13/12/2014

Mohammed Nawfal
SRO0420119

CONTENTS
Stephen Hawking
Early knowledge About the Cosmos
Gravity
Theory of Relativity
Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis
Expansion of the Universe
Nebular Hypothesis
Stellar Evolution
Black Hole
Direction of Time
Conflicts Within Physics
String Theory
D-Branes
The Theory of Everything
Bibliography

13/12/2014

Stephen Hawking
Who is he?
Stephen William Hawking (born 8 January 1942) is an English
theoretical physicist and cosmologist, whose scientific books
and public appearances have made him an academic
celebrity.
Hawking investigated the creation of the Universe and
predicted that, following the big bang, many objects as
heavy as 109 tons but only the size of a proton would be
created. These mini black holes have large gravitational
attraction governed by general relativity, while the laws of
quantum mechanics would apply to objects that small.
He wanted to find the mind of God, wanted to discover the
Theory of Everything.

Early Knowledge about the Cosmos

At First, we all though the Earth
was Flat! Later we realized it was
more like a sphere.

Aristotle & Ptolemys Model:

The Earth stood at the centre,
surrounded by eight, spheres, which
carried the moon, the sun, the stars,
and the five planets known at the
time: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn.

13/12/2014

2.

Copernican Heliocentrism

His idea was that the sun was

stationary at the centre and that the
Earth and the planets moved in
circular orbits around the sun
Two astronomers Johannes
Kepler and Galileo Galilei publicly
supported Copernican Theory
3.

Galileo found several small

satellites orbiting Jupiter which
implied that everything did not
have to orbit directly around the
Earth as Aristotle and Ptolemy
had thought
Kepler had modified Copernicuss
theory, suggesting that the
planets moved not in circles, but
in ellipses.

4.

Newtons Law

Having discovered,
almost
accident,
that elliptical
orbits
A discrepancy
in Mercury's
orbitby
pointed
out flaws
in Newton's
theory.
fitted the observations well, Kepler could not reconcile with his idea
that Newton
the planets
were
to orbit
sun worked,
by magnetic
could
notmade
explain
how the
gravity
only forces.
knew ofAnits existence.
explanation.
Einsteins work with light lead to cosmic speed limit and contradicted
Newtons idea of instantaneous gravity.
Newtonian Law of Gravity:
This said that each body in the universe was attracted toward every other
body by a force which was stronger the more massive the bodies and the
closer they were to each other.
According to Newton's 3rd Law, the Earth itself experiences a force equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to that which it exerts on a falling object.

13/12/2014

GRAVITY
What is it?
Gravity is a force pulling together all matter (which is anything you can
physically touch). The more matter, the more gravity, so things that have a lot of
matter such as planets and moons and stars pull more strongly. Mass is how we
measure the amount of matter in something.
How does gravity work?

Theory of Relativity
Special Relativity
The first completed revolution of 20th Century physics:

Relativity of Simultaneity
Time Dilation
Length Contraction
E = mc2
Speed of light as a maximum speed

Its the Law!

Absolutely nothing can move faster than light; c = 300,000 km/sec
All observers agree on this speed, regardless of their own motion.
Causal influences cannot travel outside the light cone.

13/12/2014

General Theory of Relativity

In general
relativity,
the effects
of gravitation
are ascribed
to space-time
curvature
The
equations
of general
relativity
predict a number
of phenomena,
many
of which have been
instead of a force.
confirmed:
Space
and of
time
are
curved
near a objects
massive(gravitational
object, and this
curvature is what we

Bending
light
around
massive
lensing)
experience as the force of gravity.
A slow evolution in the orbit of the planet Mercury (perihelion precession)
Frame dragging of space-time around rotating bodies
Weakening of light escaping gravity's pull (gravitational redshift)
Speeding up in the rotational periods of binary stars and pulsars
Gravitational waves (ripples in space-time fabric) caused by cosmic smash-ups

The existence of black holes that trap everything including light

Basics of Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Theory States that a light
exhibits the property of both particles as
well as waves.
Light is made of particles. The need for a quantification
Black-body radiation (1860-1901)
Atomic Spectroscopy (1888-)
Photoelectric Effect (1887-1905)
Waveparticle duality
Compton Effect (1923)
Electron Diffraction Davisson and Germer (1925).
Young's Double Slit Experiment

13/12/2014

Big Bang
The Cosmos began ~13.7 Billion years ago and was as the small as the size of a single atom in a
violent expansion (Not an explosion)
~3 minutes after the Big Bang Expanding Universe:
The universe has grown from the size of an atom to larger than the size a grapefruit. Energy
froze into matter.
Temperatures cooled from 1032 degrees K to 109 degrees K, and protons and neutrons
collided to make deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen. Most of the deuterium combined to
make helium, and trace amounts of lithium were also generated.
~380,000 years after the Big Bang, matter cooled enough for atoms to form during the era of
recombination, resulting in a transparent, electrically neutral gas.
~400 million years after the Big Bang, the universe began to emerge from the cosmic dark ages
during the epoch of re-ionization.

Nucleosynthesis

Or the Origin of Matter

Just after the inflationary epoch, the universe was filled with particles and
antiparticles formed by pair production and with numerous high-energy
photons formed by annihilation.
A state of thermal equilibrium existed in this hot plasma.

As the universe expanded, its temperature decreased.

When the temperature fell below the threshold temperature required to
produce each kind of particle, annihilation of that kind of particle began to
dominate over production.
Matter is much more prevalent than antimatter in the present day universe. This
is because particles and antiparticles were not created in exactly equal
numbers just after the Planck time.

13/12/2014

Expansion of the universe

The Doppler Effect (or Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of a wave (or other periodic
event) for an observer moving relative to its source.
How did we find that our universe was expanding?
In the 1920s, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered the universe was not static.
Dark Energy: The name for the unknown force driving this accelerating expansion (The
expansion of the universe was not slowing due to gravity, but instead inexplicably was
accelerating)
The further the galaxy from us, the faster it was receding.

Nebular hypothesis

Or Origin of Our Solar System

A little after 9 billion years

after the Big Bang, our solar
system was born.

13/12/2014

Stellar Evolution

Or Life Cycle of a Star

What
A star
does
is formed
Pauli exclusion
when a large
principle?
amount of gas, mostly hydrogen, starts to collapse in on itself
due to its gravitational attraction.
Chandrasekhar Limit?
Neutron
As it contracts,
Stars, Red
theGiant,
atomsWhite
of the
Dwarf,
gas collide
Black Dwarf
with each
or Black
other
hole?
more and more frequently
heating up the gas.
Hydrogen atoms merge to form helium atom under high temperature or Nuclear Fusion.
The heat released in this reaction makes the stars shine.
This additional heat increases the pressure of the balance the gravitational attraction, and
the gas stops contracting.
Eventually, the star will run out of its hydrogen and other nuclear fuels.
More fuel a star starts off with, the sooner it runs out.

Black Hole
Escape velocity
Not even light can escape from
the gravitational pull of a black
hole.
Black Holes are not so black.
Hawkings Radiation

13/12/2014

Event Horizon
The black hole is surrounded by an event horizon which
is the sphere from which light cannot escape.
The distance between the black hole and its
event horizon is the Schwarzschild radius
(RSch= 2GM/c2)

The centre of the black hole is a point of infinite

density and zero volume, called a singularity

Space-time is distorted into a well by the Black hole

Direction of Time
Why can't
we observe
running backward in ordinary life?
Does
the arrow
of time time
reverse?
that and
is usually
given as to
why we
dontwould
see broken
cups when
jumping
The explanation
thermodynamic
psychological
arrows
of time
not reverse
theback
universe
onto
thetotable
is that itor
is inside
forbidden
byholes.
the second law of thermodynamics. This says that
begins
re-contract
black
disorder or entropy always increases with time.
The second law of thermodynamics is based on the fact that there are many more disordered
states than there are ordered ones.
The psychological Arrow of Time: The direction of time in which we remember the past, but not
the future.
No boundary Assumption: Why should the universe be in a state of high order at one end of
time, the end that we call the past? Why was it not in a state of complete disorder at all times?
The classical theory of general relativity predicts that the universe should begin
with a singularity where the curvature of space-time is infinite.

13/12/2014

Conflicts Within Physics

Clashes between the Theory of the Tiny and the Large

Quantum Mechanics:

Two new forces, strong and weak nuclear force coupled

with electro-magnetic described phenomena of subatomic particles.

General Relativity (Gravitational force) was used to describe phenomena of large

objects (planets, galaxies).

Black Holes: Are both extremely massive (gravity) and extremely small. Theories
need unify to explain their phenomena. Results become chaotic and
nonsensical when using General Relativity to describe quantum phenomena.

The String Theory

All matter consists of small one-dimensional objects
(strings).

All
interactions
of the when
splitting
and
joining
Strings
just lookconsist
like
particles
they
are
not of
1.
Macroscopic
level:
Matter
these
elementary
seen
under
sufficient
magnification.
2.
Molecular
level strings.
3. Atomic level: Protons, neutrons, and electrons
This
is the only
known
sensible
of
Originally
thought
to
be
only adescription
single unique
4.
Subatomic
level:
Electron
gravitational
at very short
distances!
theory
whichinteractions
makesQuarks
mathematical
sense.
5.
Subatomic
level:
At String
long distances
the theory looks like General
6.
level
Relativity
other interactions
at low energies.
Enormousplus
economy
of description:
No parameters:
the string
length different
sets the units
All particle types
are simply
kinds of
oscillations of the string.

10

13/12/2014

All interactions
Brane
World consist of the splitting and joining of

these elementary strings.

Some states are trapped on the branes, and others are
is thethrough
only known
description
of
free
to This
wander
all ofsensible
the dimensions
of space-time.
gravitational interactions at very short
distances!
It can happen
that all of the known elementary particles
At long distances
like General
and
interactions
(exceptthe
for theory
gravity)looks
are brane
bound in
Relativity plus other interactions at low
this way.
energies.
Can
enormously change the low energy perspective.
No parameters: the string length sets the units.

String Variants:
The consistency of gravity with Quantum Mechanics makes String Theories almost mathematically
inconsistent.
Nevertheless there appeared to be more than one kind of consistent string theory.
Open strings, closed strings, heterotic strings, Type I strings, Type IIA strings, Type IIB strings

D-Branes
String theory
bigger with
than D-branes:
previously thought.
Good
Things is
Happen
Normally,
the ends of duality
open strings
move freely
at the speed
of light.
Previously-hidden
symmetries
emerge,
and the
known string theories
Strings can also exist whose ends are anchored onto surfaces.
become
related
to
one
another
by
these
symmetries!
These surfaces are interpreted as large, massive objects, called D-Branes, in space-time
Much like magnetic monopoles.
Some weakly-interacting string theories turn out to be the strongly-interacting limit of
to discoveries
similar
symmetries
amongst
ordinary
particle theories.
String others.
size is Led
inferred
from the of
(very
weak)
strength
of gravity
compared
with other
interactions in 4 dimensions.
theory
Conjecture:
allthese
stringstrengths
theoriesinare
different solutions to a more fundamental (11String
predicts
10 dimensions.
theory
M Theory).
Strings dimensional)
can be as large
as (called
the present
experimental limit if gravity sees more dimensions
than other interactions.
Sometimes ittests
is the
strings
which are
sometimes it is the branes.
If so,experimental
may
be around
thefundamental,
corner.

11

13/12/2014

M-Theory
11 dimensions were needed for the 5 string theories to combine
into one. Multi-dimensions are at the heart of the string theory.
The degrees of freedom we (and what we can observe) have
locked us in to three dimensions of space and one of time. While
strings do not have the same limitations they can traverse all 11
dimensions.
The 11th dimension allows strings to stretch into membranes that
can grow to enormous sizes (like the size of a universe).
What are:
1. Super Symmetry?
2. Duality? S-Duality & T-Duality
3. Quantum Gravity?

The Theory of Everything

A theory of everything (ToE) or final theory, ultimate theory, or master theory refers to
the hypothetical presence of a single, all-encompassing, coherent theoretical
framework of physics that fully explains and links together all physical aspects of the
universe.

Many physicists believe that, at the beginning of the universe (up to 1043 seconds after the Big
Bang), the four fundamental forces were once a single fundamental force.
For the first time in history we have a candidate which could be a Theory of Everything.
It appears to consistently include gravity down to arbitrarily small distances.
It appears to be so tightly constrained by consistency as to be unique.
It must make contact with experiment, but there is not a time limit so long as
progress is made.

12

13/12/2014

Bibliography or Reference:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The Brief History of Time by Stephen Hawking

The Theory of Everything by Stephen Hawking
Physics Text Book (C.B.S.E, India) 11th & 12th Grade
Chemistry Text Book (C.B.S.E, India) 11th & 12th Grade
Official Website of NASA
Images are obtained from: Wikipedia

13