for their acceptance.
Skirt Temperature Calculation:
Calculate skirt temperature following the given equation:
Average Skirt Temperature=(T-Ta)*F+ Ta; in degree centigrade
Here Ta=Ambient Temperature in degree Centigrade; T=Temperature at the top of the skirt;
F=[83.6/{(K*h/t^0.5)+15.5}]; K=insulation constant=1.0 for fire brick insulation=1.6 for non
insulated; h and t are skirt height and thickness respectively

Van Ha Thursday 16 January 2014, 11:21 am

Dear Sir,
If we define temperature profile for column by following tray temperature profile of Process Data Sheet or
GA drawing. Is it possible?
Reply
Anup Thursday 16 January 2014, 12:15 pm
yes it is possible and that can be done too
Reply
Mehul Thursday 16 January 2014, 8:02 pm
Can we take same design temp throughout column height as per GA or Mech datasheet and temperature
profile for operating temp. only.
Reply
Anup Monday 20 January 2014, 12:26 pm
For both operating and design temperature it is better to create the temperature profile from connected
lines.
Reply
Van Ha Sunday 19 January 2014, 11:09 am
Dear Sir,
I have 2 more questions as below. I hope you can reply:
#1:
Do we need to set fluid density as 0 for long vertical pipe around column? because in case if we have very
big size and heavy fluid density, it will effect to support load on EQP and spring size selection also. The fluid
weight itself will not be carried by pipe support.
#2:
Is it ok to use your equation to calculate skirt temperature? How can I trust this equation?
Reply
Anup Monday 20 January 2014, 12:30 pm

1. In my opinion you have to take the fluid density for support load and spring selection as that fluid will
always be there inside the pipe run.
2. That equation for skirt temperature calculation is based on some code (mostly ASCE or UBC) and
universally accepted. So you can use this equation.
Reply

Asim Shamim Friday 7 February 2014, 12:03 am

Dear Author,
As far as I have conceived from the this is that equipment has been modeled as a Pipe. One of the demerits
in such a method is that Caesar starts evaluating whole equipment which is not our objective.
In my opinion, equipment should be modeled as a rigid element with zero weight, so that it does not get
evaluated as per the specified code say B 31.3.
Waiting for a response from your side on my query.
Reply

Somnath Thursday 6 March 2014, 2:35 pm

What are the units for h & t in skirt temp. calculation formula.
Reply

Tan Tuesday 11 March 2014, 12:17 am

F=[83.6/{(K*h/t^0.5)+15.5}]
What are the units for h & t in skirt temp. calculation formula.
What are the units for F ?
Reply

nishit Wednesday 2 April 2014, 11:51 pm

Sir,
how do we consider start up and shut down cases of column with connected piping
Reply

NASEEM AHMAD Thursday 3 April 2014, 11:45 am

Dear sir
can you provide me information on how to do modelling in CAESARII.
Reply

IRFANALI Monday 14 April 2014, 4:31 pm

Dear Anup,
Can you provide the analysis of air fin cooler?
Reply

Dinesh Koranga Saturday 11 October 2014, 1:30 pm

Dear Sir,
Request you if you can help on explaining what is the sway effect on column line?
How it is incorporated in Column line analysis?
Do we model Column as rigid element and then input the wind displacement at different elevations?

Stress Analysis of Vertical Reboiler Piping

using Caesar II
Vertical Reboilers plays a significant role in Process industry. Reboilers are a type of Heat
exchangers which are used for heating the bottom fluid of industrial Distillation columns. Normally
heat from steam (or any other high temperature fluid) is utilized to boil the liquid from the bottom of
a Distillation column . Normally this heating effect generates vapor which are then returned back to
the Column at a higher elevation to drive the distillation separation. The piping arrangement between
column and reboiler for this action is normally very stiff and require careful Analysis to keep the
column and Reboiler nozzle loadings within acceptable limit. The following article will provide the
Stress analysis methodology of a vertical Reboiler connected piping system using software tool
Caesar II , developed by Coade Inc.
Applicable codes and standards:
-ASME B 31.3-Process Piping,
-ASME Section VIII-Pressure Vessel design (Normally column and reboilers are manufactured
based on this codes),
-WRC 107 and WRC 297- Sometimes it is required to qualify the Nozzle loads by using WRC
modules if actual nozzle loads exceed the vendor allowable received.
Inputs required for analysis:
Before you start modeling of reboiler and column in Caesar II please be ready with at least the
following documents:
1. Column general arrangement drawing
2. Reboiler general arrangement drawing
3. Process P&ID and Line list (Also known as line Designation Table or LDT) for the connected
piping
4. Piping Material Specification or PMS
5. Equipment Nozzle allowable loads
6. Piping Isometrics , if any
7. Column and Reboiler allowable nozzle Loads (Should be taken from Equipment Vendor in case
no standard Project specific load is not available)
Temperature Application Criteria during modeling in Caesar:
Column Temperature:
In absence of project specific guidelines, the Operating/ Design temperature of Column shall be
considered same as the average of operating / design temperature of the column outlet piping
attached on each draw-off nozzle
Reboiler temperature:
For Reboiler use the following information in absence of project specific guidelines:
Tube side Inlet Temperature = bottom (outlet) Piping temperature of tower.
Temperature of the tube = average temperature between tube inlet and outlet piping.
Tube side outlet temperature = temperature of the tower inlet piping.
If the temperature of Column inlet piping (channel outlet) is not known, consider the reboiler tube
outlet temperature as mentioned in vendor drawing or confirm from process engineer.
Shell side temperature = average of the Shell inlet (Normally Steam) and outlet piping (Normally
Condensate).

Modeling of the Reboiler (with an Expansion joint in shell) in Caesar II:

Initially model the reboiler as a rigid body following below mentioned steps. Refer attached drawing
(Fig. 1) as reference:
1. Model node 10-20 and 20-30 with tube outlet temperature and pressure considering channel
material, diameter, thickness, length and fluid density (Also include insulation thickness and density
if any) from Rebolier General Arrangement (Henceforth called GA) drawing.
2. Model node 30-40, 40-50 and 60-70 with shell average temperature and shell design pressure
considering shell material and dimensions as mentioned in reboiler GA.
3. Model element 30-70 with channelside average temperature and design pressure taking tube
material, shell diameter and thickness from GA drawing.
4. Model 70-80 and 80-90 with tube inlet temperature and pressure considering channel material,
diameter, thickness and length.

Fig. 1: Typical Reboiler diagram for modeling in Caesar II

5. Model element 50-100 with shellside properties and model the support restraint at node 100.
Similarly model all other support elements as required from GA drawing (check 2 lug, 3 lug or 4 lug
supported system)
6. Now make the elements 10-20, 20-30, 70-80 as flexible (i.e, non rigid).
7. Check the total operating weight of the reboiler from GA (if operating weight is not available
assume 70% of water filled weight) and the weight already considered in elements mentioned in step
no 6 (considering fluid and insulation; you can do it easily by clicking single run button in caesar II).
Provide the remaining balance weight in rigid element 30-70 (tube weight). Recheck once again by
clicking single run button to ensure the actual weight in caesar model matches with weight provided
in GA.
In case there is no expansion joint in shell, model element 30-70 with shellside average temperature.
Rest all other parameters will remain the same.
As you are planning for a reboiler piping I am sure you know the modelling of column and attached
piping. So i am not describing it. So model the column and attached piping to make a complete
system as shown in attached figure (Fig. 1).
Supporting Arrangement:
Reboilers may be supported from column or by making a independent structure. In both of the cases
there is possibility to support the reboiler lugs directly on the structure or there may be requirement
of spring hangers (bottom mounted). Sometimes Slot holes and PTFE/graphite sliding plates are
required to reduce frictional effects. So this information need to be informed to equipment vendor.
Location of the lugs to be fixed in such a manner with respect to nozzles, bellows and other
accessories to avoid fouling etc.
If the reboiler is supported on spring supports (See attached figure Fig. 1) then following points need
to be considered:
1)Spring should be designed for cold load condition
2)Cold/Hot Load Conditions should be same for all the springs
3)Spring should be designed keeping in consideration the empty weight of reboiler in case of
standby and steam out case
4)Slotted Holes are not required on lug of reboiler in case of spring support

Fig. 1: Typical Reboiler arrangement supported on a Spring

5)Mirror polished SS plates/PTFE plates if required are to be provided by vendor
6)If the loads on nozzle are quite large because of the back force due to spring in WNC Case, the
Lock Nut (Refer above figure) can be provided on spring to act as limit stop.
7)The required gap shall be input in Caesar as a gap on restraint applied at spring in (negetive Y)
Direction .
8)Stress Engineer has to provide details of Lock Nut (See the figure attached below, Fig 2) and the
loads on nut in Spring Datasheet.

Fig. 2: Typical lock nut arrangement

Load case preparation:
Load cases are to be prepared based on operation possibility. So one must consult with the process
engineer to know all the possible load cases. Normal possibilities are mentioned below:
1. Operating temperature load cases (W+P1+T1)
2. Design temperature load cases (W+P1+T2)
3. Steam out temperature load cases (W+P1+T3)
4. Upset Condition load cases (W+P1+T4) : This condition may arise if fluid is flowing in one part
of the reboiler and no fluid is flowing through the other. Normally during start up this type cases
may appear. Sometimes it may happen that you have to first heat the reboiler shell before you can
start the flow of process fluid through the tubes. Consultation must be done with process engineer
while creating all such load cases.
5. Sustained load cases (W+P1)
6. Prepare all occasional and expansion load cases as per normal project procedure.
It is sometimes required that two or three reboilers of similar type are connected to the same column.
In this case some reboiler may be in stand-by condition. So that situation is also required to be
interpreted while making load cases. So additional load cases need to be added accordingly.
Few Important Notes:
Reboiler column circuit being one of the critical systems from stress analysis point of view one
should take extreme care while analysing such systems. Following notes will help the stress engineer
to take an engineering judgement:
1)All of the junctions between shell & nozzle can be considered as reinforced after confirming from
Mechanical Department
2)If nozzle loads exceed the allowable, loads should be forwarded to mechanical for further
evaluation. Alternatively stress engineer has to perform WRC or FEA to qualify the nozzle loads. It
is better to forward the WRC/FEA output results to Mechanical for their review.
3)Nozzle loads should be checked thoroughly with spring setting when reboiler is standby during
steam out.

4)Flange leakage evaluation should be performed as per client requirement and rating of flanges
should be changed if required, and the same information should be forwarded to Mechanical and
Process Team.
5)Initially the Nozzle loads to be forwarded to mechanical as three times the project specific
pressure vessel loads in Caesar to take care the the upset conditions.
6) The requirement of Spring supports, PTFE/SS plates, Slot holes, Lock nut arrangement etc are to
be marked in Engineering drawing for incorporation to final vendor drawing.
7) Location of lug to be fixed in such a manner with respect to nozzles, bellows and other
accessories to avoid fouling etc.
8) Fouling of Reboiler Nozzle (Shell Outlet) with structure should be checked.

Basics for Fatigue Analysis of Piping System

using Caesar II
Fatigue is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to
cyclic loading. Continued cycling of high stress concentrations may eventually cause a crack which
propagates and results in leakages. This failure mechanism is called fatigue. Damage once done
during the fatigue process is cumulative and normally unrecoverable.
Fatigue can be grouped in two classes; High cycle fatigue and low cycle fatigue.
High cycle fatigue involves little or no plastic action. Therefore, it is stress-governed. Normally, a
fatigue curve (also called the SN curve) is generated for every material by experimental tests which
correlates applied stress with the number of cycles to cause failure. For high-cycle fatigue, the
analysis is performed to determine the endurance limit, which is actually a stress level that can be
applied for an infinite number of times without showing any failure. As a general rule no of cycles
10^5 is considered as demarcation point for high and low cycle fatigue.
The loading cycles applied in piping design are normally very few in the order of a few thousands.
This type of fatigue is identified as low-cycle fatigue. For low-cycle fatigue, the applied stress
normally exceeds the yield strength of the material, which causes plastic instability in the specimen
under test. But when strain is used as the controlled variable, the results in low-cycle region are
reliable as well as reproducible.
Sources of Fatigue:
For Piping system, Cyclic loadings are primarily due to:

Thermal Expansion & Contraction

Vibration due to Occasional loading
Pressure variation within Piping system
Motion wave.
Due to Flow induced Vibration

The fatigue process is divided into three stages: crack initiation from the continued cycling of high
stress concentrations, crack propagation to critical size, and unstable rupture of the section.
Factors Affecting the Fatigue Behavior:
The factors which affect the fatigue behaviour are listed below:

Type and Nature of Loading.

Size of Component and stress or strain Distribution.
Surface finish and Directional Properties.
Stress or Strain Concentration.
Mean stress or Strain.
Environmental Effects.
Metallurgical Factors and Material Properties.
Strain Rate and Frequency Effects.

Characteristics of Low Cycle Fatigue:

Characterized by high loads and a small no. of cycles before failure.

Here failure occurs only with stress levels in the plastic range, i.e. significant plastic strain
occurs during each cycle.
The stresses which cause fatigue failure in the piping are the peak stresses.
In piping design, most of the loading cycles encountered would be of the low cycle type

Characteristics of High Cycle Fatigue:

Characterized by high no. of cycles (Preferable N>104) with relatively low stress levels and
the deformation is in elastic range.
This type of fatigue failure used in the design of rotating machinery.
This type of fatigue results from strain cycles in the elastic range.
A stress level, endurance limit, may be applied an infinite times without failure, is calculated.

Failure Criteria:
While preparing fatigue curves, the strains obtained in the tests are multiplied by one-half of the
elastic modulus to obtain pseudo stress amplitude. This pseudo stress is directly compared with the
stresses calculated on the assumption of elastic behavior of piping. During piping stress analysis, a
stress called the alternating stress (Salt) is used which is defined as one-half of the calculated peak
stress. Fatigue failure can be prevented by ensuring that the number of load cycles (N) associated
with a specific alternating stress is less than the number allowed in the SN curve or endurance
curve. But in practical service conditions a piping system is subjected to alternating stresses of
different magnitudes. These changes in magnitudes make the direct use of the fatigue curves
inapplicable since the curves are based on constant-stress amplitude.
Fatigue tests of metallic materials and structures have provided the following main clues to the basic
nature of fatigue:

Fatigue failure, or cracking under repeated stress much lower than the ultimate tensile
strength, is shown in most metals and alloys that exhibit some ductility in static tests. The
magnitude of the applied alternating stress range is the controlling fatigue life parameter.
Failure depends upon the number of repetitions of a given range of stress rather than the total
time under load. The speed of loading is a factor of secondary importance, except at elevated
temperatures.
Some metals, including ferrous alloys, have a safe range of stress. Below this stress, called
the endurance limit or fatigue limit, failure does not occur irrespective of the number of
stress cycles.
Notches, grooves, or other discontinuities of section greatly decrease the stress amplitude that
can be sustained for a given number of cycles.
The range of stress necessary to produce failure in a fixed number of cycles usually decrease
as the mean tension stress of the loading cycle is increased.
Examination of fatigue fracture shows evidence of microscopic deformation, ever in the
apparently brittle region of origin and propagates of the crack. The plastic deformation that
accompanies a spreading fatigue crack is usually limited in extent to regions very near the
crack.

Therefore, to make fatigue curves applicable for piping, some alternate approach is necessary.

One hypothesis asserts that the damage fraction of any stress level S, is linearly proportional to the
Ratio of the number of cycles of operation at the stress level to the total number of cycles that would
produce failure at that stress level. This means that failure is predicted to occur if
U1.0 where U= Usage factor = (ni/Ni) for all stress levels
Where, ni= number of cycles operating at stress level i
Ni= number of cycles to failure at stress level i as per material fatigue curve.
Analysis Requirement:
If there are two or more types of stress cycles which produce significant stresses, their cumulative
effect shall be evaluated as stipulated in Steps 1 through 6 below:
1. Designate the specified number of times each type of stress cycle of types 1,2,3,,n, will be
Repeated during the life of the component as n1, n2, n3,., nn, respectively. In
determining n1, n2, n3,., nn, consideration shall be given to the superposition of cycles
of various origins which produce the greatest total alternating stress range. For example , if
one type of stress cycle produce 1000 cycles of a stress variation from zero to +60,000 psi
and another type of stress cycle produces 10,000 cycles of a stress variation from zero to 50,000 psi, the two cycles to be considered are shown below:

cycle type 1: n1=1000 and Salt1= (60000+50000)/2

cycle type 2: n2=9000 and Salt2= (0+50000)/2
For each type of stress cycle, determine the alternating stress intensity Salt, which for our
application is one half of the range between the expansion stress cycles (as shown above).
These alternating stress intensities are designated as Salt1, Salt2, Saltn.
On the applicable design fatigue curve find the permissible number of cycles for each Salt
computed. These are designated as N1, N2, .Nn.
For each stress cycle calculate the usage factor U1, U2, .Un where U1= n1/N1, U2=
n2/N2,..Un=nn/Nn.
Calculate the cumulative usage factor U as U=U1+U2+.+Un.
The cumulative usage factor shall not exceed 1.0

Step by Step Method of Fatigue Analysis of a

Piping System Using Caesar II
This article will explain the step by step methodology of actual analysis steps which need to be
followed during fatigue analysis using Caesar II. Before I start the analysis steps, a short description
of typical fatigue curves are required from where we have to take the allowable limit for fatigue
analysis.
Fatigue Curve:
Plot of Cyclic Stress capacity of a material is called fatigue curve, also known as S-N curve. ASME
Section VIII Div 2 Provide fatigue curve for various material.

Fatigue design curves are generated from test data by applying large safety margins to the average
property curve.
While considering material fatigue in design, an additional safety margin is often applied against the
cycles-to-failure at a given stress amplitude. As an example, if a component is cycled continuously
over the same stress range (Any constant stress range), a design limit on allowable (permitted) cycles
may correspond to the cycle life multiplied by a factor (safety margin) such as 0.8. This is the
common safety margin employed in vessel and piping design.
For every material, a fatigue curve is normally generated by experimental analysis which correlates
peak stress range with the number of cycles to failure.

The alternating stress Sa is defined as one-half of the calculated peak stress.

As already mentioned in my last article that fatigue failure may be prevented by ensuring that the
number of load cycles N that the system experiences are fewer (lower) than the number permitted for
the alternating stress developed.
The cumulative effect shall be evaluated in case if there are two or more types of stress cycles which
produce significant stresses. The material fatigue resistance at a given applied stress or strain range
is a function of a number of factors, including material strength and ductility.When to perform
Fatigue
Analysis:
Normally the fatigue analysis is performed for existing plants to evaluate actual cause for any
failure. For new plants the analysis can be performed only if the project specification permits to do
so. Refer project guidelines on the application requirement for fatigue analysis. Before starting the
analysis be ready with following data which will be required during analysis:

Fatigue Curve of the piping material

Enough process data for finding the total number of cycles throught the design life of the
piping system.

Steps for Fatigue Analysis using Caesar II:

Assigning the fatigue curve data to the Piping Material in use: This is done on the
Allowable auxiliary screen. Fatigue data may be entered directly, or can be read from a text
file by clicking the Fatigue Curves Button. Seven commonly used curves are available in
\Caesar\System\*.Fat. (For Ceasar version 2012 and 2013 you may not find it in few
computers, But these are available in earlier versions) Fatigue curves provide series of S-N
data which define the allowable stress with given anticipated cycle and vise versa.
Defining the fatigue load cases: For this purposes, a new stress type, FAT, has been already
defined in Caesar II database. For every fatigue case, the number of cycles anticipated must
also be entered in appropriate space.
Calculation of the fatigue stresses: Caesar II automatically does this claculation for us. The
fatigue stresses, unless explicitly defined by the applicable code are same as Caesar II
calculated stress intensity (Max Stress Intensity), in order to conform to the requirement of
ASME section VIII, Division 2 Appendix 5.
Determination of the fatigue stress allowables: The allowable stresses for fatigue analysis
are required to be interpolated logarithmically from the fatigue curve based upon the number
of cycles (throughout its life) designated in the fatigue load cases. The calculated stress is
assumed to be a peak-to-peak cycle value (i.e., thermal expansion, settlement, pressure, etc)
for static load cases, so the allowable stress can be extracted directly from fatigue curve. On
the other hand for harmonic and dynamic load cases, the calculated stress is assumed to be a
zeroto-peak cycle value (i.e., vibration, earthquake, etc), so the extracted allowable need to
be divided by 2 prior to use in the comparison.
Determination of the allowable number of cycles: The flip side of calculating the
allowable fatigue stress for the designated number of cycles is the calculation of the
allowable number of cycles for the calculated stress level. This is done be logarithmically
interpolating the Cycles axis of the fatigue curve based upon the calculated stress value.
Since static stresses are assumed to be peak-to-peak cycle values, the allowable number of
cycles is interpolated directly from the fatigue curve. Since harmonic and dynamic stresses
are assumed to be zero-to-peak cyclic values, the allowable number of cycles is interpolated
using twice the calculated stress value.
Reporting the analysis results: Caesar II provides two reports for viewing the results of
load cases of stress type FAT; standard stress report and cumulative usage report. The first of
these is the standard stress report for displaying the calculated fatigue stress and the fatigue
allowable at each node. Stress reports could be generated individually for each load case and
show whether any of the individual load cases in isolation would fail the system or not.
However, in situations where there is more than one cyclic load case potentially contributing
to fatigue failure, the cumulative usage report is more appropriate. In order to generate this
report, the user should select all of the FAT load cases which contributes to the overall
system degradation (possible failure). The cumulative usage report lists for each node point
the usage ratio (actual cycles divided by allowable cycles), and then sums (combines) these
up for total cumulative Usage. A total value greater than 1.0 indicates a potential fatigue
failure.
I am sure the above write up is confusing for many of you. That is why I will prepare a case
study of this analysis for you (along with Caesar II figures) and publish in my next article
which will clarify the analysis steps more clearly

Case Study for Fatigue Analysis in Caesar II

for a typical piping system
I have taken up this topic to explain the fatigue analysis (Click here to read the basic article on Fatigue
Analysis) methodology using caesar II with an example problem of a typical piping system. To perform
fatigue analysis we need to calculate the thermal and pressure fluctuations the piping system will undergo in
its design life. We have to calculate the worst possible cycles from preliminary data provided by
process/operation department. Lets assume we received the following data from process for a typical piping
system.

Operating cycle from ambient (40C) to 425C (400,000 cycles anticipated)

Shutdown external temperature variation from ambient (40C) to -20C (300,000 cycles anticipated)
Pressurization to 5.5 Bars (400,000 cycles anticipated)
Pressure fluctuations of plus/minus 1.5 Bars from the 5.5 Bars (1,000,000 cycles anticipated)

Now, in order to do a proper fatigue analysis, these should be grouped in sets of load pairs which represent
the worst-case combination of stress ranges between extreme states which we can do in the following way
(Refer Attached Figure, Fig.1 for proper understanding):

Fig. 1: Explanation of worst case cycle combination for fatigue analysis

From -20C, 0 Bars to 425C, 7 Bars. 300,000 Cycles

From 40C, 0 Bars to 425C, 7 Bars.: 100,000 Cycles
From 425C, 4 Bars to 425C, 7 Bars: 600,000 Cycles
From 425C, 4 Bars to 425C, 5.5 Bars: 400,000 Cycles

So in Caesar II we can define the above data as follows (Refer Fig. 2):
T1= 425C; T2= -20C
P1= 5.5 Bar; P2= 4 Bar and P3= 7 Bar

Fig.2: Caesar II spreadsheet explaining the input requirement

Now go to the load case editor and define load cases as shown in Fig.3 for fatigue analysis.
Click on load cycles button to input the number of cycles calculated above.

Fig.3: Load cases for Fatigue Analysis

Dont forget that all load cases with stress type FAT (for fatigue) must have their expected number of Load
Cycles specified.
After load cases are prepared run the analysis and find out the results from output processor. Part of the
output results are provided in the below attached figures for your reference (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5)
The fatigue stress range (Maximum Stress Intensity as calculated in Expansion stress case) may be checked
against the fatigue curve allowable for each fatigue load case as shown in Fig 4.

Fig 4: Output Screen showing stress range

However, this is not a true evaluation of the situation, because it is not a case of either-or. The piping
system is subjected to all of these load cases throughout its expected design life, not just one of them.
Therefore, we must review the Cumulative Usage report, which shows the total effect of all fatigue load
cases (or any combination selected by the user) on the design life of the system. Refer Fig 5 for example.

Fig. 5: Output Screen showing Cumulative usage factor

This report lists for each load case the expected number of cycles, the allowable number of cycles (based
upon the calculated stress), and the Usage Ratio (actual cycles divided by allowable cycles). The Usage Ratios
are then summed for all selected load cases; if this sum exceeds 1.0, the system has exceeded its fatigue
capabilities.

Static Analysis of Slug flow: A Presentation for

Beginners
The purpose of this article is to explain the static analysis of slug flow using Caesar II. This article
will cover the following points in brief:

Introduction
Calculation of Slug Force
Static Analysis
Inputs Required
Assumptions
Case Study showing an example

INTRODUCTION

Slug Flow is typical two phase flow where a wave is picked up periodically by the rapidly
moving gas to form a frothy slug, which passes along the pipe at a greater velocity than the
average liquid velocity.
In this type of flow, slugs can cause severe and, in some cases, dangerous vibrations in
piping systems because of the impact of the high-velocity slugs against fittings such as bend,
Tee etc.
Slug flows generate dynamic fluid forces, which may induce structural vibration.

Slug Flow

Excessive vibration may lead to component failures due to fatigue or resonance.

Such vibration problem may be avoided by thorough analysis, preferably at design stage.
Two types of Analysis Methods are prevalent- o Static Analysis and o Dynamic Analysis
Examples of Slug flow: o Vacuum Transfer Lines o Condenser Outlet Lines o Re-boiler
Return Lines o Fired Heater outlets o Boiler Blow down lines.

SLUG FORCE

Slug force is equal to the change in momentum with respect to time. Refer the below
attached figure:

Diagram Showing Slug Force Application

Use the following equations to calculate Slug Force.

Multiply the calculated value with a suitable DLF. Normally a DLF of 2.0 is common to use.

Diagram Showing Slug Force Equation

STATIC ANALYSIS
INPUTS REQUIRED FOR ANALYSIS:

Stress isometrics of complete system.

Line parameters such as line temperatures, pressures, fluid density, pipe material, corrosion
allowance, insulation thickness, density etc.
Parameters required for Slug force calculation like slug density or liquid density, two phase
velocity etc.
Nozzle allowable if connected to equipment.

ASSUMPTIONS FOR ANALYSIS:

It is assumed that the slug is formed across the full cross section of the pipe for the maximum
impact. This configuration is least probable for vertically down word flow as no hold up is
possible for accumulation of liquid and eventual formation of slug. Hence slug force at
elbows for vertically downward flow lines are not considered.
It is assumed that the reader knows normal static analysis of piping system using Caesar II.

CASE STUDY FOR ANALYSIS:

Lets assume the shown system is subjected to slug flow. The parameters for the pipe are as
mentioned below:

Pipe: A106B, 6, Sch 40

CA=3 mm
T1=100 degree C
T2=75 degree C
P1=15 bar
Liquid Density=950 Kg/m^3
Two phase Velocity=10.53 m/s

Stress System under consideration

After modeling the piping system following conventional method we have to calculate the slug force
and apply the same into the system. Normally all organizations have their excel spreadsheet to
calculate Slug Force. A typical excel spreadsheet for slug force calculation is shown in the below
attached figure for your reference.

Excel Spreadsheet for Slug force calculation

So if we use a DLF of 2 then each of axial and orthogonal force will be 4240N. We have to
incorporate this force in Caesar II input spreadsheet. Check the below mentioned figure for direction
of forces.

Slug force in Bends with Application direction

Now we will input the axial and orthogonal forces at all changes in direction as shown in attached
figure.

To enter forces click on the Forces button in Caesar II spreadsheet.

Provide the node number and magnitude of forces with proper direction.
Similarly input forces in all bends (other than vertically downward bends).

Caesar Spreadsheet Showing input methodology of Slug Force

Next step is to prepare the required load cases. Few additional load cases need to be prepared for
static analysis of slug force. The same has been shown in the below mentioned figure.

Caesar II Load cases for Slug Flow Analysis

Prepare the load cases as mentioned in the figure.

Make stress types as occasional
Use combination methods as Scalar

OUTPUT REPORT

Additionally We have to check code compliance for load cases L14 to L17 and ensure that
the values are well within code allowable values.
We have to check forces and displacements for load cases L1 to L9.
Refer below mentioned figures for reference:

Caesar II Code compliance check report

Caesar II Restraint Summary check report

Keep all stresses, forces and displacements within allowable limit. If exceeds then try iteration with support
location change, support type change or routing change.

Slug Flow Analysis Using Dynamic Spectrum

Method in Caesar II
For dynamic analysis Caesar II software provides a very nice module, dynamic module where we
have to simply provide the input parameters to get the output result. Before you start the dynamic
analysis you have to perform conventional static analysis of the system (without using any slug
force) and qualify the system from all criteria. To open the dynamic module in Caesar II click on
dynamic analysis button as shown in Fig.1.

Fig. 1: Opening the Dynamic Module in Caesar II

When you click on the dynamic analysis button following window (Fig.2) will open. Select Slug
Flow (Spectrum) from drop down menu. The window will be filled with some pre-existing data. For
clarity simply select all those and delete. Now we have to provide inputs for analysis.

Fig. 2: Selecting Slug Flow Module in Caesar II

During dynamic analysis our first input will be the generation of spectrum profile. Slug load is one
type of impulse load. So the magnitude of load varies from zero to some maximum value, remains
constant for a time and then reduces to zero again. The force profile can be represented by a curve as
shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3: Graphical Representation of Slug Force Profile

So from the above profile it is clear that in addition to slug force (Refer Static method of Slug Flow
using Caesar II for calculation of slug force), we need to calculate two additional parameters, a) Slug
Duration and b) Slug Periodicity.
1. Slug Duration: Slug duration is defined as the time required for the slug to cross the elbow.
Mathematically it can be denoted as, Slug Duration=Length of Liquid Slug/Velocity of Flow.
2. Slug Periodicity: Slug Periodicity can be defined as the time interval for two consecutive
slugs hitting the same elbow. So mathematically it can be denoted as, Slug Periodicity =
(Length of Liquid Slug + Length of Gas Slug)/Velocity of Flow.
Lets assume that the calculated slug duration is 8 milliseconds and periodicity is 400 milliseconds
as shown in Fig. 3. We will use these data for generation of spectrum profile.
Now Refer Fig. 4 and input the data as mentioned below:

Fig.4: Generation of Spectrum Profile for Slug flow Analysis

When you click on Enter Pulse data it will open the window where we have to enter the data for
spectrum profile generation. From the above curve at time 0 the force is 2120 N the same force will
be active for next 8 milliseconds till the slug crosses the elbow. Then at time 8.1 forces will be
reduced to zero. And the same zero force will be there till 400 milliseconds. Then the next cycle will
start. i.e, at time 400.1 seconds the force will be again 2120 N. That way enter data for at least two
cycles as shown in Fig. 5:

Fig.5: Typical Spectrum Profile for Slug flow Analysis

Clicking Save / Continue button will convert the time history into its equivalent force
response spectrum in terms of Dynamic Load Factor versus Frequency and the screen
Spectrum Table Values as shown in Fig. 5 will appear.
Be sure to specify a unique spectrum name, as this processor will overwrite any existing files
of the same name.
By clicking OK, the processor will load the appropriate data in the Spectrum Definitions tab
in Dynamic Input and move the data to the dynamic input

Once the spectrum profile is generated click on force sets button and enter the slug force with proper
direction in the fields as shown in Fig. 6:

Fig.6: Entering slug forces for dynamic slug flow analysis.

Click on the + button to add more rows and button to delete rows.
In force set field input a numeric id which will be used to construct dynamic load cases.

After that click on Spectrum load cases menu and create the required load cases for dynamic
analysis. You have to specify at least two load cases as shown.

Operating + Dynamic for nozzle and support load checking.

Sustained + Dynamic for stress checking.

Refer Fig. 7 for load case preparation

Fig. 7: Load Case preparation for dynamic slug flow analysis

Finally click on control parameters button and select the load case for which you want to perform the
analysis. Normally operating load case is selected (Refer Fig. 8) for dynamic analysis. Keep all other
parameters as it is. Now click on batch run to obtain the analysis results. Fig 9 shows a typical
analysis results.

Fig.8: Selecting the load case for slug flow analysis

Fig. 9: Typical Dynamic Slug Flow Output Reports

This figure shows a typical output screen for dynamic slug flow analysis.
The highlighted node 10 is for nozzle.
All support and nozzle loads to be checked.
Stresses to be kept below code allowable values.
The highlighted direction sign will show other load case combinations.

Few Important Points:

1. Vibration due to any two phase flow can be reduced / arrested by proper supporting of the
piping system. Normally following supports are used:

HOLD DOWN SUPPORTS WITH 0 GAP

GUIDE SUPPORTS WITH 0 GAP

AXIAL STOPS WITH 0 GAP

Whenever modifying any support perform static analysis and keep the system stresses within
allowable limit.
2. Sometimes Vibration Absorbing Material (like PTFE) is used to reduce the Transfer of
vibration to connected systems.
3. It is preferred to keep natural frequency of piping system above 4 Hz for Vibration prone
lines.
4. The formation of Slug Flow can be reduced:

By reducing line sizes to a minimum permitted by available pressure differentials.

By using a low point effluent drain or bypass.
By arranging the pipe configurations to protect against slug flow. E.g. in a pocketed line
where liquid can collect, slug flow might develop. Hence pocket is to be avoided

Modal Frequency checking Method (Modal

Analysis) using Caesar II
While performing stress analysis for process piping you might have come across the term two phase
flow. The stress analysis basis or flexibility specification of most of the relevant organization
informs the stress engineers to properly support these lines using hold-downs, guides and axial stops.
The main reason is that two phase flow lines are vibration prone lines. Many organizations prefer to
keep the natural frequency of those lines in excess of 4 Hz to reduce the possibility of vibration.
Now the question is how to calculate the natural frequency of the complex piping system?
There comes the importance of a Caesar II dynamic module called Modal analysis module. The
complex job of calculating the natural frequency of the piping system becomes very easy with the
use of this module. The vibration response or dynamic response of any system can be easily
determined using modal analysis. In actual case, Modal analysis breaks up a complex system into a
number of modes of vibration, each of which is having a unique vibration response. This article will
elaborate the steps followed for performing modal analysis module using Caesar II
To start the modal analysis you must have a stress system. So from isometric model the system
following conventional methods and perform the static analysis and make the system safe in all
respect with respect to static analysis. Now follow the below mentioned steps for dynamic Modal
analysis.

Click on Analysis-Dynamic Analysis as shown in Fig. 1 to open the dynamic module in

Caesar II. It will open the window which is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig.1: Starting Dynamic Module in Caesar II

Fig.2: Selection of Modal Analysis in Dynamic Module in Caesar II

Now click on Analysis type and select Modal from the drop down menu. You will get the
following window as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3: Modal Analysis in Caesar II

You will get four input spreadsheets as lumped masses, snubbers, control parameters and
advanced.
Click on Control parameters and it will open the window shown in Fig. 4.
Change the frequency cut off to your desired frequency based on your project specification.
If you need to arrest all frequencies below 5 Hz and set that value as 5.
Now select the static load case for which you want to extract the natural frequencies.
Normally it is advisable to select the operating temperature case.

Fig.4: Input data for Dynamic Modal Analysis

Now you are set for analysis, So click on the run button similar to what you do for static
analysis. The analysis will extract all the natural frequencies which the piping system will

experience below your cut off frequency values. Fig. 5 shows such a typical modal run
screen.

Fig.5: A Typical Caesar run result of modal analysis

After analysis run is complete the output screen will open. Select Natural frequencies to
check the extracted natural frequencies of the system. Most of the time we check the
animation view to get a feel of the actual vibration process. So select Natural frequencies and
then click on animation button as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig.6: Selection of animation button during Modal Analysis

In the animation view check how the system is experiencing vibration. Accordingly provide
supporting. Normally guide and line stop supports with zero gaps will be required to arrest
the vibration frequencies. Accordingly provide supporting. Sometimes hold down supports
will be required.
As soon as you will provide guide and line stop supports the system will become more rigid
and expansion stresses will increase. So each time you change some support type you have to
perform static analysis and make the system safe from all consideration and then proceed to
dynamic module

Few Important points for Stress Analysis based

on ASME B 31.4
All my previous articles in this website describe stress analysis methodology using Caesar II based
on ASME B 31.3. But I received requests from few pipeline engineers to describe the methodology
based on ASME B 31.4. So I am trying to explain few guidelines for performing stress analysis
based on ASME B 31.4. Hope it will be helpful for you.
ASME B31.4 covers piping systems transporting liquids. The stress analysis of a pipeline is quite
different from that of plant piping. The most fundamental difference between pipeline and plant
piping is the very long length of the pipeline. A pipeline with kilometres in length has the potential
of producing a very large amount of expansion. A reasonable estimate of the movement and its
interaction with the end resistance force afforded by connecting piping and equipment are very
important aspects in designing a pipeline. The salient points for stress analysis I feel are as follows:

B 31.4 code addresses analysis of lines within temperature range starting from -20 degree
centigrade till 120 degree centigrade.
There are no Sh values similar to B 31.3. A pipeline normally runs for several kilometres
without any fittings attached. Because of such simplicity, the stress in the majority portion of
a pipeline is quite predictable. Taking advantage of this characteristic, the codes allowable
stress for a pipeline is greatly increased, as compared to that for plant piping. All allowable
values are linked with Sy (Specified Minimum Yield Strength) as the allowable stress of a
pipeline is mainly to protect the pipe from gross deformation. Whenever you select B 31.4 in
Caesar II all Sh value fields become grey.
The following equations are used to calculate various stress allowable:

o Expansion Allowable=(0.72) (Sy)

o Sustained Allowable=(0.75) (0.72) (Sy)
o Occasional Allowable=(0.8) (Sy)
o Operating Allowable=(0.9) (Sy)

Pressure elongation of pipe line is also important along with expansion elongation and need
to be taken care. Caesar II automatically does this whenever you select B 31.4 code.
There is nothing like liberal stress in B 31.4
The modelling procedure is similar. Whenever material is selected the Sy value
automatically filled from Caesar database. However you have to input the Design
multiplication factor (Fac) value additionally. Fac value indicates whether the pipe is
restrained, such as long or buried, or unrestrained. Fac should be 1.0, 0.0, or 0.001.

o This value should be one for pipe under complete axial restraint. This value should be one when
the pipe is fully restrained, such as buried for a long distance.

o The default value for Fac is 0.0

When Fac is 0.001, this indicates to CAESAR II that the pipe is buried but that the soil supports
have been modelled. This causes the hoop stress component, rather than the longitudinal stress, to be
added to the operating stresses if the axial stress is compressive.

Some parts of the lines are buried or underground and some parts are aboveground. So you
need to understand the soil pipe interaction for buried parts. Soil properties need to be taken
from Civil/Geotechnical team while performing stress analysis of underground piping.
For underground piping there should be some minimum depth of cover as per B 31.4
depending on location of pipeline.

Basics for Stress Analysis of Underground

Piping using Caesar II
Underground or buried piping are all piping which runs below grade. In every process industry there
will be few lines (Sewer or drainage system, Sanitary and Storm Water lines, Fire water or drinking
water lines etc), part of which normally runs underground. However the term buried piping or
underground piping, in true sense, appears for pipeline industry as miles of long pipe run carrying
fluids will be there.
Analyzing an underground pipe line is quite different from analyzing plant piping. Special problems
are involved because of the unique characteristics of a pipeline, code requirements and techniques
required in analysis. Elements of analysis include pipe movements, anchorage force, soil friction,
lateral soil force and soil pipe interaction.
To appreciate pipe code requirements and visualize problems involved in pipe line stress analysis, it
is necessary to first distinguish a pipe line from plant piping. Unique characteristics of a pipe line
include:

High allowable stress: A pipe line has a rather simple shape. It is circular and very often runs
several miles before making a turn. Therefore, the stresses calculated are all based on simple
static equilibrium formulas which are very reliable. Since stresses produced are predictable,
allowable stress used is considerable higher than that used in plant piping.
High yield strength pipe: To raise the allowable, the first obstacle is yield strength. Although
a pipe line operating beyond yield strength may not create structural integrity problems, it
may cause undesirable excessive deformation and possibility of strain follow up. Therefore,
high test line with a very high yield to ultimate strength ratio is normally used in pipe line
construction. Yield strength in some pipe can be as high as 80 percent of ultimate strength.
All allowable stresses are based only on yield strength.
High pressure elongation: Movement of pipe line is normally due to expansion of a very long
line at low temperature difference. Pressure elongation, negligible in plant piping, contributes
much of the total movement and must be included in the analysis.
Soil- pipe interaction: The main portion of a pipe line is buried underground. Any pipe
movement has to overcome soil force, which can be divided into two categories: Friction
force created from sliding and pressure force resulting from pushing. The major task of pipe
line analysis is to investigate soil- pipe interaction which has never been a subject in plant
piping analysis.

Normally these lines does not have high design temperatures (of the order of 60 to 80 degree
centigrade) and only thermal stress checking is sufficient for underground part. Common materials
used for underground piping are Carbon Steel, Ductile iron, cast Iron, Stainless Steel and FRP/GRP.
In this article I will try to explain the steps followed while analysing such systems using Caesar II.
However this article does not cover the basic theory for analysis.

Inputs Required for Analysis:

Before proceeding for analysis of buried piping using Caesar II collect the following information
from related department
1. Isometric drawings or GA drawings of the pipeline from Piping layout Department.
2. Line parameters (Temperature, Pressure, Material, Fluid Density, etc) from process Department.
3. Soil Properties from Civil Department.
Caesar II for Underground Piping Analysis:
The CAESAR II underground pipe modeler is designed to simplify user input of buried pipe data. To
achieve this objective the Modeler performs the following functions for analyst:

Allows the direct input of soil properties. The Modeler contains the equations for buried
pipe stiffnesses that are outlined later in this report. These equations are used to calculate first
the stiffnesses on a per length of pipe basis, and then generate the restraints that simulate the
discrete buried pipe restraint.
Breaks down straight and curved lengths of pipe to locate soil restraints. CAESAR II uses a
zone concept to break down straight and curved sections. Where transverse bearing is a
concern (near bends, tees, and entry/exit points), soil restraints are located in close proximity
and where axial load dominates, soil restraints are spaced far apart.
Allows the direct input of user-defined soil stiffnesses on a per length of pipe basis. Input
parameters include axial, transverse, upward, and downward stiffnesses, as well as ultimate
loads. Users can specify user-defined stiffnesses separately, or in conjunction with CAESAR
IIs automatically generated soil stiffnesses.

Modeling steps followed in Caesar II:

The modeling of buried piping is very easy if you have all the data at your hand. The following steps
are followed for modeling:

From the isometric model the line in the same way as you follow in case of above ground
pipe model i.e, enter line properties in Caesar Spreadsheet, enter lengths by breaking the line
into several nodes or select an existing job for converting it into an underground model.
Analyst can start the Buried Pipe Modeler by selecting an existing job and then choosing
Input-Underground from the CAESAR II Main Menu. The Modeler is designed to read a
standard CAESAR II input data file that describes the basic layout of the piping system as if
it was not buried. From this basic input CAESAR II creates a second input data file that
contains the buried pipe model. This second input file typically contains a much larger
number of elements and restraints than the first job. The first job that serves as the pattern
is termed the original job. The second file that contains the element mesh refinement and the
buried pipe restraints is termed the buried job. CAESAR II names the buried job by
appending a B to the name of the original job.
When the Buried Pipe Modeler is initially started up, the following screen appears:

Fig. 1: Sample Caesar II Spreadsheet for Buried Piping

This spreadsheet is used to enter the buried element descriptions for the job. The buried element
description spreadsheet serves several functions:

Allows analyst to define which part of the piping system is buried.

Allows analyst to define mesh spacing at specific element ends.
Allows the input of user-defined soil stiffnesses.

From/ To node:Any element of pipe in CAESAR II can be define by two elements first is start point and second is
end point. In buried pipe model, before conversion the From/ To nodes remains same as unburied
model.
Soil model no. :This column is used to define which of the elements in the model are buried. A nonzero entry in this
column implies that the associated element is buried. A 1 in this column implies that the analyst
wishes to enter user defined stiffnesses, on a per length of pipe basis, at this point in the model.
These stiffnesses must follow in column numbers 6 through 13. Any number greater than 1 in the
soil model no. column points to a CAESAR II soil restraint model generated using the equations
outlined later under Soil Models from analyst entered soil data.
From/ To mesh type:A critical part of the modeling of an underground piping system is the proper definition of Zone 1
bearing regions. These regions primarily occur:

 On either side of a change in direction

For all pipes framing into an intersection
At points where the pipe enters or leaves the soil
CAESAR II automatically puts a Zone 1 mesh gradient at each side of the pipe framing into an
elbow. Note it is the analysts responsibility to tell CAESAR II where the other Zone 1 areas are
located in the piping system.
User defined stiffness & ultimate load :There are 13 columns in the spreadsheet. Column 6 to 13 carry the user defined soil stiffnesses and
ultimate loads if analyst defines soil model 1. Analyst has to enter lateral, axial, upward, downward
stiffnesses & loads.
Procedure :1. Select the original job and enter the buried pipe modeler. The original job must already exist,
and will serve as the basis for the new buried pipe model. The original model should only
contain the basic geometry of the piping system to be buried. The modeler will remove any
existing restraints (in the buried portion). Add any underground restraints to the buried
model. Rename the buried job if CAESAR II default name is not appropriate.
2. Enter the soil data using Soil Models.
3. Describe the sections of the piping system that are buried, and define any required fine mesh
areas using the buried element data spreadsheet.
4. Convert the original model into the buried model by the activation of option Convert Input.
This step produces a detailed description of the conversion.
5. Exit the Buried Pipe Modeler and return to the CAESAR II Main Menu. From here the
analyst may perform the analysis of the buried pipe job.
The steps to create soil model and few other important considerations will be published in future posts on
underground piping analysis.

Underground Piping Stress Analysis Procedure

using Caesar II
Inputs Required: Like all other systems you need to model the piping system in Caesar II initially
following the same conventional method. So you need the following inputs:

Piping isometrics or GA drawings with dimensions.

Pipe parameters like temperature, pressure, material, diameter, thickness, corrosion
allowance, fluid density etc.
Additionally you need the following soil parameters from civil department (geo-technology
department) for creation of soil model.

o Friction Co-efficient o Soil Density o Buried depth to Top of Pipe and o Friction Angle

Equipment/Valve GA drawings as per application.

Modelling of the system:

Model the piping system from isometrics/GA drawings using the pipe parameters.
Normally some part of the system will be above ground and some part will be buried. Lets
take an example of a typical system for easy understanding. Refer Fig 1. The stress system
consists of 24 inch CS pipe connected to tank. The parts inside the rectangle are above
ground and remaining parts are underground.
Create a distinct node at all the junction points of underground and above ground piping.
After you complete your model, save it, close and then enter the buried model by clicking the
Underground Pipe modeler button as shown in Fig.2.

Fig.1: Typical Caesar II system for underground piping analysis

Fig.2: Opening the underground pipe modeler.

Once you click on the underground pipe modeler the following screen (Fig. 3) will open.
You will find all your input node numbers listed there.

Fig.3: Underground Soil modeler input screen

Now your task is to create the soil model and input data received from civil. On clicking Soil
Models button (Highlighted in Fig.3) you will get the window where you have to enter the
data. You have two options to select as soil model type, Americal Lifelines alliance and
caesar II Basic Model. We will use Caesar II basic model for this article. So select Caesar II
Basic model. The modeler uses the values that you define to compute axial, lateral, upward,
and downward stiffnesses, along with ultimate loads. Each set of soil properties is identified

by a unique soil model number, starting with the number 2. The soil model number is used in
the buried element descriptions to tell CAESAR II in what type of soil the pipe is buried.
You can enter up to 15 different soil model numbers in any one buried pipe job. Input the
parameters as shown in Fig. 4. If you require to add more soil models simply click on add
new soil model. Overburden compaction factor, Yield displacement factor and thermal
expansion co-efficient will automatically be filled by default. You need to input all other
fields. However, defining a value for TEMPERATURE CHANGE is optional. If entered the
thermal strain is used to compute the theoretical virtual anchor length. Leave undrained
sheer strength field blank. After all data has been entered click on ok button.

Fig.4: Caesar II Basic Soil Model

Now inform Caesar II about the underground and above ground parts by selecting the nodes
and defining proper soil model number. If you enter 0 as soil model number, the element is
not buried. If you enter 1, then specify the buried soil stiffnesss per length basis in column 6
through 13. (preferable do not use 1). If you enter a number greater than 1, the software
points to a CAESAR II soil restraint model generated using the equations outlined in Soil
Models of Caesar II. Refer Fig. 5 for example. After all aboveground and underground parts
along with proper soil model number are defined click on convert button and Caesar II will
create the underground model.

Fig.5: Buried Model Input Spreadsheet in Caesar II

When underground model conversion is over you will get the buried model. By default,
Caesar II appends the name of the job with the letter B. For example, if the original job is
named System1, the software saves the second input file with the name System1B. If the
default name is not appropriate, you can rename the buried job.
In the buried part Caesar II models bi-linear restraints with stiffness values which the
software calculates while conversion into buried model. Refer Fig.6 to check the buried
model of the system shown in Fig.1. These stiffness values depend on the distance between
the nodes.
Now open the file (original file appended by B) and perform static analysis in the same
conventional way and qualify the system from code requirements.

Fig.6: Buried model of the system shown in Fig.1

Few Important points to keep in mind:

Typical values of friction angle are as follows:

o Clay 0 o

Silt 26-25 o Sand 27-45

Typical friction coefficient values are

Silt 0.4

Sand 0.5
Gravel 0.6
Clay 0.6

The default value of overburden compaction multiplier is 8. However this number can be
reduced depending on the degree of compaction of the backfill. Backfill efficiency can be
approximated using the proctor number, defined in most soils text books. Standard practice is
to multiple the proctor number by 8 and use the result as the compaction multiplier.
After entering data in soil model when you click ok, the Caesar II software saves the soil data
in a file with the extension SOI.
During the process of creating the buried model, the modeler removes any restraints in the
buried section. Any additional restraints in the buried section can be entered in the resulting
buried model. The buried job, if it exists, is overwritten by the successful generation of a
buried pipe model. It is the buried job that is eventually run to compute displacements and
stresses.
Caesar II removes the density from the buried part model while converting into buried
model.

Reporting or proper documentation of a stress

system for issuing to client
Proper documentation of the stress calculation performed using Caesar II or any other stress analysis
software is very important as the report or documents are the final deliverable to client. So one
should incorporate each and every details of analysis, assumptions if any, basis of design etc. in the
final report. Every organization must have their standard format of reporting but the same changes
slightly from project to project depending on client requirement. In this article I will try to highlight
major points which must be included in the final report before sending to client for approval.

Each final report starts with a very nice front page. The front page normally includes the
project name; project no, client name with logo, PMC name with logo and the performing
organization or EPC consultant name with logo. It should also include the name of the stress
system and system number for which report is prepared.
In the 2nd page normally it is better to include a table with revision details, name of
performer, checker and approver along with signature and report issue date. It informs the
client about responsible persons who are performing the analysis.
Next sheet or page should include a brief content of all the major points with page numbers
which are included in the report. From this page the client will be able to know whether all
relevant points are incorporated and considered in the analysis or not.
From next page onwards, the actual analysis report of each stress system starts. Broadly the
report should include the following major points:

1. Project Background: the project background can be included in 3-4 sentences highlighting
major points of the project. Many organizations use this as starting point of introduction part
of the report. However I personally do not prefer to include it.
2. Document Scope and Purpose: Every document must start stating the objective/ scope and
purpose of the document. In this part you can include the major system description. A typical
objective is included here for your reference: The main objective of this document is to
furnish the findings of stress analysis performed on SYS-001 (Line 42-P-XXXXX-XXXXX
line routed from Tie-in XXXX to Tank (T-XXXXX) inlet nozzle. In a similar way you can
describe your system for which you are preparing the report.
3. Next you can include a list of all abbreviations what you are going to use in the report. If you
are not using abbreviated terms then this part is not required.
4. Now you have to include the lines which are included in that specific stress system. After
including the major system lines, you can include the reference lines with suffix REF (Ex.
18-P-1235-REF).
5. Next you have to include names and numbers of all reference documents which are used in
the analysis. Reference documents means you should include P&ID number with revision,
line list number with revision, PMS number with revision, Equipment TAG and GA drawing
number with revision, Any datasheet (PSV, Control Valve etc.) number with revision etc.
6. Next part of the report is very important. Here you should mention all the considerations and
assumptions, if any. In few points you should mention all major highlights which can impact
the stress system. A typical example of assumptions are shown below:

o
o

Ambient temperature considered is 21 C.

All systems has been analysed for maximum and minimum design temperature cases.
Operating temperature from line list is not used in the analysis.
o Caesar II configuration file mm.fil is used in the analysis.
o Rigid body weights (flanges, valves, strainers etc. as applicable) are considered from
Caesar II database / Pipe Data Pro.
o Control valve and PSV weights (wherever applicable) have been assumed suitably
based on judgement where vendor data is not available.
o Based on XXXXXX project, XXXX has considered Post Hydro test tank settlement
value is assumed as 25 mm. All piping flanges have to be connected with tank nozzle
flanges only after tank hydro testing activity is finished.
o Seismic Analysis has been ignored in this stress analysis.
o Wind Analysis has not been performed as most of the lines are below 10m elevation.
o The existing part of lines has been modelled taking a reference from existing PDMS
3D model. We have provided sufficient flexibility for new line for arresting
maximum thermal displacements where we could not find any guides/line stop in
existing line for proper boundary condition.
7. In this section you should write in brief the conclusions which you have reached after the
analysis. A typical example is shown in the below mentioned bullet points:
o Pipe Stresses are within allowable limit (Refer attached Stress Summary Report)
o Support loads are within acceptable limit (Refer attached Restraint Summary
Extended Report)
o Thermal Displacements and Sustained Sagging is within acceptable limit (Refer
attached Restraint Summary Extended and Sustained displacement Reports)
o Equipment nozzle loads are qualified with Vendor Allowable Loads in GA drawing/
relevant API standard (for pumps) as applicable (Refer Nozzle Loading Details Sheet
attached)
o Supports at node XXX, XXX, XXX are lifting in design temperature condition.
However separate hot sustained / lift off file has not been made as the system is
qualifying under Appendix P operating code stress check of ASME B 31.3. (Refer
attached Stress Summary Report).
o Refer marked up stress isometrics for any stress recommendation.
o Refer attached spring datasheets and SPS drawings for reference.
8. In next section you can mention the load cases what you have considered for analysis.
However as all load cases will appear in stress summary or restraint summary you can skip
this part here.
9. Now you are required to include the following reports from Caesar II. It is better to use an
appendix for the same for proper demarcation. A typical method is shown here.
o Appendix A: Stress Analysis input echo from Caesar II
o Appendix B: Stress Summary Report from Caesar II
o Appendix C: Restraint Summary Extended report from Caesar II
o Appendix D: Sustained Displacement Report from Caesar II
o Appendix E: Nozzle load qualification report (Normally in excel sheet, However
NEMA/WRC Caesar II reports can be attached)
o Appendix F: Trunnion calculation Report
o Appendix F: Spring datasheets if any

Appendix G: SPS drawings if any

10. In the final part you should include the final marked up stress isometrics and reference
drawings in attachment form as shown below:
o Attachment A: Marked up stress isometrics.
o Attachment B: P&ID drawing highlighting the system marked up
o Attachment C: LDT/ Line List drawing highlighting the specific lines.
o Attachment D: Equipment GA Drawings highlighting the nozzles and relevant data.
o Attachment E: PMS
o Attachment F: Caesar II plots for overall system look.
Briefly the abovementioned points are sufficient for a complete report. However if client insist for any
additional details you have to include the same along with the above mentioned points. Hope now you will
be able to prepare a complete report of the stress systems what you are performing.

What will you do if Carbon Steel pipe is

installed in place of LTCS
Introduction:
Low Temperature Carbon Steel (LTCS) is used in piping system when there is a possibility of
process fluid temperature falling below -29 degree centigrade during operation. In typical refinery A
106 Gr B material is used for carbon steel and A 333 Gr 6 is used for LTCS in normal operation.
There is no major difference in between these two materials in composition. Also no non-destructive
testing is available which can ensure these two materials. So if by mistake CS and LTCS mixes up
with one another and someone installs CS in place of LTCS without knowing the major operational
impact whats the solution?
Reason for Mix up:
In construction sites sometimes the material mix up may occur. Someone may be wondering how
Carbon steel (CS) and Low Temperature Carbon Steel (LTCS) material could mix up. The main
reason is that no physical identification is possible and There are various possibilities which can
arise in a construction site like:
1. Common surface preparation & painting yard for all materials.
2. In many cases, the colour coding of pipes (Positive Material Identification-PMI) was not followed
due to schedule pressure.
3. On fittings, identification marks are written by low stress punch which was not visible after
painting.
4. Common store/contractor/fabrication area in construction site.
5. Ignorance of all concerned about the criticality & impact of mix-up with normal carbon steel.
So what will you do in such situation?
Process piping code ASME B 31.3 provides a guidelines in such situations. There is a provision in
ASME B 31.3 codes that is based on the stress ratio, the minimum allowable temperature of carbon
steel materials can be further lowered without any impact testing.
So whats this stress ratio?
Stress ratio can be defined as maximum of the
a) Nominal pressure stress divided by allowable stress at design minimum temperature.
b) For piping component with pressure ratings, the operating pressure divided by rated pressure at
the design minimum temperature.
c) Combined longitudinal stress, without stress intensification factor, due to pressure, deadweight,
and displacement strain divided by allowable stress at the design minimum temperature. (Coincident
Conditions)
Note that Stress Ratio requires computed stresses at minimum temperature and coincident pressures
and No stress intensification factor to be used for stress calculations.

So calculate stress ratio as per above guidelines.

Now the code provides a graph (reproduced above) from where you can calculate the amount of
temperature reduction with respect to stress ratio. From the figure for a temperature reduction of -17
degree centigrade (to make it -29-17=-46 degree centigrade) the required stress ratio is 0.65. So if
the calculated stress ratio is within 0.65 then not to be worried. In case the stress ratio exceeds 0.65
provide additional support to reduce stress ratio within that limit.
In this way you can reduce the probable huge impact of material changing (thereby cost) after the
erection of piping is already over.

Piping Stress Job Interview questions

The following list will provide few interview questions asked in different interview for a Piping Stress
Engineer post. Hope you will be able to find the answers from ASME B 31.3 and any piping stress text books
or from piping hand book. In case you could not find out a specific answer reply in comments section. This is
the part one of the collection. Keep checking the website regularly for other parts.
1) How to make critical line list or flexibility log? How will you decide critical line list with help of ASME
B31.3?
2) How to decide Stress critical systems for analysis using Caesar II?
3) Which lines can be eliminated from formal Stress analysis?
4) Can you make a typical Sketch & supporting for column piping? How to decide how many load bearing
clip supports to be used?
5) Draw a typical Sketch & supporting arrangement for tank farm piping? How tank Piping analysis is
different from normal pressure vessel connected piping system analysis?
6) What is SIF? Formulas for In plane, outplane sif for elbow (B31.3)?
7) Value of sif, flexibility factor for Bend?
8) What are the necessary documents required for stress analysis?
9) Why a Spring hanger is used? Can you write the formula for spring HL, CL & variability?
10) What are the different types of supports used in piping systems?
11) What do you know about Expansion joints and thier types? When these come into picture?
12) What are the normal types of load cases? Write the load cases for a typical stress system using static
method of seimic and wind?
13) What is slug flow? What parameters are required to calculate Slug force?
14) What are the dynamic restraints? What is snubber and when do you use a snubber?
15) What is the minimum swing allowed in top mounted hanger? What will you do if that amount exceeds in
a typical piping system?
16) What is cold pull and why it is used?
17) What is difference between Variable Hanger and Constant Hanger? What is the variability of Constant
Spring hanger?

18) What are the inputs required for stress analysis? What do you check in Caesar analysis of a piping
system?
19) What do you mean by the term liberal stress?
20) What is hot-cold philosophy for pump? Have you heard the term Pump alignment?

21) Write equation for SE in terms of Sb and St from ASME B 31.3?

22) What are the major difference between WRC 107 and WRC 297?
23) How Anchor load for a rack is calculated at the initial phases of project? What are the normal
guidelines assumed?
24) Draw a typical control station layout and show its supporting?
25) How pump piping is routed and supported?
26) How you will decide the position of anchor bay in rack piping?
27) Which side (suction or discharge) in case of pump piping system is more critical from stress
point of view? Justify the answer?
28) What are the main factors that decides support span?
29) What does API610 explains about aloowable nozzle loads for a Centrifugal Pump?
30) Can you show the typical layout and supporting for PSV lines?
31) What is the effect of friction in Piping stress analysis?
32) How layout of a pump piping changes with changes in temperature?
33) Why the allowable for primary stress is different from that of secondary stress?
34) Is the stress due to seismic anchor movement an occasional stress ? Explain with proper reason?
35) What is meant by the sentence primary stress is not self relieving but secondary stress is?
Explain in detail the meaning of the term self relieving.
36) Will SIF increase or decrease with increase in pressure, other parameters kept constant? Justify
your answer.
37) What is the role of Y factor in the pressure thickness eqn. of B31.3 and B31.1?
38) Is the pressure thickness eqn. for bends same as that of straight pipe in B31.3?
39) How B31.3 defines the terms Weldolet, Sweepolet?
40) Between a short and a long radius bend, which one has higher flexibility and why?
41) What does B31.3 tell about SIF for sockolet and reducer?
42) Explain the role of Appendix V of B31.3?
43) Does B31.3 allow a stress limit of 1.33Sh in PSV pop up case or is it 1.20 Sh?
44) Explain how to model snubber in CAESAR II.
45) Briefly explain the modeling of Sway Brace is CAESAR II.
46) What is the basic difference between a snubber and a sway brace in terms of applicability?
47) Explain with reason as to what should happen to the SIF and Flexibility factor of a bend when a
trunnion is attached to it?
48) Explain the terms SIF and FLEXIBILITY factor.
49) Why SIF is not so significant with primary loading?
50) What happens to SIF of a reinforced connection if thickness of reinforcement increases beyond
1.5 times header thickness?
51) What special note B31.3 provides for SIF of welding tees (B16.9) ?
52) Explain with reasons as to which one is having higher SIF: a 45 bend or a 90 Bend?
53) Explain with reasons as to whether for a non 90 degree branch the same SIF can be taken as
that for a 90 branch?

54) If thickness of the header of a branch connection increases, what happens to its SIF, other
parameters kept constant?
55) What are the methods for flange leakage checking? Write euations used for flange leakage
checking in pressure equivalent method?
56) What are the major difference between ASME B 31.3 and B31.1?
57) Place the following lines in Rack and show the placement of expansion loop?
a) A 16 inch High pressure steam line
b) A 6 inch Low pressure steam line
c) A 10 inch Medium pressure steam line
d) A 30 inch flare line
e) A 8 inch process line and
f) A 24 inch cooling water line.
58) How to decide the Spring height for a top mounted Spring hanger? What are the attachments
used?
59) How do you calculate SIF for 45 degree lateral connections entering into flare header?
60) What are the transfer lines? Why does the stress analysis of transfer lines considered critical?
61. If a power plant is designed inside a Process refinery then where the specification break between
ASME B31.1 & ASME B31.3 should occur?
62.What is category M fluid service? Provide some examples?
63.What will be the consequences of a steam piping having low pocket but not having a steam trap?
64.When and why the reducer of a pump suction piping is installed in bottom flat condition?
65. If you found a specification break (at flange) between carbon steel and stainless steel in a typical
P&ID. What are the additional arrangements which a piping engineer should make for this?
66.Assume a straight pipe of length L anchored at both ends. When a temp change occurs the anchor
force at one anchor becomes F1. Now the length of the same pipw increased to L2 and with similar
temp change anchor force becomes F2. What is the relation between F1 and F2?
67. What is Piping Speciality item? How many types of piping speciality items are used in piping
engineering? Can we include them in standard piping specification, explain with reason?
68.Why does the sustained sagging for steam lines are limited within 3-5 mm?
69. What is a Double block & Bleed valve? When such type valves are required?
70.In a normal tie-in where do you insert the spectacle blind? a) before block valve and towards new
plant or b) after block valve and towards existing plant . Explain why.
71.What is the difference between a pipe elbow and a bend?
72. Among the following which material have the highest co-efficient of thermal expansion? A)
Carbon steel b) Cast Iron c) Duplex steel d)Stainless steel e) Galvanized Carbon steel
73.What are the major parameters to be reported in support tag for a Shoe/Saddle type support?
74.What are the Metallic expansion joints? When they are used and when they could be avoided?
75.What is hot sustained stress? Why do we check it? Do we need to chech expansion stress for hot
sustained case?
76. What is the philosophy of arranging pipes in the Pipe rack and why? Normally what % of area is
kept reserved for future expansion?
77.What are the major difficulties faced by a stress engineer while analysis two vertical rebolers
connected with a single column?
78.What are the different types of combination methods available is Caesar II? What is the
difference between Scalar and Absolute method?
79. Are process plant water lines considered pressure piping systems?

80. For what fluid service category may a hydro test be waived off as per B31.3?
81. Check the following load cases and tell me what is the difference between load case L3 and L4?
L1. W+T1+P1
OPE
L2. W+P1
SUS
L3. L1-L2
EXP
L4. T1
EXP
82. Which comes first?Stress or Strain?
83. What is the difference between Stress and Pressure?
84. What are the major differences between a Pipe and a Tube?
85. What is seismic co-efficient? How this is decided?
86. What is wind shape factor? How the value of wind shape factor is decided?
87. Why does the manufacturer produce pipes with OD constant for a specific size and varying ID?
88. What are the major responsibilities of a stress engineer?89. What are the major differences
between primary and secondary stresses in Piping?
90. Do you consider the vertical thermal growth for modelling fired heater in Caesar II? Explain
with reason?
91. Why does the dummy of a piping system is also insulated for cold insulated piping system but
not insulated for hot insulated piping system?
92. What are the major parameters and process inputs required for performing dynamic slug flow
analysis?
93. Which parameters do you seek from civil department for performing underground piping
analysis in Caesar II? Describe briefly the method of performing underground piping analysis using
caesar II? What are the outputs to check and what to interpret from caesar results?
94. How to calculate pipe thickness for externally pressured piping system?
95. What do you mean by the term flexibility ? How to ensure that the flexibility of a piping system
is appropriate? What are the means for increasing flexibility? What will happen if more flexibility is
provided to a piping system?
96. As per code ASME B 31.3 how many types of fluid service is available?
97. What are the code cases for ASME B 31.3?
98. Describe step by step methods for modelling a sway brace in caesar II?
99. In which way PDS, PDMS and SP3D differs? Which one is the best user friendly?
100. How to calculate the piping stress manhour for a specific project?

101. Can we exceed the design pressure of a piping system more than its design pressure. If yes then
in what condition?
102. What is the limitation of using PTFE slide plate? What can be done in such situation?103. How
to decide whether hydrotest or pneumatic test will be performed for a piping system?
104. What is bourdon effect of Piping system? When this effect become critical?
105. How do you check dummy ot trunnions for any project? Can you write the formulas used for
this checking?
106. What is the difference between pressure safety valve and pressure relief valve?
107. Why do you consider slug flow in a piping system as critical?
108. What is the function of a gasket in flanged joint?
109. Why sustained stress is considered as a primary stress?
110. What are the major differences between SIF and SCF (Stress Concentration Factor)?
111. Lets assume from a 24 inch pipe header two tapping, one 2 inch and other one 4 inch, are taken.
At the interconnection point in which case the SIF will be higher?
112. What is the industry accepted procedure for transferring anchor load for intermediate anchors
(anchor in between two loops) where normally caesar shows very less value?
113. How to analyze stress packages when D/T ratio for the pipe exceeds 100?
114. Arrange the following piping elements with respect to flexibility and SIF (either increasing or
decreasing order). Assume pipe size and thickness are constant.: 1.5D bend, 1D bend, Straight Pipe,
4D bend, 10D bend.
115. What is primary membrane stress?
116. Which one is more flexible : 45 bend or 90 bend? Which one is having more SIF?
117. Can we call piping shoe a pipe component as per code? Explain with reason. What is your
opinion about RF pad in this respect?
118. What does the piping code says about the operation and maintenance of piping system?
119. You want to make some changes in the existing plant and want to add a new line by hot tapping. From
which point the ASME B 31.3 code will be applicable?
120. What are the terms Code Case and Code Interpretation signifies?

121. How to model Air fin Fan Cooler in Caesar II? Why do you consider equipment weight in AFC
modeling while for other heat exchanger we do not consider? What code need to be followed for

nozzle load checking and what the code says about nozzle load checking? Why do we need thrust
blocks for air fin fan cooler?
122. Can you write the NEMA equipment nozzle equation sets? What are the major differences in
between API 617 and NEMA SM 23 from stress point of view? Draw a typical steam turbine piping
layout?
123. Which standard is used for designing plate fin heat exchanger? Which table is normally
followed for nozzle load checking?
124. How do you consider tank settlement while stress analysis? Is it a primary or secondary stress?
Do you add tank settlement with sustained load cases? If yes why? What code says about tank
settlement? What is tank bulging and why does it happen?
125. Draw a typical layout of a line connected with fired heater (Heater Piping)? Which standard is
used for allowble nozzle loads?
126. What are the major differences in between B 31.3 edition 2012 and 2010?
127. Which standard says about rotary equipment alignment check? What is the criteria mentioned
in that standard? While alignment checking spring will be in locked or design condition?
128. Calculate the number of loops for a 400 meter long carbon steel pipe having a temperature of
400 degree centigrade running over a pipe rack?
129. How do you calculate PSV reaction forces in absence of reaction force in vendor data? What is
the major difference in between pressure safety valve and pressure relief valve?
130. Do you perform trunnion check while analysing a stress system? What are the associated
formulas for trunnion checking?
131. What is the equation for calculating seismic co-efficient? How to calculate the wind force?
132. What is guided cantilever method? What is the importance of this method?
133. What does the Appendix F of API 610 ensures? What are the equations? What the standard says
for vertical inline pumps?
134. What do you mean by weld joint strength reduction factor and quality factor? What is the
importance of these factors?
135. While providing preliminary rack loading what assumptions do you consider?
136. What was the most critical system you analysed in the last company? Draw the layout? What
changes you recommended? What is temperature of that line?
137. What are the minimum load cases required to consider while performing stress analysis of a
vertical reboiler connected piping system?
138. Have you performed stress analysis of reciprocating compressor connected line? What are the
considerations? What is the minimum frequency you achieved before sending for pulsation study?
How do you consider upto what length of piping is to be send for pulsation study?
139. What actually do you check during flange leakage checking by NC 3658 method?
140. Can we reduce the hydrotest pressure of pipe to less than 1.5 times the line design pressure? If
yes then in what condition?

Jacketed Piping: Interview questions and

answers
Common questions asked in Piping stress interview related to Jacketed piping are listed below:
1. Why Jacketed Piping is used?
Ans: It is commonly used to convey very viscous process fluids in an inner pipe, heated by steam/hot
water/hot oil or other heating medium between the jacket and core pipe. Vacuum jacketing is also
used as an insulator for cryogenic fluids and can be analyzed using the same calculation method for
heated jacketed piping.
2. If water (density=1000Kg/m3) is flowing through the jacket then what is value of density you
will enter into Caesar spreadsheet?
Ans: We have to calculate equivalent density for the same. The following formula can be used
Actual jacket fluid equivalent density = [(rj2 Rc2)/ rj2 ] x dj
Where,
rj = Inner radius of core
Rc = Outer radius of pipe
dj = Density of heating medium

3. What are the major stress checks that you will perform while analysing Jacketed Piping
system?
Ans:
Sustained And Expansion Stress Check
Limits of calculated stresses due to sustained loads (primary stresses) and displacement strain due to
expansion (secondary stresses) should be evaluated separately for core and jacket pipe (as per clause
302.3.5 of ASME B31.3).

Checking of buckling load. (Manual Calculation):

This check will not be performed by Caesar-II as it is not in the code. However it will provide force
calculated at the junction point (P) between core and jacket. It should be less than Pcr which is given
by the formula
Pcr = 42 *Ec*Ic , For Core
L2
2
Pcr = 4 *Ej*Ij , For Jacket
L2
Where,
P = Force calculated by computer program at junction point
Pcr = Critical force
Ec, Ej = Modulus of Elasticity of core/ jacket material
Ic = Moment of Inertia of Core
Ij = Moment of Inertia of Jacket
L = Length of pipe between junction of core/ jacket.
If P Pcr then no buckling failure

Weld strength check between jacket and core pipe:

P calculated at the junction point between core & jacket pipe compared with allowable load at the
weld point.
P allowed = area of weld * 80% of hot allowable stress of material
Area of weld = D * root of weld
D = Diameter of core pipe
Root of weld = 0.707 * weld size
If P calculated P allowed, then the system is safe

Checking of deflection of jacket:

In this case, it is assumed that no spider/spacer is used between core and jacket. Deflection for the
jacket with available length has to be computed and should be ensured that it does not create
obstruction to the flow of hot medium in the jacket. Normally maximum allowed deflection of jacket
is T/2, where T is the thickness of jacket.

Checking for External Pressure (By material Group):

Sometimes jacket may be subjected to partial vacuum conditions due to failure of steam supply and
subsequent condensation of steam inside the jacket. In such cases, jacket should be checked for
vacuum condition.
Like another example in a system the core is at a pressure of 30 psig and the jacket is at a pressure of
180 psig, then the core is subjected to an external pressure of 150 psig. For this the core must be
investigated for collapse or local buckling from the external pressure load (Refer para 304.1.3 of
ASME B31.3 and UG-28 through UG-30 of ASME BPVC Section-VIII Division-I)

Checking for Axial stress:

As per ASME B31.3 calculated displacement stress range (Expansion case stress) is
SE = (Sb2 + 4St2)1/2. Code does not take into account the axial forces and consequent axial stress in
calculating expansion stresses. This is because for the normal pipe axial forces are normally due to
longitudinal stresses which is already taken care in thickness calculation and sustained stress
calculations, but in case of jacketed piping, axial stresses at core-jacket junction point is just not due
to longitudinal stresses, but mainly due to differential thermal expansion of core and jacket pipes.
Thus calculated stress should be corrected by adding axial stresses for local analysis of that
particular junction point. Thus,
Actual StressSEa = SE + Axial Force/ Area
Axial force can be obtained from CAESAR output or can be calculated by the equation,
Faxial = E x L x Area
L
Or else, CAESAR also calculates the value of axial stresses which it calculates for operating case.
Activate the option Add F/A in stress in configuration file. Axial stress due to thermal differential
is added to the calculated expansion stress and then it should be compared with the allowable loads
as per ASME B31.3.
4. What allowable value is considered for welding check at core jacket interconnection?
Ans:
Two methods are prevalent. You have to consider any one of the following (discuss with the stress
lead)
a) Consider the 0.6 times of electrode tensile strength (As per AISC code)
b) Consider SE=1.25Sc+0.25Sh of electrode as allowable (as per secondary stress generated theory)

Top 12 must have Piping books for a begineer

into Piping industry
This post is solely for the beginners into the Piping industry. If you want to learn the basics from books or
literatures then try the following 12 listed books. Most of the experienced piping professionals will be aware
of this.
Most of the books/literatures mentioned below are available for free downloading over the internet. You
can buy these books in amazon. Simply do an exclusive search in internet and you will find few links to
download the books.

PIPE STRESS ENGINEERING by Peng: This is the best book on piping stress engineering. If you are
planning a career in piping stress analysis then you must collect this book and read effectively to
build solid basics. This book explains the ideas so nicely that it will provide effective results to you.
DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS by M W Kellogg Company: Second best book on Piping stress analysis.
Even though the language is difficult and contents are not interesting but still this book shares a
great place for describing the topics effectively and was the best book earlier before the Peng book.
INTRODUCTION TO PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS by Sam Kannapan: One of the best books on Piping
stress analysis. Easy to understand.

COADE STRESS ANALYSIS SEMINAR NOTES by COADE: Must have tutorial guide for every piping
stress engineer using CAESAR II. Explains in details all the basics of Caesar II application.
PIPING HANDBOOK by M L Nayyar: One good book for both stress and layout engineers with huge
important database on piping engineering. Refer this book for any data you require during your day
to day piping works.
PIPE DRAFTING AND DESIGN by Rhea and Parisher: The best book for a beginner. Covers the basics
in simple language. Very easy to understand.
PROCESS PLANT LAYOUT AND PIPING DESIGN by Hunt and Bausbacher: The best book for a piping
layout engineer. Covers the basics of piping layout. Most of the preliminary layout ideas connected
to any equipment evolves from this book. So read this book attentively for effective layout
knowledge.

PROCESS PIPING DRAFTING By Rip Weaver: A very nice book in simple easy to understand language.
PIPING DESIGN HANDBOOK by John Mcketta: One of the good books.
THE PLANNING GUIDE TO PIPING DESIGN by Richard Beale and
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF PIPING DESIGN by Peter Smith

One must have book for piping materials engineers is PIPING MATERIALS GUIDE by Peter Smith

You are already aware that books are our best friends. It helps us without charging us. So enjoy reading.