You are on page 1of 164

Glossary of Power Transformer Terms

Testing of power transformer Measurement of impedance voltage and load loss


Inspection and Test procedures for Instrument Transformers
Power Transformer Turns Ratio Test
Testing Procedures for HV Voltage Transformers
Power Transformer Capacitance and Dissipation Factor Test
An overview of Large Power Transformer LPT (Characteristics, Costs and Pricing)
Identifying The Primary And Secondary Phasor Polarities Of Transformer Polarity
Test
An Overview of IEC 60076-10 Determination Of Sound Levels Of Power
Transformers
Transformer Routine Dielectric (Insulation) Test
Erection Procedure for Power Transformer

Transformer temperature, oil level and


pressure gauges
Ferroresonance Occurrence In Power
Transformer
When a transformer has stomach pain
and wants to

Transformer Routine Test


Measurement of Voltage Ratio and
Check of Phase Displacement
Transformer Routine Test
Measurement Of No-Load Loss And
Current
What is transformer rating based on?

Glossary of Power Transformer Terms


Glossary
ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPRSTUVW
Top

A
AA
An Ansi (American National Standard Institute) cooling class designation indicating open,
natural-draft ventilated transformer construction, usually for dry-type transformers.

Ambient Temperature

The temperature of the surrounding atmosphere into which the heat of the transformer is
dissipated.

Ampere
unit of current flow.

ANSI (American National Standards Institute)


An organization that provides written standards on transformer [6OOv and below (ANSI
C89.1), 601~ and above (ANSI C57.12)].

Autotransformer
A transformer in which part of the winding is common to both the primary and the secondary
circuits.
Back to Index | A

B
BIL
Basic Impulse Level, the crest (peak) value that the insulation is required to withstand without
failure.

Bushing
An electrical insulator (porcelain, epoxy, etc.) that is used to control the high voltage stresses
that occur when an energized cable must pass through a grounded barrier.

Buck transformer
Step down the Voltage from Primary Winding to Secondary Winding i.e. 460V to 230V.

Boost transformer
Step up the Voltage from Primary Winding to Secondary Winding i.e. 230V to 460V.
Back to Index | B

C
Cast-coil Transformer
A transformer with high-voltage coils cast in an epoxy resin. Usually used with 5 to 15 kV
transformers.

Continuous Rating
Gaines the constant load that a transformer can carry at rated primary voltage and frequency
without exceeding the specified temperature rise.

Copper Losses
See Load Losses.

Core-Form Construction
A type of core construction where the winding materials completely enclose the core.

Current Transformer
A transformer generally used in instrumentation circuits that measure or control current.
Back to Index | C

D
Delta
A standard three-phase connection with the ends of each phase winding connected in series to
form a closed loop with each phase 120 degrees from the other. Sometimes referred to as 3wire.

Delta Wye
A term or symbol indicating the primary connected in delta and the secondary in wye when
pertaining to a three-phase transformer or transformer bank.

Distribution Transformers

Those rated 5 to 120 kV on the high-voltage side and normally used in secondary distribution
systems. An aplicable standard is ANSI C-57.12.

Dripproof
Constructed or protected so that successful operation is not interfered with by falling moisture
or dirt. A transformer in which the transformer core and coils are not immersed in liquid.
Back to Index | D

E
Exciting Current (No-load Current)
Current that flows in any winding used to excite the transformer when all other windings are
open circuited. It is usually expressed in percent of the rated current of a winding in which it
is measured.
Back to Index | E

F
FA
An ANSI cooling class designation indicating a forced air ventilated transformer, usually for
dry type transformers and typically to increae the transformers and typically to increase the
transformers KVA rating above the natural ventilation or AA rating.

Fan Cooled
Cooled mechanically to stay within rated temperature rise by addition of fans internally and/or
externally. Normally used on large transformers only.

FOA
An ANSI cooling class designation indicating forced oil cooling using pumps to circulate the
oil for increased cooling capacity.

FOW
An ANSI cooling class designation indicating forced oil water cooling using a separate water
loop in the oil to take the heat to a remote heat exchanger. Typically used where air cooling
is difficult such as underground.

Frequency

On AC circuits, designate number of times that polarity alternates from positive to negative and
back again, such as 60 hertz (cycles per second).
Back to Index | F

G
Grounds or Grounding
Connecting one side of a circuit to the earth through low-resistance or low-impedance paths.
This help prevent transmitting electrical shock to personnel. Also aids in the dissipation or
mitigation of Noise (High frequency or other).

Ground Strap
A Flat Strap of varying density, width and length to aid in the dissipation of High frequency
noise, commonly generated by Switching Power Supplies, Lighting Ballasts, Inverters or
Variable Frequency Drives.
Back to Index | G

H
High-voltage and Low-voltage Windings
Terms used to distinguish the wind that has the greater voltage rating from that having the
lesser in two-winding transformers. The terminations on the high-voltage windings are
identified by H1, H2, etc., and on the low-voltage by X1, X2, etc.
Back to Index | H

I
Impedance
Retarding forces of current flow in AC circuits.

Indoor transformer

A transformer that, because of its construction, is not suitable for outdoor service.

Insulating Materials
Those materials used to electrically insulate the transformer windings from each other
and to ground. Usually classified by degree of strength or voltage rating (0, A, B, C, and H).

Isolation transformer
For the purpose of isolating the Source Supply from the Consumer(s), aids in prevention of
noise transmission, adds impedance, can also provide an isolated Ground on the secondary.
Back to Index | I

K
kVA or Volt-ampere Output Rating
The kVA or volt-ampere output rating designates the output that a transformer can deliver for a
specified time at rated secondary voltage and rated frequency without exceeding the specified
temperature rise (1 kVA = 1000 VA).
Back to Index | K

L
Liquid-immersed Transformer
A transformer with the core and coils immersed in liquid (as opposed to a dry-type
transformer).

Load
The amount of electricity, in kVA or volt-amperes, supplied by the transformer. Loads are
expressed as a function of the current flowing in the transformer, and not according to the
watts consumed by the equipment the transformer feeds.

Load Losses
Those losses in a transformer that are incident to load carrying. Load losses include the I2R
loss in the winding, core clamps, etc., and the circulating currents (if any) in parallel windings.
Back to Index | L

M
Mid-tap
A reduced-capacity tap midday in a winding usually the secondary.

Moisture-resistant
Constructed or treated so as to reduce harm by exposure to a moist atmosphere.

Natural-draft or Natural-draft Ventilated


An open transformer cooled by the draft created by the chimney effect of the heated air in its
enclosure.
Back to Index | M

N
No-load Losses (Excitation Losses)
Loss in a transformer that ls excited at its rated voltage and frequency, but which is not
supplying load. No-load losses include core loss, dielectric loss, and copper loss in the winding
due to exciting current.
Back to Index | N

O
OA
An ANSI cooling class designation indicating an oil filled transformer.
Back to Index | O

P
Parallel Operation
Single and three-phase transformers having appropriate terminals may be operated in parallel
by connecting similarly-marked terminals, provided their ratios, voltages, resistances,
reactances, and ground connections are designed to permit paralleled operation and provided
their angular displacements are the same in the case of three-phase transformers.

Polarity Test
A standard test performed on transformers to determine instantaneous direction of the voltages
in the primary compared to the secondary (see Transformer Tests).

Poly-phase
More than one phase.

Potential (Voltage) Transformer


A transformer used in instrumentation circuits that measure or control voltage.

Power Factor
The ratio of watts to volt-amps in a circuit.

Primary Taps
Taps added in the primary winding (see Tap).

Primary Voltage Rating


Designates the input circuit voltage for which the primary tiding is designed.

Primary Winding
The primary winding on the energy input (supply) side.
Back to Index | P

Rating
The output or input and any other characteristic, such as primary and secondary
voltage,current, frequency, power factor and temperature rise assigned to the transformer
by the manufacturer.

Ratio Test
A standard test of transformers used to determine the ratio of the primary to the secondary
voltage.

Reactance
The effect of inductive and capacitive components of the circuit producing other than unity
power factor.

Reactor
A device for introducing inductive reactance into a circuit for: motor starting, operating
transformers in parallel, and controlling current.
Back to Index | R

S
Scott Connection
Connection for polyphase transformers. Usually used to change from two-phase to three-phase
to three-phase to two-phase.

Sealed Transformer
A transformer completely sealed from outside atmosphere and usually contains an inert gas
that is slightly pressurized.

Secondary Taps
Taps located in the secondary winding (see Tap).

Secondary Voltage Rating


Designates the load-circuit voltage for which the secondary winding (winding on the output
side) is designed.

Series/Multiple
A winding of two similar coils that can be connected for series operation or multiple (parellel)
operation.

Shell-type Construction
A type of transformer construction where the core completely surrounds the coil.

Star Connection
Same as wye connections.

Step-down Transformer
A transformer in which the energy transfer is from the high-voltage winding to the low-voltage
winding or windings.

Step-up transformer
A transformer in which the energy transfer is from the low-voltage winding to a high-voltage
winding or windings.
Back to Index | S

T
T-Connection
Use of Scott Connection for three-phase operation. A connection brought out of a winding at
some point between its extremities, usually to permit changing the voltage or current ratio.

Temperature Rise
The increase over ambient temperature of the winding due to energizing and loading the
transformer.

Total Losses
The losses represented by the sum of the no-load and the load losses.

Transformer

An electrical device, without continuously moving parts, which, by electro-magnetic induction,


transforms energy from one or more circuits to other circuits at the same frequency, usually
with changed values of voltage and current.

Turns Ratio (of a transformer)


The ratio of turns in the primary winding to the number of turns in the secondary winding.
Back to Index | T

V
Volt-amperes
Circuit volts multiplied by circuit amperes.

Voltage Ratio (of a transformer)


The ratio of the RMS primary terminal voltage to the RMS secondary terminal voltage under
specified conditions of load.

Voltage Regulation (of a transformer)


The change in secondary voltage that occurs when the load is reduced from rated value to
zero, with the values of all other quantities remaining unchanged. The regulation may be
expressed in percent (or per unit) on the basis of the rated secondary voltage at full load.
Back to Index | V

W
Winding Losses
See Load Losses.

Winding Voltage Rating


Designates the voltage for which the winding is designed

Wye Connection (Y)

A standard three-phase connection with similar ends of the single-phase coils connected to a
common point. This common point forms the electrical neutral point and may be grounded.
Back to Index | W
Reference: Power transformer maintenance and accepting testing Department of the Army
TM 5686

Testing of power transformer Measurement of impedance voltage and load loss


Posted M AR 12 2014 by EDV ARD in TESTI NG AND CO MM I SSI O NI NG , TRANSFO RM ERS with 2 CO MM ENTS

Figure 4.1 Circuit for the impedance and load-loss measurement

Purpose of the measurement


The measurement is carried out to determine the load-losses of the transformer and
theimpedanse voltage at rated frequency and rated current.
The measurements are made separetely for each winding pair (e.g., the pairs 1-2, 1-3 and
2-3 for a three-winding transformer), and furthermore on the principal and extreme tappings.

Apparatus and measuring circuit


On Figure 1 above (Circuit for the impedance and load-loss measurement) there are
following figures:
G1 Supply generator
T1 Step-up transformer
T2 Transformer to be tested
T3 Current transformers
T4 Voltage transformers
P1 Wattmeters
P2 Ammeters (r.m.s. value)
P3 Voltmeters (r.m.s. value)
C1 Capacitor bank
The supply and measuring facilities are not described here. Current is generally supplied to the
h.v. winding and the l.v. winding is short-circuited.

Performance of the measurement


If the reactive power supplied by the generator G1 is not sufficient when measuring large
transformers, a capacitor bank C1 is used to compensate part of the inductive reactive power
taken by the transformer T2.The voltage of the supply generator is raised until the current has
attained the required value (25100 % of the rated current according to the standard 4.1).
In order to increase the accuracy of readings will be taken at several current values near the
required level. If a winding in the pair to be measured is equipped with an off-circuit or on-load
tap-changer. the measurements are carried out on the principal and extreme tappings.
The readings have to be taken as quickly as possible, because the windings tend to warm up
due to the current and the loss values obtained in the measurement are accondingly too high.
It the transformer has more than two windings all winding pairs are measured
separately.

Results
Corrections caused by the instrument transformers are made to the measured current, voltage
and power values. The power value correction caused by the phase displacement is calculated
as follows:

Equation 4.1

Where:
Pc = corrected power
Pe = power read from the meters
u = phase displacement of the voltage transformer in minutes
i = phase displacement of the current transformer in minutes
= phase angle between current and voltage in the measurement ( is positive at
inductive load)
K = correction
The correction K obtained from equation 4.1 is shown as a set of curves in Figure 4.2.
The corrections caused by the instrument transformers are made separately for each phase,
because different phases may have different power factors and the phase displacements of the
instrument transformers are generally different.
If the measuring current Im deviates from the rated current IN, the power Pkm and the
voltageUkm at rated current are obtained by applying corrections to the
values Pc and Uc relating to the measuring current.
The corrections are made as follows:

Equation 4.2

Equation 4.3

The correction caused by the phase displacement of instrument transformers (Figure 2):

Figure 4.2 Phase displacement of istrument transformers

Where:
K correction in percent,
u i phase displacement in minutes
cos power factor of the measurement.
The sign of K is the same as that of u i.
Mean values are calculated of the values corrected to the rated current and the mean values
are used in the following. According to the standards the measured value of the losses shall be
corrected to a winding temperature of 75 C (80 C, if the oil circulation is forced and directed).
The transformer is at ambient temperature when the measurements are carried out. and the
loss values are corrected to the reference temperature 75 C according to the standards as
follows.
The d.c. losses POm at the measuring temperature m are calculated using the resistance
values R1m and R2m obtained in the resistance measurement (for windings 1 and 2 between
line terminals):

Equation 4.4

The additional losses Pamat the measuring temperature are:

Equation 4.5

Here Pkm is the measured power, to which the corrections caused by the instrument
transformer have been made, and which is corrected to the rated current according to equation
(4.2).
The short-circuit impedance Zkm and resistance Rkm at the measureing temperature are:

Equation 4.6

Equation 4.7

Ukm is the measured short-circuit voltage corrected according to Equation (4.3);


UN is the rated voltage and
SN is the rated power.
The short circuit reactance Xk does not depend on the losses and Xk is the same at
the measuring temperature (m) and the reference temperature (75 C), hence:

Equation 4.8

When the losses are corrected to 75 C, it is assumed that d.c. losses vary directly with
resistance and the additional losses inversely with resistance. The losses corrected to 75 C
are obtained as follows:

Equation 4.9

Where:
s = 235 C for Copper
s = 225 C for Aluminium
Now the short circuit resistance Rkc and the short circuit impedance Zkc at the reference
temperature can be determined:

Equation 4.10

Equation 4.11

Results
The report indicates for each winding pair the power SN and the following values corrected to
75 C and relating to the principal and extreme tappings.

D.C. losses POc (PDC)


Additional losses Pac (PA)
Load losses Pkc (PK)
Short circuit resistance Rkc (RK)
Short circuit reaactance Xkc (XK)
Short circuit impedance Zkc (ZK)

Inspection and Test procedures for


Instrument Transformers
Posted APR 4 2014 by EDV ARD in TESTI NG AND CO MM I SSI O NI NG , TRANSFO RM ERS with 6 CO MM ENTS

Inspection and Test procedures for Instrument Transformers (on photo: Ritz Instrument Transformers)

Procedures to follow:

1. Visual and Mechanical Inspection


2. Electrical Tests:
1. Electrical Tests Current Transformers
2. Electrical Tests Voltage Transformers
3. Electrical Tests Coupling-Capacitor Voltage Transformers
4. Electrical Tests High-Accuracy Instrument Transformers (Reserved)
3. Test Values:
1. Test Values: Visual and Mechanical
2. Test Values: Current Transformers Electrical
3. Test Values:Voltage Transformers Electrical
4. Test Values: Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers
5. Test Values: High-Accuracy Instrument Transformers (Reserved)
4. Tables (100.5, 100.9 and 100.12)

1. Visual and Mechanical Inspection


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Compare equipment nameplate datawith drawings and specifications.


Inspect physical and mechanical condition.
Verify correct connection of transformers with system requirements.
Verify that adequate clearances exist between primary and secondary circuit wiring.
Verify the unit is clean.
Inspect bolted electrical connections for high resistance using one or more of the
following methods:
1. Use of low-resistance ohmmeter in accordance with Section 2.1 and 2.2.
2. Verify tightness of accessible bolted electrical connections by calibrated torquewrench method in accordance with manufacturers published data or Table
100.12.
3. Perform thermographic survey.
7. Verify that all required grounding and shorting connections provide contact.
8. Verify correct operation of transformer withdrawal mechanism and grounding operation.
9. Verify correct primary and secondary fuse sizes for voltage transformers.
10. Verify appropriate lubrication on moving current-carrying parts and on moving and
sliding surfaces.
Go to Index of Procedures

2. Electrical Tests
2.1 Electrical Tests Current Transformers
1. Perform resistance measurements through bolted connections with a low-resistance
ohmmeter, if applicable, in accordance with Section 1.

2. Perform insulation-resistance test of each current transformer and its secondary wiring
with respect to ground at 1000 volts dc for one minute.For units with solid-state
components that cannot tolerate the applied voltage, follow manufacturers
recommendations.
3. Perform a polarity test of each current transformer in accordance with ANSI/IEEE
C57.13.1.
4. Perform a ratio-verification test using the voltage or current method in accordance
with ANSI/IEEE C57.13.1.
5. Perform an excitation test on transformers used for relaying applications in accordance
with ANSI/IEEE C57.13.1.
6. Measure current circuit burdens at transformer terminals in accordance with
ANSI/IEEE C57.13.1.
7. When applicable, perform insulation-resistance tests on the primary winding with the
secondary grounded. Test voltages shall be inaccordance with Table 100.5.
8. When applicable, perform dielectric withstand tests on the primary winding with the
secondary grounded. Test voltages shall be inaccordance with Table 100.9.
9. Perform power-factor or dissipation-factortests in accordance with test
equipment manufacturers published data.
10. Verify that current transformer secondary circuits are grounded and have only one
grounding point in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.13.3. That grounding point should
be located as specified by the engineer in the project drawings.
Go to Index of Procedures

2.2 Electrical Tests Voltage Transformers


1. Perform resistance measurements through bolted connections with a low-resistance
ohmmeter, if applicable, in accordance with Section 1.
2. Perform insulation-resistance tests winding-to-winding and each winding-to-ground.
Test voltages shall be applied for one minute in accordance with Table 100.5. For units
with solid-state components that cannottolerate the applied voltage, follow
manufacturers recommendations.
3. Perform a polarity test on each transformer to verify the polarity marks or H1- X1
relationship as applicable.
4. Perform a turns-ratio test on all tap positions.
5. Measure voltage circuit burdens at transformer terminals.
6. ** Perform a dielectric withstand test on the primary windings with the secondary
windings connected to ground. The dielectric voltage shall be in accordance with Table
100.9. The test voltage shall be applied for one minute.
7. Perform power-factor or dissipation-factortests in accordance with test
equipment manufacturers published data.
8. Verify that voltage transformer secondary circuits are grounded and have only one
grounding point in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.13.3. The grounding point should be
located as specified by the engineer in the project drawings.
Go to Index of Procedures

2.3 Electrical Tests Coupling-Capacitor Voltage Transformers


1. Perform resistance measurements through bolted connections with a low-resistance
ohmmeter, if applicable, in accordance with Section 1.
2. Perform insulation-resistance tests winding-to-winding and each winding-to-ground.
Test voltages shall be applied for one minute in accordance with Table 100.5. For units
with solid-state components that cannottolerate the applied voltage, follow
manufacturers recommendations.
3. Perform a polarity test on each transformer to verify the polarity marking.
SeeANSI/IEEE C93.1 for standard polarity marking.
4. Perform a turns-ratio test on all tap positions, if applicable.
5. Measure voltage circuit burdens at transformer terminals.
6. ** Perform a dielectric withstand test on the primary windings with the secondary
windings connected to ground. The dielectric voltage shall be in accordance with Table
100.9. The test voltage shall be applied for one minute.
7. Measure capacitance of capacitor sections.
Go to Index of Procedures

2.4 Electrical Tests High-Accuracy Instrument Transformers (Reserved)

3. Test Values
3.1 Test Values Visual and Mechanical
1. Compare bolted connection resistance values to values of similar connections.
Investigate values which deviate from those of similar bolted connections by more than
50 percent of the lowest value. (1.6.1)
2. Bolt-torque levels shall be in accordance with manufacturers published data. In the
absence of manufacturers published data, use Table 100.12.
3. Results of the thermographic survey.
4. Perform power-factor or dissipation-factortests in accordance with test
equipment manufacturers published data.
5. Verify that the coupling-capacitor voltage transformer circuits are grounded and have
only one grounding point in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.13.3. That grounding point
should be located as specified by the engineer in the project drawings.
Go to Index of Procedures

3.2 Test Values: Current Transformers Electrical


1. Compare bolted connection resistance values to values of similar connections.
Investigate values which deviate from those of similar bolted connections by more than
50 percent of the lowest value.
2. Insulation-resistance values of instrument transformers shall not be less than values
shown in Table 100.5.
3. Polarity results shall agree with transformer markings.
4. Ratio errors shall be in accordance with C57.13.
5. Excitation results shall match the curve supplied by the manufacturer or be in
accordance with ANSI C57.13.1.
6. Measured burdens shall be comparedto instrument transformer ratings.
7. Insulation-resistance values of instrumenttransformers shall be in accordance
with manufacturers published data. In the absence of manufacturers published data,
useTable 100.5.
8. If no evidence of distress or insulation failure is observed by the end of the total time of
voltage application during the dielectricwithstand test, the primary winding is considered
to have passed the test.
9. Power-factor or dissipation-factor values shall be in accordance with manufacturers
published data. In the absence of manufacturers published data, use test equipment
manufacturers published data.
10. Test results shall indicate that the circuits have only one grounding point.
Go to Index of Procedures

3.3 Test Values: Voltage Transformers Electrical


1. Compare bolted connection resistance values to values of similar connections.
Investigate values which deviate from those of similar bolted connections by more than
50 percent of the lowest value.
2. Insulation-resistance values of instrument transformers shall be in accordance
with manufacturers published data. In the absence of manufacturers published data,
use Table 100.5.
3. Polarity results shall agree with transformer markings.
4. Ratio errors shall be in accordance with C57.13.
5. Measured burdens shall be comparedto instrument transformer ratings.
6. If no evidence of distress or insulation failure is observed by the end of the total time of
voltage application during the dielectricwithstand test, the primary windings are
considered to have passed the test.
7. Power-factor or dissipation-factor values shall be in accordance with manufacturers
published data. In the absence of manufacturers published data, use test equipment
manufacturers published data.

8. Test results shall indicate that the circuits are grounded at only one point.
Go to Index of Procedures

3.4 Test Values: Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers


1. Compare bolted connection resistance values to values of similar connections.
Investigate values which deviate from those of similar bolted connections by more than
50 percent of the lowest value.
2. Insulation-resistance values of instrument transformers shall not be less than values
shown in Table 100.5.
3. Polarity results shall agree with transformer markings.
4. Ratio errors shall be in accordance with C57.13.
5. Measured burdens shall be comparedto instrument transformer ratings.
6. If no evidence of distress or insulation failure is observed by the end of the total time of
voltage application during the dielectric withstand test, the test specimen is considered
to have passed the test.
7. Capacitance of capacitor sections of coupling-capacitor voltage transformers shall be
in accordance with manufacturers published data.
8. Power-factor or dissipation-factor values shall be in accordance with manufacturers
published data. In the absence of manufacturers published data, use test equipment
manufacturers published data.
9. Test results shall indicate that the circuits are grounded at only one point.
Go to Index of Procedures

3.5 Test Values: High-Accuracy Instrument Transformers (Reserved)

TABLE 100.5
Transformer Insulation Resistance Acceptance Testing

Table 100.5 Transformer Insulation Resistance Acceptance Testing

In the absence of consensus standards, the NETA Standards Review Council suggests the above
representative values.
NOTE: Since insulation resistance depends on insulation rating (kV) and winding capacity (kVA), values obtained
should be compared to manufacturers published data.

Go to Index of Procedures

TABLE 100.9
Instrument Transformer Dielectric Tests Field Acceptance

Table 100.9 Instrument Transformer Dielectric Tests Field Acceptance

Table 100.9 is derived from Paragraph 8.8.2 and Tables 2 of ANSI/IEEE C57.13-1993, Standard Requirements for
Instrument Transformers.
+ Periodic dc potential tests are not recommended for transformers rated higher than 34.5 kV.
* DC potential tests are not recommended for transformers rated higher than 200 kV BIL. DC tests may prove

beneficial as a reference for future testing. In such cases the test direct voltage shall not exceed the original factory
test rms alternating voltages.

Go to Index of Procedures

TABLE 100.12
US Standard Fasteners Bolt-Torque Values for Electrical
Connections

Table 100.12.1 Heat-Treated Steel Cadmium or Zinc Plated

Table 100.12.2 Silicon Bronze Fasteners

Table 100.12.3 Aluminum Alloy Fasteners

Table 100.12.4 Stainless Steel Fasteners

Go to Index of Procedures
Reference: Standard for acceptance testing specifications for electrical power equipment and
systems American National Standards Institute

Power Transformer Turns Ratio Test


Posted JAN 17 201 4 by EDV ARD in TESTI NG AND CO MM I SSI O NI NG , TRANSFO RM ERS with 4 CO MM ENTS

Power Transformer Turns Ratio Test

Turns ratio between the windings


The turns ratio test is an AC low voltage test which determines the ratio of the high voltage
winding to all other windings at no-load. The turns ratio test is performed on all taps of every
winding.
The Transformer Turns Ratio tester (TTR) is device used to measure the turns ratio between
the windings (example shown below).
Voltage is applied on the H marked leads and measured of the X marked lead by the test set.
Ratio measurements are conducted on all tap positions and calculated by dividing the induced
voltage reading into the applied voltage value. When ratio tests are being made on threephase transformers, the ratio is taken on one phase at a time with a three-phase TTR until
the ratio measurements of all three phases are completed.

Figure 1 Three-phase Transformer Turns Rati (TTR) Connection diagram.

Measured ratio variations should be within 0.5% of the nameplate markings.


Some TTR can perform transformer ratio measurement and also assess if on-load tap
changer contacts are making satisfactorily during its transition from one tap position to the
next position.

Example of single phase, hand-cranked TTR Transformer Turns Ratio Test Set (Measures the turns ratio and
exciting current of windings in power, potential and current transformers.)

Turns Ratio Test Procedure, Step by Step


Step 1.
Isolate the equipment, apply working grounds to all incoming and outgoing cables and
disconnect all incoming and outgoing cables from the transformer bushing terminals
connections.
Disconnected cables should have sufficient clearance from the switchgear terminals greater
that the phase spacing distance. Use nylon rope to hold cable away from incoming and
outgoing terminals as required.

Step 2.
Connect the H designated three-phase test lead with the military style connector at one end
to the mating connection on the test set marked with an H. Ensure that the connectors index
notch lines up properly.

Step 3.
Connect the X designated three-phase test of lead military style connector at one end to the
mating connection on the test set marked with an X. Ensure that the connectors index notch
lines up properly.

Step 4.
Connect the H1, H2, H3 designated test lead to the corresponding H1, H2, H3 transformer
terminal / bushing. Connect the H0 test lead if H0 terminal/bushing is present.
Refer to Figure 1.

Step 5.
Connect the X1, X2, X3 designated test leads to the corresponding X1, X2,X3 transformer
terminals / bushings. Connect the X0 test lead if X0 terminal/bushing is present.

Step 6.
Perform turns ratio measurements for all tap positions.

Step 7.
Confirm that the measured ratios is within 0.5% of the calculated ratios.

Important Note:
Transformers that have wye connections but do not have the neutral of the wye brought out
shall be tested for ratio with three-phase power supply.

Any inequality in the magnetizing characteristics of the three phases will then result in a
shift of the neutral and thereby cause unequal phase voltages. When such inequality is found,
the connection should be changed, either to a delta or to a wye connection, and the line
voltages measured.
When these are found to be equal to each other and the proper values (1.732 times the phase
voltages when connected in wye), the ratio is correct.

Testing Procedures for HV Voltage


Transformers
Content:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Equipment required for testing


General inspection
Insulation Resistance Test
Polarity Test
Transformer Turns ratio test

1. Equipment required
Following equipment is necessary to perform testings:
Polarity test kit
Megger 500-5000V
Ohmmeter
Multimeter
Autotransformers & Step-up transformers
Go up to the Content

2. General inspection
Mechanical checks

General visual inspection and compliance with the drawings and manuals.
Check nameplate ratings and HV, LV terminal markings.
Check that all parts of the transformer are properly assembled and tight.
Check the HV connections are tight.
Check the cable connections on the LV side and the markings.
Check the oil levels and inspect for leakage. (Where applicable)

Capacitor dividers type


Check that all parts of the transformers are properly assembled.

Electromagnetic type
Check the installation of different sections.

Electrical Checks

Check the equipment grounding (Continuity and connection)


Check the fuse rating of secondary side.
Perform the operation described in the following
Go up to the Content

Insulation Resistance Test


To obtain values as close as possible to the manufacturers specifications the insulators must
be very clean. Select the megger range corresponding to the ratings of the equipment under
test.
For Primary side, apply voltage depending on rating of voltage rating of VT.
For 6.6 kV VT (example), apply 2.5 kV and
For 132 kV VT (example), apply 5.0 kV.

Figure Measurement between primary and secondary

Figure Measurement between primary and ground

Figure Measurement between secondaries and between secondary and ground

Go up to the Content

Polarity Test
The polarity is checked using the flick method (application of direct current) and check of
deflection on a bi-directional milliammeter. The test is also used to check primary and
secondary circuit continuity.
When switch k is closed, the milliammeter pointer deflects positive.
When the circuit is opened, the milliammeter pointer deflects in the negative direction.

Figure VT Polarity test

Go up to the Content

Transformer Turns ratio test


A variable AC source is applied on the primary side. The primary and secondary voltages are
measured to determine the ratio V2/V1

Figure Transformer Turns ratio test

Power Transformer Capacitance and


Dissipation Factor Test
Power Transformer Capacitance and
Dissipation Factor Test

Posted JAN 22 201 4 by EDV ARD in TESTI NG AND CO MM I SSI O NI NG , TRANSFO RM ERS with 4 CO MM ENTS

Figure 1 Capacitance and Dissipation Factor Test connection diagram

Transformer insulation system


The capacitance and dissipation factor test is an AC low voltage maintenance test and is
very similar to the power factor test.
The test as it is termed, measures the capacitance and dissipation factor (or loss factor) of
the transformer insulation system. This test may be required to be performed during
the acceptance testing stage to establish a baseline reading for future test comparison.
While the transformer preparation is identical to the power factor test procedure, there is no
requiremnts to make connection changes once the initial test set connections are made. Highvoltage winding and low-voltage winding test set connection changes are made through a
selector switch provided on the test set.
Winding capacitance and dissipation factor test values are obtained by balancing a null meter
for each variable at every the measured variable selector switch positions.

MEGGER Semi-Automatic Capacitance and Dissipation Factor Test Set (Direct readout of capacitance, dissipation
factor and watts dissipated)

Capacitance and Dissipation Factor Test Procedure


(Two winding dry-type transformer)

Step 1.
Isolate the equipment, apply working grounds to all incoming and outgoing cables and
disconnect all incoming and outgoing cables from the transformer bushing terminals.
Disconnected cables should have sufficient clearance from the switchgear terminals greater
that the phase spacing distance.
Use nylon rope to hold cable away from incoming and outgoing terminals as required.

Step 2.
Isolate the neutral bushing connection if applicable from the transformer grounding bar.

Step 3.
Short-circuit all high voltage bushing terminals together.

Step 4.
Short-circuit all low voltage bushing terminals and the neutral bushing terminal together.

Step 5.
Connect the capacitance and dissipation factor test set. Refer to Figure 1 above.

Step 6.
Record the capacitance and dissipation factor values once the null meter is balance for both
phasing position. Record values for the five test-variable selector switch position.

Power Transformer Testing Measuring capacitance and


power factor or dissipation factor
The condition of the bushings and the overall insulation of power transformers can be
investigated by measuring the capacitance and dissipation factor, also known as the tangent
delta, or power factor. Aging and decomposition of the insulation, or the ingress of water,
increases the losses and thus more energy is turned into heat in the insulation.
The level of this dissipation is expressed by the dissipation factor or power factor.

An overview of Large Power


Transformer LPT (Characteristics,
Costs and Pricing)
An LPT (Large Power Transformer) is a large, custom-built piece of equipment that is a
critical component of the bulk transmission grid. Because LPTs are very expensive and
tailored to customers specifications, they are usually neither interchangeable with each other
nor produced for extensive spare inventories.
According to an industry source, approximately 1.3 transformers are produced for each
transformer design.
Figure 1 illustrates a standard core-type LPT and its major internal components. Although
LPTs come in a wide variety of sizes and configurations, they consist of two main active parts:
1. The core, which is made of high-permeability, grain-oriented, silicon electrical steel,
layered in pieces; and
2. Windings, which are made of copper conductors wound around the core, providing
electrical input and output.
Two basic configurations of core and windings exist: the core form and the shell form.

Figure 1 - The ABB's TrafoStar design used for core type transformers has a circular shaped core limb, surrounded
by concentrically arranged, cylinder shaped windings.

In the usual shell-type power transformer, both primary and secondary are on one leg and are
surrounded by the core, whereas in a core-type power transformer, cylindrical windings cover
the core legs. Shell form LPTs typically use more electrical steel for the core and are more
resilient to short-circuit in the transmission systems and are frequently used in industrial
applications.
The core and windings are contained in a rectangular, mechanical frame called the tank.
Other parts include transformer bushings, which connect LPTs to transmission lines, as well
as tap changers, power cable connectors, gas-operated relays, thermometers, relief devices,
dehydrating breathers, oil level indicators, and other controls.
Power transformer costs and pricing vary by manufacturer, by market condition, and by
location of the manufacturing facility.

In 2010, the approximate cost of an LPT with an MVA rating between 75 MVA and 500 MVA
was estimated to range from $2 to $7.5 million in the United States. However, these estimates
were Free on Board (FOB) factory costs, exclusive of transportation, installation, and other
associated expenses, which generally add 25 to 30 percent to the total cost (see Table 1
below).
Raw materials, particularly copper and electrical steel, are a significant factor in power
transformer prices.
Transportation is also an important element of the total LPT cost, because an LPT can weigh
as much as 410 tons (820,000 lb) and often requires long-distance transport.

Table 1 - Estimated Magnitude of Large Power Transformers in 2011

Note: Prices are FOB factory and do not include taxes, transportation, special features and
accessories, special testing (short-circuit, etc.), insulating oil, field installation, and/or optional
services. The total installed cost is estimated to be about 2530 percent higher.
Source: NERC Special Report: Spare Equipment Database System, 2011
LPTs require substantial capital and a long-lead time (in excess of six months) to
manufacture, and its production requires large crane capacities, ample floor space, and
adequate testing and drying equipment.

Identifying The Primary And Secondary


Phasor Polarities Of Transformer
Polarity Test

Polarity Detection
This is needed for identifying the primary and secondary phasor polarities. It is a must for
poly phase connections. Both a.c. and d.c methods can be used for detecting the polarities of
the induced emfs.
The dot method is used to indicate the polarities.
The transformer is connected to a low voltage a.c. source with the connections made as shown
in the Figure 1 (a). A supply voltage Vs is applied to the primary and the readings of the
voltmeters V1, V2 and V3 are noted. V1 : V2 gives the turns ratio.
If V3 reads V1V2 then assumed dot locations are correct (for the connection shown).

Figure 1 - Transformer polarity test scheme

The beginning and end of the primary and secondary may then be marked by A1 A2 and a1
a2 respectively. If the voltage rises from A1 to A2 in the primary, at any instant it does so
from a1 to a2 in the secondary.
If more secondary terminals are present due to taps taken from the windings they can be
labeled as a3, a4, a5, a6. It is the voltage rising from smaller number towards larger ones in
each winding. The same thing holds good if more secondaries are present.
Figure 1 (b) shows the d.c. method of testing the polarity. When the switch S is closed if
the secondary voltage shows a positive reading, with a moving coil meter, the assumed polarity
is correct. If the meter kicks back the assumed polarity is wrong.

An Overview of IEC 60076-10


Determination Of Sound Levels Of
Power Transformers
Sources of sound

The audible sound radiated by transformers is generated by a combination ofmagnetostrictive


deformation of the core and electromagnetic forces in the windings, tank walls and magnetic
shields.
Historically, the sound generated by the magnetic field inducing longitudinal vibrations
in the core laminations has been dominant.
The amplitude of these vibrations depends on the flux density in the laminations and the
magnetic properties of the core steel, and is therefore independent of the load current. Recent
advances in core design, combined with the use of low induction levels, have reduced the
amount of sound generated in the core such that the sound caused by the electromagnetic
forces may become significant.
Current flowing in the winding conductors produces electromagnetic forces in the windings.
In addition, stray magnetic fields may induce vibrations in structural components. The force
(and therefore the amplitude of the vibrations) is proportional to the square of the current, and
the radiated sound power is proportional to the square of the vibrational amplitude.
Consequently, the radiated sound power is strongly dependent on the load current.
Vibrations in core and winding assemblies can then induce sympathetic vibrations in
tank walls, magnetic shields and air ducts (if present).

Air-core reactor construction

In the case of dry-type, air-cored shunt or series reactors, sound is generated


by electromagnetic forces acting on the windings in a similar manner to that described above.
These oscillatory forces cause the reactor to vibrate both axially and radially, and the axial and
radial supports and manufacturing tolerances may result in the excitation of modes in addition
to those of rotational symmetry. In the case of iron-cored reactors, further vibrations are
induced by forces acting in the magnetic circuit.
For all electrical plants, the consequence of the presence of higher harmonics on the
power supply should be understood. Normally, vibrations occur at even harmonics of the
power frequency, with the first harmonic being dominant. If other frequencies are present in
the power supply, other forces may be induced.
For certain applications, this may be significant, particularly because the human ear is more
sensitive to these higher frequencies. Any associated cooling equipment will also generate
noise when operating. Fans and pumps both tend to generate broad-band noise due to
the forced flow of air or oil.

Measurement of sound
Sound level measurements have been developed to quantify pressure variations in air that
a human ear can detect. The smallest pressure variation that a healthy human ear can detect
is 20 Pa. This is the reference level (0 dB) to which all the other levels are compared.
The perceived loudness of a signal is dependent upon the sensitivity of the human ear to its
frequency spectrum. Modern measuring instruments process sound signals through electronic
networks, the sensitivity of which varies with frequency in a manner similar to the human ear.
This has resulted in a number of internationally standardized weightings of which
theAweighting network is the most common.
Sound intensity is defined as the rate of energy flow per unit area and is measured in watts
per square metre. It is a vector quantity whereas, sound pressure is a scalar quantity and is
defined only by its magnitude.
Sound power is the parameter which is used for rating and comparing sound sources. It is
a basic descriptor of a sources acoustic output, and therefore an absolute physical property
of the source alone which is independent of any external factors such as environment
and distance to the receiver.
Sound power can be calculated from sound pressure or sound intensity determinations.
Sound intensity measurements have the following advantages over sound pressure
measurements:
1. An intensity meter responds only to the propagating part of a sound field and ignores
any non-propagating part, for example, standing waves and reflections;
2. The intensity method reduces the influence of external sound sources, as long as their
sound level is approximately constant.

The sound pressure method takes the above factors into account by correcting for background
noise and reflections.
This part of IEC 60076 defines sound pressure and sound intensity measurement methods by
which sound power levels of transformers, reactors and their associated cooling auxiliaries
may be determined.
NOTE For the purpose of this standard, the term transformer means transformer or reactor.
The methods are applicable to transformers and reactors covered by the IEC 60076
series, IEC 60289, IEC 60726 and the IEC 61378 series, without limitation as regards size or
voltage and when fitted with their normal cooling auxiliaries.
This standard is primarily intended to apply to measurements made at the factory.
Conditions on-site may be very different because of the proximity of objects, including other
transformers. Nevertheless, the same general rules as are given in this standard may be
followed when on-site measurements are made.
Reference: INTERNATIONAL STANDARD IEC 60076-10 (Purchase here)

Transformer Routine Dielectric


(Insulation) Test
Insulation tests to be performed
The following insulation tests are performed in order to meet the transformer insulation
strength expectations. Unless otherwise requested by the customer, the following test are
performed in the following order (IEC 60076-3) :

1. Switching impulse test:


To confirm the insulation of the transformer terminals and windings to the earthed parts and
other windings, and to confirm the insulation strength in the windings and through the windings.

2. Lightning impulse test


to confirm the transformer insulation strength in case of a lightning hitting the connection
terminals.

3. Separate source AC withstand voltage test


To confirm the insulation strength of the transformer line and neutral connection terminals and
the connected windings to the earthed parts and other windings.

4. Induced AC voltage test (short duration ACSD and long duration ACLD)
To confirm the insulation strength of the transformer connection terminals and the connected
windings to the earthed parts and other windings, both between the phases and through the
winding.

5. Partial discharge measurement


To confirm the partial dicharge below a determined level property of the transformer
insulationstructure under operating conditions.
According to standards, the transformer windings are made to meet the maximum operating
voltage Um and the related insulation levels.
The transformer insulation levels and the insulation test to be applied according to IEC 600763is shown in the below table.
Winding
structure

Maximum
operating
voltage
Um kV

Tests
Lightning
impulse
(LI)

Switching
Long
Short
impulse duration AC duration AC
(SI)
(ACLD)
(ACSD)

Applied
voltage
test

uniform
insulated

Um 72,5

type
(note 1)

na

na
(note 1)

routine

routine

uniform
and
gradually
insulated

72,5 < Um 170

routine

na

special

routine

routine

170 < Um 300

routine

routine
(note 2)

routine

special
(note 2)

routine

300

routine

routine

routine

special

routine

Note 1: In some countries, in transformers with Um 72,5 kV applied as routine test and the
ACLD test is applied as routine or type test.
Note 2 : If the ACSD test is defined, the SI test is not applied.
In case of a transformer with one or more thanone gradual insulation, if foreseen by the
induced voltage test, the switching impulse test isdetermined according to the
maximum Umvoltage winding.
The foreseen test voltage can not be reached in lower Um voltage windings. In this case, the
ratio between the tap changers optimum tap position and the windings shall be such arranged
that, the lowest Um voltage winding reaches the most appropriate value. This is acceptable
(IEC 60076-3).
If chopped wave is requested during ligthning impulse (LI) test, the peak value of the
chopped wave is 1.1 times the full wave value (10% higher). For transformers with the high
voltage winding Um> 72.5 kV, the lightning impulse (LI) test is a routine test for all windings of
the transformer.

Repeating the dielectric tests


If no modification is made in the internal insulation of a transformer, only maintenance is made,
or if insulation tests are required for a transformer which is in operation, and if no agreement is
made with the customer, test is performed with test voltages at 80% of the original test values.
However, the long duration induced voltage test (ACLD) is always repeated with 100% of the
original value.
For new transformers with factory tests completed, tests are repeated always with 100%
of the original values.

Other transformer routine tests


1. Transformer Routine Test Measurement of Voltage Ratio and Check of Phase
Displacement
2. Transformer Routine Test Measurement Of No-Load Loss And Current
3. Transformer Routine Test Measurement of Winding Resistance
Resource: BEST Transformer Tests (BALIKESR ELEKTROMEKANK SANAY TESSLER
A..)

Erection Procedure for Power


Transformer
This technical article deals with transformers and their installation so we restrict
ourselves here to the procedures associated with their commissioning. Transformers
should be inspected for internal or external damage, particularly if they have been dropped or
tipped over.
This should include such items as:
1. Drain valves, selector switches,
2. Conservator tanks,
3. Buchholz relays and
4. Winding temperature indicators.
All transformers must be tested for winding insulation resistance and the readings confirmed
as acceptable.
However HV D.C. tests on a cable connected transformer cannot be done because the
windings of the transformer short out the d.c test set.
If between-core tests are required on transformer feeder cables after installation then a link
box must be provided to disconnect the cable from the transformer windings. If
transformer covers are taken off to achieve internal disconnection the tools used must be clean
and secured externally by white tape so that they may be recovered if inadvertently dropped.
All nuts and washers must be accounted for and all operatives should be asked to empty their
pockets while working over the open tank.

Waterproof covers should be provided during the period when the transformer tank is
open. If it is not possible to disconnect the cables after jointing they must be tested
beforehand. This means that the jointing and testing programme must be carefully planned to
avoid leaving cable ends unsealed for long periods.
Transformer diagrams should be inspected and the phasing diagram confirmed as correct.
Also before energising, the voltage selector must be set on the appropriate tapping having
regard to the voltage level of the system.
Transformers which are to operate in parallel must be set on the same tapping and they should
be checked as having the same impedance. Voltage selectors should be locked in their set
position and if they are of the off-circuit type they must not be adjusted without the supply
being first switched off. Earthing arrangements for the tank and the neutral or other system
earthing must be confirmed and completed before testing and commissioning.
Where special tests for losses, ratio, phase angle or winding resistances are specified the
assistance of the manufacturer should be sought.
The following points should be checked on the particular type of transformer as
appropriate:

Oil immersed naturally cooled (ON)

Erection of oil immersed transformer

Ensure that the oil level is adequate and that breather tubes are clear. Commission silica
gel units by removing the airtight seals from the cannisters and filling the oil sealing-well to
the correct level with transformer oil.
The colour of the silica gel must be checked and the filling changed if it shows dampness
(red for wet, blue for dry).

Dry-type transformers

Erection of dry-type power transformer

As dry-type transformers are more susceptible to external damage they must be carefully
handled and stored on site.
They must also be kept in a dry, warm atmosphere until they are put in service, to prevent
ingress of moisture.
Satisfactory insulation tests are imperative before commissioning. Because they are wholly
dependent on surface radiation and air convection for cooling, they must be checked for any
accumulation of dust or dirt which can block the air ducts and reduce the flow of air.
Cleanliness is essential, particularly where the connection leads leave the windings and at the
terminal supports. Damp dust leads to tracking and causes expensive damage.
It is particularly important to check such transformers for dust in package substations which
may escape the notice of commissioning staff.
Resource: Handbook of Electrical Installation Practice Eur Ing Geoffrey Stokes (Get it from
Amazon)

Transformer temperature, oil level and


pressure gauges
Temperature controls are required in order to turn on and off the cooling equipment. These
controls are usually combined with a visible dial-type gauge that measures winding
temperature.
This is really a misnomer because the gauge does not actually contact the winding.
Instead, it measures the top oil temperature plus a temperature gradient produced by a small
heater surrounding the thermometer bulb. This heater is connected to a current transformer on
one of the phases of the secondary leads, so as the secondary load increases, so does the
current through the heater resistance.

The heater then becomes a mimic of the actual transformer winding with the winding
temperature gauge measuring a temperature that is roughly equivalent to the true winding
temperature.
In addition to (or instead of ) the winding temperature gauge, most transformers have an oil
temperature gauge that measures the actual top oil temperature. The difference in temperature
between the winding temperature gauge and the top oil temperature gauge is one indication of
how heavily the transformer is loaded.
Winding and/or top oil temperatures should be routinely observed to see whether the
transformer is operating within normal temperature limits. There have been many cases
where an abnormal temperature indication has uncovered serious problems with transformers.
One example of this was a case of an OA cooling class transformer operating with a very
high oil temperature. Further investigation revealed that a leak in the radiator had caused the
oil level to drop below the radiator inlet, resulting in a virtual total loss of cooling. In other
cases, investigations of elevated transformer temperatures have revealed blocked coolers and
malfunctioning cooler controls.
An oil level gauge is required so that the correct oil level can be maintained. There is usually
a mark on the gauge that indicates the 25C level, which is the proper oil level at that
temperature. Maintaining the proper oil level is extremely important because if the oil level falls
below the level of the radiator inlet, flow through the radiator will cease and the transformer will
overheat.
A very low oil level can expose energized and current-carrying components that are designed
to operate in oil and could result in overheating or an electrical flashover. If the oil level is too
high, it could cause over pressurization when the oil expands.

Transformer pressure gauge

If the transformer is equipped with a constant-pressure nitrogen oil preservation system,


then pressure gauges are included to measure the pressure of the gas blanket and the
nitrogen in the make-up bottle.
Transformers that have a gas blanket over the oil in the main tank usually come equipped with
pressure gauges. On random inspections, a sealed-tank unit should have a slight positive or a
slight negative pressure. If the pressure gauge consistently records zero pressure under all
loading and temperature conditions, this is an indication that the transformer tank has a leak,
allowing it to breathe.
This condition must be taken seriously and fixed, because a transformer that breathes is
probably contaminated with moisture.
Reference: Power Transformers Principles and Applications John J. Winders, Jr.

Ferroresonance Occurrence In Power


Transformer
Ferroresonance occurs when line capacitance resonates with the magnetizing reactance of
a core while it goes in and out of saturation.
Ferroresonance is usually associated with potential transformers, which are instrument
transformers that are used to develop voltages used by relays; however, it can also occur with
power transformers under special circumstances.
Ferroresonance is another occurrence that can cause equipment damage; fortunately, it is
preventable by simply avoiding certain types of transformer connections with the types of
circumstances that enable it to occur.
Because these connections are routinely avoided in practice, ferroresonance is not
encountered very often and there isnt much information about it in the literature.
Ferroresonance is worthy of mention, however, because it can utterly destroy a
transformer.

Figure 1 - A situation where ferroresonance may occur. The cable capacitances form three parallel L-C elements that
are in series with each other and the source voltages.

The necessary conditions for ferroresonance are established in the system shown in Figure 1.
In the example shown in Figure 1, the -connected tertiary winding of a large three-winding
substation transformer supplies a distribution type station-service transformer with a Grd.-Y
primary winding. The supply lines to the station-service transformers are through a set of
shielded cables. If the cable runs are fairly long, a significant amount of phase-to-ground
capacitance may exist.
When a transformer core operates near saturation, the B-H curve is highly nonlinear, and the
effective permeability of the core can take on a range of values that vary with the changes in
flux density.
Each of the inductances shown as L1, L2, and L3, will have instantaneous inductance
valuesthat are proportional to the effective permeability of the core at any given instant in time.
These inductances form parallel L-C circuits that are in series with one another and in series
with the source voltage.
Since L1, L2, and L3 are constantly varying along with the effective permeability of the core, it
is almost certain that a series resonant condition will exist at least part of the time during every
cycle.
When a series resonance exists, even for a brief period, this causes very large voltages
across the L-C elements. These voltages are capable of destroying the transformer and
any other equipment connected to it.

The nonlinear nature of this problem makes mathematical analysis virtually impossible, but the
phenomenon has been observed both in the field and experimentally, and the voltages have
been measured and recorded.
In the example above, the conditions for ferroresonance can be disrupted by the simple
expedient of -connected secondary winding to the station service transformer.
The -connected winding assures that the vector sum of the voltages of all three phases add
to zero, stabilizing the neutral point of the Y-connected primary winding and preventing
excessive voltage across the windings. The presence of a -connected secondary winding will
essentially snuff out ferroresonance in this circuit.

When a transformer has stomach pain


and wants to
About stomach pain
During normal operation, transformer internal structures and windings are subjected
tomechanical forces due to the magnetic forces. These forces are illustrated in Figure 1.
By designing the internal structure very strong to withstand these forces over a long period of
time, service life can be extended. However, in a large transformer during a through fault
(fault current passing through a transformer), forces can reach millions of pounds, pulling the
coils up and down and pulling them apart 60/50 times per second.
Notice in Figure 1 that the internal low-voltage coil is being pulled downward, while the highvoltage winding is pulled up, in the opposite direction.
At the same time, the right-hand part of the figure shows that the high- and low-voltage coils
are being forced apart.

Figure 1 - Transformer Internal Forces

Keep in mind that these forces are reversing 50/60 times each second. It is obvious why
internal structures of transformers must be built incredibly strong.
Many times, if fault currents are high, these forces can rip a transformer apart and
causeelectrical faults inside the transformer itself. This normally results in arcing inside the
transformer that can result in explosive failure of the tank, throwing flaming oil over a wide
area.
There are protective relaying systems to protect against this possibility, although explosive
failures do occur occasionally.

How to prevent pain


Through Fault Short Circuit withstand considerations
The windings are subject to both radial and axial forces related to the current and flux
interactions. Radial forces in the inner winding (normally the LV winding) are in compression
while the outer winding (normally the HV winding) forces are in tension.
Design of the windings and bracing must consider the magnitude of these forces and
provide adequate strength to withstand them without significant mechanical deformation which
could result in a dielectric failure.
The picture below is an example ofa free bucking mechanical failure of an inner winding
resulting from radial forces in compression on the winding. Note, even though there is
mechanical failure, there wasnt a dielectric failure of this winding.

Free bucking mechanical failure of an inner winding resulting from radial forces in compression on the winding

Flux fields are dependent of the balance of the ampere turn distribution of the HV and LV
windings. When the ampere turns of the HV and LV windings are equal and balanced, the only
forces are radial.
DETC taps (De Energized Tap Changer) in the HV windings and LTC (Load Tap Changer)
operation result in changes in the ampere turn distribution resulting in axial forces. If the HV
and LV windings are not aligned axially or one winding is physically shorter than the other,
ampere turn balance is significantly affected and axial forces are magnified.

Transfomer core force and flux

Autotransformers, low impedance, motor starting duty, transformers with multiple voltages by
reconnecting the transformer windings in series and parallel configurations, three
winding transformers with dual secondary windings for start up or unit auxiliary service at
power plants all can result in increased axial and radial forces during a short circuit
and require special consideration.

Transformer Routine Test


Measurement of Voltage Ratio and
Check of Phase Displacement
Introduction
The no-load voltage ratio between two windings of a transformer is called turn ratio.
The aim of measurement is: Confirming the no-load voltage ratio given in the customer order
specifications, determining the conditions of both the windings and the connections and
examining the problems (if any).
The measurements are made at all tap positions and all phases.

Measurement circuit and performing the measurement

1. Turn Ratio Measurement


The turn ratio measurement can be made using two different methods:
1. Bridge method
2. By measuring the voltage ratios of the windings

1. Bridge method
Measurement of turn ratio is based on, applying a phase voltage to one of the windings using a
bridge (equipment) and measuring the ratio of the induced voltage at the bridge.
The measurements are repeated in all phases and at all tap positions, sequentially.
During measurement, only turn ratio between the winding couples which have the same
magnetic flux can be measured, which means the turn ratio between the winding couples
which have the parallel vectors in the vector diagram can be measured. (Figures 2.1, 2.2, 2.3).
In general, the measuring voltage is 220 V a.c. 50 Hz. However, equipment which have other
voltage levels can also be used. The accuracy of the measuring instrument is 0,1%.

Figure 1-1 - Bridge connection for measuring the turn ratio

1 - Transformer under test


2 Transformer with adjustable range (standard)
3 Zero position indicator
U1 Applied voltage to the bridge and HV winding (220 V, 50 Hz)
U2 Induced voltage at the LV winding

Theoretical turn ratio = HV winding voltage / LV


winding voltage
The theoretical no-load turn ratio of the transformer is adjusted on the equipment by an
adjustable transformer, it is changed until a balance occurs on the % error indicator.
The value read on this error indicator shows the deviaton of the transformer from real turn ratio
as %.

2. By measuring the voltage ratios of the windings


The voltages at the winding couples to be measured, can be measured at the same time and
the ratio can be determined, or digital instruments which are manufactured for this purpose can
be used in the voltage ratio measurement method.
By using such instruments, in addition to measuring the turn ratio, also determining
the connection group (with three phase measuring instrument) and measuring the currents
during measurement are also possible.
The method of comparing the vector couple voltages also allows measuring the angle (phase
slip) between vectors at the same time.

2. Determining the Connection Group


Depending on the type of the transformer, the input and output windings of a multi-phase
transformer are connected either as star ( Y ) or delta ( D ) or zigzag ( Z ). The phase angle
between the high voltage and the low voltage windings varies between 0 and 360 .
Representing as vectors, the HV winding is represented as 12 (0) hour and the other windings
of the connection group are represented by other numbers of the clock in reference to the real
or virtual point.
For example, in Dyn 11 connection group the HV winding is delta and the LV winding is star
and there is a phase difference of 330 (1130) between two windings. While the HV end
shows 12 (0), the LV end shows 11 oclock (after 330).
Determining the connection (vector) group is valid only in three phase transformers. The
high voltage winding is shown first (as reference) and the other windings follow it.
If the vector directions of the connection are correct, the bridge can be balanced.
Also, checking the connection group or polarity is possible by using a voltmeter. Direct current
or alternating current can be used for this check. The connections about the alternating current
method are detailed in standards. An example of this method is shown on a vector diagram
below.
The no-load deviation of the turn ratios should be % 0,5 .

Figure 1-2 - Connection group representation and measuring

The order of the measurements:


1) 3 phase voltage is applied to ABC phases
2) Voltage between phases (e.g. AC) is measured
3) A short circuit is made between C and n
4) Voltage between B and b is measured
5) Voltage between A and c is measured
As seen from the vector diagram, in order to be Dyn 11 group , A.c > AB > B.b correlation
has to realized.
Taking the other phases as reference for starting, same principles can be used and also for
determining the other connection groups, same principles will be helpful.

Figure 2.3 - Some of the connection groups according to IEC 60076-1 standard

Resource: BEST Transformer Tests (BALIKESR ELEKTROMEKANK SANAY TESSLER


A..)

Transformer Routine Test


Measurement Of No-Load Loss And
Current
Introduction to test
The no-load losses are very much related to the operational performance of a transformer. As
long as the transformer is operated, these losses occur. For this reason, no load losses are
very important for operational economy. No-load losses are also used in the heating test.
The no-load loss and current measurements of a transformer are made while one of
thewindings (usually the HV winding) is kept open and the other winding is supplied at the
rated voltage and frequency.
During this test the no-load current (Io) and the no-load losses (Po) are measured.
The measured losses depend heavily on the applied voltage waveform and frequency. For this
reason, the waveform of the voltage should be very sinusoidal and at rated frequency.
Normally, the measurements are made while the supply voltage is increased at equal
intervalsfrom 90% to 115% of the transformer rated voltage (Un) and this way the values at
the rated voltage can also be found.

No-load losses and currents


The no-load losses of a transformer are grouped in three main topics:
1. Iron losses at the core of the transformer,
2. Dielectric losses at the insulating material and
3. The copper losses due to no-load current.
The last two of them are very small in value and can be ignored.
So, only the iron losses are considered in determining the no-load losses.

Measuring circuit and performing the measurement

Connection diagram for measuring no-load losses

In general according to the standards, if there is less than 3% difference between the effective
(U) value and the average (U) value of the supply voltage, the shape of the wave is
considered as appropriate for measurements.
If the supply voltage is different than sinusoid, the measured no-load losses have to be
corrected by a calculation. In this case, the effective (r.m.s.) value and the average (mean)
value of the voltage are different. If the readings of both voltmeter are equal, there is no need
for correction.
During measurements, the supply voltage U is supplied to the transformer by the average
value voltmeter. In this way, the foreseen induction is formed and as a result of this, the
hysteresis losses are measured correctly. The eddy-current losses should be corrected
according to equation below.

Pm = P0 (P1 + k P2)
Pm: Measured loss
P0: No-load losses where the voltage is sinusoidal
Here: P0 = Ph + PE = k1 f + k2 f2
k = [ U / U' ]2
P1: The hysteresis loss ratio in total losses (Ph) = k1 f
P2: The eddy-curent loss ratio in total losses (PE) = k2 f2

At 50 Hz and 60 Hz, in cold oriented sheet steel, P1 = P2 = % 50. So, the P0 no-load loss
becomes:

Po = Pm / (P1 + k P2)

where P1 = P2 = 0,5

According to IEC 60076-1: Pm = P0 (1 + d) where d = [ (U' - U) / U' ]


During no-load loss measurement, the effective value of the no-load current of the transformer
is measured as well. In general, in three phase transformers, evaluation is made according to
the average of the three phase currents.
Before the no-load measurements, the transformer might have been magnetised by direct
current and its components (resistance measurement or impulse tests).
For this reason, the core has to be demagnetised. To do this, it has to be supplied by a voltage
value (increasing and decreasing between the maximum and minimum voltage values for a few
minutes) higher than the rated voltage for a certain time and then the measurements can be
made.
The no-load currents are neither symmetrical nor of equal amplitude in three phase
transformers. The phase angles between voltages and currents may be different for each of
three phases.
For this reason, the wattmeter readings on each of the three phases may not be
equal.Sometimes one of the wattmeter values can be 0 (zero) or negative (-).
Resource: Transformer Tests BEST Transformers

What is transformer rating based on?


Temperature & Insulation
In the U.S., transformers are rated based on the power output they are capable of delivering
continuously at a specified rated voltage and frequency under usual operating conditions
without exceeding prescribed internal temperature limitations.
Insulation is known to deteriorate with increases in temperature, so the insulation chosen for
use in transformers is based on how long it can be expected to last by limiting the operating
temperature.
The temperature that insulation is allowed to reach under operating conditions essentially
determines the output rating of the transformer, called the kVA rating.
Standardization has led to temperatures within a transformer being expressed in terms of the
rise above ambient temperature, since the ambient temperature can vary under operating or
test conditions.
Transformers are designed to limit the temperature based on the desired load, including the
average temperature rise of a winding, the hottest-spot temperature rise of a winding, and, in
the case of liquid-filled units, the top liquid temperature rise. To obtain absolute temperatures
from these values, simply add the ambient temperature.

Standard temperature limits for liquid-immersed power transformers are listed in Table
below.

Standard limits for Temperature Rises Above Ambient


Temperature rise

Temperature

Average winding temperature rise

65C **

Hot spot temperature rise

80C

Top liquid temperature rise

65C

** The base rating is frequently specified and tested as a 55C rise.


The normal life expectancy of a power transformer is generally assumed to be about 30
years of service when operated within its rating. However, under certain conditions, it may be
overloaded and operated beyond its rating, with moderately predictable loss of life.
Situations that might involve operation beyond rating include emergency rerouting of load or
through-faults prior to clearing of the fault condition.
Outside the U.S., the transformer rating may have a slightly different meaning. Based on some
standards, the kVA rating can refer to the power that can be input to a transformer, the rated
output being equal to the input minus the transformer losses.
Power transformers have been loosely grouped into three market segments based onsize
ranges.
These three segments are:
1. Small power transformers: 500 to 7500 kVA
2. Medium power transformers: 7500 to 100 MVA
3. Large power transformers: 100 MVA and above
Note that the upper range of small power and the lower range of medium power can
varybetween 2,500 and 10,000 kVA throughout the industry.
It was noted that the transformer rating is based on usual service conditions, as prescribed
by standards. Unusual service conditions may be identified by those specifying a transformer
so that the desired performance will correspond to the actual operating conditions.
Unusual service conditions include, but are not limited to, the following: high (above 40C) or
low (below 20C) ambient temperatures, altitudes above 1000 m above sea level, seismic
conditions, and loads with total harmonic distortion above 0.05 per unit.

D.M.C.R. Protection Relay for Oil


Transformer
Content

Introduction to D.M.C.R.

Faults detected on live transformer unit:


1. Dielectric fluid level is detected as low
2. Overheating is detected
3. Excess pressure is detected
Standards
Possibilities of D.M.C.R.:
1. Oil level control and gas detection
2. Pressure control
3. Temperature control

Introduction to D.M.C.R.
The DMCR is a protection relay designed for the hermetically sealed oil immersed
transformers without gas cushion. This device enables complete control of the tanks internal
parameters, i.e. pressure, temperature, oil level and gas detection.
Fitted directly to the transformer cover, this relay ensures protection against internal faults,
prolonged overvoltages and fire risks associated with the use of inflammable dielectric fluids.
The accessory continuously monitors:
1. Dielectric fluid level,
2. Tank internal pressure,
3. Dielectric fluid temperature at two different thresholds.
To operate properly, the protection relay mustbe fully filled with fluid (level higher than the
float visible in the transparent section of the unit). If this is not the case, check the instructions
which appear inside each casing.
To ensure optimum protection, the following action and adjustments are recommended:
Finding
Gas emitted or drop in level

Recommended adjustment Fault detected Action to be taken


Large float at the top

Serious fault

De-energize unit

0.20 bar

Serious fault

De-energize unit

Thermostat threshold 1

90C

Overvoltages

Activate alarm

Thermostat threshold 2

100C

Overvoltages

De-energize unit

Pressure switch

There are two types of transformers:


1. The air-cooled transformer, also called dry transformer
2. The oil immersed transformer. The transformer is immersed in an oil-filled tank.
The DMCR is a protection relay designed for the hermetically sealed oil immersed transformers
without gas cushion. This device enables complete control of the tanks internal parameters,
i.e. pressure, temperature, oil level and gas detection.
Go to Content

Faults detected on live transformer unit


1. Dielectric fluid level is detected as low
The protection relay is empty and the large float is at the bottom.
May be due to:

1.1 Air entering


There must be a dielectric fluid leak and thus oily stains should be visible on the
ground. Accurately localise the fault, carry out repair, then recheck the level with the body of
fluid at a temperature of 20C, before switching the unit live again.

1.2 Internal gas emission


Gas should be sampled using a syringe and then analysed.
Whilst awaiting results, under no circumstances should the transformer be switched live again
because a risk of total destruction exists.
Go to Content

2. Overheating is detected
This may be due to:
1. Improper cooling of the transformer (insufficient air flow around unit or plan-troom
ventilation),
2. Continuous overvoltage.
Go to Content

3. Excess pressure is detected


This may be due to:
1. Overheating
2. Internal gas emission
3. Topping up of dielectric fluid with the body of fluid below 20C; drain the over-flow with
the transformer de-energised and the dielectric fluid at 20C.
Go to Content

Standards
This protection relay has been designed according to the European standard EN 50216-3,
specification which came into action on the 5th of June 2002.
This standard applies to protection relays for hermetically sealed oil immersed transformers, (in
accordance with the EN 60076 standard) and induction coils (in accordance with the EN 60289
standard) without gas cushion for an indoor or outdoor use.
The DMCR relay is an IDEF Systemes design, made in France. It has two French and one
European patents.

DMCR relay dimensions

Go to Content

Possibilities of D.M.C.R.
1. Oil level control and gas detection
The DMCR enables to control both the oil level and the presence of gas inside the
transformers tank. The DMCR body is a small see-through tank fitted ontothe transformers
tank.

Should gas form inside the transformer, it will then accumulate inside the DMCR and
cause the oil level to drop.

Visual information
The level drop is first visible through the lowering of the small red float inside the upper part of
the DMCR, followed by the lowering of the main red float.
The 360 degree visibility is a specifically designed and patented system.

Electrical information
A circular magnet is fitted in the main float and it acts upon a magnetic changeover
contact(REED switch) sitting inside the brass tube that runs through the float. The lowering of
the float triggers the activation of an electrical contact, through the magnets motion.
A bleeding system facilitates gas collection inside the relay so that one can analyze it and
understand the reason for its presence. The bleeding system has a male G1/8 thread,
accordingto the standard.
For the oil level and gas detection control, the contacts have been chosen in order to use the
REED switchs working contact when the float is in a high position. This means that, in such a
position, i.e. with a normal oil level and therefore normal conditions of use, the contact has
already switched.
This is a positive safety system. With this method, any potential damage to the switch is
immediately spotted.
The DMCR below is filled in with oil: the main float and the secondary float are both in high
position.

The DMCR - Oil level control and gas detection

Go to Content

2. Pressure control
Pressure inside a transformers tank can increase significantly when:
1. There is a temperature rise due to the transformer charge: oil expands and pressure
increases
2. An internal short-circuit occurs and provokes an oil temperature rise.
An adjustable pressure captor detects overpressure in the transformers tank. It features a
changeover contact actuated by a soft membrane which deforms under pressure.

The DMCRs pressure captor is accessible from above, once the top removed

Go to Content

3. Temperature control
Visual check:
A needle thermometer indicates the temperature inside the transformer.

Electrical check
Two identical adjustable thermostats detect potential over-heating inside the transformer.
The thermostats feature a changeover contact actuated bya diaphragm linked by a capillary
tube to a temperature probe sitting deep inside the central brass tube, which is immersed in
the transformers tank. The capillary tube and probe are filled in with a liquid which expands
proportionally to the temperature surrounding the probe.
The ALARM thermostat detects a primary temperature threshold.
The TRIPPING thermostat detects a secondary temperature threshold, superior to the first.

DMCR - Tripping and alarm treshold settings

Go to Content

RESO URCES:

MINERA Transformer Installation guide Schneider Electric


DMCR relay IDEF Systems

Transformer Routine Test


Measurement of Winding
Resistance

Posted JAN 5 2013 by EDV ARD in TESTI NG AND CO MM I SSI O NI NG, TRANSFO RM ERS with 4 CO MM ENTS

BEST Transformers - OSB Power Transformers Test Laboratory

Calculating Load Loss Values

Measurement is made to check transformer windings and terminal connections and


also both to use as reference for future measurements and to calculate the load loss
values at reference (e.g. 75C) temperature.
Measuring the winding resistance is done by using DC current and is very much
dependent on temperature.
Temperature correction is made according to the equations below:

R2 winding resistance at temperature t2,


R1 winding resistance at temperature t1
Because of this, temperatures must be measured when measuring the winding
resistancesand temperature during measurement should be recorded as well.

Winding resistances are measured between all connection terminals of windings


and at all tap positions. During this, winding temperature should also be appropriately
measured and recorded.
The measuring current can be obtained either from a battery or from a constant
(stable) current source. The measuring current value should be high enough to obtain
a correct and precise measurement and small enough not to change the winding
temperature.
In practice, this value should be larger than 1,2 x I0 and smaller than 0,1 x IN, if
possible.
A transformer consists of a resistance R and an inductance L connected in serial. If
a voltage U is applied to this circuit;
The value of current measurement will be :

Here, the time coefficient depends on L/R ratio.


As the measurement current increases, the core will be saturated and inductance will
decrease. In this way, the current will reach the saturation value in a shorter time.
After the current is applied to the circuit, it should be waited until the current becomes
stationary (complete saturation) before taking measurements, otherwise, there will be
measurement errors.

Measuring circuit and performing the measurement

The transformer winding resistances can be measured either by current-voltage


method or bridge method. If digital measuring instruments are used, the measurement
accuracy will be higher.
Measuring by the current-voltage method is shown in figure 1 below:

Figure 1 - Measuring the resistance by Current-Voltage method

In the current voltage method, the measuring current passing through the winding
also passes through a standard resistor with a known value and the voltage drop
values on both resistors (winding resistance and standard resistance) are compared to
find the unknown resistance (winding resistance).

One should be careful not to keep the voltage measuring voltmeter connected to the
circuit to protect it from high voltages which may occur during switching the current
circuit on and off.
The bridge method is based on comparing an unknown (being measured) resistor with
a known value resistor.
When the currents flowing in the arms are balanced, the current through the
galvanometer will be zero. In general, if the small value resistors (e.g. less than 1
ohm) are measured with a Kelvin bridge and higher value resistors are measured with a
Wheatstone bridge, measurement errors will be minimised.

Figure 2 (left) - Kelvin bridge; Figure 3 (right) - Wheatstone bridge

The resistance measured with the Kelvin Bridge:

The resistance measured with the Wheatstone Bridge:

BEST Transformers laboratory

BEST Transformers - OSB Laboratory

BEST Test laboratory is equipped with the most advanced testing facilities and is
capable of conducting all tests required by IEC standards except short circuit
mechanical withstand test, conducted in an independent international laboratory, CESIItaly.
Tests performed on the transformers can be classified as follows:
Tests during manufacturing, routine tests, type tests, special tests, acceptance tests,
site tests, defect analysis / identification and tests before maintenance.
Resource: BEST Transformer Tests (BALIKESR ELEKTROMEKANK SANAY
TESSLER A..)

Importance of Transformer Inrush


Current
Posted DEC 28 2012 by EDV ARD in TRANSFO RM ERS with 4 CO MM ENTS

Importance of Transformer Inrush Current (on photo: Data Center Power Transformer by digitalrealtytrust
@ Flickr)

Residual Flux

When a transformer is taken off-line, there will be a certain amount of residual flux that
can remain in the core due to the properties of the magnetic core material.
The residual flux can be as much as 50 to 90% of the maximum operating flux,
depending on the type of core steel. When voltage is reapplied to the transformer, the
flux introduced by this source voltage will build upon that which already exists in the
core.
In order to maintain this level of flux in the core, which can be well into the saturation
range of the core steel, the transformer can draw current well in excess of the
transformers rated full load current.
Depending on the transformer design, the magnitude of this current inrush can be
anywhere from 3.5 to 40 times the rated full load current. The waveform of the
inrush current will be similar to a sine wave, but largely skewed towards the positive or
negative direction. This inrush current will experience a decay, partially due
to transformer losses, which will provide a dampening effect; however, the current
can remain well above rated current for many cycles.
This inrush current can have an effect on the operation of relays and fuseslocated in
the system near the transformer.
Decent approximations of the inrush current require detailed information regarding the
transformer design which may be available from the manufacturer but is not typically
available to the user.

Actual inrush currents will also depend upon where in the source voltage wave the
switching operations occur, the moment of opening effecting the residual flux
magnitude, and the moment of closing effecting the new flux.

The Purpose Of Transformer Gas


Relay
Posted NO V 29 2012 by EDV ARD in PRO TECTI O N , TRANSFORM ERS with 5 CO MM ENTS

The Purpose Of Transformer Gas Relay (on photo: Gas actuated relay for oil-filled transformers by Cedaspe S.p.a.)

Introduction

The transformer gas relay is a protective device installed on the top of oil-filled
transformers. It performs two functions. It detects the slow accumulation of gases, providing
an alarm after a given amount of gas has been collected.
Also, it responds to a sudden pressure change that accompanies a high rate of gas
production (from a major internal fault), promptly initiating disconnection of the transformer.
An incipient fault or developing fault, usually causes slow formation of gas.
Examples of incipient faults are:
Current flow through defective supporting and insulating structures;
Defective joints at winding terminals causing heating;
Minor tap changer troubles; and
Core faults.
A major fault is one that results in a fast formation of a large volume of gases. Examples
of such faults are:
Shorts between turns and windings; and
Open circuits, which result in severe arcing.
Failure to disconnect the transformer under fault conditions can result in severe equipment
damage from high gas and oil pressures and the effect of the electrical fault.

Generation of Gas Due to Faults


Internal transformer electrical faults result in the production of ionized gases. A significant
volume of gas is frequently generated in the early stages of a fault by rapid oil breakdown.
The generated gases rise through the oil to the top of the equipment and collect in the
gas relay.
Once a sufficient volume of gas has accumulated, an alarm is generated by contacts within the
gas relay.
In the event of a gas alarm, it is necessary to sample and analyze the gas being generated.
This analysis, together with knowledge of the rate at which gas is accumulating, will determine
the proper course of action. If a fault is thought to be developing, the device must be removed
from service.
Ignoring this early warning sign can lead to severe equipment damage as the fault
progresses.

Operation of a Transformer Gas Relay


A typical transformer gas relay consists of two chambers, each performing a distinctive
function. A simplified cross-section of a gas relay is shown in Figure 1.
The relay assembly consists of a gas accumulation chamber mounted directly over a pressure
chamber. The accumulation chamber collects slowly produced gases. A float located in this

partially oil-filled chamber moves as the gas volume increases. It operates an alarm switch
when the amount of gas collected reaches a specified level.
An indicator coupled to the float also provides a means to monitor the rate at which gas is
being generated.

Figure 1 - Typical Transformer Gas Relay

The second chamber, a pressure chamber, connects directly to the transformer oil circuit. It
connects vertically to the accumulation chamber, providing a path for the rising gas.
An air-filled bellows within the pressure chamber acts as the pressure change detector.
A sudden pressure surge in the oil compresses the bellows and forces the
air within to move a diaphragm. The moving diaphragm actuates a switch that initiates tripping
of the transformer.

Sudden pressures, such as oil circulating pump surges, are normal operating events and the
relay must be set to ride through them. In practice, it is necessary to make sure the relay is set
to operate at about 7 KPa (1 psi) above the maximum oil circulating pump surge pressure.
Dangerously high pressure increases from major faults are relieved by an explosion vent on
the top of the transformer tank.
This is basically a diaphragm sealed pipe with its open end directed away from
the transformer.
A significant increase in pressure bursts the diaphragm and discharges gases and hot oil with
a possibility of resulting fire.

Transformer Differential Protection


Principles
Posted NO V 1 2012 by EDV ARD in PRO TECTI O N , TRANSFO RM ERS with 5 CO MM ENTS

Transformer Differential Protection Principles (on photo Penelec Collinsville transformer substation 4 by PA
Powerliner @ Flickr)

Introduction
Similar to bus protections, transformers are protected by differential relays.

Inter-winding faults (short circuits) and ground faults within power transformers can be
detected by this protection scheme.
Failure to detect these faults and quickly isolate the transformer may cause serious damage
to the device.
Remember that a differential relay is basically an instantaneous overcurrent relay that
operates on the difference of current flowing into and out of the protected zone.
For transformers the differential protection (Figure 1) is basically the same as that for a bus
but there are certain differences that we will look more closely at.
These differences are a direct result of three characteristics or a transformer:
1. A transformer has a turns ratio so the current in is not really equal to the current out. The
current transformers are not likely exactly matched to the transformer turns ratio so there will
always be an unbalance currentin the operating coil of a transformer differential relay.
2. Transformers require magnetising current. There will be a small current flow in the
transformer primary even if the secondary is open circuited.
3. A transformer has an inrush current. There is a time period after a transformer is energized
until the magnetic field in the core in alternating symmetrically. The size and the length of this
inrush depends on the residual field in the core and the point in the ac cycle the transformer is
re-energized.
In large transformers in might be ten or twenty times the full-load current initially and it might
take several minutes to reduce to negligible values.

Figure 1 - Transformer Differential Protection

Transformer differential relays haverestraint coils as indicated in Figure 1. The value of the
operate current has to be a certain set percentage higher than the current flowing in the
restraint coils. For this reason transformer differential relays are said to percentage-differential
relays.

Referring again to Figure 1, you will notice that when the transformer is first energized, there
will not be any current flowing in CT2. The CT1 secondary current I1s flows through both the
restraint and operate coils and prevents operation unless the current is very high.
The restraint coils also prevent relay operation due to tap-changes, where the ratio of
transformer input to output current can continuously vary.
One other item included in transformer differential relays, but not shown in the diagram, is
second harmonic restraint.
When transformers are first energized there is over-fluxing (saturation) of the core and the
large inrush energizing current has a distorted waveform. This waveform is described as
having high second harmonic content.
The transformer differential relays make use of this known fact and add in extra restraint when
it detects this second harmonic. This extra feature prevents the transformer from tripping due
to magnetizing current when being energized, but does not add any time delay.
Because the differential relay will not operate with load current or faults outside the protected
zones (through faults), it can be set to operate at a low value of current thereby giving rapid
operation when a fault occurs. There is no need to time delay the operation of the relay and
therefore a fast acting type of relay can be used.
Resource: Science and Reactor Fundamentals Electrical CNSC Technical Training Group

Transformers Are Never Silent


Posted O CT 29 2012 by EDV ARD in TRANSFO RM ERS , TRANSM I SSIO N AND DI S TRI BUTI O N with 6 CO MM ENTS

WEG - A three-phase oil transformer 225 MVA, 275 kV for distribution of energy at Tealing Grind substation, of
Scottish Hydro-Electric Transmission Ltd., in Scotland, one of the largest Utilities in Europe.

Where all this noise is coming from?


Yes, we all know that transformers are never silent. This is actually quite impossible, but in an
environmentally aware, highly regulated world, the issue is not the level of noise, but its
nature and its very important.
Transformers emit a low-frequency, tonal noise that people living in their vicinity experience
as an irritating hum and can hear even against a noisy background.
The power industry have a range of solutions to abate humming, which originates in the
transformers core and, when it is loaded, in the coil windings. Core noise is generated by
themagnetostriction (changes in shape) of the cores laminations, when a magnetic field
passes through them. It is also known as no-load noise, as it is dependent of the load passing
through the transformer.
An effective and important noise source is the core of the transformer. The noise of the core
depends on the magnetic property of the core material (sheet steel) and flux density. The
sound frequency is low (twice the rated frequency). The magnetic forces formed in the core
cause vibration and noise. The load noise occurs only on the loaded transforrmers and is
added to the no-load (core noise). This noise is caused by the electromagnetic forces due to
leakage fields.
The source of the noise are tank walls, magnetic screenings and vibrations of the
windings.
The noises caused by the core and windings are mainly in the 100-600 Hz frequency band.
The frequency range of the noise (aerodynamic/air and motor/bearing noise) caused by cooling
fans is generally wide. The factors effecting the total fan noise are; speed, blade structure,
number of fans and arrangements of the radiators.
The pump noise is not effective when the fans are working and its frequency is low.

Safety Clearance Recommendations


for Transformer
Posted O CT 24 2012 by JI GUPARM AR in ENERGY AND PO WER , TRANSFO RM ERS with 5 COM M ENTS

Safety Clearance Recommendations for Transformer (on photo 10/0.4 kV transformer substation by FIMA)

Clearance Tables
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Clearance from Outdoor Liquid Insulated Transformers to Buildings (NEC)


Clearance between Two Outdoor Liquid Insulated Transformers (NEC)
Dry Type Transformer in Indoor Installation (NES 420.21)
Dry Type Transformer in Outdoor Installation (NES 420.22)
Non Flammable Liquid-Insulated Transformer in Indoor Installation (NES 420.21)
Oil Insulated Transformer in Indoor Installation (NES 420.25)
Transformer Clearance from Building (IEEE Stand.)
Transformer Clearance Specifications (Stand. Georgia Power Company)
Clearance of Transformer-Cable-Overhead Line (Stand. Georgia Power Company)

Clearance from Outdoor Liquid Insulated Transformers to


Buildings (NEC)
Liquid

Less
Flammable

Liquid
Fire
NonCombustible Vertical
Volume (m3) Resistant Combustible
Wall
Distance
Wall
Wall
NA

0.9 Meter

0.9 Meter

0.9 Meter

0.9
Meter

<38 m3

1.5 Meter

1.5 Meter

7.6 Meter

7.6
Meter

>38 m3

4.6 Meter

4.6 Meter

15.2 Meter

15.2

Meter
Mineral Oil

<1.9 m3

1.5 Meter

4.6 Meter

7.6 Meter

7.6
Meter

1.9 m3 to 19 4.6 Meter


m3

7.6 Meter

15.2 Meter

15.2
Meter

15.2 Meter

30.5 Meter

30.5
Meter

> 19 m3

7.6 Meter

Go to Content

Clearance between Two Outdoor Liquid Insulated Transformers


(NEC)
Liquid

Liquid Volume (m3)

Distance

NA

0.9 Meter

<38 m3

1.5 Meter

>38 m3

7.6 Meter

<1.9 m3

1.5 Meter

1.9 m3 to 19 m3

7.6 Meter

> 19 m3

15.2 Meter

Less
Flammable

Mineral Oil

Go to Content

Dry Type Transformer in Indoor Installation (NES 420.21)


Voltage

Distance (min)

Up to 112.5 KVA

300 mm (12 in.) from combustible


material unless separated from the
combustible material by a heat-insulated
barrier.

Above 112.5 KVA

Installed in a transformer room of fireresistant construction.

Above 112.5 KVA with Class separated from a fire-resistant barrier


155 Insulation
not less than 1.83 m (6 ft) horizontally
and 3.7 m (12 ft) vertically
Go to Content

Dry Type Transformer in Outdoor Installation (NES 420.22)


Voltage

Distance (min)

Above 112.5 KVA with Class separated from a fire-resistant barrier


155 Insulation
not less than 1.83 m (6 ft) horizontally
and 3.7 m (12 ft) vertically
Go to Content

Non Flammable Liquid-Insulated Transformer in Indoor


Installation (NES 420.21)
Voltage

Distance (min)

Over 35KV

Installed indoors Vault (Having liquid confinement area


and a pressure-relief vent for absorbing any gases
generated by arcing inside the tank, the pressure-relief
vent shall be connected to a chimney or flue that will
carry such gases to an environmentally safe area

Above 112.5 KVA

Installed in a transformer room of fire-resistant


construction.

Above 112.5 KVA


(Class 155
Insulation)

separated from a fire-resistant barrier not less than


1.83 m (6 ft) horizontally and 3.7 m (12 ft) vertically

Go to Content

Oil Insulated Transformer in Indoor Installation (NES 420.25)


Voltage

Distance (min)

Up to 112.5 KVA Installed indoors Vault (With construction of reinforced


concrete that is not less than 100 mm (4 in.) thick.
Up to 10 KVA &
Up to 600V

Vault shall not be required if suitable arrangements are


made to prevent a transformer oil fire from igniting

Up to 75 KVA &
Up to 600V

Vault shall not be required if where the surrounding


Structure is classified as fire-resistant construction.

Furnace
Installed without a vault in a building or room of fire
transformers (Up resistant construction
to 75 kVA)
Go to Content

Transformer Clearance from Building (IEEE Stand)


Transformer

Distance from Building (min)

Up to 75 KVA

3.0 Meter

75 KVA to 333 KVA

6.0 Meter

More than 333 KVA

9.0 Meter

Go to Content

Transformer Clearance Specifications (Stand: Georgia Power


Company)
Description of Clearance

Distance (min)

Clearance in front of the transformer

3.0 Meter

Between Two pad mounted transformers


(including Cooling fin)

2.1 Meter

Between Transformer and Trees, shrubs,


vegetation( for unrestricted natural cooling )

3.0 Meter

The edge of the concrete transformer pad to


nearest the building

4.2 Meter

The edge of the concrete transformer pad to


nearest building wall, windows, or other
openings

3.0 Meter

Clearance from the transformer to edge of (or


Canopy) building (3 or less stories)

3.0 Meter

Clearance in front of the transformer doors and


on the left side of the transformer, looking at it
from the front (For operation of protective and
switching devices on the unit)

3.0 Meter

Gas service meter relief vents.

0.9 Meter

Fire sprinkler values, standpipes and fire


hydrants

1.8 Meter

The waters edge of a swimming pool or any


body of water.

4.5 Meter

Facilities used to dispense hazardous liquids or


gases

6.0 Meter

Facilities used to store hazardous liquids or


gases

3.0 Meter

Clear vehicle passageway at all times,


immediately adjacent of Transformer

3.6 Meter

Fire safety clearances can be reduced by


building a suitable masonry fire barrier wall (2.7
Meter wide and 4.5 Meter Tall) 0.9 Meter from
the back or side of the Pad Mounted
Transformer to the side of the combustible wall

Front of the transformer must face away from the


building.
Go to Content

Clearance of Transformer-Cable-Overhead Line (Stand:


Georgia Power Company)
Description of
Clearance

Horizontal Distance (mm)


to padto
mounted
buried
transformers
HV
cable

to
overhead
HV Line

Fuel tanks

7.5 Meter

1.5
Meter

7.5 Meter

Granaries

6.0 Meter

0.6
Meter

15 Meter

Homes

6.0 Meter

0.6
Meter

15 Meter

Barns, sheds,
garages

6.0 Meter

0.6
Meter

15 Meter

Water wells

1.5 Meter

1.5
Meter

15 Meter

Antennas

3.0 Meter

0.6
Meter

Height of
Antenna +
3.0 Meter

Go to Content

Switching Impulse Test of the


Transformer
Posted O CT 11 2012 by EDV ARD in TRANSFO RM ERS with 1 CO MM ENT

Switching Impulse Test of the Transformer (on photo Mississippi State University High Voltage Laboratory as
University Research Center)

Purpose of the Test


The switching impulse test is applied to confirm the withstand of the transformers
insulationagainst excessive voltages occuring during switching. During switching impulse
voltage test, the insulation between windings and between winding and earth and withstand
between different terminals is checked.
The purpose of the switching impulse test as special test is to secure that the insulations
between windings, between windings and earth, between line terminals and earth and between
different terminals withstand the switching overvoltages, which may occur in service.
The switching impulse voltage is generated in conventional impulse voltage generators at
the laboratories.
The polarity of the voltage is negative and the voltage waveform should normally be T 1/ Td/
T220/200/500 S (fiigure 2) according to IEC 60076-3.

Due to over-saturation of the core during switching impulse test, a few low amplitude, reverse
polarity (e.g. positive) impulses are applied after each test impulse in order to reset the
transformer core to its starting condition (demagnetised). By this way,the next impulse voltage
waveform is applied. The tap position of the transformer during test is determined according to
test conditions.
The on-off impulse voltages are applied to each high voltage terminal sequentially.

Figure 1 - Switching on-off impulse test connection diagram

Meanwhile, the neutral terminal is earthed. The windings which are not under test are left open
(earthed at one point). This connection is similar to the induced voltage test connection. The
voltage distribution on the winding is linear like the induced voltage test and the voltage
amplitudes at the un-impulsed windings are induced according to the turn ratio.
Meanwhile, necessary arrangements should be made since the voltage between phases will
be1,5 times the phase-neutral voltage.
The test circuit connections of three phase transformers depend on; structure of the
core(three or five legged), the voltage level between phases and the open or closed state of
the delta winding (if any). At first, a voltage with 50 % decresed value is used at the tests,then
impulse voltages at full values and at numbers given in standards are used. The peak value of
the voltage is measured.
The change of the voltage waveform and winding current are measured with a special
measuring instrument and recorded. The negativities in the transformer during the test are
determined by comptring the voltage and current oscillograms.

Figure 2 - Switching impulse voltage waveform

The sudden collapses of the voltage (surges) and abnormal sounds show deformation of the
insulation in the transfomer. The deformation of the voltage waveform and increase in noise
due to magnetic saturation of the core should not be considered as fault.
The test voltage values, impulse shapes, and number of impulses at different voltage levels
must be stated in the report.
Switching Impulse Voltage Waveform :
Front : T1 100 S = 1,67 T
90% value : Td 200 S
Time for cutting the axis : T2 500 S
Resource: Transformer tests BALIKESR ELEKTROMEKANK SANAYTESSLERA..

Overcurrent Protection of Transformer


(NEC 450.3)
Posted O CT 8 2012 by JI GUPARM AR in TRANSFO RM ERS with 8 CO MM ENTS

Overcurrent Protection of Transformer (NEC 450.3) - Photo by Efrem Oshinsky @ Flickr

Content

Introduction
Overcurrent protection of transformers >600V (NEC450.3A)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Unsupervised location of transformer (impedance <6%)


Unsupervised location of transformer (impedance 6% to 10%)
Supervised location (in primary side only) of transformer
Supervised location of transformer (impedance up to 6%)
Supervised location of transformer (impedance 6% to 10%)
Difference in C.B between supervised & unsupervised Location
Sumary of overcurrent protection for more than 600V

Overcurrent Protection of Transformers <600V (NEC 450.3B)


1. Only primary side protection of transformer
2. Primary and secondary side protection of transformer
3. Summary of overcurrent protection for less than 600V

Introduction

The overcurrent protection required for transformers is consider for Protection of


Transformer only. Such overcurrent protection will not necessarily protect the primary or
secondary conductors or equipment connected on the secondary side of the transformer.
When voltage is switched on to energize a transformer, the transformer corenormally
saturates.
This results in a large inrush current which is greatest during the first half cycle (approximately
0.01 second) and becomes progressively less severe over the next several cycles
(approximately 1 second) until the transformer reaches its normal magnetizing current. To
accommodate this inrush current, fuses are often selected which have time-current withstand
values of at least 12 times transformer primary rated current for 0.1 second and 25
times for0.01 second. Some small dry-type transformers may have substantially greater
inrush currents.
To avoid using over sized conductors, overcurrent devices should be selected at about 110 to
125 percent of the transformer full-load current rating. And when using such smaller
overcurrent protection, devices should be of the time-delay type (on the primary side) to
compensate for inrush currents which reach 8 to 10 times the full-load primary current of the
transformer for about 0.1 s when energized initially.
Protection of secondary conductors has to be provided completely separately from any
primary-side protection.
A supervised location is a location where conditions of maintenance and supervision ensure
that only qualified persons will monitor and service the transformer
installation. Overcurrentprotection for a transformer on the primary side is typically a circuit
breaker. In some instances where there is not a high voltage panel, there is a fused disconnect
instead.
It is important to note that the overcurrent device on the primary side must be sized
based on the transformer KVA rating and not sized based on the secondary load to the
transformer.
Go to Content

Overcurrent Protection of Transformers >600V


(NEC450.3A)
1) Unsupervised Location of Transformer (Impedance <6%)

Unsupervised Location of Transformer (Impedance <6%)

OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (Primary Voltage >600V):


Rating of Pri. Fuse at Point A= 300% of Pri. Full Load Current or Next higher Standard
size. or
Rating of Pri. Circuit Breaker at Point A= 600% of Pri. Full Load Current or Next higher
Standard size.
OverCurrent Protection at Secondary Side (Secondary Voltage <=600V):
Rating of Sec. Fuse / Circuit Breaker at Point B= 125% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next
higher Standard size.
OverCurrent Protection at Secondary Side (Secondary Voltage >600V):
Rating of Sec. Fuse at Point B= 250% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next higher Standard
size. or
Rating of Sec. Circuit Breaker at Point B= 300% of Sec. Full Load Current.
Example: 750KVA, 11KV/415V 3Phase Transformer having Impedance of Transformer
5%
Full Load Current At Primary side = 750000/(1.732X11000) = 39A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 3X39A = 118A, So Standard Size of Fuse = 125A.
OR Rating of Primary Circuit Breaker = 6X39A = 236A, So standard size of CB = 250A.
Full Load Current at Secondary side = 750000/(1.732X415) = 1043A.
Rating of Secondary of Fuse / Circuit Breaker = 1.25X1043A = 1304A, so standard size
of Fuse = 1600A.
Go to Content

2) Unsupervised Location of Transformer (Impedance 6% to


10%)

Unsupervised Location of Transformer (Impedance 6% to 10%)

OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (Primary Voltage >600V):


Rating of Pri. Fuse at Point A= 300% of Primary Full Load Current or Next higher
Standard size.
Rating of Pri. Circuit Breaker at Point A= 400% of Primary Full Load Current or Next
higher Standard size.
OverCurrent Protection at Secondary Side (Secondary Voltage <=600V):
Rating of Sec. Fuse / Circuit Breaker at Point B= 125% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next
higher Standard size.
OverCurrent Protection at Secondary Side (Secondary Voltage >600V):
Rating of Sec. Fuse at Point B= 225% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next higher Standard
size.
Rating of Sec. Circuit Breaker at Point B= 250% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next higher
Standard size.
Example: 10MVA, 66KV/11KV 3Phase Transformer, Impedance of Transformer is 8%
Full Load Current At Primary side = 10000000/(1.732X66000) = 87A
Rating of Pri. Fuse = 3X87A = 262A, so next standard size of Fuse = 300A.
OR Rating of Pri. Circuit Breaker = 6X87A = 525A, so next standard size of CB = 600A.
Full Load Current at Secondary side = 10000000/(1.732X11000) = 525A.
Rating of Sec. Fuse = 2.25X525A = 1181A, so next standard size of fuse = 1200A.
OR Rating of Sec. Circuit Breaker = 2.5X525A = 1312A, so next standard size of circuit
breaker = 1600A.
Go to Content

3) Supervised Location (in Primary side only) of Transformer

Supervised Location (in Primary side only) of Transformer

OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (Primary Voltage >600V):


Rating of Pri. Fuse at Point A= 250% of Primary Full Load Current or Next higher
Standard size.
Rating of Pri. Circuit Breaker at Point A= 300% of Primary Full Load Current or Next
higher Standard size.
Go to Content

4) Supervised Location of Transformer (Impedance Up to 6%)

Supervised Location of Transformer (Impedance Up to 6%)

OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (Primary Voltage >600V):


Rating of Pri. Fuse at Point A= 300% of Pri. full load current or next lower standard size.
Rating of Pri. Circuit Breaker at Point A= 600% of Pri. full load current or next lower
standard size.
OverCurrent Protection at Secondary Side (Secondary Voltage <=600V):

Rating of Sec. Fuse / Circuit Breaker at Point B= 250% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next
higher Standard size.
OverCurrent Protection at Secondary Side (Secondary Voltage >600V):
Rating of Sec. Fuse at Point B= 250% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next Lower Standard
size.
Rating of Sec. Circuit Breaker at Point B= 300% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next Lower
Standard size.
Example: 750KVA, 11KV/415V 3Phase Transformer having Impedance of Transformer
5%
Full Load Current At Primary side = 750000/(1.732X11000) = 39A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 3X39A = 118A, so next lower standard size of fuse = 110A.
OR Rating of Primary Circuit Breaker = 6X39A = 236A, so next lower standard size of
Circuit Breaker = 225A.
Full Load Current at Secondary side = 750000/(1.732X415) =1043A.
Rating of Secondary of Fuse / Circuit Breaker = 2.5X1043A=2609A, so standard size of
Fuse = 2500A.
Go to Content

5) Supervised Location of Transformer (Impedance 6% to 10%)

Supervised Location of Transformer (Impedance 6% to 10%)

OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (Primary Voltage >600V):


Rating of Pri. Fuse at Point A= 300% of Pri. full load current or next lower standard size.
Rating of Pri. Circuit Breaker at Point A= 400% of Pri. full load current or next lower
standard size.
Overcurrent protection at secondary side (Secondary voltage <=600V):
Rating of Sec. Fuse / Circuit Breaker at Point B= 250% of Sec. full load current or next
higher standard size.
Overcurrent protection at secondary side (Secondary voltage >600V):
Rating of Sec. Fuse at Point B= 225% of Sec. full load current or next lower standard
size.

Rating of Sec. Circuit Breaker at Point B= 250% of Sec. full load current or next lower
standard size.
Example: 750KVA, 11KV/415V 3Phase Transformer having Impedance of Transformer
8%
Full Load Current At Primary side = 750000/(1.732X11000) = 39A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 3X39A = 118A, so next lower standard size of Fuse = 110A.
OR Rating of Primary Circuit Breaker = 4X39A = 157A, so next lower standard size of
Circuit Breaker = 150A.
Full Load Current at Secondary side = 750000/(1.732X415) = 1043A.
Rating of Secondary of Fuse / Circuit Breaker = 2.5X1043A=2609A, so standard size of
Fuse = 2500A.
Go to Content

Difference in C.B between Supervised & Unsupervised


Location
Here we see two notable conditions while we select Fuse / Circuit Breaker in Supervised
Location and Unsupervised Location.
First notable condition is Primary Overcurrent Protection. In unsupervised location fuse in
primary side is 300% of primary current or Next Higher Standard size and in supervised
location is 300% of primary current or Next Lower Standard size. Here primary overcurrent
protection is same in both conditions (300%), but selecting size of Fuse/Circuit Breaker is
different.
Lets us Check with the Example for 750KVA, 11KV/415V 3Phase Transformer.
Full Load Current At Primary side = 750000/(1.732X11000) = 39A
In Unsupervised Location: Rating of Primary Fuse = 3X39A = 118A, so next higher
standard size = 125A
In Supervised Location: Rating of Primary Fuse = 3X39A = 118A, so next lower
standard size = 110A
Second notable condition is Secondary Overcurrent Protection increased from 125% to
250% for unsupervised to Supervised Location.
Go to Content

Summary of overcurrent Protection for more than 600V


Maximum Rating of Overcurrent Protection for Transformers more than 600 Volts
Location Transformer Primary Protection
Limitations
Rated
(More than 600 Volts)
Impedance
C. B.

Fuse

Secondary Protection
More than 600V
C. B.

Fuse

Less than
600V
C.B or

Rating
Any
location

Less than
6%

600%(NH) 300%(NH)

Rating
300 %(
NH)

Fuse

250%(NH) 125%(NH)

6% To 10% 400%(NH) 300%(NH) 250%(NH) 225%(NH) 125%(NH)


Supervised
locations
only

Any

300%(NH) 250%(NH)

Not
required

Not
required

Not
required

Less than
6%

600%

300%

300%

250%

250%

6% To 10%

400%

300%

250%

225%

250%

NH: Next Higher Standard Size.


Go to Content

Overcurrent Protection of transformers <600V (NEC


450.3B)
1) Only Primary side Protection of Transformer

Only Primary side Protection of Transformer

OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (Less than 2A):


Rating of Pri. Fuse / C.B at Point A = 300% of Pri. full load current or next lower
standard size.
Example: 1KVA, 480/230 3Phase transformer, full load current at Pri. side =
1000/(1.732X480) = 1A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 3X1A = 3A, so next lower standard size of Fuse = 3A.
OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (2A to 9A):

Rating of Sec. Fuse / C.B at Point A = 167% of Pri. full load current or next lower
standard size.
Example: 3KVA, 480/230 3Phase transformer, full load current at Pri. side =
3000/(1.732X480) = 4A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 1.67X4A = 6A, so next lower standard size of Fuse = 6A.
OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (More than 9A):
Rating of Pri. Fuse / C.B at Point A = 125% of Pri. full load current or next higher
standard size.
Example: 15KVA, 480/230 3Phase transformer, full load current at Pri. side =
15000/(1.732X480) = 18A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 1.25X18A= 23A, so next higher standard size of Fuse = 25A.
Go to Content

2) Primary and Secondary side Protection of Transformer

Primary and Secondary side Protection of Transformer

OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (Less than 2A):


Rating of Pri. Fuse / C.B at Point A = 250% of Pri. full load current or next lower
standard size.
OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (2A to 9A):
Rating of Sec. Fuse / C.B at Point A= 250% of Pri. full load current or next lower
standard size.
OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (More than 9A):
Rating of Pri. Fuse / C.B at Point A= 250% of Pri. Full Load Current or Lower Higher
Standard size.
Example: 25KVA, 480/230 3Phase Transformer, Full Load Current at Pri.
Side=125000/(1.732X480)=30A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 2.50X30A= 75A, So Next Lower Standard Size of Fuse =70A.

OverCurrent Protection at Secondary Side (Less than 9A):


Rating of Pri. Fuse / C.B at Point B= 167% of Sec. Full Load Current or Lower Standard
size.
Example: 3KVA, 480/230 3Phase Transformer, Full Load Current at Sec.
Side=3000/(1.732X230)=8A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 1.67X8A= 13A, So Next Lower Standard Size of Fuse =9A.
OverCurrent Protection at Secondary Side (More than 9A):
Rating of Pri. Fuse / C.B at Point A= 125% of Pri. Full Load Current or Higher Standard
size.
Example: 15KVA, 480/230 3Phase Transformer, Full Load Current at Sec.
Side=15000/(1.732X230)=38A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 1.25X38A= 63A, So Next Higher Standard Size of Fuse =70A.
Go to Content

Summary of overcurrent Protection for Less than 600V


Maximum Rating of Overcurrent Protection for Transformers Less than
600 Volts
Protection
Method

Primary Protection
More than 2A to 9A Less than
9A
2A

Secondary Protection
More than
9A

Less than
9A

Primary only 125%(NH)


protection

167%

300%

Not required

Not
required

Primary and
secondary
protection

250%

250%

125%(NH)

167%

250%

NH: Next Higher Standard Size.


Go to Content

Differences between Shunt Reactor


and Power Transformer
Posted SEP 18 201 2 by EDV ARD in TRANSFO RM ERS , TRANSM I SSIO N AND DI S TRI BUTI O N with 5 CO MM ENTS

Differences between Shunt Reactor and Power Transformer

Main Differences
Shunt Reactor and Transformer both appear similar in construction. Reactors are also often
equipped with Fans for cooling similar to Power Transformers.
However, there are major differences between the two. While a Power Transformer is
designed for efficient power transfer from one voltage system to another, a shunt reactor is
intended only to consume reactive VArs (or in other words it can be stated as to produce
lagging VArs).
Thus, there are more than one winding on a Power Transformer with magnetic core which
carry the mutual flux between the two. In reactor there is just one winding. The core is not
therefore meant only to provide a low reluctance path for flux of that winding to increase the
Inductance.
In case of a Power Transformer, primary Ampere-Turns (AT) is sum of exciting AT and
secondary AT. AT loss (in winding resistance, eddy loss and hysteric loss) is kept to as
minimum as possible. Exciting AT is small compared with the secondary AT. Rated current is
based on the load transfer requirement.

Detailed view of an iron core divided by air gaps

Magnetizing current is small and is negligible value when compared with the secondary rated
current. Further, since mutual flux is main flux which results in transformation, leakage flux is
kept small and will be based on fault current limitation.
In case of a Shunt Reactor due to absence of other windings, all primary AT is equal to
the exciting AT. Similar to a Power Transformer, loss in AT (in winding resistance, eddy
current and hysteresis) are also kept to minimum by design. Magnetizing ATis major
component of a Shunt Reactor. Reactor magnetizing current is its rated current.
Since a Shunt Reactor magnetizing current is large, if it is designed with Iron alone as a Power
Transformer, there will be large hysteresis loss. Air gaps in Iron core are provided in a Shunt
Reactor to reduce this loss and to minimize the remanent flux in the core.
Thus a Shunt Reactor may also be constructed without iron (air-core).
By construction, a Shunt Reactor can be oil immersed or dry type for both with and without
iron core.
Dry type Reactors are constructed as single phase units and are thus arranged in a fashion to
minimize stray magnetic field on surrounding (in the absence of metallic shielding). When such
an arrangement is difficult, some form of magnetic shielding is required and designed with care
to minimize eddy current loss and arcing at any joints within the metallic loops. One of the
advantages of dry type reactor is absence of inrush current.
Oil immersed reactors can be core-less or with gapped iron core. These are either single
phase or three phase design with or without fan cooling. These are installed within tanks which
hold oil & act as metallic magnetic shields.
In some cases, a Shunt Reactor may have additional small capacity winding which can provide
power for small station power loads. Since Shunt Reactor rating is normally based on MVAr
rating, this added station load VA shall be accounted for in designing the Reactor for such
applications.

Types of shunt reactors

Shunt reactors are used in high voltage systems to compensate for the capacitive generation
of long overhead lines or extended cable networks.

The reasons for using shunt reactors are mainly two


The first reason is to limit the overvoltages and the second reason is to limit the transfer of
reactive power in the network. If the reactive power transfer is minimized i. e. the reactive
power is balanced in the different part of the networks, a higher level of active power can be
transferred in the network.
Reactors to limit overvoltages are most needed in weak power systems, i.e. when network
short-circuit power is relatively low.

Voltage increase in a system due to the capacitive generation is:

U(%) = QC x 100 / Ssh.c


where:
Qc is the capacitive input of reactive power to the network
Ssh.c is the short circuit power of the network
With increasing short circuit power of the network the voltage increase will be lower and the
need of compensation to limit over-voltages will be less accentuated.
Reactors to achieve reactive power balance in the different part of the network are most
needed in heavy loaded networks where new lines cannot be built because of environmental
reasons. Reactors for this purpose mostly are thyristor controlled in order to adapt fast to the
reactive power required.
Especially in industrial areas with arc furnaces the reactive power demand is uctuating
between each half cycle.
In such applications there are usually combinations of:
1. Thyristor controlled reactors (TCR) and
2. Thyristor switched capacitor banks (TSC).
These together makes it possible to both absorb, and generate reactive power according to
the momentary demand.
Four leg reactors also can be used for extinction of the secondary are at single-phase
reclosing in long transmission lines. Since there always is a capacitive coupling between
phases, this capacitance will give a current keeping the are burning, a secondary arc.
By adding one single-phase reactor in the neutral the secondary arc can be extinguished and
the single-phase auto-reclosing successful

Transformer Heat, Copper and Iron


Losses
Posted SEP 6 2012 by EDV ARD in TRANSFO RM ERS with 9 CO MM ENTS

Transformer Heat, Copper and Iron Losses (on photo courtesy of Siemens: Geafol -Cast-resin transformer)

Transformer Losses (Heat)


The thermal ratings of a transformer are determined by the following three factors:
1. The amount of heat produced in the windings and connections.
2. The amount of heat produced in the iron core.
3. How effectively the heat can be removed from the transformer when the thermal rating
of the transformer is reached. At this point, the heat being produced must equal the heat
being removed or dissipated thermal equilibrium.
The efficiency of power transformers is high, especially, for large transformers at full load.
However, losses are present in all transformers. These losses may be classified as copper
orI2R losses and core or iron losses.

Copper (or Winding) Losses


Copper losses are resistive and proportional to load current and are sometimes called load
losses or I2R losses.
As the transformer is loaded, heat is produced in the primary and secondary windings
and connections due to I2R. At low loads, the quantity of heat produced will be small but as
load increases, the amount of heat produced becomes significant.
At full load, the windings will be operating at or near their design temperature. Figure 1 shows
the relationship between load-current and the heat produced in transformer windings
and connections.

Figure 1 - Relationship between Load and Heat Produced in Transformer Windings

Iron (or Core) Losses


The iron loss is due to stray eddy currents formed in the transformer core. Lines of flux
are formed around the current-carrying conductors.
The majority of the flux is as indicated in the following Figure 2, flowing around the core.

Figure 2 - Circulating Core Flux

Some of the flux however, will try to flow at angles to the core and will cause eddy currents to
be set up in the core itself.
The term eddy is used because it is aside from the main flow. To combat this effect, the core is
laminated as illustrated in Figure 3. The laminations provide small gaps between the plates.
As it is easier for magnetic flux to flow through iron than air or oil, stray flux that can cause core
losses is minimized.

Figure 3 - Transformer Core Laminations

Some of the flux however, will try to flow at angles to the core and will cause eddy currents to
be set up in the core itself.
The term eddy is used because it is aside from the main flow. To combat this effect, the core is
laminated as illustrated inFigure 3. The laminations provide small gaps between the plates.
As it is easier for magnetic flux to flow through iron than air or oil, stray flux that can cause core
losses is minimized.

Transformer differential protection


(ANSI code 87 T)
Posted SEP 5 2012 by EDV ARD in PRO TECTI O N , TRANSFO RM ERS with 5 CO MM ENTS

SIPROTEC 4 7UT6 Differential Protection Relay for Transformers - Connection of transformer differential protection
with high impedance REF (I7) and neutral current measurement at I8

Introduction to ANSI code 87 T


Transformer differential protection protects against short-circuits between turns of a
winding and between windings that correspond to phase-to-phase or three-phase type shortcircuits.
If there is no earthing connection at the transformer location point, this protection can also be
used to protect against earth faults. If the earth fault current is limited by an impedance, it is
generally not possible to set the current threshold to a value less than the limiting current.
The protection must be then carried out by a high impedance differential protection.
Transformer differential protection operates very quickly, roughly 30 ms, which allows any
transformer deterioration in the event of a short-circuit between windings to be avoided.
Transformers cannot be differentially protected using high impedance differential protection for
phase-to-phase short-circuit due to the natural differential currents that occur:

1. The transformer inrush currents. The operating speed required means that a time delay
longer than the duration of this current cannot be used (several tenths of a second);
2. The action of the on-load tap changer causes a differential current.
The characteristics of transformer differential protection are related to the transformer
specifications:
1. Transformation ratio between the current entering Iin and the current leaving Iout ;
2. Primary and secondary coupling method;
3. Inrush current;
4. Permanent magnetizing current.
The block diagram is shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1 - Transformer differential protection block diagram

In order to prevent tripping upon occurrence of high fault currents of external origin,
biaseddifferential protection devices are used.
This is because of:
The differential current due to the on-load tap changer;
The current transformer measurement errors, as for pilot wire differential protection for
cables or lines.
Protection is activated when:

Iin Iout > K Iin + Io

(see Figure 2).

Figure 2 - Transformer differential protection tripping curve

Problem relating to the transformation ratio and the coupling


method
The primary and secondary currents have different amplitudes owing to the transformation ratio
and different phases depending on the coupling method (delta-star transformer makes a phase
displacement of 30). Therefore, the current values measured must be readjusted so that the
signals compared are equal during normal operation.
This is done using matching auxiliary transformers whose role is to balance the amplitudes
and phases.
When one side of the transformer is star-connected with an earthed neutral, the matching
transformers located on this side are delta-connected, so that the residual currents that would
be detected upon occurrence of an earth fault outside the transformer are cleared.

Problem relating to the transformer inrush current


Transformer switching causes a very high transient current (from 8 to 15 In), which only flows
through the primary winding and lasts several tenths of a second.
It is thus detected by the protection as a differential current and it lasts far longer than the
protection operating time (30 ms). Detection based only on the difference between the

transformer primary and secondary currents would cause the protection to be activated.
Therefore, the protection must be able to distinguish between a differential current due to a
fault and a differential inrush current.
Experience has shown that the inrush current wave contains at least 20% of second harmonic
components (current at a frequency of 100 Hz), while this percentage is never higher than 5%
upon occurrence of an overcurrent due to a fault inside the transformer.
The protection must therefore simply be locked when the percentage of second harmonic
component in relation to the fundamental harmonic component (current at 50 Hz) is higher than
15%, i.e. I2/I1 > 15%.

Problem relating to the magnetizing current upon occurrence of


an overvoltage of external origin
The magnetizing current constitutes a difference between the transformer primary and
secondary currents (see section 6.1.1). It is therefore detected as a fault current by the
differential protection even though it is not due to a fault.
In normal operating conditions, this magnetizing current is very low and does not reach
the protection operating threshold.
However, when an overvoltage occurs outside the transformer, the magnetic material saturates
(in general the transformers are dimensioned to be able to operate at saturation limit for the
nominal supply voltage), and the magnetizing current value greatly increases. The protection
operating threshold can therefore be reached.
Experience has shown that the magnetizing current due to the magnetic saturation has a high
rate of fifth harmonic components (current at a frequency of 250 Hz).
To prevent spurious tripping upon occurrence of an overvoltage of external origin, there are
two solutions:
1. Detect a rise in voltage that locks the protection;
2. Detect saturation using the presence of fifth harmonic current that locks the protection.
Transformer differential protection therefore requires fairly complex functions as it must be able
to measure second and fifth harmonic currents or, in order to avoid measuring fifth harmonic
currents, it must be able to detect overvoltages of external origin.
Resource: Protection of electrical networks - Christophe Prv

Delta-Star Transformer Connection


Overview
Posted JUL 10 2 01 2 by JI GUPARM AR in TRANSFO RM ERS with 6 CO MM ENTS

GE Transformer delta-star nameplate

Delta-Star Connection of Transformer


In this type of connection, the primary connected in delta fashion while the secondary current
is connected in star.

Delta-Star Connection of Transformer

The main use of this connection is to step up the voltage i.e. at the begining of high tension
transmission system. It can be noted that there is a phase shift of 30 between primary line
voltage and secondary line voltage as leading.

Phase shift of 30 between primary line voltage and secondary line voltage

Key points
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

As primary in delta connected:


Line voltage on primary side = Phase voltage on Primary side.
Now Transformation Ration (K) = Secondary Phase Voltage / Primary Phase Voltage
Secondary Phase Voltage = K X Primary Phase Voltage.
As Secondary in Star connected
Line voltage on Secondary side = 3 X Phase voltage on Secondary side. So,
Line voltage on Secondary side = 3 X K X Primary Phase Voltage.
Line voltage on Secondary side = 3 X K X Primary Line Voltage.
There is s +30 Degree or -30 Degree Phase Shift between Secondary Phase
Voltage to Primary Phase Voltage

Advantages of Delta-Star Connection


Cross section area of winding is less at Primary side:
On primary side due to delta connection winding cross-section required is less.

Used at Three phase four wire System:


On secondary side, neutral is available, due to which it can be used for 3-phase, 4 wire supply
system.

No distortion of Secondary Voltage:


No distortion due to third harmonic components.

Handled large unbalanced Load:


Large unbalanced loads can be handled without any difficulty.

Grounding Isolation between Primary and Secondary:


Assuming that the neutral of the Y-connected secondary circuit is grounded, a load connected
phase-to-neutral or a phase-to-ground fault produces two equal and opposite currents in two
phases in the primary circuit without any neutral ground current in the primary circuit.
Therefore, in contrast with the Y-Y connection, phase-to-ground faults or current unbalance in
the secondary circuit will not affect ground protective relaying applied to the primary circuit.

This feature enables proper coordination of protective devices and is a very important design
consideration.
The neutral of the Y grounded is sometimes referred to as a grounding bank, because it
provides a local source of ground current at the secondary that is isolated from the primary
circuit.

Harmonic Suppression:
The magnetizing current must contain odd harmonics for the induced voltages to be sinusoidal
and the third harmonic is the dominant harmonic component. In a three-phase system the third
harmonic currents of all three phases are in phase with each other because they are zerosequence currents. In the Y-Y transformer connection, the only path for third harmonic
current is through the neutral.
In the -Y connection, however, the third harmonic currents, being equal in amplitude and in
phase with each other, are able to circulate around the path formed by the connected
winding. The same thing is true for the other zero-sequence harmonics.

Grounding Bank:
It provides a local source of ground current at the secondary that is isolated from the primary
circuit. For suppose an ungrounded generator supplies a simple radial system through -Y
transformer with grounded Neutral at secondary as shown Figure. The generator can supply a
single-phase-to-neutral load through the -grounded Y transformer.
Let us refer to the low-voltage generator side of the transformer as the secondary and the highvoltage load side of the transformer as the primary. Note that each primary winding is
magnetically coupled to a secondary winding.
The magnetically coupled windings are drawn in parallel to each other:

Magnetically coupled windings

Through the second transformer law, the phase-to-ground load current in the primary circuit is
reflected as a current in the A-C secondary winding. No other currents are required to flow in
the A-C or B-C windings on the generator side of the transformer in order to balance ampereturns.

Easy Relaying of Ground Protection:


Protective relaying is MUCH easier on a delta-wye transformer because ground faults on the
secondary side are isolated from the primary, making coordination much easier. If there is
upstream relaying on a delta-wye transformer, any zero-sequence current can be assumed to
be from a primary ground fault, allowing very sensitive ground fault protection.

On a wye-wye, a low-side ground fault causes primary ground fault current, making
coordination more difficult. Actually, ground fault protection is one of the primary advantages
of delta-wye units.

Disadvantages of Delta-Star Connection


In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary. Hence it is
not possible to operate this connection in parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected
transformer.
One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary voltage is shifted by
300 with respect to the primary voltage. This can cause problems when paralleling 3-phase
transformers since transformers secondary voltages must be in-phase to be
paralleled. Therefore, we must pay attention to these shifts.
If secondary of this transformer should be paralleled with secondary of another transformer
without phase shift, there would be a problem.

Applications
Commonly used in a step-up transformer
As for example, at the beginning of a HT transmission line. In this case neutral point is stable
and will not float in case of unbalanced loading. There is no distortion of flux because
existence of a -connection allows a path for the third-harmonic components.
The line voltage ratio is 3 times of transformer turn-ratio and the secondary voltage leads the
primary one by 30. In recent years, this arrangement has become very popular for distribution
system as it provides 3- , 4-wire system.

Commonly used in commercial, industrial, and high-density


residential locations
To supply three-phase distribution systems.
An example would be a distribution transformer with a delta primary, running on three 11kV
phases with no neutral or earth required, and a star (or wye) secondary providing a 3-phase

supply at 400 V, with the domestic voltage of 230 available between each phase and an
earthed neutral point.

Used as Generator Transformer


The -Y transformer connection is used universally for connecting generators to transmission
systems because of two very important reasons.
First of all, generators are usually equipped with sensitive ground fault relay protection. The Y transformer is a source of ground currents for loads and faults on the transmission system,
yet the generator ground fault protection is completely isolated from ground currents on the
primary side of the transformer.
Second, rotating machines can literally be.

Delta-Delta Transformer Connection


Overview
Posted JUL 6 20 12 by JI GUPARM AR in ENERGY AND PO WER, TRANSFO RM ERS with 1 CO MM ENT

Delta-Delta Transformer Connection Overview

Delta-Delta Connection
In this type of connection, both the three phase primary and secondary windings
areconnected in delta as shown in the Figure 1:

Figure 1 - Delta-delta transformer connection

The voltages on primary and secondary sides can be shown on the phasor diagram (Figure
2):

Figure 2 - Phasor diagram of delta delta transformer connection

This connection proves to be economical for large low voltage transformers as it increases
number of turns per phase.

Key points
1. Primary side Line Voltage = Secondary Side Line Voltage.
2. Primary side Phase Voltage= Secondary Side Phase Voltage.
3. No phase shift between primary and secondary voltages.

Advantages of Delta-Delta Transformer Connection

Sinusoidal Voltage at Secondary


In order to get secondary voltage as sinusoidal, the magnetizing current of transformer must
contain a third harmonic component. The delta connection provides a closed path for
circulation of third harmonic component of current. The flux remains sinusoidal which results in
sinusoidal voltages.

Carry 58% Load if One Transfer is Faulty in Transformer Bank


If there is bank of single phase transformers connected in delta-delta fashion and if one of the
transformers is disabled then the supply can be continued with remaining tow transformers of
course with reduced efficiency.

Economical for Low Voltage


Due to delta connection, phase voltage is same as line voltage hence winding have more
number of turns. But phase current is (1/3) times the line current. Hence the cross-section of
the windings is very less. This makes the connection economical for low voltages transformers.

Absent of Third Harmonic Voltage


Due to closed delta, third harmonic voltages are absent. The absence of star or neutral point
proves to be advantageous in some cases.

Disadvantages of Delta-Delta Transformer Connection


Due to the absence of neutral point it is not suitable for three phase four wire system.
More insulation is required and the voltage appearing between windings and core will be equal
to full line voltage in case of earth fault on one phase.

Application
1. Suitable for large, low voltage transformers.
2. This type of connection is normally uncommon but used in some industrial facilities to
reduce impact of SLG faults on the primary system.
3. It is generally used in systems where it need to be carry large currents on low voltages
and especially when continuity of service is to be maintained even though one of the
phases develops fault.

1.4. Special considerations when


selecting transformer protection
2.5. Posted M AY 19 2012 by EDV ARD in ENERGY AND POWER , TRANSFO RM ERS with 2 CO MM ENTS

6.
7.

Oil power transformers 11/0.42kV 2000kVA

8. Current Transformers
9. Current transformer ratio selection and performance require special attention when
applyingtransformer protection. Unique factors associated with transformers,
including its winding ratios, magnetizing inrush current, and the presence of winding
taps or load tap changers, are sources of difficulties in engineering a dependable and
secure protection scheme for the transformer.
10. Errors resulting from CT saturation and load-tap-changers are particularly critical for
differential protection schemes where the currents from more than one set of CTs are
compared.
11. To compensate for the saturation=mismatch errors, overcurrent relays must be set to
operate above these errors.
12.

13.

CT Current Mismatch

14. Under normal, non-fault conditions, a transformer differential relay should ideally have
identical currents in the secondaries of all current transformers connected to the relay
so that no current would flow in its operating coil. It is difficult, however, to match
current transformer ratios exactly to the transformer winding ratios.
15. This task becomes impossible with the presence of transformer off-load and on-load
taps or load tap changers that change the voltage ratios of the transformer windings
depending on system voltage and transformer loading.
16. The highest secondary current mismatch between all current transformers connected in
the differential scheme must be calculated when selecting the relay operating setting. If
time delayed overcurrent protection is used, the time delay setting must also be based
on the same consideration.
17. The mismatch calculation should be performed for maximum load and throughfault conditions.

18.

19.

CT Saturation

20. CT saturation could have a negative impact on the ability of the transformer
protection to operate for internal faults (dependability) and not to operate for external
faults (security).
21. For internal faults, dependability of the harmonic restraint type relays could be
negatively affected if current harmonics generated in the CT secondary circuit due to
CT saturation are high enough to restrain the relay. With a saturated CT, 2nd and 3rd
harmonics predominate initially, but the even harmonics gradually disappear with the
decay of the DC component of the fault current. The relay may then operate eventually
when the restraining harmonic component is reduced.
22. These relays usually include an instantaneous overcurrent element that is not
restrained by harmonics, but is set very high (typically 20 times transformer rating).
This element may operate on severe internal faults.
23. For external faults, security of the differentially connected transformer protection may
be jeopardized if the current transformers unequal saturation is severe enough to
produce error current above the relay setting. Relays equipped with restraint windings
in each current transformer circuit would be more secure.
24. The security problem is particularly critical when the current transformers are
connected to bus breakers rather than the transformer itself. External faults in this
case could be of very high magnitude as they are not limited by the transformer
impedance.
25.

26. Magnetizing Inrush (Initial, Recovery,


Sympathetic)
27.

Initial

28. When a transformer is energized after being de-energized, a transient magnetizing or


exciting current that may reach instantaneous peaks of up to 30 times full load
current may flow.
29. This can cause operation of overcurrent or differential relays protecting the
transformer. The magnetizing current flows in only one winding, thus it will appear to a
differentially connected relay as an internal fault.
30. Techniques used to prevent differential relays from operating on inrush include
detection of current harmonics and zero current periods, both being characteristics of
the magnetizing inrush current. The former takes advantage of the presence of
harmonics, especially the second harmonic, in the magnetizing inrush current to
restrain the relay from operation.
31. The latter differentiates between the fault and inrush currents by measuring the zero
current periods, which will be much longer for the inrush than for the fault current.
32.

33.

Recovery Inrush

34. A magnetizing inrush current can also flow if a voltage dip is followed by recovery to
normal voltage.
35. Typically, this occurs upon removal of an external fault. The magnetizing inrush is
usually less severe in this case than in initial energization as the transformer was not
totally de-energized prior to voltage recovery.
36.

37.

Sympathetic Inrush

38. A magnetizing inrush current can flow in an energized transformer when a nearby
transformer is energized.
39. The offset inrush current of the bank being energized will find a parallel path in the
energized bank. Again, the magnitude is usually less than the case of initial inrush.
Both the recovery andsympathetic inrush phenomena suggest that restraining the
transformer protection on magnetizing inrush current is required at all times, not only
when switching the transformer in service after a period of de-energization.
40.

41.

Primary-Secondary Phase-Shift

42. For transformers with standard delta-wye connections, the currents on the delta and
wye sides will have a 30 phase shift relative to each other. Current transformers used
for traditional differential relays must be connected in wye-delta (opposite of the
transformer winding connections) to compensate for the transformer phase shift.
43. Phase correction is often internally provided in microprocessor transformer protection
relays via software virtual interposing CTs for each transformer winding and, as with
the ratio correction, will depend upon the selected configuration for the restrained
inputs.
44. This allows the primary current transformers to all be connected in wye.
45.

46.

Turn-to-Turn Faults

47. Fault currents resulting from a turn-to-turn fault have low magnitudes and are
hard to detect.
48. Typically, the fault will have to evolve and affect a good portion of the winding or arc
over to other parts of the transformer before being detected by overcurrent or
differential protection relays.
49. For early detection, reliance is usually made on devices that can measure the resulting
accumulation of gas or changes in pressure inside the transformer tank.
50.

51.

Through Faults

52. Through faults could have an impact on both the transformer and its protection
scheme. Depending on their severity, frequency, and duration, through fault currents
can cause mechanical transformer damage, even though the fault is somewhat limited
by the transformer impedance.

53. For transformer differential protection, current transformer mismatch and saturation
could produce operating currents on through faults. This must be taken into
consideration when selecting the scheme, current transformer ratio, relay sensitivity,
and operating time.
54. Differential protection schemes equipped with restraining windings offer better
security for these through faults.
55.

56.

Backup Protection

57. Backup protection, typically overcurrent or impedance relays applied to one or both
sides of the transformer, perform two functions. One function is to backup the primary
protection, most likely a differential relay, and operate in event of its failure to trip.
58. The second function is protection for thermal or mechanical damage to the transformer.
Protection that can detect these external faults and operate in time to prevent
transformer damage should be considered. The protection must be set to operate
before the through-fault withstand capability of the transformer is reached.
59. If, because of its large size or importance, only differential protection is applied to a
transformer, clearing of external faults before transformer damage can occur by other
protective devices must be ensured.
60. Resource: Power System Protection Arun Phadke, Virginia Polytechnic Institute

3.61.Purpose and maintenance of


transformer bushings
4.62.

Posted FEB 5 201 2 by EDV ARD in M AI NTENANCE , TRANSFORM ERS with 2 CO MM ENTS

63.
64. Transformer porcelain bushings spare parts (Pure porcelain structure, copper conductor, with low
temperature rise and good heat dissipation.)

65.
66. The two most common types of bushings used on transformers as main lead entrances
are solid porcelain bushings on smaller transformers and oil-filled condenser bushings
on larger transformers.

67.
68. Transformer with 420kV RIP bushings

69. Solid porcelain bushings consist of high-grade porcelain cylinders that conductors pass
through. Outside surfaces have a series of skirts to increase the leakage path distance
to the grounded metal case. High-voltage bushings are generally oil-filledcondenser
type. Condenser types have a central conductor wound with alternating layers of paper
insulation and tin foil and filled with insulating oil. This results in a path from the

conductor to the grounded tank, consisting of a series of condensers. The layers are
designed to provide approximately equal voltage drops between each condenser layer.
70. Acceptance and routine maintenance tests most often used for checking the condition
of bushings are Doble power factor tests. The power factor of a bushing in good
condition will remain relatively stable throughout the service life.
71. A good indication of insulation deterioration is a slowly rising power factor. The most
common cause of failure is moisture entrance through the top bushing seal.
72. This condition will be revealed before failure by routine Doble testing. If Doble testing is
not performed regularly, explosive failure is the eventual result of a leaking bushing.
73. This, many times, results in a catastrophic and expensive failure of the transformer
as well.

5.74.Using Core-Balance Current


Transformer For Earth Fault
Protection
6.75.

Posted DEC 28 2011 by EDVARD in ENERGY AND POWER , TRANSFO RM ERS with 6 CO MM ENTS

76.
77. Core-balance current transformers

78.

Sensitive Earth Fault

79. The core-balance current transformer (or CBCT) is normally of the ring type, through
the centre of which is passed cable that forms the primary winding. An earth fault
relay, connected to the secondary winding, is energised only when there is residual
current in the primary system.
80. The advantage in using this method of earth fault protection lies in the fact that only
one CT core is used in place of three phase CTs whose secondary windings are
residually connected. In this way the CT magnetising current at relay operation is
reduced by approximately three-to-one, an important consideration in sensitive earth
fault relays where a low effective setting is required. The number of secondary turns

does not need to be related to the cable rated current because no secondary current
would flow under normal balanced conditions.
81. This allows the number of secondary turns to be chosen such as to optimise the
effective primary pick-up current.
82. Core-balance transformers are normally mounted over a cable at a point close up to
the cable gland of switchgear or other apparatus. Physically split cores (slip-over
types) are normally available for applications in which the cables are already made up,
as on existing switchgear.
83. SOURCE: Network Protection & Automation Guide -Current and Voltage Transformers

Transformer Protection Abstract


from NEC
Posted DEC 26 2011 by JI GUPARM AR in PRO TECTIO N , TRANSFO RM ERS with 5 COM M ENTS

Transformer protection - Aabstract from NEC (National Electric Code)

NEC, Code 450.4

Calculate overcurrent Protection on the Primary


According to NEC 450.4, each transformer 600 volts, nominal, or less shall be protected by
an individual overcurrent device installed in series with each ungrounded input conductor.
Such overcurrent device shall be rated or set at not more than 125% of the rated full-load input
current of the auto transformer.
Further, according to NEC Table 450.3 (B), if the primary current of the transformer is less than
9 amps, an overcurrent device rated or set at not more than 167% of the primary current shall
be permitted. Where the primary current is less than 2 amps, an overcurrent device rated or
set at not more than 300% shall be permitted.

Example
Decide Size of circuit breaker (overcurrent protection device) is required on the primary side
to protect a 75kva 440v-230v 3 transformer.
75kva x 1,000 = 75,000VA
75,000VA / (440V x 3) = 98.41 amps.
The current (amps) is more than 9 amps so use 125% rating.
123 amps x 1.25 = 112.76 amps
Use 125 amp 3-pole circuit breaker (the next highest fuse/fixed-trip circuit breaker size per
NEC 240.6). The overcurrent device on the primary side must be sized based on the
transformer KVA rating and not sized based on the secondary load to the transformer.
Top

NEC, Code 450.3B


Calculate overcurrent Protection on the Secondary
According to NEC Table 450.3 (B), where the secondary current of a transformer is 9 amps or
more and 125% of this current does not correspond to a standard rating of a fuse or circuit
breaker, the next higher standard rating shall be required. Where the secondary current is less
than 9 amps, an overcurrent device rated or set at not more than 167% of the secondary
current shall be permitted.

Example
Decide size of circuit breaker (overcurrent protection device) is required on the secondary side
to protect a 75kva 440v-230v 3 transformer. We have Calculate the secondary overcurrent
protection based on the size of the transformer, not the total connected load.
75kva x 1,000 = 75,000va
75,000va / (230V x 3) = 188.27 amps. (Note: 230V 3 is calculated)
The current (amps) is more than 9 amps so use 125% rating.
188.27 amps x 1.25 = 235.34 amps

Therefore: Use 300amp 3-pole circuit breaker (per NEC 240.6).


Top

NEC, Section 450-3 (a)


Transformers over 600 volts, Nominal
For primary and secondary protection with a transformer impedance of 6% or less, the primary
fuse must not be larger than 300% of primary Full Load Amps (F.L.A.) and the secondary fuse
must not be larger than 250% of secondary F.L.A.
Top

NEC, Section 450-3 (b)


Transformers over 600 volts, Nominal
For primary protection only, the primary fuse must not be larger than 125% of primary F.L.A.
For primary and secondary protection the primary feeder fuse must not be larger than 250% of
primary F.L.A. if the secondary fuse is sized at 125% of secondary F.L.A.
Top

NEC, Section 450-3 (b)


Potential (Voltage) Transformer
These shall be protected with primary fuses when installed indoors or enclosed.
Top

NEC, Section 230-95


Ground-Fault Protection of Equipment
This section show that 277/480 volt wye only connected services, 1000 amperes and larger,
must have ground fault protection in addition to conventional overcurrent protection.
The ground fault relay (or sensor) must be set to pick up ground faults which are 1200
amperes or more and actuate the main switch or circuit breaker to disconnect all ungrounded
conductors of the faulted circuit.
Top

NEC, Section 110-9


Interrupting Capacity
Any device used to protect a low voltage system should be capable of opening all fault currents
up to the maximum current available at the terminal of the device.

Many overcurrent devices, today, are used in circuits that are above their interrupting rating.
By using properly sized Current Limiting Fuses ahead of these devices, the current can usually
be limited to a value lower than the interrupting capacity of the overcurrent devices.
Top

NEC, Section 110-10


Circuit Impedance and Other Characteristics
The overcurrent protective devices, along with the total impedance, the component short-circuit
withstand ratings, and other characteristics of the circuit to be protected shall be so selected
and coordinated so that the circuit protective devices used to clear a fault will do so without the
occurrence of extensive damage to the electrical components of the circuit.
In order to do this we must select the overcurrent protective devices so that they will open fast
enough to prevent damage to the electrical components on their load side.
Originally published at Electrical Notes & Articles

Transformer and Transformer-Feeder


Protection
Posted NO V 30 2011 by EDV ARD in PRO TECTI O N , TRANSFORM ERS with 0 CO MM ENTS

VAMP transformer and feeder manager suitable for feeder and transformer applications where

The development of modern power systems has been reflected in the advances in
transformer design. This has resulted in a wide range of transformers with sizes ranging from a
few kVA to several hundred MVA being available for use in a wide variety of applications. The
considerations for a transformer protectionpackage vary with the application and importance
of the transformer. To reduce the effects of thermal stress and electrodynamic forces, it is

advisable to ensure that the protection package used minimises the time for disconnection in
the event of a fault occurring within the transformer.
Small distribution transformers can be protected satisfactorily, from both technical and
economic considerations, by the use of fuses or overcurrent relays.
This results in time-delayed protection due to downstream co-ordination requirements.
However, time-delayed fault clearance is unacceptable on larger power transformers used in
distribution, transmission and generator applications, due to system operation/stability and cost
of repair/length of outage considerations.
Transformer faults are generally classified into five categories:
1. Winding and terminal faults
2. Core faults
3. Tank and transformer accessory faults
4. Onload tap changer faults
5. Abnormal operating conditions
6. Sustained or uncleared external faults
For faults originating in the transformer itself, the approximate proportion of faults due to each
of the causes listed above is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 - Transformer fault statistics

Winding Faults
A fault on a transformer winding is controlled in magnitude by the following factors:
1. Source impedance
2. Neutral earthing impedance
3. Transformer leakage reactance
4. Fault voltage
5. Winding connection
Reference: Network protection and automation guide

What Standards To Use For


Transformer Oil Testing?
Posted NO V 15 2011 by EDV ARD in TRANSFO RM ERS with 4 CO MM ENT S

ASTM standards for transformer oil testing and complete analysis of a transformers oil

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) has developed the standards for oil
testing. The following tests we recommended for a complete analysis of a transformers oil:

Dielectric breakdown (ASTM D-877 & D-1816)


The dielectric breakdown is an indication of the oils ability to withstand electrical stress. The
most commonly performed test is ASTM D-877, and because of this, it is more readily used as
a benchmark value when comparing different results. The oil sample is placed in a test cup and
an AC voltage is impressed on it. The electrodes are two discs, exactly 1 in. in diameter and
placed 0.10 in. apart.
The voltage is raised at a constant rate, until an arc jumps through the oil between the two
electrodes. The voltage at which the arc occurs is considered the dielectric strength of the oil.
For systems over 230 kV, this test is performed using spherical electrodes spaced 0.04 or 0.08
in. apart (ASTM D-1816). Portable equipment is available for performing both levels of this test
in the field.
Top

Neutralization number (ASTM D-974)

Acids are formed as by-products of oxidation or sludging, and are usually present any time an
oil is contaminated.
The concentration of acid in an oil can be determined by the amount of potassium hydroxide
(KOH) needed to neutralize the acid in 1 g of oil. Although it is not a measure of the oils
electrical strength, it is an excellent indicator of the pressure of contaminants. It is especially
useful when its value is monitored over a number of sampling periods and trending data is
developed.
Top

Interfacial tension (ASTM D-971 & D-2285)


The interfacial tension of an oil is the force in dynes per centimeter required to rupture the oil
film existing at an oil-water interface. when certain contaminants, such as soaps, paints,
varnishes, and oxidation products are present in the oil, the film strength of the oil is
weakened, thus requiring less force to rupture. For in-service oils, a decreasing value indicates
the accumulation of contaminants, oxidation products, or both.
ASTM D-971 uses a platinum ring to physically break the interface and measure the force
required. ASTM D-2285 measures the volume of a drop of water that can be supported by the
oil without breaking the interface.
Top

Power factor (ASTM D-924)


The power factor is an indication of the amount of energy that ls lost as heat to the oil. When
pure oil acts as a dielectric, very little energy is lost to the capacitance charging. Contaminants
will increase the energy absorbed by the oil and wasted as heat. The power factor ls a function
of the phasor angle (the angular displacement) between an AC potential applied to the oil and
the resulting current.
The test is performed by passing a current through a test cell of known gap, and sing a
calibrated capacitance or resistance bridge to separate and compare the reactive and
resistance portions of the current passing through the oil.
Top

Color (ASTM D-1500)


The color of a new oil is generally accepted as au Index of refmement. For in-service oils, a
darkening of the oil (higher color number), observed over a number of test intervals, is an
indication of contamination or deterioration.
The color of an oil is obtained by comparison to numbered standards. Although there are
charts available, the most accurate way to determine the oils color is by the use of a color
wheel and a comparator. An oil sample is placed in the comparator, and the color wheel is

rotated until a match is obtained. This test is most effective when results are compiled over a
series of test intervals, and trending data is developed.

Table 1 Insulating fluids suggested test values


Laboratory Test Values
ASTM Test

Dielectric
breakdown
D-877

Oil

High Molecular
Wight
Hydrocarbon

Silicone

Tetrachloroethylen
e

30kV minimum 30kV minimum 30kV minimum 30kV minimum

Neutralizatio 0.04 MGn number D- KOH/GM


974
maximum

0.03 MGKOH/GM
maximum

0.01 MGKOH/GM
maximum

0.25 MG-KOH/GM
maximum

Interfacial
Tension D971
or D-2285

33 Dynes/cm
minimim

Color D-1500 1. Maximum

N/A Maximum

0.05 D-2129

Visual
Clear bright
Condition D- pale straw
1524

N/A

Crystal clear
D-2129

Clear, Slightpink
Iridscent

Power Factor 0.1%


D-924 & 25
maximum
Deg.C

0.1%
maximum

0.1%
maximum

2% maximum

Water
Content D1533
15kV and
below

35
PPM*maximu
m

80
PPM*maximu
m

25 PPM*maximum

Above 15kV 25
Below 115kV PPM*maximu
m

115kV
230kV

20
PPM*maximu
m

Above 230kV 15
PPM*maximu
m

35 Dynes/cm
minimim

35
PPM*maximu
m

* Or in accordance with manufacturers requirements. Some manufacturers recommend 15 PPM maximum for all
transformers.

Moisture content (ASTM D-1533)


Moisture content is very important in determining the seniceability of an oil; the presence of
moisture (as little as 25 parts per million) will usually result in a lower dielectric strength value.
Water content is especially important in transformers with fluctuating loads. As the temperature
increases and decreases with the changing load, the transformers oil can hold varying
amounts of water in solution.
Large amounts of water can be held in solution at higher temperatures, and in this state
(dissolved) the water has a dramatic effect on the oils performance.
Water contamination should be avoided.
(1) Water content is expressed in parts per million, and although water will settle to the bottom
of the tank and be visible in the sample, the presence of free water is not an indication of high
water content, and it is usually harmless in this state.
The dissolved water content is the dangerous factor; it is usually measured by physical or
chemical means. A Karl Fischer titrating apparatus is one of the more common methods of
measuring the dissolved water content.
(2) There are other tests available, such as Flashpoint, Viscosity, and Specific Gravity. They
are of limited value for interpretation of the oils quality, but can be used for further
investigation if unsatisfactory results are obtained for the tests listed above.
(3) Table 1 lists the acceptable values for the laboratory test results for various insulating fltids.
SOURCE: Power transformer maintenance and acceptance testing

Transformer Winding Faults


Posted NO V 2 2011 by EDV ARD in PRO TECTI O N , TRANSFO RM ERS with 11 CO MM ENTS

Tension when winding the coils needs to be controlled to insure the conductors for either a disc or helical winding
can be braced for the radial forces during a fault event.

A fault on a transformer winding is controlled in magnitude by the following factors:


1. Source impedance
2. Neutral earthing impedance
3. Transformer leakage reactance
4. Fault voltage
5. Winding connection
Several distinct cases arise and are examined below.

Star-Connected Winding with Neutral Point Earthed


through an Impedance
The winding earth fault current depends on the earthing impedance value and is also
proportional to the distance of the fault from the neutral point, since the fault voltage will be
directly proportional to this distance. For a fault on a transformer secondary winding, the
corresponding primary current will depend on the transformation ratio between the primary
winding and the short-circuited secondary turns.
This also varies with the position of the fault, so that the fault current in the transformer
primary winding is proportional to the square of the fraction of the winding that is
shortcircuited.
The effect is shown in Figure 1 Faults in the lower third of the winding produce very little
current in the primary winding, making fault detection by primary current measurement difficult.

Figure 1 - Earth fault current in resistance-earthed star winding

Star-connected winding with Neutral Point Solidly


Earthed
The fault current is controlled mainly by the leakage reactance of the winding, which varies
in a complex manner with the position of the fault. The variable fault point voltage is also an
important factor, as in the case of impedance earthing. For faults close to the neutral end of the
winding, the reactance is very low, and results in the highest fault currents.
The variation of current with fault position is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 - Earth fault current in solidly earthed star winding

For secondary winding faults, the primary winding fault current is determined by the variable
transformation ratio; as the secondary fault current magnitude stays high throughout the
winding, the primary fault current is large for most points along the winding.

Delta-connected Winding
No part of a delta-connected winding operates with a voltage to earth of less than 50% of the
phase voltage. The range of fault current magnitude is therefore less than for a star winding.
The actual value of fault current will still depend on the method of system earthing; it should
also be remembered that the impedance of a delta winding is particularly high to fault currents
flowing to a centrally placed fault on one leg.
The impedance can be expected to be between 25% and 50%, based on the transformer
rating, regardless of the normal balanced through-current impedance.
As the prefault voltage to earth at this point is half the normal phase voltage, the earth fault
current may be no more than the rated current, or even less than this value if the source or
system earthing impedance is appreciable. The current will flow to the fault from each side
through the two half windings, and will be divided between two phases of the system.
The individual phase currents may therefore be relatively low, resulting in difficulties in
providing protection.

Phase to Phase Faults


Faults between phases within a transformer are relatively rare; if such a fault does occur it will
give rise to a substantial current comparable to the earth fault currents.

Interturn Faults
In low voltage transformers, interturn insulation breakdown is unlikely to occur unless the
mechanical force on the winding due to external short circuits has caused insulation
degradation, or insulating oil (if used) has become contaminated by moisture.
A high voltage transformer connected to an overhead transmission system will be subjected to
steep fronted impulse voltages, arising from lightning strikes, faults and switching operations. A
line surge, which may be of several times the rated system voltage, will concentrate on the end
turns of the winding because of the high equivalent frequency of the surge front. Part-winding
resonance, involving voltages up to 20 times rated voltage may occur.
The interturn insulation of the end turns is reinforced, but cannot be increased in proportion to
the insulation to earth, which is relatively great. Partial winding flashover is therefore more
likely. The subsequent progress of the fault, if not detected in the earliest stage, may well
destroy the evidence of the true cause.
A short circuit of a few turns of the winding will give rise to a heavy fault current in the shortcircuited loop, but the terminal currents will be very small, because of the high ratio of
transformation between the whole winding and the short-circuited turns.

Figure 3 - Interturn fault current/number of turns short-circuited

The graph in Figure 3 shows the corresponding data for a typical transformer of 3.25%
impedance with the short-circuited turns symmetrically located in the centre of the winding.

Core Faults
A conducting bridge across the laminated structures of the core can permit sufficient eddycurrent to flow to cause serious overheating. The bolts that clamp the core together are always
insulated to avoid this trouble. If any portion of the core insulation becomes defective, the
resultant heating may reach a magnitude sufficient to damage the winding.
The additional core loss, although causing severe local heating, will not produce a noticeable
change in input current and could not be detected by the normal electrical protection; it is
nevertheless highly desirable that the condition should be detected before a major fault has
been created.
In an oil-immersed transformer, core heating sufficient to cause winding insulation damage will
also cause breakdown of some of the oil with an accompanying evolution of gas. This gas will
escape to the conservator, and is used to operate a mechanical relay.

Tank Faults

Loss of oil through tank leaks will ultimately produce a dangerous condition, either because of
a reduction in winding insulation or because of overheating on load due to the loss of cooling.
Overheating may also occur due to prolonged overloading, blocked cooling ducts due to oil
sludging or failure of the forced cooling system, if fitted.

Externally Applied Conditions


Sources of abnormal stress in a transformer are:
1. Overload
2. System faults
3. Overvoltage
4. Reduced system frequency
RESOURCE: Network Protection & Automation Guide

Transformer Testing Techniques


Posted O CT 27 2011 by EDV ARD in TRANSFO RM ERS with 2 CO MM ENTS

Cant see this video? Click here to watch it on Youtube.

Substation transformers can range from the size of a garbage can to the size of a small
house; they can be equipped with a wide array of gauges, bushings, and other types of
auxiliary equipment. The basic operating concepts, however, are common to all transformers.
An understanding of these basic concepts, along with the application of common sense
maintenance practices that apply to other technical fields, will provide the basis for a
comprehensive program of inspections, maintenance, and testing. These activities will increase
the transformerss service life and help to make the transformers operation both safe and
trouble-free.
Heat and contamination are the two greatest enemies to the transformers operation. Heat will
break down the solid insulation and accelerate the chemical reactions that take place when the
oil is contaminated. All transformers require a cooling method and it is important to ensure that
the transformer has proper cooling.
Proper cooling usually involves cleaning the cooling surfaces, maximizing ventilation, and
monitoring loads to ensure the transformer is not producing excess heat.

Contamination
Contamination is detrimental to the transformer, both inside and out. The importance of basic
cleanliness and general housekeeping becomes evident when longterm service life is
considered. Dirt build up and grease deposits severely limit the cooling abilities of radiators
and tank surfaces. Terminal and insulation surfaces are especially susceptible to dirt and
grease build up. Such buildup will usually affect test results.

The transformers general condition should be noted during any activity, and every effort
should be made to maintain its integrity during all operations.

Transformer Oil
The oil in the transformer should be kept as pure as possible. Dirt and moisture will start
chemical reactions in the oil that lower both its electrical strength and its cooling capability.
Contamination should be the primary concern any time the transformer must be opened. Most
transformer oil is contaminated to some degree before it leaves the refinery.
It is important to determine how contaminated the oil is and how fast it is degenerating.
Determining the degree of contamination is accomplished by sampling and analyzing the oil on
a regular basis.

Service Life
Although maintenance and work practices are designed to extend the transformers life, it is
inevitable that the transformer will eventually deteriorate to the point that it fails or must be
replaced. Transformer testing allows this aging process to be quantified and tracked, to help
predict replacement intervals and avoid failures.
Historical test data is valuable for determining damage to the transformer after a fault or failure
has occurred elsewhere in the circuit. By comparing test data taken after the fault to previous
test data, damage to the transformer can be determined.

Understanding Vector Group of


Transformer (1)
Posted JUN 3 201 2 by JI GUPARM AR in ENERGY AND PO WER, TRANSFO RM ERS with 24 CO M M ENTS

Understanding Vector Group of Transformer

Introduction
Three phase transformer consists of three sets of primary windings, one for each phase, and
three sets of secondary windings wound on the same iron core.
Separate single-phase transformers can be used and externally interconnected to yield the
same results as a 3-phase unit.
The primary windings are connected in one of several ways. The two most common
configurations are the delta, in which the polarity end of one winding is connected to the nonpolarity end of the next, and the star, in which all three non-polarities (or polarity) ends are
connected together. The secondary windings are connected similarly. This means that a 3phase transformer can have its primary and secondary windings connected the same (deltadelta or star-star), or differently (delta-star or star-delta).
Its important to remember that the secondary voltage waveforms are in phase with the primary
waveforms when the primary and secondary windings are connected the same way. This
condition is called no phase shift.

But when the primary and secondary windings are connected differently, the secondary voltage
waveforms will differ from the corresponding primary voltage waveforms by 30 electrical
degrees. This is called a 30 degree phase shift. When two transformers are connected in
parallel, their phase shifts must be identical; if not, a short circuit will occur when the
transformers are energized.

Basic Idea of Winding


An ac voltage applied to a coil will induce a voltage in a second coil where the two are linked
by a magnetic path. The phase relationship of the two voltages depends upon which ways
round the coils are connected. The voltages will either be in-phase or displaced by 180 degree.
When 3 coils are used in a 3 phase transformer winding a number of options exist. The coil
voltages can be in phase or displaced as above with the coils connected in star or delta and, in
the case of a star winding, have the star point (neutral) brought out to an external terminal or
not.

Six Ways to wire Star Winding:

Six Ways to wire Star Winding

Six Ways to wire Delta Winding:

Six Ways to wire Delta Winding

Polarity
An AC voltage applied to a coil will induce a voltage in a second coil where the two are linked
by a magnetic path. The phase relationship of the two voltages depends upon which way
round the coils are connected. The voltages will either be in-phase or displaced by 180 deg.
When 3 coils are used in a 3 phase transformer winding a number of options exist. The coil
voltages can be in phase or displaced as above with the coils connected in star or delta and, in
the case of a star winding, have the star point (neutral) brought out to an external terminal or
not.

Additive and substractive polarity of transformer

When Pair of Coil of Transformer have same direction than voltage induced in both coil are in
same direction from one end to other end. When two coil have opposite winding direction than
Voltage induced in both coil are in opposite direction.

Winding connection designations

First Symbol: for High Voltage: Always capital letters.


D=Delta, S=Star, Z=Interconnected star, N=Neutral
Second Symbol: for Low voltage: Always Small letters.
d=Delta, s=Star, z=Interconnected star, n=Neutral.
Third Symbol: Phase displacement expressed as the clock hour number (1,6,11)

Example Dyn11
Transformer has a delta connected primary winding (D) a star connected secondary (y) with
the star point brought out (n) and a phase shift of 30 deg leading (11).
The point of confusion is occurring in notation in a step-up transformer. As the IEC600761standard has stated, the notation is HV-LV in sequence. For example, a step-up transformer

with a delta-connected primary, and star-connected secondary, is not written as dY11, but
Yd11. The 11 indicates the LV winding leads the HV by 30 degrees.
Transformers built to ANSI standards usually do not have the vector group shown on their
nameplate and instead a vector diagram is given to show the relationship between the primary
and other windings.

Vector Group of Transformer


The three phase transformer windings can be connected several ways. Based on the windings
connection, the vector group of the transformer is determined.
The transformer vector group is indicated on the Name Plate of transformer by the
manufacturer. The vector group indicates the phase difference between the primary and
secondary sides, introduced due to that particular configuration of transformer windings
connection.
The Determination of vector group of transformers is very important before connecting two or
more transformers in parallel. If two transformers of different vector groups are connected in
parallel then phase difference exist between the secondary of the transformers and large
circulating current flows between the two transformers which is very detrimental.

Phase Displacement between HV and LV Windings


The vector for the high voltage winding is taken as the reference vector. Displacement of the
vectors of other windings from the reference vector, with anticlockwise rotation, is represented
by the use of clock hour figure.
IS: 2026 (Part 1V)-1977 gives 26 sets of connections star-star, star-delta, and star zigzag,
delta-delta, delta star, delta-zigzag, zigzag star, zigzag-delta. Displacement of the low voltage
winding vector varies from zero to -330 in steps of -30, depending on the method of
connections.
Hardly any power system adopts such a large variety of connections. Some of the commonly
used connections with phase displacement of 0, -300, -180 and -330 (clock-hour setting 0, 1,
6 and 11).
Symbol for the high voltage winding comes first, followed by the symbols of windings in
diminishing sequence of voltage. For example a 220/66/11 kV Transformer connected star,
star and delta and vectors of 66 and 11 kV windings having phase displacement of 0 and 330 with the reference (220 kV) vector will be represented As Yy0 Yd11.
The digits (0, 1, 11 etc) relate to the phase displacement between the HV and LV windings
using a clock face notation. The phasor representing the HV winding is taken as reference and
set at 12 oclock. Phase rotation is always anti-clockwise. (International adopted).

Use the hour indicator as the indicating phase displacement angle. Because there are 12 hours
on a clock, and a circle consists out of 360, each hour represents 30.Thus 1 = 30, 2 = 60, 3
= 90, 6 = 180 and 12 = 0 or 360.
The minute hand is set on 12 oclock and replaces the line to neutral voltage (sometimes
imaginary) of the HV winding. This position is always the reference point.

Example

Digit 0 =0 that the LV phasor is in phase with the HV phasor


Digit 1 =30 lagging (LV lags HV with 30) because rotation is anti-clockwise.
Digit 11 = 330 lagging or 30 leading (LV leads HV with 30)
Digit 5 = 150 lagging (LV lags HV with 150)
Digit 6 = 180 lagging (LV lags HV with 180)
When transformers are operated in parallel it is important that any phase shift is the same
through each. Paralleling typically occurs when transformers are located at one site and
connected to a common bus bar (banked) or located at different sites with the secondary
terminals connected via distribution or transmission circuits consisting of cables and overhead
lines.

Phase Shift (Deg)

Connection

Yy0

Dd0

Dz0

30 lag

Yd1

Dy1

Yz1

60 lag

Dd2

Dz2

120 lag

Dd4

Dz4

150 lag

Yd5

Dy5

Yz5

180 lag

Yy6

Dd6

Dz6

150 lead

Yd7

Dy7

Yz7

Dd8

Dz8

120 lead
60 lead
30 lead

Dd10
Yd11

Dy11

Dz10
Yz11

The phase-bushings on a three phase transformer are marked either ABC, UVW or 123 (HVside capital, LV-side small letters). Two winding, three phase transformers can be divided into
four main categories

Oclock

TC

Group I

0 oclock, 0

delta/delta, star/star

Group II

6 oclock, 180

delta/delta, star/star

Group III

1 oclock, -30

star/delta, delta/star

Group IV

11 oclock, +30

star/delta, delta/star

Group

Minus indicates LV lagging HV, plus indicates LV


leading HV

Clock Notation 0 (Phase Shift 0)

Clock Notation 0 (Phase Shift 0)

Clock Notation 1 (Phase Shift -30)

Clock Notation 1 (Phase Shift -30)

Clock Notation 2 (Phase Shift -60)

Clock Notation 2 (Phase Shift -60)

Clock Notation 4 (Phase Displacement -120)

Clock Notation 4 (Phase Displacement -120)

Clock Notation 5 (Phase Displacement -150)

Clock Notation 5 (Phase Displacement -150)

Clock Notation 6 (Phase Shift +180)

Clock Notation 6 (Phase Shift +180)

Clock Notation 7 (Phase Shift +150)

Clock Notation 7 (Phase Shift +150)

Clock Notation 11 (Phase Shift +30)

Clock Notation 11 (Phase Shift +30)

An Overview Of Short Circuit Current


(part 1)
Posted FEB 25 20 13 by ASI F EQ BAL in ENERGY AND POWER with 8 CO MM ENTS

An Overview Of Short Circuit Current (part 1)

Basic concept
There are essentially four types of faults: three-phase, single line-to-ground, double line-toground, and line-to-line.
Each of these types of faults can result in different magnitudes of fault current.
In all types, however, there is a common element: an abnormally low-impedance path or
shorted path for current to flow, hence the name short circuit current. Such a condition can
lead to extremely high currents.
By Ohms Law, voltage equals current times impedance (resistance). Therefore, when the
impedance becomes very low and the voltage does not change, the current becomes very
high. Large electrical currents produce a lot of heat transfer, which increases the temperature
of cables, transformers, etc.
The increase in temperature can cause insulation damage. These currents also produce
high magnetic forces, which can actually bend buses in switchgear.
High fault currents cause magnetic forces that are proportional to the square of the fault
current.

Mathematical background, X/R ratio and type of fault current


The treatment of electrical faults should be carried out as a function of time, from the start of
the event at time t = 0+ until stable conditions are reached, and therefore it is necessary to use
differential equations when calculating these currents.
In order to illustrate the transient nature of the current, consider an RL circuitas a simplified
equivalent of the circuits in electricity distribution networks.
This simplification is important because all the system equipment must be modeled in some
way in order to quantify the transient values which can occur during the fault condition.
For the circuit shown in Figure, the mathematical expression which defines the behavior
of the current is:

e(t) = L di + Ri(t)

RL circuit as a simplified equivalent of the circuits in electricity-distribution networks

This is a differential equation with constant coefficients, of which the solution is in two
parts:

ia (t): ih (t) + ip(t)


Where:
ih(t) is the solution of the homogeneous equation corresponding to the transient period.
ip(t) is the solution to the particular equation corresponding to the steady-state period.
By the use of differential equation theory, the complete solution can be determined and
expressed in the following form:

Where:

the closing angle which defines the point on the source sinusoidal voltage when the fault
occurs

= tan-1(L/R) or = tan-1(X/R)
The second term in the equation for fault current is recognized as the DC component of the
current, and has an initial maximum value when:
- = / 2, and zero value when = .

Notes:

Here we introduce the concept of X/R ratio. We can very well see that since L = XL or
simply X hence DC component of fault current to large extent depends upon = tan1
(X/R) or simply X/R ratio.
The X/R ratio is important because it determines the peak asymmetrical fault current.
In X/R ratio when X equals zero, there is only symmetrical current with no DC
component. With R equals zero, the DC component would never decay. One can say
there will always be both resistance and reactive components in the system.
The resistance and reactance of a circuit establishes a power factor.
The power factor (p.f.) is given by the following equation: p.f. = cos(tan-1(X/R))this
equation means that the power factor and X/R ratio are related.
Therefore, system power factor and system X/R ratio are different ways of saying
the same thing. Please note that as power factor decreases, the X/R ratio increases.

It is impossible to predict a that is at what point the fault will be applied or take place on the
sinusoidal cycle and therefore it is not possible to determine exactly what magnitude the DC
component will reach.

Symmetrical fault current


If in a circuit mainly containing reactance a short circuit occurs at the peak of the voltage
wave, the short-circuit current would start at zero and trace a sine wave which would be
symmetrical about the zero axis.
This is known as a symmetrical short circuit current.

Asymmetrical fault current


Right after a fault occurs, the current waveform is no longer a sine wave.
Instead, it can be represented by the sum of a sine wave and a decaying exponential.
Figure below illustrates this phenomenon. Please note that the decaying exponential added to

the sine wave causes the current to reach a much larger value than that of the sine wave
alone.
The waveform that equals the sum of the sine wave and the decaying exponential is called
theasymmetrical current because the waveform does not have symmetry above and below
the time axis.
The sine wave alone is called the symmetrical current because it does have symmetry above
and below the time axis.

Sine wave, decaying exponential and their sum

Hence we can define asymmetrical fault current in the following way: If, in a circuit containing
only reactance, the short circuit occurs at any point at the peak of the voltage wave, there will
be some offset of the current.
The amount of offset depends upon the point on the voltage wave at which the short circuit
occurs.
This is known as asymmetrical short circuit current. Maximum asymmetry occurs when
short circuit takes place when voltage is zero.
Asymmetrical fault remains only for few cycles after which it becomes symmetrical fault.
Decay of asymmetrical component depends on the value of X/R. More the value of R, faster is
the decay of asymmetrical fault current.
Magnitude of asymmetrical fault current is more than that of symmetrical fault current.
If the short circuit current does not include DC component it is called symmetrical short
circuit current. If the short circuit current contains DC component it is called as asymmetrical
component.
Figure above represents the short circuit current with and without DC component.

An Overview Of Short Circuit Current


(part 2)
Posted FEB 27 20 13 by ASI F EQ BAL in ENERGY AND POWER with 4 CO MM ENTS

An Overview Of Short Circuit Current - Part 2 (on photo Main Switchboard by jayreynoldsisreal @Flickr)

Continued from previous technical article: An Overview Of Short Circuit Current (part 1)

Reactance
Sub transient reactance Xd is the apparent reactance of the stator winding at the instant
short circuit occurs, and it determines the current flow during the first few cycles of a short
circuit.
Transient reactance Xd is the apparent initial reactance of the stator winding, if the effect of all
amortisseur windings is ignored and only the field winding considered. This reactance
determines the current following the period when subtransient reactance is the controlling
value.
Transient reactance is effective up to 1/2 sec. i.e. 30 cycles or longer, depending upon the
design of the machine.
Synchronous reactance Xd is the apparent reactance that determines the current flow when a
steady state condition is reached.
It is not effective until several seconds after the short circuit occurs, consequently it has no
value in short circuit calculations for the application of circuit breakers, fuses and contactors
selection but is useful for relay setting studies.
Below figure gives simplified representation of Asymmetrical and symmetrical fault
current as well as different reactance:

Asymmetrical and symmetrical fault current

During first few cycles reactance of system/synchronous machine is least and short circuit
current is highest. This stage is called subtransient reactance. This reactance is denoted
by X. After first few cycles decrement in RMS value of short circuit current is less. This state is
called transient reactance and is denoted byX.
Finally transient dies out and current reaches the steady sinusoidal state. Reactance in this
state is called steady state reactance and is denoted by Xd.
Here we can introduce the concept of short circuit making and breaking current. During the first
few cycles of fault current the reactance is least and magnitude of short circuit current is
highest. Current increases to maximum value at the peak of first current loop.
All switching device are subjected to high electro-magnetic forces. To ensure that
switching device like circuit breakers withstand safely this high magnitude of short circuit
current, switching device is tested for short circuit making current. Hence we can also define
theshort circuit making current as peak value of first current loop of short circuit current.
Short circuit making current
= Peak value of steady state SC current + doubling effect caused by first peak containing
DC component
= 1.8 x peak value of steady state short circuit current (considering doubling effect)
= 1.8 x 2 x RMS value of steady state short circuit current
= 2.5 x RMS value of steady state short circuit current
Since RMS value of steady state short circuit current is called breaking current so short circuit
making current can be written as:

Short circuit making current = 2.5 x short circuit


breaking current

Above expression for calculating the making current is also given by Indian standard 10118,
part-2 for selection, installation and maintenance of switchgear and controlgear.
However as per Indian standard 8623-part-1 for low voltage switchgear and controlgear
assembly:
Relationship between peak and RMS. values of short-circuit current The value of peak shortcircuit current (peak value of the first loop of the short-circuit current including DC. component)
for determining the electrodynamic stresses shall be obtained by multiplying the RMS. value
of the short-circuit current by the factor n.
Standard values for the factor n and the corresponding power factor are given in below table:

Table for selecting asymmetrical peak value


cos

I 5 kA

0.7

1.5

5kA <I 10 kA

0.5

1.7

10kA <I 20 kA

0.3

20kA <I 50 kA

0.25

2.1

50kA <I

0.2

2.2

RMS Value of Short circuit current

One can observe the difference in selection of multiplying factor n in case of two different IS.
As per IS 10118 part-2 multiplying factor should be 2.5 and as per 8623 part-1 multiplying
factor should be n times and n should be selected as per above table.
Since IS 8623 latest edition is 1998 and IS 10118 has been published before 8623 hence
generalized value of n in IS 10118 must have been elaborated in IS 8623. Also note the fact
that IS 10118 considers the doubling effect as 1.8 times which may vary depending upon
amount of DC component which in turn depends upon the X/R ratio.
Exact and accurate knowledge of system X/R ratio is difficult to obtain, only power system
engineers who are exclusively involved in system studies can throw some light on it. Hence
different values of multiplying factor at different power factor (in other words X/R) in IS 8623 is
more reliable and is used by all switchgear manufacturers.
All the switchgears are type tested as per IS 8623 part-1 Readers are advised to refer the
equivalent IEC 439 part-1 for technical comparison and analysis of multiplying factor n.

Sources and limiters of short circuit current


When determining the magnitude of short-circuits currents, it is extremely important that all
sources of short circuit current be considered and that the reactance characteristics of
these sources are known.

Electrical loads are either static (such as lighting) or dynamic loads (like motors). Dynamic
loads have residual voltage and voltage of fault point is zero (if it is ground fault) or very less
than line voltage hence current starts flowing from dynamic loads to fault points.
During a short circuit condition the system voltage will decay. A stable voltage supply no
longer exists. The rotating magnetic field in the rotor will attempt to support the reduced
voltage condition by becoming a power source. The motor is now providing additional current
into the faulted electrical system.
This phenomenon is called motor contribution.
The amount of current is dependent on the motor impedance. At first there is an asymmetrical
current containing both AC and DC components.
Lack of a stable voltage supply causes the AC component to decay when the rotor flux begins
to drop. Without a stable voltage supply, the transient DC component also decays. Induction
motor contribution typically lasts from one to four cycles from time equal zero during a short
circuit condition.
However, synchronous motors short circuit contribution can last from six to eight cycles. The
main difference is the induction motor does not have an excitation capability of a synchronous
motor; therefore, it cannot maintain voltage for the same amount of time.
In either case the motor contribution is present during the first cycle.
There are three basic sources of short circuit current:
1. Generators
2. Synchronous motors and synchronous condensers
3. Induction motor
Due to residual flux in the rotor of the induction motor, it contributes fault current for 1-4
cycles. Normally, induction motor current contribution is considered for fault calculations.
ANSI standard C37.010 [1] offers guidance when calculating motor contribution for a group of
low voltage motors if detail motor data are not available. Assuming a motor contribution of four
times rated full load current is acceptable. The standard arrived at this value by assuming the
motor contribution of 3.6 times rated current came from 75% induction motors and 4.8 times
rated current from 25% synchronous motors.
A circuit element where voltage is induced by changing current in it is inductor and property is
called inductive property. As per Lenz Law rate of change of current is positive and induced
voltage is negative.
Thus inductance acts in negative direction around the circuit to oppose change in current and
hence can also limit the short circuit current.
There are three basic limiters of short circuit current:
1. Transformer impedance
2. Cable impedance
3. Series reactor impedance (if any)

An Overview Of Short Circuit Current


(part 3)
Posted M AR 8 2013 by ASI F EQ BAL in ENERGY AND POWER , TRANSFO RM ERS with 4 COMM ENTS

An Overview Of Short Circuit Current (part 3)

Continued from previous technical article: An Overview Of Short Circuit Current (part 2)

Sample calculation for small LT system


Fault calculations are carried out to find the magnitude of fault current at various voltage
levels of electrical system.
Short circuit calculations are actually just an elaborate version of Ohms Law.One of the key
components in the calculation process is to determine the total impedance of the circuit from
the utility / source, through the transmission system, transformers, and conductors, down to the
point in question such as a panel or switchboard location. The impedances of the various
circuit elements have both resistanceand reactance and are often referred to as the
complex impedance or polar notation.
Fault current values and time helps in deciding equipment short time withstand capacity and
deriving settings of protection relays. Interrupting capacity of protection equipment should be
high enough to open safely the maximum short circuit current which the power system can
cause to flow through that equipment.
One sample calculation for calculating the short circuit current at downstream of
transformer is shown below.
Purpose and intent of this calculation is to calculate the short term current ratingof a
marshalling kiosk to be fed by AC distribution board (ACDB). ACDB being fed by a source
of 630kVA transformer.

Calculation basis

1/ The busbar and switchgear of Marshalling kiosk is sized for short time rating as per
contribution from MV source through LT transformer.

2/ For circuits connected by transformer PU system is particularly suitable. By selecting


suitable base kV for circuits the per unit reactance and resistance remains same, referred to
either side (HV or LV) of transformer.

3/ For circuits connected by transformer same base kVA is selected for both the circuits (HV
and LV) because power remains constant throughout so same base kVA should be considered
throughout.

4/ As a rule only two bases should be selected first and from these two the remaining bases
should be calculated. This is so because kV, kVA, I and Z are interrelated. They must obey
ohms law. If we select base kVA and base kV than other base like base I and base Z are
calculated from base kV and base kVA.
Vice-versa will be inconvenient that is selecting base I and Z and calculating other bases like
kV and kVA will make calculation difficult.

Input data to be collected:


1. Transformer Rating

= 0.63 MVA

2. Transformer Voltage ratio

= 11/0.433 kV

3. Frequency

= 50Hz

4. Transformer Impedance

= 5% = 0.05 PU

5. MV System fault level (Maximum) = 40 kA


6. MV System fault MVA

= 3 x 40 x 11 = 762 MVA

Calculation
Actual Fault Current available at AC distribution board
Base MVA

= 0.63

Base kV

= 11

Base Current in kA

= Base MVA/(3 x Base kV) = 0.63/(3 x


11) = 0.033

Base Impedance = (Base kV) 2 / Base MVA

= 192.1

Source Impedance = MV System fault MVA /


Base MVA

= 0.0008

LT Transformer impedance at 0.63MVA &


11kV Base

= 0.05

Total MV system impedance (MV System +


LT Transformer)

= 0.0508

Fault MVA contributed by Source through LT


Transformer

= Base MVA / Total Impedance

= 0.63 / 0.0508 = 12.40


Fault current contribution in kiloAmpers from MV system at LV side through (Switchyard)
LT Transformer:
= Fault MVA x 1000 x 1000 / (3 x 0.433 x
1000 x 1000)
= 12.40 x 1000 x 1000 / (3 x 0.433 x 1000
x 1000)
= 17.245 kA

Actual Fault Current available at marshalling kioskbusbar


Busbars and switchgear components of marshalling kiosk shall be braced for the peak value of
the faultcurrent contribution from the MV system through 630kVA rated source transformer.
Hereafter Marshalling kiosk to be referred as BMK and AC distribution board to be referred as
ACDB.

Actual Fault Current available at marshalling kioskbusbar

Base kVA = same as above, since this parameter remains constant throughout the circuit
Base kV = 0.415V Base kV at LV circuit
Distance in meters of transformer from ACDB = 20
Distance in meters of BMK from ACDB = 50
Size of connecting cable in Sq mm from transformer to ACDB = 3.5C x 300 Sq mm Al, XLPE
Resistance in Ohms/kM of connecting cable from transformer to BMK = 0.128
Total resistance over route length = 200.128 /1000 = 0.003
PU resistance = Actual Resistance x Base kVA/ (BasekV2 x 1000)
= 0.003 x 0.63 x 1000 / (0.415 x 0.415 x 1000) = 0.009
Reactance in Ohms/kM of connecting cable from transformer to BMK = 0.0705
Total reactance over route length = 0.070520 /1000 = 0.001
PU reactance = Actual Reactance x Base kVA/(Base kV 2x 1000)
= 0.001 x 0.63 x 1000 / (0.415 x 0.415 x 1000) = 0.0052
PU impedance of cable from LT transformer to ACDB
= ((PU resistance)2+(PU reactance)2)= (0.0092+ 0.07052) = 0.011

Size of conecting cable in Sq mm from ACDB to BMK = 3.5C x 35 Al, XLPE


Resistance in Ohms/kM of connecting cable from ACDB to BMK = 0.671
Total resistance over route length = 0.671 x 50 /1000 = 0.034
PU resistance = Actual Resistance x Base kVA/(Base kV 2 x 1000)
= 0.034 x 0.63 x 1000 / (0.415 x 0.415 x 1000) = 0.12
Reactance in Ohms/kM of connecting cable from ACDB to BMK = 0.0783
Total reactance over route length = 0.0783 x 50 /1000 = 0.004
PU reactance = Actual Reactance x Base kVA/(Base kV 2x 1000)
= 0.004 x 0.63 x 1000 / (0.415 x 0.415 x 1000) = 0.14
PU impedance of cable from ACDB to BMK = ((PU resistance)2+(PU reactance)2) =
((0.12)2+(0.14)2) = 0.124
Total PU Impeadnce of connecting cable from LT transformer to BMK = 0.011 + 0.124 = 0.134
Total PU Impedance from LT Transformer to BMK = PU Impedance of Transformer + Total PU
Impedance of connecting cable from LT transformer to BMK = 0.05 + 0.134 = 0.1842
Fault MVA at BMK busbar = Base MVA/Total Impedance = 0.63 / 0.1842 = 3.42
Fault current in kiloAmps at BMK busbar = Fault MVA x 1000x 1000 / (3 x 0.415 x 1000 x
1000)
= 3.42 x 1000 x 1000 / (3 x 0.415 x 1000 x 1000) = 4.757 kA
Hence selection of 10kA busbar and switchgear components like MCB is safe and appropriate
as per the actual fault level existing at BMK main busbar.

Si. No

Equipment

CURRENT RATING

CALCULATED SHORT
TERM CURRENT
RATING IN kA

OPTIMUM SELECTION
OF SHORT TIME
CURRENT RATING IN kA

RMS
Assymmetrical
RMS
Assymmetrical
Symmetrical peak value = Symmetrical peak value =
nxRMS
nxRMS
Symmetrical
Symmetrical
1

Main LT board

17.24

34.5 (n=2)

35

73.5 (n=2.1)

Marshalling kiosk

4.75

7.1 (n=1.5)

10

17 (n= 1.7)

REFERENCES:
1. Indian Standard 8623, part-1-SPECIFICATION FOR LOW-VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
AND CONTROLGEAR ASSEMBLIES
2. Indian Standard 10118, part-2-CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE SELECTION,
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SWITCHGEAR AND CONTROLGEAR
3. The Importance of the X/R Ratio in Low-Voltage Short Circuit Studies- Research paper
DATE: November 17, 1999 REVISION: 0 by AUTHOR: John Merrell
4. Short-circuit-current Calculating Procedures by Donald Beeman, Alan Graeme Darling,
and R. H. Kaufmann
5. Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook by K.C. Agrawal

You might also like