Faculty of Engineering

Electrical Department

Name
Matrix No.
Year
Semester
Date

:
:
:
:
:

ISKANDAR ZULKARNAIN
KEE96073
2
1
30 June 1997

EXPERIMENT 1
Pengukuran Paramiter Transistor
Hybrid-

EXPERIMENT 1
Theory
A filament of a lamp is make of tungsten. Therefore when a voltage apply to the lamp
the filament the current flow thought the filament and light emitted. The light intensity of the
lamp will increase with increment in current from the threshold to the maximum value. While
the colour of the filament emitting light from deem red to white.
The Ohm's law gives a resistance of a common conductor by this equation:

R
=

R = resistance
V = voltage apply
I = current

V
I

Therefore a conductor Ohm will have a constant resistance R. The plotted currentvoltage line is a straight line with a slope equal to R. However, the filaments material has a
positive temperature coefficient. Therefore, as the temperature raised by increasing in current
thought it, its resistance also increases as shown by the graph below.

I
Filament
Conductor Ohm

V
Graph I-V for filament

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to:
1. Acquaint you with the Trainer and experiment procedures.

2. Demonstrate the effect of filament current on the intensity and colour of the
radiated light from an incandescent lamp.
3. Demonstrate the effect of tungstens positive temperature coefficient.

Procedure:
1. Wire the circuit shown in the schematic diagram (Fig 1.1). Adjust R1 to midrange.
2. Set your test equipment as follows:

Milliammeter to 100 milliammeter, DC.

Voltmeter to a range greater then 12 volts.

1. Apply power to the breadboard and check the circuit wiring. The milliammeter should
indicate roughly 20mA, the voltmeter should indicate 1 volt or less, and the lamp
filament may glow dimly. When you are satisfied the circuit is wired properly, increase
the resistance of R1 to its maximum value. This will be indicated by a decrease in both
the milliammeter and voltmeter indications.

2. The voltage and the current of the lamp when R 1 is maximum had been recorded from the
meter.
3. Record the current when the voltage increases. Also note the light intensity and colour as
you progress through increasing the voltage.

+12v

3
R
1K

MILLIAMMETER
2

CONTROL

VOLTMETER
LAMP

Figure 1-1

RESULTS:
When the R1is maximum:
IL = 8 mA

EL = 0.11 volts

When the lamp filament just begins to glow:

IL = 38 mA
EL = 1.77 volts

This are the current reading and the Resistance calculated when the voltage increase:

Voltage, EL (V)

Current, IL (mA)

Resistance, RS ()

30

33

40

50

58

69

70

86

80

78

10

92

108

11

100

112

When we slowly increase the current through the filament the intensity of the lamp is
also slowly increase and then it grows from deem red to bright white.

Discussion
The lamp used in this experiment is a filament lamp rated at 60mA, 6V. At the first
part of the experiment we can see that the colour, intensity and the current thought the lamp are
related.
When we increase the voltage apply to the lamp, the current thought the filament is
also increase from the threshold (filament started to glow) to the maximum value, the colour
slowly change from deem red to white. At the same time the intensity of the lamp is increase
proportionate to the current.
Another characteristic of the filament is its resistance increases with temperature which
violation to the Ohms law. This is clearly shown from the Figure 6-5, Graph current-voltage.
The graph shows a curve line (not a straight line) increasing with current. This also means that
the resistance of the filament is increasing with raising in temperature.
In the experiment the voltage 11V is apply to the lamp though it only rated at 6V. This
is a function of life expectancy. Which the lamp can operate at a specific range of time if 6V is
connected.

Conclusion
The intensity of lamp is seems to be proportional to the current flows. The
resistance of the filament increases with increasing in current flows.

EXPERIMENT 2
Theory
LED is a forward-biased P-N junction which emits visible light when energies in
forward biased. During the conduction, the recombination of electron and the hole give up
some energy in heat and light. Hence the electron is jumping from one valence to another this
will give up specific wave length (emit one colour only).
The colour of the emitted light depends on the type of material used.
ex.
GaAs

infrared radiation (invisible)

GaP

red or green light

GaAsP

red or yellow (amber) light

LED emit no light when reverse biased. The LED is operate at voltage between levels from
1.5V to 3.3V

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate:
1. The selection of current limiting resistance in an LED circuit
2. The relationship between forward current and LED intensity
3. The differences in LED radiation patterns
4. That the colour of light emitted by an LED is not dependent upon lens colour
5. The effects of frequency on the visual appearance
6. The use of a diode as reverse voltage protection in an LED circuit
7. The use of inverse-parallel LEDs in a dual-polarity circuit

+5V

3
R
200 ohm
CONTROL

MILLIAMMETER
2

LED

VOLTMETER
OR SCOPE

Figure 6-7

Purpose
The Purpose of this experiment was demonstrated:

1. The selection of current limiting resistance in an LED circuit.

2. The relationship between forward current and LED intensity.
3. The differences in LED radiation patterns.
4. That the color of light emitted by an LED is not dependent upon lens color.
5. The effects of frequncy on the visual appearance of LED indicators.
6. The use of diode as reverse voltage protection in an LED circuit.
7. The use of inverse-parallel LEDs in a dual-polarity circuit.

Procedure
1. The circuit shown in the schematic diagram (Figure 6-7) is wired. The lead is solder to the

200 control. The short lead was connected to ground when installing the LED. The R S is
adjusted to midrange.

2.

The test equipment is set as follows.

Miliammeter 100mA DC Range
Voltmeter to 3V DC Range

3. Trainer is powered and RS is adjusted for an indication of 40mA on miliammeter. The LED
grows brightly. Record the voltage. RS is adjusted to obtain the following values of
forward current and record down the forward voltage at each point. (The 1k control
is connected to obtain current level of 15mA or less.)
4. The data collected is plot on the chart provided in Figure 6-6. Draw a graph.

5. Using the IF - VF curve from Figure 6-8, calculate the value of R S needed to obtain the
following values of IF in the circuit. First, determine the voltage that R S must drop, using
the equation:
VRS = VS - VF

6. Next, determine the proper resistance value, RS using the equation:

RS = VRS
IRS

for IF = 40, 30,20 and 10mA

7. To prove the result of your calculations in Step 6, use your ohmmeter to set the 200
control to the RS value calculated to produce 40mA of forward current. Insert the

control into the circuit, apply power to the Trainer, and observe the milliammeter
indication. If your curve and calculations are correct the milliammeter should indicate
very close to 40mA. Remove power from the Trainer. Repeat this procedure for 30mA,
20mA, and 10mA. (It may be necessary to use the 1k control to obtain 10mA IF).
Remove power from the Trainer.

Result
Forward current, IF (mA)

Forward voltage, VF (V)

40

2.56

35

2.47

30

2.38

25

2.29

20

2.20

15

2.11

10

2.03

Graph
Graph forward current, IF - Forward Voltage, VF (next page)
Voltage across the resistance,
VRS = VS - VF , VS = 5V
The proper resistance is given by equation:
RS = VRS
IRS

IF (mA)

VF (V)

VRS = VS - VF

RS ()

40

2.56

2.440

0.0610

30

2.38

2.620

0.0875

20

2.20

2.800

0.1400

10

2.03

2.970

0.2970

IF (mA)

RS/ (reading)

RS/ (calculations)

40

60.2

0.0610

30

86.8

0.0875

20

134.8

0.1400

10

287.6

0.2970

Discussion
From the graph IF - VF, we can observe the characteristic curse for the LED. This is the
same as the data sheet from the manufacturers.
Step 6 and 7 is a circuit design to limit the LED forward current to any predetermined value.

Procedure (continue)
+5V

3
R
200 ohm
CONTROL

MILLIAMMETER
2

68ohm

LED

VOLTMETER
OR SCOPE

Figure 6-9

8. Modify test circuit as shown in Figure 6-9. Use the 1k control for RS and add a 68
resistor in series with the LED.
Apply power to the Trainer and adjust R S for minimum resistance (maximum IF). The LED
should emit a bright red light. Removes power from the Trainer and note the colour of the
LED lens.
Replace the red LED with the green LED and apply power. Again note the relationship
between its lens colour and the colour of its emission.
Remove power from the Trainer.
9. Replace the amber LED in your test circuit (observe polarity) with the clear LED (#412645). Apply power to the Trainer and observe the colour emitted from the LED. Notice
that it bears no relationship to the lens colour, but is solely a function of the chip
material. Since the lens of this LED is clear, observe also the magnification qualities of
the lens. Observe the chip through the side of the dome and compare this to its
appearance when viewed from the top.

10. Adjust RS until the milliammeter indicates 20mA. Now hold a piece of white paper over the
LED, with the paper just touching the lens. Note the pattern of light produced on the top of
the paper.

Remove power from the Trainer and replace the clear LED with the original red LED.
Reapply power to the Trainer and adjust RS for 20mA of forward current.
Again, hold the paper on top of the LED and observe the light pattern. (Note: It may be
necessary to reduce room lighting to observe this effect.) Compare the radiation patterns of
these two LEDs.
Now, reinstall the clear LED in your test circuit. Carefully vary R S so that IF varies slowly
from maximum to zero. Note the intensity of the LED at various values of forward current.

Result

Observation for step 8

Types of LED

Lens colour (apply voltage)

Lens colour (not connected)

Red

Bright red light

Deem red colour

Green

Bright yellow-green light

Green

Amber

Bright amber light

Chocolate orange

Clear

Red

Clear

Observation for step 9 & 10

Observe from the side we can see that the clear LED has a Chip Material located further from
the lens compare to the red LED. The chip material can be clearly seen from the side of both
LED. But from the top the magnified chip material by the lens only can clearly been seen from
the clear LED.

a. Light Emitted from Clear LED

b. Light Emitted from Red LED

A small circle bright red light

(Observe from top of the paper)

A bigger circle with bright red light

(Observe from top of the paper)
anode

anode

Discussion
From the observation above we can conclude that the light emitted by the LEDs only
depended on the chip material and no mainly on the lens colour. This is due to the light
wavelength from LED is small. The main purpose we are using the coloured lens is to provide
clearer view of the light emitted in order to prevent miss reading.
The clear and colour lens LEDs have their on characteristic. These are their main
characteristic:

Red LED is normally used to show a small signal. Therefore the light will be
emitted in wider angle in order to be obverse from all the direction. This is
proven from the light project on a white paper (show a wide circle).

10

Clear LED is used as an illuminator. This LEDs are design to emit light a specific
area. Its deep chip placement and undiffused lens produces a narrows, highly
concentrated light beam. When view through a paper, this LEDs pattern was a
relatively bright and shape circle. From these two LEDs we can clearly see the
amount of variation in LED beam pattern.
From this experiment we also conclude that the forward current and the intensity
appear to be proportional below 10mA. If increasing above 10mA, the intensity increases a
little only. This is due to our eyes does not discriminate well between brightness levels. The
LED can function well below its maximum current.

Procedure (continue)
11. Wire the signal generator circuit shown in the schematic diagram (Figure 6-10A). Refer to
Figure 6-11 for IC pin numbers and polarity information. Solder short AWG#22 hookup wires to the control leads as you did in the previous experiments. Make sure that
you connect the positive lead of the 10 F capacitor to pin 2/6 and the negative lead to
ground. Adjust R1 for maximum resistance between pins 6 and 7.

+5V
+12V
R
1K

TP1
2

TP2

7
3

555

CONTROL

1458

R 1
100K

TP3

100ohm

10uF

+
_

2
100ohm

+
10uF _

-12V

SIGNAL
GENERATOR

COMPARATOR

INDICATOR

Figure 6-10
11. Apply power to the Trainer and monitor test point 1 (TP1) with your oscilloscope. The
voltage level at TP1 should switch from 0 to 5 V at slightly less than 1 Hz rate.
Remove power from the Trainer.

11

12. Wire the comparator circuit shown in the schematic diagram (Figure 6-10B). Again make
sure that the 10F capacitor is installed properly. Notice that this circuit uses the
negative and positive 12 V supplies. DO NOT REVERSE THIS CONNECTION!
13. Apply power to the Trainer and monitor the comparator output at TP2. The voltage level at
TP2 should switch from -12V to +12V at the same rate noted in step 12. Remove
power from the Trainer.
14. Wire the indicator circuit shown in the schematic diagram (Figure 6-10C). Refer to Figure
6-11D and E for polarity information on the LED and diode.
15. Apply power to the Trainer and observe the LED. It should blink on and off at the rate
noted in step 12 & 14.

Result

From the oscilloscope, the voltage levels at TP1 switch between 0V to 5V at about 1 Hz.

The voltage output at TP2 switch in between +12V and -12V. The frequency is the same as
from TP1.

The LED is blinking on and off at about 1 Hz (same as the frequency at TP1 and TP2).

Discussion
In this circuit, time 555 IC is the frequency oscillator. The frequency output can be change by
adjusting R1. The output of the timer is RC coupled to a non-inverting couple to a comparator
circuit follows the timer output frequency. The output from comparator is switching between
+12V and -12V. This provides a variable frequency AC signal.

12

Procedure (continue)
17. Set oscilloscope controls as follows:

5V/ division vertical deflection, DC coupling.

5 milliseconds/division horizontal deflection.

Sweep centered on screen with input grounded.

11. Adjust R1 until the LED blinks rapidly on and off. Now very carefully adjust R 1 to the
point where the LED appears to just stop blinking and starts to glows steadily.
12. Connect oscilloscope to test point 3 and adjust the scope control for a stable display of at
least one complete cycle. (Make sure the vertical and horizontal controls are in the
calibrated position). Determine the time required for one cycle and convert this reading
of frequency, using the equation:
1
time
The computed frequency should be somewhat less than 50Hz. Slowly vary R 1 back and
forth slightly while observing the LED and scope presentation. Notice that while the LED
appears to make a relatively sharp transition between flashing and steady operation, the
scope reveals that only a smooth change of frequency is occurring.

frequency =

20. Adjust R1 until one cycle of the signal is displayed on your oscilloscope. Record this
waveform on Figure 6-12A.
21. Removes power from your Trainer and temporarily remove the LED from the circuit.
Reapply power to Trainer and record the oscilloscope display on Figure 6-12B.
Remove power from the Trainer.
22. With the LED still removed, temporarily reverse the 1N4149 diode. Apply power to the
Trainer and record the oscilloscope display on Figure 6-12C. Remove power from the
Trainer. Return the test circuit to its original configuration by again reversing the diode
(black band toward TP3) and reinstalling the LED in its proper position.

13

Result
When the LED stop blinking, time = 24 ms
1
Hence, frequency =
24x10-3
= 41.7Hz < 50Hz
When R1 is adjusted to obtain a full waveform, the graph from the oscilloscope is shown as
follows.

Graph A

Graph B

Graph C
Figure 6-12
The voltage across LED gives a longer wave line compare to the 1N4149 diode.

14

Discussion
In Step 17 and 18, the limitation of human eyes in discerning a rapidly flashing light is
determined. The maximum observable frequency will vary from one individual to another. It is
determine by the symmetry of the drive signal. If the positive and negative portions if the
waveform are equal in length, the average person will see a noticeable flicker at frequencies
below about 60Hz. However, this circuit produces a waveform that is approximately 60%
positive and 40% negative. This will tend to lower the frequency at which the LED appears to
glow steadily. Therefore, the frequency computed in Step 19 was probably between 40Hz and
50Hz.
In Step 20 through 22, the effect of diode limiting on the test waveform.
Graph A shows the normal voltage levels across the LED. The positive portion
represents the froward voltage drop for LED (2.5V). The negative portion represents the
froward voltage drop for the 1N4149 diode (0.7V).
Graph B shows the characteristic of the forward and reverse bias for the 1N4149
diode. Therefore the negative portion remain essentially unchanged. However the positive
portion has raise to +12V (output from comparator) and the diode cannot conduct in reverse
biased. From this we can see that the LED has a VF of 12V and VR of 0.7V. The maximum
reverse voltage rating of this LED is 5V. Thus, the diode provides more than adequate
protection to the LED. The
Graph C shows the waveform of the voltage levels that would be developed across an
unprotected LED. Since the negative portion of this waveform is nearly -12V, which destroy
the LED, we simulated this condition by replacing the LED with the silicon diode (reverse
voltage rating = 75V). Of course, with an LED, the positive voltage level would be at about
+2V as indicated by the dotted line in Figure 6-13C, rather than the +0.7V observed. This is
due to the different in forward voltage drops between the two devices. You can then conclude
from this Figure that an LED cannot be used in this circuit without some form of reverse
voltage protection.

15

Procedure (continue)
23. Apply power to the Trainer and again observe the waveform at TP3. It should be the same
as recorded in Figure 6-12A. Remove power from the Trainer and replace the diode
(56-56) with the green LED (412-642), as shown in Figure 6-14. Make sure the short
lead of the LED (the flat side) is toward TP3.

TP3

100ohm

LED (GREEN)

LED (RED)

+
_

Figure 6-14
24. Apply power to the Trainer. Both LEDs should light. Observe the waveform at TP3 and
compare it to the waveform recorded in Figure 6-12A. With 2 identical LEDs, the
positive and the negative voltage levels would be equal but opposite. To observe this,
remove power from the Trainer and replace the red LED with the amber LED (412641). The forward voltage characteristics of this LED are very similar to those of the
green LED. Apply power to the Trainer and note the positive and negative voltage
levels at TP3. They should be approximately +2V and -2V.

25. Remove power from the Trainer and replace the two LEDs with the single bicolour LED,
as shown in Figure 6-15. Install the bicolour LED so that its shorter lead (the flat side)
is connected to TP3. Apply power to the Trainer and adjust R 1 for maximum
resistance. The LED should alternate between red and green at slightly less than a 1 Hz
rate. Removes power from the Trainer and disconnect the 10F capacitor from pin 5 of
the 1458 comparator. (Refer to Figure 6-10).

16

TP3
BICOLOR LED

100ohm

LED (GREEN)

LED (RED)

+
_

Figure 6-15

26. Connect pin 5 of the 1458 to +12V and apply power to the Trainer. Observe the LED.
Connect pin 5 to -12V and observe the LED. Remove power from the Trainer.
27. Reverse the LED so that the shorter lead (the flat side) is toward ground and repeat Step
26. The LED should now react in an opposite manner. This circuit is a simple polarity
indicator in which the indications can be reversed by merely reversing the LED.
Remove power from the Trainer.
28. Disconnect pin 5 of the comparator from the power supply and reconnect it as shown in
Figure 6-16.
TP3

IN4149

100ohm

100ohm

GREEN

Figure 6-16

RED
_

SHORT
LEAD

29. Apply power to the Trainer and observe the LED. When TP3 is positive the green portion
of LED should glow dimly. With TP3 negative, the red portion should glow brightly.

17

Result
The output waveform at TP3 for Step 24 is as shown below.

2.5V

0V

2
V

-2.0V

When red LED is replaced with amber LED, the graph change slightly as follow.
2.0V

0V

2
V

-2.0V

Discussion
In this circuit, the 1N4149 diode acts as a polarity-sensitive switch that in fact insert or
removes the 1k resistor. When TP3 is positive, the diode is reverse biased and will not
conduct, current will flow through the green LED segment, the 1k resistor, and the 100k
resistor to the comparator output. Thus, the green segment is current limited by 11000 of
resistance.
On the other hand, when TP3 is at a negative potential, the switching diode is forward
biased and the conduction diode resistance, and the red LED segment to ground. Current
limiting in this direction is only 100. Therefore, in this configuration, the red segment
conducts mush more current than the green segment. The opposite effect can be obtained
simply by reversing the switching diode.
Using the equations associated with Figure 2-30B, we can experiment the various
resistance ratio (make sure the forward current does not exceed 40mA.

Conclusion
The LED is a useful device. It is use for display signal, rectification AC signal, shows
current direction etc. Since LED function in low levels (1.5V to 3.3V), it is useful as a high
sold stage devices.
Diode protection is important for operating in high reverse voltage.

18