Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jennifer Pike
Department
of EarthSciences,
Universityof Wales,Cardiff,Wales,UnitedKingdom
Abstract. HoloceneBlackSeasediments
recovered
in 1988and 1993fromboxcoresandgravitycoreswere analyzed
geochemically,
microscopically,
andwithbackscattered
electron
imagery
(BSEI)in orderto determine
thetemporal,
geochemical,
andsedimentological
relationships
between
thebenthic
flocculent
layer(oftenreferred
toastheflufflayer)
andthe formationof underlying
laminated
unitI sediments.
Existence
of a permanent
benthicfluff layerin the Black
Seabasinis suggested,
actingasa geochemical
transition
layerwithinwhichall sedimentary
particles
arehydraulically
sorted
andparticles
subject
to dissolution
or organic
remineralization
arealtered
priorto accumulation.
Wepropose
that
particle
residence
timewithinthebenthic
flufflayerisa keyfactorin determining
sedimentary
microfabric
andgeochemical
composition
of laminated
unitI sediments.
Wepresent
a schematic
modeldepicting
theaboverelationships
anduseit to propose
a paleofluxscenario
for laminae
formation
in theunitII sapropel.
1. Introduction
tological
andgeochemical
relationship
between
thebenthic
flocculentor "fluff" layerandthe underlyinglaminated
sediments
[Degens
et al., 1978;Hay, 1988;ttonjoet al., 1988;Hayet al.,
1990; Pilskaln,1991;Arthur et al., 1994;Jonesand Gagnon,
1994;Arthurand Dean, 1998]. The debatehascenteredonthe
interpretation
of the of the light/darklaminaeas annualvarves
andthe temporalandsedimentological
relationship
betweena
persistent
orintermittent
benthic
fluff layerandtheformation
of
theunderlying
sediment
laminae.Varvechronologies,
determinations of sediment accumulationrates from modern time series
sediment
trapsamples,
anddetailedcomparisons
of varveand
seasonal
sediment
trapsamplecomponents
support
thecontention that the light/darklaminaecoupletsrepresent
two-season
annualvarves[Arthuret at., 1994;Pilskaln,1991;Hay, 1988;
Hay et al., !990; Honjoet aI., 1988]. Thestudies
abovehave
proposed
thatthethickerlightlaminae
of unitI resultfromthe
summer-fallflux of coccolith-rich
particulates
producedby E.
Degensand Ross[1974].
There has beenmuch discussion
over the past20 yearsre-
son,1992;Jonesand Gagnon,1994].
Thesuccessful
recoveryin ! 988 of boxcorescontaining
the
Copyright
2001bytheAmerican
Geophysical
Union
huxleyiblooms,mixingwith lesseramounts
of dinoflagellate
material
andresuspended
fineshelfsediments.
Thethinner
dark
!aminaearebelievedto be late winter-spring
depositional
productsof diatomsandsilicoflagellate
bloomsandseasonal
peaks
in riverineinputof terrestrial
lithogenics
[Hay,1988;Honjoet
al., 1988;Hayet al., 1990,1991]. In contrast
to varvecounting
andsediment
trapstudies,
radiocarbon
dating
and2pb
mass
phoreEmilianiahuxleyi,whoseseasonal
bloomsinitiatedthe
ratessuggest
thatthe light/darkcouplets
mayrepdeposition
of the coccolith
carbonate-rich
laminated
sediments accumulation
>1 yearof deposition
possibly
dueto thelackof complete
of unitI [Hayetal., 1991;Arthuretal., 1994;ArthurandDean, resent
couplets
for
years
when
annual
coccolithophore
blooms
maynot
1998].Comprehensive
reviews
of themodern
oceanography
of
[Hay,1988;Hayet al., 1991;Crusius
andAndertheBlackSeaareprovided
by IzdarandMurray[1991]and haveoccurred
benthicfluff layer,first documented
photographigardingthestratigraphy
of theHolocene
BlackSeasediments undisturbed
theopportunity
fordetailed
studand,in particular,
overthepast10yearsregarding
thesedimen- callyby Vine[1974],provided
iesof itsage,geochemistry,
andsedimentological
rolerelative
Papernumber1999PA000469
0883-8305/01/1999PA000469512.00
originofthesurficial
flufflayerin theBlackSeaasa means
of
addressing
whether
ornotthelaminae
couplets
doindeed
repre-
scattered
electronimagery(BSEI) analyses
of unitI and!I laminae from recently(1993) collectedBlack Sea gravitycoresto
characterize
therelationship
between
thefluff andthelight/dark
sediment laminae.
2. Methods
2.1. Box Cores and Surface Sediments
200cm ofthesurficial
flufflayer(-2 cmthickness,
where
present)[Pilskaln,
1991
] and150-400
cm3 of theunderlying
2 cm
of sedimentweresubsampled
from eachbox coreandpoisoned
with 4% bufferedformalin. The sedimentsampleswere sieved
throughnylon sievesof 500, 250, 125, and 63 gm to size fractionatethe sedimentarycomponents;
the fluff sampleswere not
size fractionatedby sieving as the material was all <63 tm.
Eachsedimentsizefractionand fluff samplewas examinedand
documentedusinglight and scanningelectronmicroscopyand
thenanalyzedin triplicatefor POC, calciumcarbonate,opaline
silica,and lithogeniccontentusingstandardwet-chemical
procedures[Pilskaln,1991]. A 1.0 M aceticacid leachmethodwas
usedto determineCaCO contentbasedon dry sampleweight
loss. Decalcifiedsamples
werecombusted
at 500Cfor 3 hours
to quantifythe total amountof combustible(organic)and noncombustible(biogenicopal plus lithogenic)content. POC was
determinedfrom decalcifiedsampleswith a CHN analyzer.
Opaline silica contentwas analyzed by leaching decalcified
sampleswith a 1.0 M NaOH solutionand spectrometrically
determiningthe amountof reactivesilicain the !eachate(modified
fromEgglinenet al., [1980]). Lithogeniccontentwascalculated
asthe differencebetweentotalnoncombustible
andopalcontent
(equalto biogenicSiO2calculatedfrom reactivesilica.
ployed
method
toanalyze
thesedimet.ry
fabricofbothmodern
and ancientlaminatedsediments[Krinsleyet al., 1983; Pye and
Krinsley,1984;Kemp, 1990;Macquakerand Gawthorpe,1993;
Pike and Kemp, 1996, 1997]. Sedimentarylaminaethat consist
primarily of calcite/aragonite
and terrigenousquartz and feldspargrains(comparativelylargeaverageatomicweights)havea
high backscattercoefficientthat producesrelativelybright images. Laminationsdominatedby porousmaterial(henceby low
atomicweight, carbon-based
resinfilling the porespaces),such
as dinoflagellate
thecaeor cystsandsiliceousdiatomfrustules,
'
I'
!'"
3
!
46ON
..
-"Z
Sea of ;
.,-"J Azov
,J
44
42
_t /:
.....
40
......
:;'.........
'....'....
'
_._
?"",.?'.
l(
13J14 BSK2
47 'L"("
'"]
j ?.-d0Bsc
S
........
.v:::'t:...-:
.....
,-'"'
...........
.,.' -'.
'"'.... "
:'.= % ....
) ......
'z*Zz
Bosporus
I
28E
30
,,I,
32
4. l
I .......
34
36
38
40
1986-88BSCSediment
trap
Figue1. Location
ofBlack
Sea1988
boxcores,
1993
gravity
cores,
and1986-1988
BSC
time
series
sediment
trap
site.
chemical
composition
of thefluff layerandunderlying
surface abundanceof E. hto:le),icoccoliths(Figures5a-5d). Fecalpelsediments
from the fifteen 1988box coresis presented
in Table
letsconcentrated
just belowthe fluff layer andwithin the gray-
sediments
(Figures6a and6b) havea very
1. Meangeochemical
compositional
values
forallthesediment whiteproto-laminae
high
coccolith
carbonate
content
(always> 50% by dryweight),
sizefractions
andoverlying
flufflayerswerereported
previously
preservation
of the periotrophicmembrane,
andmibyPilskaln[1991]; herewereportthesedimentary
geochemical occasional
data for each stationto demonstratethe minimal variability oc-
curring
among
the1988siteslocated
throughout
theBlackSea
sedimentsare both dominatedby CaCO3 and lithogenicmatebasin,alongwith newSEM and/orBSEIphotomicrographic
studies
completed
onthesediments,
flufflayers,
andBSCtrap rial, with calciumcarbonatebeing somewhatenrichedin the
material.Coccolithophore
E. huxleyi-dominated
zooplankton sedimentscomparedto the fluff layer (Table 1). There is a
in the percentopal contentbetweenthe fluff
fecal pelletsand coccolith-rich
aggregates
with moderate slightdecrease
amountsof diatomskeletalmaterialwerecollectedin the 1200
m BSCtrapsin summer
1987(Figure
4a). In comparison,
the
(Table1).
contents
of pellets
andaggregates
fromthe1200m BSCtrap percentPOCremainsrelativelyconstant
material
collected
in thespring1988showan abundance
of
diatomtests(primarily
Rhizosolenia
sp.)andsilicofiagellate3.2. Units I and II: BSEI Analysesand Laminated Sediment
skeletons
withnococcoliths
(Figures
4b-4d).Thesediment
fluff Fabric
layersamples
collected
during
thespring
of 1988havea mean
Thefourabyssal
plaingravitycoreswerecorrelated
withthe
composition
(over12sites)
of31%CaCO3,
6%opal,
7%POC
Holocene
stratigraphy
from
Hay
et
al.
[1990]
and
the
accelerator
and47%lithogenic
represented
byclayminerals
(Table1). Fhe
(AMS) radiocarbon
agesprovided
by .Iones
opalcontent
isprovided
bythepresence
of highly
etched
dia- massspectrometry
[1994](Figure2). Visualexamination
of thesplittomsandsilicoflagellate
skeletal
elements
withminor
tomoder- andGagnon
PILSKALN AND PIKE: BLACK SEA LAMINAE AND THE FLUFF LAYER
"it-
lad
UD
t.O
'"
ob ob
t.O
.--
ob
Description
ofUnrfs
laminated
coccolith
ooze,
i--! white
Late
Holocene
dark
gray-black
and
--I
J-
** !i diatoms
and
silicaflagellate
present
in topfewcentimeters.
Baseof Unitl
20 I
**
I I Emiliana
huxleyi.
is
defined
by
the
first
invasion
of
I1
04
Black,laminatedsapropel
--!
t---,
tt
'E
Larger
abundance
of
Base
of
Unit
IIis
defined
by
the
marine
sediment.
first
deposition
of
organic-rich,
--
8o-
60'--
dinoflagellates
thanfor UnitI.
o
i
"'-'"-'
C)
',
,,
--
Lightgray-darkgraybanded
--
',
',
t=
duringtheearlyHolocene
whentheBlack
Seawasa
,,
120--
or laminated
lutitedeposited
',
freshwaterlake.
',
',
--
140-M
,....
Sample
forthinsections
I used
inthis
study
** Pairoflight/dark
lamina
smearslides
* Sapropel
smearslides
'-
Sapropel
Gray, bandedlutite
--=--
Void
Pale
green-gray,
structureless
mud
i Coccolith
ooze
Mudvolcanobreccia
Figure 2. 1tolocenestratiographic
correlationof four 1993BlackSeagravitycoreswith thatof Hay et al [1990] andwith Jones
and Gagnon[1994] radiocarbon
ages.
PILSKALN
ANDPIKE:BLACKSEALAMINAEANDTHEFLUFFLAYER
PILSKALN AND PIKE: BLACK SEA LAMINAE AND THE FLUFF LAYER
,,Table
1.,,,,,Ge0chem!cal
Composition
ofBlack
SeaFluff.
Laye
r an.d,,U.n,
der!ying
2 cmofSeive
dSed.!m,ents
Percent
Map site
SedimentSizeFraction
PercentOpal
PercentPOC
10
fluff
29
11
33
10
> 500 mm
66
23
10
500-250
rnm
57
26
10
250-125
mm
43
10
28
10
125-63 mm
37
39
10
< 63 mm
37
51
13/14
fluff
55
29
PercentCaCO3
........
Lithogenic
13/14
> 500 mm
58
23
13/14
500-250
mm
57
26
13/14
250-125
mm
45
31
13/14
125-63 mm
36
10
36
13/14
< 63 mm
41
36
BSKI
> 500 mm
64
23
BSK1
500-250
mm
56
25
BSK1
250-125
mm
36
36
BSK1
125-63 mm
46
10
30
BSK1
< 63 mm
40
38
BSK2
fluff
29
51
BSK2
> 500 mm
60
23
BSK2
500-250
mm
53
26
BSK2
250-125
mm
43
36
BSK2
125-63 mm
37
41
BSK2
< 63 mm
29
54
20
> 500 mm
68
21
20
500-250
mm
56
27
20
250-125 mm
47
31
20
125-63 mm
36
12
34
20
< 63 mm
41
42
BSK3
> 500 mm
48
41
BSK3
500-250 mm
54
10
23
BSK3
250-125 mm
44
12
24
BSK3
26
29
5
5
15
3
38
BSK3
125-63 mm
< 63 mm
48
fluff
51
31
48
70
19
48
500-250 mm
62
23
48
250-125 mm
41
31
48
125-63 mm
33
15
25
48
< 63 mm
54
32
47
fluff
33
29
47
> 500 mm
67
21
47
500-250 mm
58
26
47
250-125 mm
42
11
27
47
125-63 mm
34
13
32
47
<63 mm
51
34
27/28
fluff
30
45
27/28
> 500 mm
47
no data
no data
27/28
500-250 mm
48
34
27/28
250-125 mm
34
38
27/28
!25-63 mm
26
47
27/28
< 63 mm
29
54
36
fluff
29
54
37
fluff
28
49
BS
fluff
24
56
44
31
fluff
fluff
16
32
7
6
8
6
47
30
fluff
11
72
53
69
PILSKALNANDPIKE:BLACKSEALAMINAEANDTHEFLUFFLAYER
Table1. (continued)
Map site
Sediment
SizeFraction
,,
Percent
CaCO3
PercentLithogenic
Percent
Opal
Percent
POC
31
47
fluff
> 500 mm
61
24
500-250 mm
56
26
250-125 mm
42
31
125-63 mm
35
11
36
< 63 mm
39
44
all sizefractions(excludingfluff)
46
32.
,
'L
IeKU
o 47
10KU
1 o? X51o
0231
Figure4. Scanning
electron
microscope
(SEM)micrographs
offecalpellets
andfecalaggregates
collected
in the1200m BSC
sediment
trap,summer
1987andspring1988.(a)Summer
1987fecalaggregate
consisting
primarily
of coccolithophore
E. huxleyiandlesser
amount
of diatomfrustules.
(b)Spring1988fecalpelletpacked
withRhizosolenia
frustules.
(c andd)Zooplanktonfecalpelletfromspring1988packed
withsilicoflagellate
Distephanus
skeletal
material.Scalebarsin microns
areatbottom
of eachmicrograph.
PILSKALN
PILSKALNAND'PIKE:BLACKSEALAMINAEANDTHE FLUFFLAYER
10KU
154X
-P
110
B 10KV
070.X
l--3P 0156
Figure
6. SEM
micrographs
of(aand
b)fecal
pellets
concentrated
below
the
fluff
layer
within
the
gray-white
protolaminae,
(c)preserved
pefiotrophic
membrane
onfecal
pellet
which
acts
toprotect
opaline
silica
constituents
from
dissolution,
and
(d-f)pellets
containing
large
amounts
ofcoccolith
carbonate
and
minor
amounts
ofdiatom
and
silicoflagellate
opal.Allscale
barsareinmicrons.
10
PILSKALN
AND
PIKE:
BLACK
SEA LAMINAE
core surfaces and smear slides made from Unit I sediments col-
AND
THE FLUFF
LAYER
'
lectedby the 1993 gravity coresshowsconsistentsubmillimeterto millimeter-scale alternation between white laminae, rich in E.
huxleyi coccoliths,and dark gray to black laminae containing
bulbous/pinch-and-swell-type
character
(Figures8a, 8b, and8e).
Many of the thickestcoccolith-richlaminaeare laterallycontinuousacrossthe 2 cm wide sedimentblocks cut from the grav-
(Figures
8band8d). Oncloseinspection,
thesethin,darklaminaedisplaya moreporouscharacter
thaneitherof theothertwo
typesof laminations
(Figures8e-h). Coccolithaggregates
are
rare or absentfrom the dark, organic-richlaminae,although
occasionalloosecoccolithsare observed(Figures8a, 8b, 8d, and
8g). Subsamples
fromthe dark,organic-rich
laminaein the
upperpartof unitI (Figure2) arefoundto contain
moreskeletal
opalremains
thansimilarlaminae
atthebaseof unitI.
Unit II sediments
(Figure2; deposited
between-2-7.5
ka,
[Jones
andGagnon,
1994]consist
of laminated,
grayto black,
finesilt/claysediments
witha complete
absence
of E. huxleyias
determined
by visualandsmearslideanalysis.BSEIanalyses
revealtwo distinctlaminaetypesin unit II, in contrast
with the
threeof unitI (Figure9, Figures10aand10b). Light-colored,
intermediatebackscattercoefficient laminae are composedof
coalesced
andnoncoalesced,
thick lens-shaped
lithogenicaggre-
gates
of upto several
100microns
in length
(Figures
',0a-10c).
PILSKALNANDPIKE:BLACKSEALAMINAEANDTHEFLUFFLAYER
11
Theselaminae
havea pinch-and-swell
appearance
similartothe '
white,coccolith-rich
laminae
of unitI (Figures
8b,8d,10a,and
inthe2 cmofsediment
immediately
underneath
thefluffand
in theBlackSeasediments
underlying
theflufflayer(4%opal
amorphous
organic
matter,
isolated
lithogenic
grains,
dinoflagel- <1% opaloverthe remainder
of unit I) is likelyderivedfrom
thin,wavycharacter
andappear
moreporous
ascompared
tothe
thicker,
light-colored
lithogenic
laminae
(Figures
10a-d).Overall, the individuallaminaeof unit II tendto bethinnerthanthose
of unit I (Figures7 and9).
4. Discussion
Laminae
zooplankton
intheoverlying
watercolumn
throughout
theyear.
Themassflux of particulate
materialthrough
theBlackSea
watercolumnin thewinter-spring
consists
primarilyof biogenic
opal,lithogenic
particles
(clayminerals),
andterrigenous
debris
andisquantitatively
lessthanthaioccurring
during'
summer-fall
periods
of maximum
POCandCaCO3fluxes[Hay,1988;Hayet
al.,1990].Although
noseasonal
fecaipellet
counts
havebeen
completed
onBlackSeatrapsamples,
microscopic
examination
of theBSCtrapsamples
revealsa greaterabundance
of intact
fetal pelletsin ,thesummer-fallsamplesthan in the winterspringsamples.Pelletproductionmight be lower in winterspring,leading
to a reduced
deliveryof fecalpellets
to thesediment-water
interface
duringthistime of theyearascompared
to
thesummer-fall.
Considering
thisaswellasthehighdissolution
Geochemical
andmicroscopic
analyses
of thefluff layercollectedin spring1988,ascompared
to theunderlying
protolaminaesediments,
suggest
thata significant
portionof thecomponentswithinthefluff layerrepresent
thesedimentation
products loss of opal relative to calciumcarbonatein the Black Sea
of the winter-springperiodwhen diatomand silicoflagellate [Shimkuset al., 1973; Shimkusand Trimonis,1974; Pilskaln,
bloomsoccur and terrigenousand lithogenicmaterialinputto
1991;Hay, 1988;Hay andHonjo,1989;Hay et al., 1990],one
the water column is enhancedowing to high river runoff and
wouldexpectthe winter-spring
depositional
laminaeto be substorm-generated
shelf resuspension
[Hay et al., 1990]. Numerstantiallythinneroverallthanthoseresultingfromthe coccolith
ous silicoflagellateskeletonsand highly etcheddiatomvalves
CaCO3/pellet-dominated
fluxesof the summer-fall
period[Hay,
are presentin the 1988 fluff layer, in additionto a high abundanceof singlecoccoliths
andclaymineralparticles.A significant sourceof the latter two particletypesis the winter storm
resuspension
and lateral offshoreadvectionof shelf sediments
containingdetritalclasticmaterialandcoccolithdebris[.Hayand
Honjo, 1989; Hay et al., 1990]. In contrastto thespring1200m
BSC trap samplesin which silicoflagellateand diatom-packed
pelletsare observed,no suchpelletscomposed
exclusivelyof
silicoflagellateor diatomsare seenin the fluff. However,fecal
pellets(somepossessing
a semi-intactperiotrophic
membrane)
composed
primarilyof coccoliths
andcontaining
well-preserved
diatomand silicoflagellatetestswere collectedfrom the sedimentsunderlyingthe fluff layerin 1988. Considering
themean
opalinesilicacontentof thespring1988trapmaterial(50%) and
the fluff layeropal contentof 6%, we assume
that the majority
of opalineskeletalmaterialwhichreachesthedeepwatersof the
Black Sea dissolves at the sediment-water interface within the
settlingfecalpellets(andintosinkingalgalaggregates)
may
Ourdetailed
BSEIstudyindicates
thatwinter-spring
sedimentation eventsactuallyproducetwo distinguishable
lamina:a dark
gray,lithogenic-rich
laminaanda black,organic-rich/opal
lamina, whichtogetherform the singledark or blacklaminaof the
Black Sea varve coupletseasily recognizedin core sections.
Hay et al. [1990] suggest
that diatombloomsoccurringin the
winter-spring
might effectivelyremovemoresuspended
terrigenous/lithogenic
materialfrom the watercolumnby physical
scavengingcomparedto the summer-fallcoccolithophore
bloomsowingto the winter-spring
peakin riverdischarge
into
the Black Sea.
of terri-
genous/lithogenic
materialmay not be primarilyassociated
with
of Unit I White
Laminae
escapedissolution
in theupperwatercolumn,sinkto thedeep thick, white laminae in unit I result from the depositionof
watercolumn,andupondisintegration,
release
silicoflagellates denselypacked,coccolith-richzooplanktonfetal pelletsand
and diatomsto the basinfloor andfluff layer. Somedegreeof
dissolution
protection
of theopalwithinsinkingpelletsmaybe
providedby periotrophic
membranes,
therebyincreasing
the
probability
of successful
incorporation
of theopalintothesedi-
coccolith-packed
marinesnowaggregates
whichsettleoutof the
watercolumnduringthe summer-fallseasonwhenE. huxleyi
bloomsare prevalentin the Black Sea [Hay, 1988; Pilskaln,
1991;Diercksand Asper,1997]. The well-preserved
fecalpel-
12
PILSKALN AND PIKE: BLACK SEA L,MINAE AND THE FLUFF LAYER
1opm
PILSKALN
ANDPIKE:
BLACK
SEALAMINAE
ANDTHEFLUFF
LAYER
letsrecoveredin 1988andconcentrated
belowthefluff arecoc-
13
heavyparticlesor aggregates
(suchas coccolith-packed
zoo-
colith~rich
andrepresent
themost
abundant
sedimentary
compo- planktonfecalpellets)will sink quickly but small,lessdense
nents
withinthetwolargest
sievefractions
(> 250gin)of the particles
(suchasindividual
coccoliths
andplatyclayminerals
surface
sediments
[Pilskaln,
1991
]. Thepellets
andpellet
frag- or spinosesilicofiagellates
andporousdiatomvalves),will not.
ments
appear
to beincorporated
intothepellet-rich
andCaCOrich(> 90%CaCO3)
whitelaminae
of unitI [Hay,1988].'his
laminatypedisplays
a highBSEIbackscatter
signalconsistent
witha dense,
coccolith
carbonate
content.Microscopic
examinationof thewhitelaminae
fabricreveals
a structure
highly
suggestive
of an accumulation
of fecalpelletsthatresemble
in
sizeandcomposition
thoseplanktonic
zooplankton
pelletscollectedin sediments
immediately
underlying
the!988flufflayer
(compare
Figures6a, 6b, and8e). Because
E. huxleyi
produces ondary maximum in sulfatereductionin the Black Sea occurs
massivebloomsin the summer-fallperiodas reflectedin the
composition
of Black Sea sediment
trap samples,
we concur
with Hay [1988] and Hay et aI. [1990; 1991]that the white
massflux of coccolith-rich
pelletsand/ormarinesnow. Thisis
supported
by evidencefrom modernBlack Seasedimenttrap
showingthat the magnitudeof the E. huxleyi bloomsvaries
betweenyears and occasionallybloomsmay not occur [Hay,
1988;Hay and Honjo, 1988;Hay et al., 1990].
Although the summer-fallwhite laminaeare full of coccoliths, they are poor in organiccarbonrelativeto the black,organic-rich/opal
Iaminae.This is somewhat
puzzlingconsidering
the fact that sedimenttrapshave measuredthe highestannual
POC fluxes throughthe water columnduringthe summer-fall
period of coccolithophorid
blooms [Hay, 1988; Hay et al.,
1990]. Organicbiomarkerstudiesof Black Sea surfacesedimentsare somewhatambiguousin termsof the relativeimportanceof coccolithophores,
diatoms,and terrestrialhigherplants
in contributingto sedimentary
organiccarbon[Wakehamand
Beier, 1991]. One possibleexplanation
for the lack of POC in
the white laminaemay be that the POC producedand exported
to the sediment-water
interfacein the form of pelletsandaggregatesfollowingcoccolithophorid
bloomsis highlylabile,rapidly
oxidized,andresultsin a relativelyorganic-poor
but calcite-rich
whitelamina. The amorphous
organicmatterwithinourBlack
Seatype3 thinblacklaminaeandwithinthelargelyterrigenous
blackiaminaedescribed
by Hay [1988]maybe of higherplant
originandpossiblyof a morerefractorynature.
Owingto itsgelatinous
nature,
we suggest
thatthebenthie
to an opal contentof 6% determined
for the 1988
fluff layeractsasa hydraulic
sorting
layerthrough
whichdense, compares
Figure8. BSEImicrographs
ofsections
fromunitI mosaic
(Figure
7) showing
(a)bright
pinch-and-swell-type
CaCO-rich
laminae;
(b)laminae
ofnoncoalesced
pellet-shaped
aggregates
of coccoliths
(indicated
byarrow),
withathicker
lamina
composed
oflithogenic
material
andorganic
debris
atthetop(labeled
L/O);(c)cocoliths
within
aCaCO-rich
aggregate,
withintact
coccolithophore
sphere
indicated
byarrow;
(d)thin,wavylamination
composed
oflithogenic
material
(L),discontinuous
organic-rich
lamina
(O),andpinch-and-swell-type
CaCO3-rich
laminae
(C);(e)coalesced
CaCO-rich
coccolith
aggregates
(C)
above
organic-rich
lamina
composed
ofdinoflagellate
cysts
(D)andlithogenic-rich
lamina
(L);(f) large
(600Im)lithogenic/silt
aggregate
(L),withintermediate
backscatter
signal;
(gandh)remains
ofdiatoms
(black
arrows)
anddinoflagellate
cysts
(white
arrows)
inthemoreporous,
dark,lowbackscatter
laminae.
14
15
c
o
,,
10grn
,,
..
o
EHT'20.0KV Idl)-20 mm
20.0
PHOTO10
'-
.- 10pm
.,
R-
Figure10. BSEImicrographs
of sections
fromunitII mosaic(Figure9) showing
(a) thin,dark,wavyorganic-rich
laminations
(indicated
by arrows)andnoncoalesced,
brighter!ithogenic
aggregates
(S); (b) coalesced
lithogenic-rich
aggregates
forming
bulbous,
pinch-and-swell-type
iaminaealternating
withthin,dark,organic-rich
iaminae
(O);(c)silt-andclay-sized
particles
in a
lithogenic
aggregate;
(d) dinofiagellate
cystswithina dark,organic-rich
lamina;(e) lastvestiges
of diatomfrustules
withina
dark,organic-rich
lamina(micrograph
isoverbrightened
toshowtheverypoorlypreserved
opaline
I?ustules).
collectedfluff within whichhighlyetcheddiatomvalve fragments are found. If minimal dissolutionof the settling opal
materialoccursbetween1200 m andthe bottom(--2000 m) with
the gelatinous
fluff layerare particularlyvulnerableto dissolution with their characteristically
high surfacearea:volumeratios.
Furtherpostdepositional
dissolutionof opal mustoccuras it is
16
winter-spring
trapmaterial[Hay, 1988;Hay and Honjo, 1989;
ttay et al., 1990]. If we compare
thesevaluesto the7-8% POC
contentof boththe 1988fluff layerandthe underlying
protolaminae sediments,a maximumloss of 50% of the seasonally
deliveredPOC is observed.Considering
the findingthat the
majorityof sinkingPOC recyclingoccursin the shallow(60-80
m) suboxicwatersof the BlackSea,with relativelylow ratesof
decompositionin the permanentlyanoxic zone [Karl and
Knauer, 1991], high remineralizationratesof POC at the sediment-water interface and within the surface sediments are neces-
deeptrappedparticulates,
benthicfluff, and underlyingsurface
sediments.
the conditionsthat favor chemicalpreservationof calcium carbonatein the Black Sea basin [Shimkusand Trimonis, 1974;
Hay, 1988]. The amountof opalinesilica and POC within the
fluff layer will vary intra-annuallyasthe deliveryrateor flux of
thesematerialsfluctuatesseasonallyand as they are subjectto
dissolutionand degradationprocessesupon reachingthe sediment-waterinterface. In thismanner,the fluff layer'scomposition is geochemicallytransitionalon a seasonalbasisdependent
uponthe seasonaldeliveryof particulateflux constituents
(i.e.,
relativelyhigheropal followingspringblooms,highercoccolith
carbonatefollowing summer-fallperiods,etc.), but it is a physically permanentfeature of the Black Sea sediment-waterinterface. Heavy or denseaggregatedparticulatematerialwill tend
to settlethroughthe fluff and accumulateat the base,although
fecal pelletsfull of opalinediatom and silicoflagellatematerial
and without a periotrophicmembranemay disintegratequickly
at the sediment-water
interface.The amountof opal accumulating at the baseof the fluff layer will largely be a functionof
whetheror not it is protectedwithin fecalpellets.
laminaecoupletchronology
[Arthuret al., 1994]. Thusthefluff
cm kyr-. Thisratecompares
reasonably
well withthe
sedimentation
ratesreportedby Hay [1998] andArthuret aI.
PILSKALN
ANDPIKE:BLACKSA LAMINAEANDTHEFLUFFLAYER
17
Time
Period:
Summer-Fall
Winter-Spring
Water
Resuspension
Coccolithophorid
Column'
of coccoliths
blooms
blooms
Diatom/
of !ithogenics
.....
and
h!fresuspension
&terrigenous
I
material
off
shelf
BSC 1200 m Trap
50% CaCO3
15% CaCO3
ParticleFlux
10%Lithogenic
(1986-1988
Average 20%BiogenicOpal
Composition*):
20%Lithogenic
50%BiogenicOpal
15% POC
8% POC
<_50% POC
>80% Opal
Remineralized
Remineralized
Highbacte
>80%
Opal
'
POC
Dissolved
/
Unit
1'
4%
POC
<1% Opal
65% CaCO3
......
fall coccolihs
andclays
Coccolith CaCO3:46%
50%
Remineralized
.- , '
'
.'
Proto-White
(2-4
cm)
:''"''1
Lithogenic:33%
oILamina
;i ;;;ic;fl:-Opai:
4%[ ,*Accumulation
ofhea/
. ,' POC:
7%
dense
paKiculates;
represents
priorto
spring
1988
. ' Laminated
Unit
......
.
Sediments
' From: Hay. 1988; Hay and Honlo, 1989; Hay et al.. 1990.
Figure
11.Schematic
model
o
particulate
sedimentation
and
Holocene
laminac
ormation
intheab;yssal
Black
Sea
based
on
modern
sediment
trapdataandanalyses
osurface
sediments
andgravity
cores.
magnitude
butshort
duration
fluxevents
such
asalgal
winterresuspension
andlateraloffshore
advection
of shelf- large
might
result
intherapd
deposition
ofdense
aggregates
deposited
coccoliths
and clays,disintegration
of pelletsor blooms
pellets
thatcould
physically
disrupt
theprevious
seamarine
snow
aggregates
within
thedeep
water
andashedding
of andfecal
protolaminae
atthebase
ofthefluff.This
might
produce
opaline
andcalcareous
components,
orviaindividual
sinking
of son's
discontinuous
horizontal
structure
ofsome
individfrustules
through
thewatercolumn.
Those
particles
notsubject theobserved
ual
lamina
and
a
partial
disruption
of
the
laminae
chronology.
torapiddissolution
ordegradation
willremain
intheflufflayer
thatcomplete
couplets
maynotbedeposited
assemipermanent
components.
Individual
coccoliths
andplaty Thepossibility
every
year
because
of
the
occasional
lack
ofacoccolithophore
clayminerals
appear
to bethemostabundant
semipermanent
makes
light/dark
laminae
counts
problematic
andfurther
components
of thefluff layeraswellasconsistent
components bloom
complicates
the
formation
of
the
ideal
laminated
sediment
reoftheprotolaminae
above
theunitI laminated
sediments.
Theidealsedimentological
consequence
of theaboveproc- cord in the Black Sea.
esses
is the formation
of a thick,lightandthin,darklaminae 4.5. LaminaeFormationin BlackSeaUnit II
couplet
orvarve
peryear.In reality,
interannual
variability
in
themagnitude
ofphytoplankton
blooms
andriverrunoff
leads
to
thedocumented
variations
in therelativethickness
of individual
lamina
fromyeartoyear.Additionally,
it ispossible
thatvery
We propose
fortheunitII sapropel
a similarscenario
of
laminae
couplet
formation
androleof theflufflayerasforunit
I. BSEIanalyses
of unitsI andII laminae
revealthatalthough
!$
PILSKALNAND PIKE:BLACKSEALAMINAEANDTHEFLUFFLAYER
theyaredifferent
in macroscopic
appearance
andcomposition lets)andPOMexportlevelswererelatively
smaller
[Sorokin,
(unitII hasnococcolith-CaCO
andunitII brightlaminae
are 1983]. If the scenarioaboveis correct,thesummer-falllaminae
thinner
thanthewhite,coccolith-rich
laminae
of unitI), the mightcontain
some
diatom
fragments
butwould
consist
largely
overallmicroscopic
sedimentfabricsof thetwo unitsaresimilar.
of dinoflagellate
and amorphous
organicdebrisas our BSEI
Botharetypifiedby thick,laterallycontinuous
light-colored analyses
haveshown.Therefore,
assuggested
by Hayet al.
laminae
witha pinch-and-swell
character
anda backscatter
sig- [1990],thelightanddarklaminae
ofunitII, likeunitI, represent
attributed
to highlevelsof primaryproductivity)
[Hay, 1988;
Hay et al., 1990]. Siliceous
diatomandsilicoflagellate
material
waspackaged
intorapidlysettling,POC-richzooplankton
fecal
pelletsand algalaggregates
in the spring,the latterof which
may have scavengedlarge amountsof suspended
terrigenous/Iithogenic
materialfrom the watercolumn,assuming
riverinputandstormrcsuspension
of shelfsediments
washigh
duringthe winter-spring
period. The light,bulbous
laminaeof
unitII represent
thedepositional
product
of thesefecalpellets
andalgalaggregates.
However,dissolution
lossof themajority
of the pelletandaggregate-bound
opalmaterialcoupled
with
microbialdegradation
of an unknownamountof the organic
matterdeliveredin thepelletsandalgaIaggregates
hasproduced
the largelyterrigenous/lithogenic
composition
of theseunit II
laminae[Hayet al., 1990]. In contrast,
thethinner,darklaminae
of unit II probablyresultedfromsummer-fall
particleexport
whenproduction
wasdominated
by dinoflagellates
(whichtend
to sinkindividually
andrarelyareincorporated
intofecalpel-
5. Conclusions
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