NYAME AKUMA

No .17

November 1980.

N e w s l e t t e r of t h e S o c i e t y of A f r i c a n i s t A r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n America.
E d i t e d by P.L. S h i n n i e and i s s u e d from t h e Department of Archaeology,
The U n i v e r s i t y of C a l g a r y , Calgary, A l b e r t a , T2N 1N4, Canada. Typing
and e d i t o r i a l a s s i s t a n c e by A m a O m s u a S h i n n i e .

......................

Apologies f o r t h e l a t e appearance of no.17, l a r g e l y due t o

s e v e r a l absences on my p a r t from Calgary.
The n e x t SAAAM conference i s due i n 1981 and d u r i n g t h e l a s t
c o n f e r e n c e , at Calgary i n 1979, P r o f e s s o r Desmond C l a r k s u g g e s t e d t h a t
it should be h e l d a t Berkeley. However d u r i n g t h e meeting on " O r i g i n s
and Development of Food-Producing C u l t u r e s i n North-East A f r i c a " h e l d
a t Dymaczewo i n Poland d u r i n g September 1980 some u n o f f i c i a l d i s c u s s i o n s were h e l d concerning t h e l a r g e number of c o n f e r e n c e s t h a t were
scheduled f o r 1981. I n a d d i t i o n t o our own (SAAAM) meeting it
appeared t h a t both t h e Pan-African Conference of B e h i s t o r y and
Q u a t e r n a r y S t u d i e s planned t o be h e l d i n N i g e r i a and t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Union of P r e h i s t o r i c and P r o t o h i s t o r i c S c i e n c e s t o be h e l d i n Mexico
C i t y i n October were both t o be i n t h e same y e a r .
There h a s been an agreement t h a t t h e Pan-African and t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union should not be h e l d i n t h e same y e a r and i t h a s been
proposed t h a t t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e Pan-African should be asked
t o postpone f o r one y e a r . I f t h i s i s agreed t h e n it seems r e a s o n a b l e
t h a t SAAAM s h o u l d meet i n t h e S p r i n g of 1981 - though I hope it w i l l
n o t c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e Calgary meeting of t h e Canadian A s s o c i a t i o n of
A f r i c a n S t u d i e s from 6 t h t o 9 t h May 1981. For t h e f i r s t t i m e t h i s
A s s o c i a t i o n w i l l have both an a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and a n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
panel.
For t h e SAAAM conference t h e r e a r e now two s u g g e s t i o n s - e i t h e r
t o a c c e p t P r o f e s s o r C l a r k ' s i n v i t a t i o n t o Berkeley o r t o have i t a t
San Diego, e i t h e r j u s t before o r j u s t a f t e r t h e meeting of t h e S o c i e t y
f o r American Archaeology which meets from A p r i l 29th t o May 2nd. The
o r g a n i s e r s would a p p r e c i a t e it i f you would i n d i c a t e your p r e f e r e n c e
by marking t h e e n c l o s e d form and r e t u r n i n g i t t o me a t Calgary.
F i n a l l y , I r e g r e t t h a t it h a s become n e c e s s a r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e
s u b s c r i p t i o n f o r Nyame Akuma t o $10.00. I n c r e a s e d p r i n t i n g c o s t s and
t h e c e r t a i n t y t h a t Canadian m a i l i n g r a t e s w i l l go up i n 1981 a r e t h e
cause. The o n l y way i n which t h e c o s t could be h e l d a t $7 - 0 0 would
be i f it were t o be s e n t o v e r s e a s by s u r f a c e m a i l - s i n c e it would
t h e n t a k e up t o f o u r months t o r e a c h some p a r t s of A f r i c a I hope I a m
r i g h t i n assuming t h a t most of t h e r e a d e r s h i p would be w i l l i n g t o pay
a l i t t l e more s o t h a t o u r c o l l e a g u e s i n A f r i c a do n o t r e c e i v e Nyame
Akuma u n t i l i t i s t o o l a t e t o f u l f i l i t s p r o p e r purpose.

Our bank i s now c h a r g i n g $1.00 on e v e r y cheque i n U .S f u n d s t o save t h e l o s s of t h i s amount 3r. J . Bower of Iowa S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
h a s agreed t o a c t as r e c i p i e n t of a l l U.S. s u b s c r i p t i o n s and t o r e m i t
them t o me i n one cheque.

P. L.

Shinnie.

NEWS ITEMS
BOTSWANA
Catrien van Waarden now of SUNY, Binghamton sends this
abstract of a paper that she gave at the SAAAM conference in
Calgary in April
LEEUKOP:

1979.

A Fortified Settlement In Eastern Botswana

In July and August, 1978, excavations were carried out North

of the confluence of the Motloutse and Limpopo rivers. The site
was on top of a small flat-topped kopje where a number of stone
walls of the so-called 'Refuge Period' variety had been noticed.
Excavation exposed more than 40 circular mud structures, of which

15 have been investigated in some detail. Emphasis during the

excavations was on settlement layout, activity areas, and
architecture. An attempt is now being made to pinpoint the
functions of the various structures, and artifact associations.
A British military button dates the main component to the
late 19th century, The presence of at least one musket, a number
of iron spearpoints, the position of the walls, the probably
unusually crowded conditions, and of course the settlement location,
all point to a defensive function for the settlement as a whole.
Historical documents confirm that this period was rather turbulent.
An attempt to trace cultural affinities is also being made.
Unfortunately most of the pottery is undecorated.

N a t i o n a l Museum of Botswana - A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Research Programme

By : J . R . Denbow, A.C. Campbell.
Approximately one y e a r ago t h e N a t i o n a l Museum of Botswana
i n i t i a t e d a n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l programme t o u n d e r t a k e r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e
p r e h i s t o r y of Botswana. A number o f p r o j e c t s have now been s t a r t e d i n
d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s of t h e c o u n t r y w i t h t h e a i m of d e v e l o p i n g a p r e l i m i n a r y o u t l i n e of t h i s c o u n t r y ' s p r e h i s t o r y . T h i s r e p o r t summarizes
some of t h e major a r e a s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n underway.

1. The T s o d i l o H i l l s
I n 1979-80 e x c a v a t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t a t t h r e e E a r l y I r o n Age
l o c a l i t i e s a t T s o d i l o , as w e l l a s at two r o c k s h e l t e r s c o n t a i n i n g L.S.A.
a r t e f a c t s i n a s s o c i a t i o n with p o t s h e r d s . The E a r l y I r o n Age s i t e s ,
whose ceramics a r e r e l a t e d i n a g e n e r a l way t o o t h e r ' w e s t e r n s t r e a m '
s i t e s i n Namibia and Zambia, have produced two r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s ,
p r o c e s s e d by independent l a b o r a t o r i e s :
Locality 1
Locality 2

1100
$ 80 B.P.
940 %
- $0 B.P.

(1-11, 411)
( w i t s 836)

850 A.D.
980 A . D .

The E a r l y I r o n Age ceramics a r e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d i n a forthcoming

n o t e i n t h e South A f r i c a n J o u r n a l of S c i e n c e , a l o n g w i t h a summary of
t h e r o c k art a t T s o d i l o - which i n c l u d e s p o r t r a i t s of domestic c a t t l e .
Fragments of i r o n and copper beads and 'chainwork' were r e c o v e r d from
t h e d e p o s i t s , a l o n g w i t h a cane g l a s s bead similar t o t h o s e r e c o v e r e d
from s i t e s of s i m i l a r age i n e a s t e r n Botswana.
Overlying t h e e a r l y ceramics a t L o c a l i t i e s 2 and 3 a r e l a t e r
m a t e r i a l s which show some s t y l i s t i c s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h t h e e a r l i e r
ceramics. No d a t e s have been o b t a i n e d , b u t t y p o l o g i c a l l y t h e
ceramics have much i n common w i t h m a t e r i a l s from w e s t e r n Zambia
d a t i n g t o c . A.D. 1200. A r a d i o c a r b o n sample from one of t h e L.S.A.
r o c k s h e l t e r s h a s a l s o been s u b m i t t e d .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e x c a v a t i o n s , over 2000 p a i n t i n g s have now
been r e c o r d e d from approximately 200 s i t e s a t T s o d i l o . I n g e n e r a l ,
t h e p a i n t i n g s can be d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s which
i n c l u d e both n a t u r a l i s t i c and schematic o r geometric m o t i f s .
Q u a n t i f i e d d a t a about t h e p a i n t i n g s a r e p r e s e n t l y b e i n g coded f o r
computer a n a l y s i s .

2.

The B o t l e t l i R i v e r

The B o t l e t l i R i v e r forms a major o u t l e t of t h e Okavango D e l t a

which f l o w s a c r o s s t h e K a l a h a r i t o empty i n t o t h e Makgadikgadi P a n s .
Along t h e t e r r a c e s of t h e r i v e r , as w e l l as a l o n g pan t e r r a c e s w i t h i n
t h e Makgadikgadi b a s i n , L.S.A. and I r o n Age remains have been found.

I n June of t h i s y e a r a team under t h e l e a d e r s h i p of Dr.Alison Brooks

began a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e L.S.A. s i t e s i n t h e Toromoja a r e a ,
w h i l e t h e Museum c o n c e n t r a t e d on I r o n Age s i t e s .
Ceramics c o l l e c t e d from t h r e e E a r l y I r o n Age s i t e s i n t h e
Toromoja a r e a appear t o be r e l a t e d t o Bambata ware. A few of t h e
s h e r d s a l s o c o n t a i n f a l s e - r e l i e f chevron m o t i f s , s u g g e s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o t h e n o r t h . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , wind d e f l a t i o n a l o n g t h e pans h a s
r e s u l t e d i n mixing of m a t e r i a l s and i t h a s n o t y e t been p o s s i b l e t o
o b t a i n good r a d i o c a r b o n samples. T y p o l o g i c a l l y , however, t h e
ceramics s u g g e s t t h a t E a r l y I r o n Age p e o p l e s were occupying t h e
B o t l e t l i a r e a by c . A . D . 500. Given t h e a s s o c i a t i o n of some Bambata
s i t e s w i t h L.S.A. m a t e r i a l s i n Zimbabwe, it i s a l s o possi-ble t h a t t h e
Toromoja m a t e r i a l r e p r e s e n t s similar v e s s e l s a c q u i r e d by h u n t i n g and
g a t h e r i n g p e o p l e s through t r a d e . A l l of t h e E a r l y I r o n Age s i t e s s o
f a r l o c a t e d a l s o have L.S.A. components which, i n t h e absence of
s t r a t i g r a p h y , cannot be s e p a r a t e d from t h e I r o n Age m a t e r i a l s .
I n a d d i t i o n t o E a r l y I r o n Age r e m a i n s , approximately 20 s i t p s
were l o c a t e d which c e r a m i c a l l y could n o t be r e l a t e d t o any o t h e r
known groups- e i t h e r h i s t o r i c a l l y o r p r e h i s t o r i c a l l y . A few examples
of t h e s e ceramics a r e shown i n F i g u r e 2 , and i n c l u d e two t y p e s of
jars (one with no d e c o r a t i o n and t h e o t h e r with b o l d l y i n c i s e d h a t c h i n g and c r o s s - h a t c h i n g a l o n g a t h i c k e n e d r i m ) , and simple bowl forms.
P i e r c e d l u g s were a l s o found on some s i t e s . Almost a l l of t h e
p o t s h e r d s c o l l e c t e d from t h e s e s i t e s were tempered with bone, a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c most commonly a s s o c i a t e d with Khoi ceramics.
I n t e r v i e w s w i t h Herero, Tswana and Kalanga p e o p l e s , who form
t h e major p o p u l a t i o n groups i n t h e a r e a t o d a y , r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e
o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e a r e a were t h e B a t e t e - a p o p u l a t i o n which
h a s now been almost t o t a l l y a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o s u r r o u n d i n g Bantu
groups. Some B a t e t e , however, a r e s t i l l a b l e t o speak a language
which Bleek s u g g e s t e d i s a Khoi language c l o s e l y a f f i l i a t e d w i t h
Naron. L i v i n g s t o n e mentioned t h e T e t e as one of t h e major groups
l i v i n g i n t h e a r e a i n t h e 1 8 4 0 ' s and a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y
possessed h e r d s of c a t t l e which seem t o have been of a s l i g h t l y
d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t y from t h o s e of t h e Tswana i n e a s t e r n Botswana..
I n t e r v i e w s with t h e T e t e i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were p r i n s r i l v
f i s h e r m e n , though t h e y a l s o k e p t c a t t l e and small s t o c k , p r i o r t o
t h e a r r i v a l of Tswana and o t h e r Bantu peoples i n t h e l a s t k l f of
t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y . They have a myth o r legend a b o ~ tt h e a c q u i s i t i o n
of c a t t l e which r e v o l v e s around f i n d i n g them r o v i n g w i l d x l o n t ~liic
r i v e r where t h e y had come t o d r i n k . We found t h a t t h e 'Tete do n a t
s h a r e t h e common Khoi r o o t f o r cow, ~ o m a / ~ o m aa, r o o t a l s o u:ivd by
t h e Tswana ( ~ ~ o m o b) u, t r a t h e r used t h e term b ~ ,: p o s s i b l y d e r : v ~ d
from t h e Bantu word Mombe. I n t h e 1 8 4 0 t s , ~ i x n ~ s t o nr eec o r d e 1 a n
i d e n t i c a l word, bey, a s meaning h o r s e . A s h i s companion's horsewas probably t h e f i r s t e v e r s e e n a l o n g t h e R o t l e t i i , i t i s d o u b t f l i l

t h i s was c o r r e c t . Many Tswana and Khoi p e o p l e s , however, t r a d i t i o n a l l y used oxen as pack and r i d i n g animals and i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t
t h e T e t e a p p l i e d t h e word 'bey' t o t h e h o r s e t o i n d i c a t e a b e a s t of
burden. The d e r i v a t i o n of t h e T e t e word f o r g o a t , zara//a, i s
p r e s e n t l y unknown, though t h e y s h a r e t h e Khoi term f o r sheep (&I:).
The l i n g u i s t i c d a t a seems t o s u p p o r t T e t e a s s e r t i o n s t h a t t h e y k e p t
domestic s t o c k p r i o r t o t h e Tswana occupation of t h e a r e a around 1750.
The s i m i l a r i t y of t h e T e t e t o o t h e r Khoi groups may be extended
t o i n c l u d e house t y p e s . Although t h e T e t e today l i v e e x c l u s i v e l y i n
p o l e and daga houses, i n 1863 Baines p a i n t e d a T e t e v i l l a g e c o n s t r u c t e d of hemispherical houses made of r e e d mats p l a c e d over bent p o l e s
much l i k e t h o s e i l l u s t r a t e d f o r t h e Korana much f u r t h e r s o u t h .
S e v e r a l of t h e T e t e i n t e r v i e w e d a l s o s a i d t h a t t h e y had made
t h e i r own p o t s p r i o r t o t h e coming of t h e Tswana. T h i s art h a s now
been l o s t , b u t one man drew i n t h e sand what he thought t h e s e v e s s e l s
had looked l i k e . The d e c o r a t i o n matched t h a t of t h e ' m y s t e r i o u s '
ceramics c o l l e c t e d from t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s i n t h e a r e a . One
man a l s o volunteered t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e T e t e had used s t o n e
t o o l s p r i o r t o o b t a i n i n g i r o n goods from t h e i r Bantu neighbours.
Although a t t h i s p o i n t t h e work h a s been somewhat u n s y s t e m a t i c ,
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s t h a t t h e T e t e developed a l i f e - s t y l e a l o n g
t h e B o t l e t l i River which w a s i n marked c o n t r a s t t o t h a t of o t h e r
h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g groups i n t h e K a l a h a r i . I n t h e absence of
radiocarbon d a t e s we cannot be c e r t a i n how l o n g ago t h e T e t e
i n c o r p o r a t e d domestic s t o c k i n t o t h e i r economy, b u t t h e y seem t o have
been w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d a s fishermen and h e r d e r s by 1750. There i s no
suggestion t h a t they represent a r e l a t i v e l y recent migration i n t o t h e
a r e a . T h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e terms f o r c a t t l e and g o a t s a l s o s u g g e s t s
some s e p a r a t i o n from o t h e r Khoi s p e a k e r s , and it i s p o s s i b l e t h a t
some of t h e L.S.A. s i t e s n e a r Toromoja, which a l s o c o n t a i n e x t e n s i v e
f i s h remains, r e l a t e t o t h e Tete b e f o r e t h e y a c q u i r e d s t o c k .
Near Toteng, on t h e western end of t h e B o t l e t l i R i v e r , addit i o n a l L.S.A. s i t e s have been found which c o n t a i n almost e x c l u s i v e l y
f i s h remains. I n a d d i t i o n , lugged p o t t e r y h a s been found i n t h i s
a r e a , though much of it w a s tempered with c h a r c o a l fragments, r a t h e r
t h a n bone. A radiocarbon sample from one of t h e s e s i t e s h a s been
submitted f o r a n a l y s i s .
The p r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h on t h e B o t l e t l i River p r o v i d e s some
t e n t a t i v e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t i n t h e l a s t millenium, and p o s s i b l y
e a r l i e r , two d i f f e r e n t modes of a d a p t a t i o n e x i s t e d i n t h e K a l a h a r i :
one with which we a r e familiar from t h e numerous s t u d i e s of t h e
:Kung and o t h e r San groups; and a n o t h e r , which h a s now almost
d i s a p p e a r e d , o r i e n t e d towards t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of r i v e r i n e r e s o u r c e s
and l a r g e h e r d s of migratory game which water a l o n g t h e B o t l e t l i .

3. The Toutswe a r e a
A s e r i e s of new d a t e s f o r t h e 'Toutswe T r a d i t i o n ' h a s now been
meter
r e c e i v e d which p r o v i d e s time-depth f o r t h i s t r a d i t i o n . The 1%
d e p o s i t a t Taukome produced t h e f o l l o w i n g sequence of d a t e s from
superimposed k r a a l d e p o s i t s :

The a n a l y s i s of t h e ceramics from Toutswe i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e o r i g i n s

of t h e Toutswe T r a d i t i o n should be p l a c e d f i r m l y w i t h i n t h e Zhizo
phase of Gokomere, though i n t e r a c t i o n took p l a c e w i t h L e o p a r d ' s Kopje
p e o p l e s i n t h e Northern T r a n s v a a l , as w e l l as w i t h o t h e r groups i n
s o u t h e r n Botswana and t h e c e n t r a l and w e s t e r n T r a n s v a a l .
New d a t e s have a l s o been r e c e i v e d f o r Toutswe:

755 5
40 cm.
110 - 120 cm. 990 f

75
75

B-P.
B.P.

(A.D.
(A.D.

1195)
960)

(1 - 11, 412)

(I - 11, 413)

as w e l l as f o r t h e nearby s i t e of Thatswane:
30 - 40 cm.
130 -140 cm.

++

840 75 B.P.
1025 - 80 B.P.

( I - 11, 415)
( I - 11, 414)

(A .D. 1110)
925 )
(A.D.

Archaeological d a t a from s i x excavated s i t e s , as w e l l as d a t a

from a f u r t h e r 200 s i t e s examined i n t h e r e g i o n , i n d i c a t e s t h a t
domesticated animals played a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e economy of t h e
Toutswe T r a d i t i o n from i t s i n c e p t i o n i n t h e a r e a around A.D. 700.
A l l of t h e s e s i t e s appear t o have had an animal k r a a l as a c e n t r a l
f e a t u r e . Around A.D. 1000, however, t h e d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e t t l e ment p a t t e r n w a s becoming more h i e r a r c h i c a l , w i t h s m a l l e r s i z e d
s e t t l e m e n t s b e i n g a r r a n g e d around l a r g e r r e g i o n a l ' c e n t r e s ' . Three
r e g i o n a l c e n t r e s have now been l o c a t e d which a r e approximately 100 km.
a p a r t . The l o c a t i o n of t h e kraal a r e a s on t h e l a r g e c e n t r e s seems t o
have been d i s p l a c e d towards t h e s i d e , as a t Toutswe, o r t o a n
a d j a c e n t h i l l t o p o r t e r r a c e ( ~ o s u t s w ,e ~ h o s h o n ~ ) Kraals c o n t i n u e d t o
be l o c a t e d i n t h e middle of t h e s m a l l e r s e t t l e m e n t s , however, I t i s
n o t y e t p o s s i b l e t o t e l l whether t h e s e r e g i o n a l c e n t r e s were a l l
occupied a t t h e same t i m e , o r s e q u e n t i a l l y , b u t e x c a v a t i o n s planned f o r
Bosutswe n e x t y e a r may h e l p t o determine t h i s .

4.

Southern Botswana

I n F e b r u a r y , a s a l v a g e o p e r a t i o n w a s conducted a t a s i t e i n
Broadhurst on t h e o u t s k i r t s of Gaborone. A s m a l l midden w a s uncovered
d u r i n g earth-moving o p e r a t i o n s which c o n t a i n e d w e l l p r e s e r v e d f a u n a l
r e m a i n s , c h a r c o a l and p o t t e r y . The ceramics a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
comb-stamped and i n c i s e d h e r r i n g b o n e m o t i f s , bordered by l i n e s of

l a d d e r i m p r e s s i o n s . " I n t e r u p t e d " m o t i f s a r e a l s o common. The

assemblage a p p e a r s t o be r e l a t e d , though d i v e r g e n t from, E a r l y I r o n
Age s i t e s which s t r e t c h a c r o s s t h e c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n T r a n s v a a l t o
Natal. S i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s a l s o made t h e i r appearance i n small numbers
at t h e t o p of t h e Taukome d e p o s i t and have a l s o been found a t Toutswe,
Thatswane, Bosutswe, Shoshong and a number of o t h e r s i t e s f u r t h e r
n o r t h i n Botswana. R e l a t e d m a t e r i a l s o c c u r a t Mapungubwe (class ~ 3 ) .
The r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e r e c e i v e d f o r Broadhurst i s , however, l a t e r t h a n
t h e s e assemblages:

- 50 B.P.
590 t

(A.D.

1360)

( w i t s 837)

I n September, e x c a v a t i o n s were begun a t a n o t h e r ' h e r r i n g b o n e '

s i t e approximately 20 km. west o f Gaborone, T h i s s i t e w a s o r g a n i z e d
around a c e n t r a l k r a a l and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e now b e i n g made i n t o t h e
g e n e r a l s i t e l a y o u t o r p l a n . An i n f a n t b u r i a l with s e v e r a l hundred
v e r y small blue-green and yellow cane g l a s s beads was r e c o v e r e d and a
carbon sample h a s been s e n t f o r p r o c e s s i n g . Ceramics from t h i s s i t e
c o n t a i n much more of a n emphasis on i n c i s e d t e c h n i q u e s , though t h e
m o t i f s and placement of d e c o r a t i o n a r e v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l t o Broadhurst

5. Elements of h i s t o r i c Tswana town p l a n n i n g a r e a l s o c u r r e n t l y

b e i n g examined i n o r d e r t o develop a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s t a t u s , cosmological b e l i e f s , and t h e l o c a t i o n o f
d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r e s , groups, and a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n t h e town.
R e l a t i o n s h i p s between c a r d i n a l d i r e c t i o n , s t a t u s , and r e l i g i o u s
b e l i e f s , f o r example, p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n Tswana c o n c e p t i o n and
u s e of s p a c e . H i s t o r i c Tswana towns were composed of f a m i l y s e c t i o n s
organized around animal k r a a l s , similar t o t h e v i l l a g e p a t t e r n of t h e
e a r l i e r Toutswe T r a d i t i o n and t h e ' h e r r i n g b o n e ' s i t e s . Today,
however, t h e s e u n i t s a r e grouped t o g e t h e r t o form l a r g e r and l a r g e r
e n t i t i e s which culminate a t t h e c h i e f ' s k r a a l , t h e t r i b a l meeting
p l a c e ( k g o t l a ) and t h e r e s i d e n c e of t h e c h i e f h i m s e l f .

20

22

IS

24

26

28

- 18

ZIMBABWE

f I*

1.-

L Nqami

Taukame X

*-'

24-

X ~hatswanb.,~~

f-'

*\

I
I

- 24

adhum

GABORONE

A*

[. j

Moritsane X

I
-

X Shosho

-.

X Toutswe

SEROWE

I
I
I

Lo-,

BOS u t S W ~ X

.GHANZI

- 20

Tateng

FRANCISTOWN.

z I'
22-

ITsodila

- .

26

.-

20

'b
/

t
I-.-.

,.J'
I

20
22
i
Nat~onolMumm ond Art Gallery

- 26

A F R I C A

S O U T H

f
1

24

26

28

Figure 1 : Map of Botswana showing t h e l o c a t i o n s of s i t e s

mentioned.

P o s s i blc Khoi p o t t e r y f r ~ n
~
Toromoj
a

CAMEROON
Preliminary Report on 1980 Fieldwork in the Grassfields and Yaounde, Cameroon
by Pierre de Maret
Charg6 de Recherches au F.N.R.S.
Royal Museum of Central Africa (Tervuren)
and University of Brussels

The Republic of Cameroon lies at the junction of West and Central Africa.
The study of its past is obviously of the utmost importance for a better
comprehension of a major portion of sub-Saharan Africa. Although several sites
have already been investigated in the northern half of the country, no
archaeological excavations had yet been carried out south of the Adamawa plateau,
despite the fact that part of this area, known as the Grassfields, had been
regarded by many as the cradle of the Bantu language. Surveys done earlier in
the Grassfields by A.D.W. Jeffreys and D. Hartle yielded numerous surface finds
of polished or flaked, axe- or hoe-like, necked tools. These were tentatively
attributed to a "neolithic period".
For several years, it has been my intention to start research in this
area. An International Colloquium on the Bantu Expansion, held in 1977 by the
C.N.R.S., recommended that archaeological research be undertaken in the Grassfields in conjunction with the Grassfields Working Group, a group of ethnographers
and linguists already present in the area. After establishing contact with one
of the members of this group of scholars, Professor J.P. Warnier, I was able to
do a first survey in the area in 1978. Professor Warnier showed me a very large
rock shelter, Sum Laka (lat. 5"51131" N., long. 10~4'40" E.), that he had previously
discovered. On the surface, I found several basalt artifacts, mainly large blades
and levalloisian flakes, but also one hoe- or axe-like tool. After sieving under
water, a test pit of 1 square meter yielded numerous stone artifacts, mainly on
basalt in the upper spits. Quartz, chert, calcedony and even obsidian flakes
of a microlithic technique were also found. The basalt artifacts decreased gradually
with the depth, until bedrock (or a large fallen part of the ceiling) was
reached at -75 cm. Faunal remains were collected in every spit. The presence
of gorilla teeth suggested that the area was once surrounded by forest. In the
first 10 cm., some decorated potsherds were collected and in the 25-30 cm. spits,
a flake from a grounded or polished tool was recovered. Three samples of charcoal
were submitted for ~ 1 measurement.
4
The results , stratigraphically consistent,
were as follows: Hv 8963: 6070 + 240 bp (spit 20-25 cm.); Hv 8965: 6980 260 bp
(spit 30-35 cm.) ; Hv 8964: 8705 - 275bdspit 50-55 cm.)

Following the first meeting of the Cameroon archaeologists held in

February 1979 in Garoua, I was charged with starting archaeological work in the
southern half of the country. Field research thus began this year in conjunction
with the General Delegation for Scientific and Technical Research of Cameroon.
It was made possible by a joint grant from the Belgian Committee for Excavations
in Central Africa and the Belgian Foundation for AnthropologicAl Research.

I am grateful to Dr. Essomba, an archaeologist who is Director of Cultural

Affairs of the Ministry of Information and Culture, for his assistance
during my stay in Cameroon.
At the time of this writing, the material discovered this year has
not yet been received nor studied, therefore what follows is a summary from
field notes.
Two new test pits of 1 square meter were excavated in Sum Laka (Trench
B & C), in an attempt to determine the lateral extension of the deposit.
Their yield of archaeological remains was much poorer than in the 1978 trench.
It also proved quite difficult to inter-correlate the stratigraphy as very
large stone blocks were present everywhere. Worth noting is the discovery
of a cord-roulette decorated potsherd at a depth of -70 cm. A new trench (D)
of 1 x 2 square meters was thus installed in the prolongation of Trench A.
Lithic and faunal remains as well as some potsherds were found. For the first
time in the Grassfields, a necked tool of the type usually referred to as
"neolithic" was found in stratigraphy. It is likely that a mixture of charcoal
occured, as the 1978 samples were collected by spit and not by natural stratigraphy, but this tool was found in or just above the spit dated 6070 + YtO bp.
Several additional samples collected in the five main layers will be processed.
Although the overhang of the rock shelter covers a surface of approximately
1,100 square meters, only a very small portion of this large surface has a
deposit more than a few centimeters deep, before reaching the bedrock or large
stones. This is why we have only excavated 5 square meters so far. I will
await the results of the study of the material collected this year, and even
if more excavations are needed, I intend to keep them to a minimum in order to
leave the possibility of control work for archaeologists of the coming generations.
Twelve kilometers (as the crow flies) north east of Sum Laka, J.P. Warnier
Like
had found the Abeke rock shelter (lat. 555'31" N., long. 10~9'30" E.).
Sum Laka and many other rock shelters that we surveyed in the area, it is situated
on the slope of a mountain just behind a waterfall. The floor of this cavity
was covered with stone artifacts similar to the industry of Sum Laka and
resulting from the cutting up of large blocks of white volcanic stone, situated
at the upper part of the shelter. Two hammerstones were found nearby.
A test pit of 1 square meter ;.ielded numerous stone flakes, one potsherd
and some animal bones; charcoal samples were also collected. No other archaeological remains were found in the fifteen rock shelters that we visited in the
Grassfields.
Several megalithic remains were discovered north of the ring road. At Sa,
(lat. 638'20" N., long. 10~48'103 E.), three circles of stone slabs of approximately 6 meters in diameter each were scattered in the hills. Among these monuments
were found numerous small heaps of stone, some erected monoliths, some grinding
stones and some man-made esplanades, covering a total of several square kilometers
and forming one of the most impressive megalithic ensembles of monumental remains

I have ever seen in Central Africa. A test trench of 1 x 3 square meters

dug within one of the main circles, however, remained sterile. Systematic
mapping and more excavations will be carried out in the coming years.
At the south east end of the Grassfields lies the Ndop Plain. In its
center is the very important village of Bambalang (lat. 553'40" N., long.
10~32'19" E.), with some monoliths and a series of defensive ditches and
earthen walls. In order to have some data on the Iron Age of this area,
we excavated a trench of 1 x 2 square meters nearby the king's palace.
Potsherds and charcoal were collected at various depths and especially in a
shaft. These seem to be Late Iron Age remains. Samples will be submitted
for ~ 1 analysis.
4
Outside of the Grassfields, while staying in Yaounde, we rediscovered
the Obobogo site (lat. 3O49'22" N., long. 1130'15" E.), where Jauz6, in 1944,
found numerous potsherds, eleven greenstone polished axes and some grooved
stones. No polished axes were discovered although one polished flake of
greenstone was collected. One shaft containing potsherds, one grinding stone
and some charcoal was excavated as deep as 2.5 meters. Numerous charcoal
samples were collected for ~ 1 datation.
4
My first impression is that a large
part of the pottery remains are quite old. The acidity of the soil, which
affects even the stone at Obobogo,may explain the deteriorated state of the
potsherds and the absence of iron remains, except in the levels near the surface.
This site may well have been at least partially from the Iron Age, however,
the polished axe shows that we are at the same time in the presence of a Final
Stone Age ~eriod. As Yaounde is the first site to be excavated in the extreme
north east corner of the Equatorial forest, this may be very important for the
chronology of a large portion of Central Africa.
After these promising results, more fieldwork will be conducted in
Yaounde and the Grassfields in the coming years.

CONGO

The Insignia of the Divine Authority

Report on the Investigation
In 1973, I recorded the first piece of information.on the
existence of the objects.whichwere the resource of the sacred
authority. This first information was collected in the old
kingdom Ngoyo which was one of the Kongo states. My further
search for the shrine and regalia in the sacred groves of Western
Zaire and Cabinda in the subsequent years did not bring positive
results. In November 1976, I traced the core of the sacred
insignia in the storage of Musge de 1'Homme in Paris. The set
of the sixteen objects are in copper and iron. None of them
were determined to be in the personal use of the kings or chiefs.
They involve a superhuman copper cap/crown (average diameter
36.5 cm, height = 20.7 cm, weight a 11 kg.) and a neckpiece
also made of copper (circumference = 136 cm., height = 8 cm.,
weight = 4.75 kg.).

In 1976-77, a further short field trip was undertaken to verify

various versions of the Kongo myths. Moreover, the rich
archival material pertinent to the removal of the insignia
from the shrine was traced and studied. All sixteen items were
identified and their utmost religious and political function as
well as their names were determined. In addition, the first
set of quantitative and qualitative spectrometric analyses of
the metal composition was conducted by the Laboratoire de Recherche
des Musees de France. As well, two comparative series of thirtynine metal objects were compiled by me from the region in which
the shrine is situated (Northwest Central Africa, coastal part,
north of the mouth of the Kongo River) as well as from adjacent
areas. They were analyzed using spectrometry and atomical
absorption by the Laboratories in Berlin and Paris.
In 1978, I undertook a field research within the old northern
Kongo mining area in the Niari basin. The co-operation with the
miners, smelters and metalsmiths was conducted within the area
of some 200 km. east-westwards with astoundingly rich results.
Also I witnessed a traditional smelting process of lead (not a
reconstruction).
Since 1979, further intensive technical investigation of the
copper items was carried out in co-operation with Professor Ursula
Franklin, Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science, University
of Toronto. It included two sets of analyses by neutron
actioation and the metallographic studies as well as the detailed

measurements of t h e copper s t r i p s . Research convincingly demonstrat i n g t h e uniqueness of t h e found r e g a l i a w i t h i n sub-Saharan art and
c u l t u r e w a s concluded i n e a r l y 1980. My f i r s t v e r s i o n of t h e book
on t h e d i v i n e r e g a l i a i s a l s o concluded. The paper on t h e cap/crown
showing t h e 1 3 t h o r 14th century as terminus a n t e quem (supported by
h i s t o r i c a l evidence) and demonstrating i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e
d i v i n e l e a d e r s h i p i s i n t h e p r e s s and w i l l appear i n African A r t s
(UCLA)i n 1980.
Zdenka Volavka
York U n i v e r s i t y

EAST AFRICA
THE BRITISH INSTITUTE I N EASTERN AFRICA
Somalia
With t h e o b j e c t of obtaining a s t r a t i g r a p h i c conspectus of t h e
e a r l y town of Mogadishu, s m a l l s c a l e excavations were c a r r i e d out
by Neville C h i t t i c k , D i r e c t o r of t h e I n s t i t u t e . T h i s i s believed t o
be t h e first time archaeological excavations have been c a r r i e d out
i n t h e c a p i t a l , o r indeed anywhere on t h e c o a s t , o t h e r t h a n t h e
e a r l i e r work of t h e I n s t i t u t e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n with Somalis, i n t h e
north of t h e country. We a r e g r a t e f u l f o r t h e f a c i l i t i e s extended
by t h e government of t h e Somali Democratic Republic.
An a r e a i n t h e c e n t r e of H a m a r Weyne, one of t h e two o l d
q u a r t e r s ( o r r a t h e r moieties) of t h e town w a s s e l e c t e d . Two
t r e n c h e s were dug, one, measuring 2 x 2 m , immediately north-west of
t h e JamiC (~amac
i n ~ o m a l i )and t h e o t h e r a few metres t o t h e southe a s t of t h e same mosque. The mosque l i e s perhaps 300 m from t h e
( v e r y poor) n a t u r a l harbour. I n t h e former t r e n c h t h e f o s s i l c o r a l
bedrock was reached at 4 . 8 m below t h e s u r f a c e . D i r e c t l y on t h e
rock w a s a w e l l - b u i l t w a l l of c o r a l rubble. The d e p o s i t around and
f o r n e a r l y two metres above t h i s y i e l d e d m a t e r i a l probably of t h e
t w e l f t h through t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . The upper d e p o s i t s were
l a t r i n e f i l l s d a t i n g from only some f i f t y o r e i g h t y y e a r s ago.
The t r e n c h t o t h e south-east of t h e mosque showed a succession
of f o u r b u i l d i n g p e r i o d s of g r e a t i n t e r e s t . Rather over s i x metres
of d e p o s i t s were dug; t h e c o n s t r i c t e d space at t h e bottom of t h e
t r e n c h and t h e danger of digging a t such a depth made it d i f f i c u l t t o
e s t a b l i s h f o r c e r t a i n t h a t bedrock had been reached at t h i s depth.
A t t h e base were two w a l l s of c o r a l r u b b l e s e t i n e a r t h , one l a t e r
t h a n t h e o t h e r . Associated p o t t e r y ( s g r a f f i a t o , with what i s
probably an e a r l y v a r i e t y of t h e 'black-on-yellow' ware, now
believed t o have been made i n Heis of t h e yemen) i n d i c a t e s a d a t e

probably i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y and c e r t a i n l y no e a r l i e r t h a n t h e
second q u a r t e r of t h e e l e v e n t h .
Above, and l a t e r t h a n , t h e s e walls was a c l a y f l o o r i n which
were s e t two mofa bread ovens. One of t h e s e , though much cracked
(such ovens a r e extremely f r a g i l e ) was complete and is t h e o n l y such
specimen of a mofa t o be recovered anywhere on t h e c o a s t . There w a s
much a s s o c i a t e d c h a r c o a l , of which samples were t a k e n f o r radiocarbon
d a t i n g , as were o t h e r s from a h e a r t h at a r a t h e r h i g h e r l e v e l .
Cut i n t o t h i s f l o o r were two w e l l - b u i l t walls, one on t h e e a s t
and one on t h e west s i d e of t h e t r e n c h , with deep f o u n d a t i o n s ; a n
a s s o c i a t e d f l o o r of rammed c o r a l c h i p s w a s a t 3.40 m below t h e s u r f a c e .
The p o t t e r y was similar t o t h a t found below. The well-preserved
upper p a r t of a f l a s k w a s found.
R e s t i n g on t h e s u r v i v i n g t o p of t h e e a r l i e r w a l l were t h e
massive f o u n d a t i o n s of a n important b u i l d i n g , b u i l t w i t h l i m e mortar
and w i t h w e l l f i n i s h e d p l a s t e r f a c e , and a p l a s t e r f l o o r ( a t about
2 metres below t h e s u r f a c e ) on a r u b b l e foundation. The a s s o c i a t e d
p o t t e r y s t i l l included s g r a f f i a t o and black-on-yellow.
The f l o o r i s
a t roughly t h e same l e v e l as t h a t of t h e ~ a m i t~h ,e minaret of which
c a r r i e s an i n s c r i p t i o n d a t e d 636 H . (A .D. 1 2 3 8 ) , and we can a s c r i b e
t h i s b u i l d i n g t o around t h i s time a l s o .
Above t h i s i s a d e s t r u c t i o n l e v e l , and t h e n about 1.5 m o f
modern d e b r i s t o t h e p r e s e n t unpaved s u r f a c e of t h e p i a z z a .
The f i n d s confirm what can be deduced from t h e w r i t t e n
h i s t o r i c a l and e p i g r a p h i c evidence, t h a t t h e f l o r e s c e n c e of Mogadishu
w a s i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h and f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . It i s u n l i k e l y t o
have been a p l a c e of s i g n i f i c a n c e b e f o r e t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y A.D.
Owing t o t h e s h o r t a g e of f u e l f o r v e h i c l e s a r i s i n g o u t of t h e
l r a i / ~ r a nw a r , it h a s been n e c e s s a r y t o postpone t h e work which w a s
planned t o be undertaken i n November and December on t h e n o r t h e r n
coast.

KENYA
I n south-west Kenya P e t e r Robertshaw, t h e A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r ,
excavated s e v e r a l s h e l l mounds on t h e s h o r e s of Lake V i c t o r i a . A l l
s i t e s contained Kansyore t r a d i t i o n p o t t e r y and s t o n e a r t e f a c t s .
Analysis of t h e m a m m a l i a n fauna is b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t by Diane G i f f o r d
and Bernard Mbae who r e p o r t t h e presence of a wide range of s p e c i e s ,
b u t a p p a r e n t l y no domesticates. F i s h bones were a l s o found i n
abundance. D r . Robertshaw a l s o c o l l e c t e d a l a r g e s c a t t e r of Urewe and
Kansyore p o t t e r y from a s i t e a t Gogo F a l l s , South Nyanea, i n t h e
extreme south-west of t h e country.
I n J u l y D r . Robertshawconducted a survey i n Narok D i s t r i c t
c o n c e n t r a t i n g on t h e r e g i o n t o t h e n o r t h of t h e Masai Mara N a t i o n a l
Park. Numerous P a s t o r a l N e o l i t h i c and P a s t o r a l I r o n Age s i t e s were
found. P r e f e r r e d a r e a s of s e t t l e m e n t appear t o have been a l o n g t h e
f o o t of h i l l s and on well-drained s o i l s b e s i d e permanent o r semiermanent s t r e a m s on t h e p l a i n s . Most s i t e s contained Elmenteitan
~ e m n a n t )p o t t e r y with a r a t h e r i n d e t e r m i n a t e l i t h i c i n d u s t r y .
Sherds of Akira and Narosura w a r e t o g e t h e r with t h o s e of an
undescribed p o t t e r y t r a d i t i o n were a l s o found.

Excavations i n t h i s r e g i o n are planned i n mid-1981 i n cooperation

w i t h Fiona Marshall of U . C . , Berkeley.

Archaeological Research i n t h e Amboseli B a s i n , Kenya

Robert Foley
Department of Anthropology, U n i v e r s i t y of Durham
Between 1976 and 1978 I c a r r i e d o u t f i e l d w o r k i n t h e Amboseli
N a t i o n a l Park i n s o u t h e r n Kenya. The Amboseli i s a s e a s o n a l l y
f l o o d i n g l a k e b a s i n t o t h e n o r t h of Mount K i l i m a n j a r o , i n what w a s
t r a d i t i o n a l l y Maasailand. The r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e s were:
1)

t o examine t h e n a t u r e of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e s i n
savanna environments.

2)

t o g a i n an understanding of t h e way i n which widespread b u t low

d e n s i t y s c a t t e r s of l i t h i c a r t e f a c t s develop i n c e r t a i n environments, and t o d e v i s e a methodology t o a n a l y s e t h e i r s t r u c t u r e .

3)

t o u s e t h i s methodology t o i n v e s t i g a t e p r e h i s t o r i c ecology
and a p t a t i o n i n t h e Amboseli.

The fieldwork provided evidence on environmental and c l i m a t i c

changes i n t h e Amboseli d u r i n g t h e L a t e Quaternary. It a l s o showed
t h e e x i s t e n c e of l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of Holocene a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l .
The r e s e a r c h program concentrated on measuring t h e v a r i a b i l i t y i n
s u r f a c e a r t e f a c t d e n s i t y , and t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s i n terms of
taphonomical and e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s . T h i s demonstrated t h e u b i q u i t y
of l i t h i c m a t e r i a l , and i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on
t h e s p a t i a l p a t t e r n i n g of p r e h i s t o r i c human a d a p t i v e s t r a t e g i e s . It
i s suggested t h a t i n a r e a s where s t r a t i f i e d sites are few, t h e n
s y s t e m a t i c sampling of s u r f a c e a r t e f a c t d e n s i t y and d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
independent of t h e u n i t of t h e " s i t e " , ( o f f - s i t e archaeology) i s a
f r u i t f u l approach.
The work i s now completed, and t h e purpose of t h i s n o t e i s t o
p r o v i d e d e t a i l s of t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s .
The s p a t i a l component of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a : some o f f - s i t e
methods and p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s from t h e Amboseli, Southern Kenya.
Proceedings of t h e 8 t h Pan A f r i c a n Congress of P r e h i s t o r y and
Q u a t e r n a r y S t u d i e s (1980)
O f f - s i t e archaeology: a n a l t e r n a t i v e approach f o r t h e s h o r t s i t e d . I n : I . Hodder, N . Hammond & G . I s a a c ( e d s ) P a t t e r n i n
t h e P a s t : e s s a y s i n honour of David Clarke. Cambridge: Cambridge
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . pp.157-183 (1980)
O f f - S i t e Archaeology and Human Adaptation i n E a s t e r n A f r i c a : an
Analysis of Regional A r t e f a c t D e n s i t y i n t h e Amboseli, Southern
Kenya. B . A . R . ( ~ n t e r n a t i o n a lS e r i e s ) Cambridge Monographs i n
African Archaeology ( i n p r e s s ) .

Stone Age Archaeology i n t h e Nyakyusa Basin of Tanzania

A t t h e n o r t h e r n end of Lake Nyasa t h e R i f t V a l l e y h a s been

blocked by t h e e x t e n s i v e R u n ~ ev o l c a n i c s . One r e s u l t of t h i s
a c t i v i t y i s a r e l a t i v e l y i s o l a t e d b a s i n bounded by mountains on t h r e e
s i d e s and Lake Nyasa on t h e f o u r t h . The b a s i n c o n t a i n s two major
t y p e s of t e r r a i n - low a l l u v i a l f l a t s b o r d e r i n g t h e l a k e and v o l c a n i c
a r e a s of h i g h r e l i e f . R a i n f a l l i n t h e b a s i n i s h i g h , v a r y i n g from
2500 t o 2900 mm depending on proximity t o t h e l a k e . N a t u r a l vegetat i o n i n t h e h i g h l a n d s , based on t h e few remnants, c o n s i s t s of
montane and bamboo f o r e s t . A l l i n a l l t h e b a s i n p r e s e n t s a n
o p p o r t u n i t y t o s t u d y p r e h i s t o r i c developments i n a r e l a t i v e l y small
and i s o l a t e d a r e a w i t h environmental c o n d i t i o n s q u i t e u n l i k e t h o s e
of t h e neighbouring c e n t r a l A f r i c a n p l a t e a u .

During June of 1980 I c a r r i e d out fieldwork i n t h e volcanic

highlands. The f i r s t h a l f of t h e fieldwork was centered on t h e
v i l l a g e of Masoko, which i s l o c a t e d a t an e l e v a t i o n of 800 m roughly
halfway between t h e l a k e and Rungwe volcano i t s e l f . The survey
consisted of t r a n s e c t s walked through f o u r major physiographic zones r i d g e s , c r a t e r r i m s , l a k e edges and r i v e r t e r r a c e s . The second h a l f
of t h e fieldwork included survey h i g h e r i n t h e b a s i n around Kandete
(1300-1600 m) and concluded with excavation at Kala W a t e r f a l l , a s i t e
t o t h e west of Masoko but at roughly t h e same e l e v a t i o n .
Extensive evidence of stone age occupation w a s found only i n
t h e lower middle e l e v a t i o n s of t h e b a s i n , between about 400 and 800 m.
This evidence consisted of surface concentrations of varying d e n s i t y
t h a t were most o f t e n s i t u a t e d i n e r o s i o n a l contexts such as r i d g e t o p s
and beds of sunken roads. Test excavation revealed t h a t most of t h e s e
concentrations a r e eroding from an o l d land s u r f a c e t h a t i s u s u a l l y
buried by 20 t o 70 cm of d e p o s i t . The majority of a r t e f a c t concentrat i o n s could be a s s o c i a t e d with t h i s land s u r f a c e .
The l i t h i c i n d u s t r y a s s o c i a t e d with t h e land s u r f a c e has
a f f i n i t i e s with e a r l y LSA i n d u s t r i e s found i n nearby p a r t s of c e n t r a l
Africa. The l a r g e s t sample of t h i s i n d u s t r y w a s excavated from t h e
s i t e a t Kala Waterfall (1f1w/6).
Here a dense concentration of
a r t e f a c t s l i e s on t h e land s u r f a c e and is buried by 25 t o 35 cm of
d e p o s i t . The a r t e f a c t l a y e r i s roughly 1 0 cm t h i c k and yielded over
10,000 a r t e f a c t s from t h r e e 1 x 1 m trenches. Freliminary a n a l y s i s
provides t h e following t y p o l o g i c a l breakdown:
angular waste
cores
whole f l a k e s
flake frags.
trimmed
o u t i l esquill&
(10,579 a r t e f a c t s )

80.9
4.2

6.5
6.1

0.8
1.7

The i n d u s t r y i s p r i m a r i l y i n q u a r t z (92.5%) with some q u a r t z i t e

( 5 .I$),
obsidian (I.%) and c h e r t ( 0 .%)
A d e t a i l e d breakdown of
t h e trimmed p i e c e s has not been completed. Scrapers predominate
but t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t h r e e backed p i e c e s and two s m a l l b i f a c i a l
p o i n t s . Preliminary a n a l y s i s of t h e cores suggests a f a i r l y wide
range of manufacturing techniques:

Levallois
bipolar
p e r i p h e r a l l y worked
platform cores
c a s u a l and i r r e g u l a r

0.3%
40.7

9.9
16.1
32.8

A s i n o t h e r p r i m a r i l y q u a r t z assemblages t h e o u t i l e s q u i l l 5 grade i n t o
t h e b i p o l a s cores and t h e d i s t i n c t i o n was o f t e n r a t h e r a r b i t r a r y .
Although L e v a l l o i s cores themselves were r a r e f l a k e s with f a c e t t e d
platforms and r a d i a l o r converging d o r s a l s c a r s make up % of t h e
whole f l a k e s .
This assemblage from K a l a w a t e r f a l l i n some r e s p e c t s resembles a
s e r i e s of horizons from Kalemba i n southeastern Zambia. Kalemba
horizons H-K yielded a predominantly q u a r t z i n d u s t r y with d i s c and
L e v a l l o i s cores and f l a k e s with f a c e t t e d platforms. Trimmed p i e c e s
occur i n roughly t h e same percentage. Scrapers accounted f o r 8% of
t h e trimmed pieces while p o i n t s and backed p i e c e s accounted f o r 1@
and 3% r e s p e c t i v e l y . The Kalemba horizons d i f f e r from Kala i n t h e i r
g r e a t e r emphasis on L e v a l l o i s and d i s c core technique as opposed t o
b i p o l a r technique. The Kala assemblage a l s o resembles t o some e x t e n t
t h e H i l l s l o p e component of t h e Polungu Industry from Kalambo F a l l s
but again t h e r e i s much g r e a t e r emphasis on b i p o l a r technique a t K d a .
I n terms of general a r t e f a c t c a t e g o r i e s , t h e n , t h e K a l a assemblage
appears t o conform t o a p a t t e r n t y p i c a l of c e n t r a l Africa i n t h e
e a r l y L a t e r Stone Age.
A few l i t h i c concentrations were found i n contexts t h a t suggest
a more r e c e n t d a t e than t h e buried land s u r f a c e . The contexts a r e
enigmatic and t h e samples not l a r g e but t h e i n d u s t r y appears t o be
e x c l u s i v e l y b i p o l a r . No evidence of a predominantly m i c r o l i t h i c
i n d u s t r y w a s found i n any p a t of t h e basin. Evidence of L a t e r I r o n
Age ( i n c l u d i n g some p o s s i b l e K i l w a s t y l e p o t t e r y ) w a s common i n t h e
lower p a r t of t h e basin. This evidence i s being s t u d i e d by D r . S.A.C.
Vaane of t h e Tanrzanian A n t i q u i t i e s Division.
This reseasch w a s supported i n p a r t by t h e L.S.B. Leakey
Foundation and t h e University of Colorado but would have been
impossible without t h e a s s i s t a n c e given me by t h e Tanzanian Antiquit i e s Division.
Thomas Vynn
Department of Anthropology
U n i v e r s i t y of Colorado
Colorado Springs, CO 80907

Archaeological and Ethnographic Studies of P a s t o r a l Groups of

Northern Kenya
Daniel S t i l e s
Department of History, University of Nairobi.

A research p r o j e c t funded by t h e Ford Foundation e n t i t l e d

"A Diachronic Study of t h e Demography, Human Ecology, and History of
P a s t o r a l Groups of Northern Kenya" began i n August of 1979. The
p r o j e c t collaborates with and r e c e i v e s l o g i s t i c a l support from t h e
I n t e g r a t e d P r o j e c t i n Arid Lands (IPAL) of UNESCO/UNRP,
Two f i e l d
t r i p s have been made t o d a t e t o various l o c a l i t i e s i n Marsabit
D i s t r i c t of northern Kenya, e a s t of Lake Turkana. The main a r e a s of
research were around North Horr, Kalacha, and Maikona, all oases
located on t h e e a s t e r n s i d e of t h e Chalbi Desert. The main e t h n i c
groups i n h a b i t i n g t h e study a r e a a r e t h e Gabbra, Boran, and Rendille.
To d a t e , only t h e first two have been worked with.
The p r i n c i p a l aims of t h e research p r o j e c t are:
1 ) To study present day and p a s t settlement p a t t e r n s of p a s t o r a l i s t s
i n northern Kenya. This involves gathering demographic and s p a t i a l
information on individual settlements and t h e l o c a t i o n of s e t t l e ments over t h e landscape i n r e l a t i o n t o environmental v a r i a b l e s ,
Changes i n i n t r a - and inter-settlement p a t t e r n s through time i s
a l s o studied.
2) To study t h e human ecology of p a s t o r a l s o c i e t i e s . S t r a t e g i e s of
e x p l o i t a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e resources a r e studied i n t h e present and
an attempt i s made t o reconstruct p a s t s t r a t e g i e s , P a s t c l i m a t i c
and vegetation p a t t e r n s a r e important t o t h i s a i m and attempts t o
reconstruct t h e s e w i l l a l s o be made.
3 ) To study t h e h i s t o r y of pastoralism i n northern Kenya from i t s
inception t o t h e present.
Methods
Archaeological survey- A l l map references a r e t o t h e Survey of
Kenya Y633 s e r i e s 1:100,000 maps. Survey f o r archaeo1ogica.l sites
w a s c a r r i e d out i n dune a r e a s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of North Horr
(BC 520660) and i n t h e G a m u r a Oasis (BR 077216) near Maikona. Stone
c a i r n graves near Kalacha (BL 930460) and Maikona (BD 150240) were
a l s o explored and located. The southern shores of t h e Chew Bahir
( ~ a k e~ t e f a n i e )(BJ 120-170 910-890) were a l s o examined.
Excavations- Four open air s i t e s were excavated near North Horr.
S i t e names r e f e r t o t h e SASES method of i d e n t i f y i n g sites. GcJm 1
and 2 a r e s i t e s excavated by D.#. P h i l l i p s o n i n 1974 and r e f e r r e d t o
him as North Horr I and 11.

GcJm 2- The s i t e i s l o c a t e d on a l a r g e sand dune north of and

overlooking t h e air s t r i p and main water h o l e . A r t i f a c t s a r e
eroding t o t h e s u r f a c e i n an east-west d i r e c t i o n along t h e dune f o r
a t l e a s t 130 m and from north-south f o r a t l e a s t 40 m. A g r i d was
s e t up on t h e c a r d i n a l axes and s i x square meters were dug a t random
over t h e s i t e .
GcJm 3- Located approximately 1 km S
W of North Horr on a l a r g e
dune. Two t r e n c h e s running down t h e f a c e of t h e dune i n a N-S
d i r e c t i o n were excavated. A p i t about 2 m deep w a s a l s o dug from
near t h e t o p of t h e dune i n an attempt t o f i n d t h e occupation l e v e l
from which t h e numerous a r t i f a c t s were eroding. The s i t e extended
a t l e a s t 80 m i n a SE-NW d i r e c t i o n along t h e f a c e of t h e dune, but
a f t e r d e f l a t i o n only about 20 m remained of t h e width.
GcJm 4- Located approximately 1 5 km from North Horr t o t h e NE
of t h e waterhole and a i r s t r i p . The s i t e i s l o c a t e d on a f l a t expanse
of sand which i s p a r t of an e x t e n s i v e system of dunes. Three one
meter squares were excavated. The m a t e r i a l exposed on t h e s u r f a c e
covered an a r e a approximately 50 m N-S by 40 m E-W,
GcJm 5- Located on t h e last dune on t h e southern s i d e of t h e
a i r s t r i p f a c i n g SE i n t o t h e Chalbi. A s t e p t r e n c h w a s dug down t h e
f a c e of t h e dune f o r a d i s t a n c e of 15 m. S i x squares were dug a t
intervals.
S i x s t o n e c a i r n graves were excavated on and a t t h e base of a
rocky h i l l c a l l e d Kalacha Bule, about
km e a s t of t h e v i l l a g e of
Kalacha

GdJn 1- A f l a t - t o p p e d , s q u a r i s h c a i r n measuring approximately

5.3 by 4.7 m , l o c a t e d near t h e summit of t h e h i l l , was excavated.

GdJn 2- A second, l a r g e r s q u a r i s h s t o n e platform measuring about

7 m by 9 m l o c a t e d on t h e summit o f t h e h i l l about 20 m from t h e

first c a i r n . The s t o n e l e v e l above ground was about 70 cm t h i c k and
subsurface excavation d i d not exceed 50 cm,
GdJn 3- This w a s a l a r g e s t o n e r i n g l o c a t e d at t h e base of t h e
h i l l on t h e W s i d e , It measured about 17 m i n diameter and had a
smaller s t o n e r i n g a t t a c h e d t o it on t h e E s i d e , subsequently
designated GdJn 6. Five square meters were excavated i n t h e c e n t e r
of t h e r i n g .
GdJn 4- T h i s w a s a s t o n e mound measuring approximately 8 m i n
diameter l o c a t e d on t h e Ft s l o p e s of t h e h i l l . A N-S t r e n c h 1 m wide
w a s excavated.

GdJn 5- T h i s w a s a l a r g e s t o n e r i n g about 19 m i n diameter

l o c a t e d a t t h e base of t h e h i l l about 50 m SE of GdJn 3. There was
m o r i e n t e d E-W,
an oval p i l e of s t o n e s i n t h e c e n t e r about 5 x 3
A
3
x
2
m
p i t w a s excavated
w i t h t h r e e u p r i g h t s t o n e s at e i t h e r end.
through t h e s t o n e s .
GdJn 6- T h i s w a s t h e s m a l l e r r i n g a t t a c h e d t o GdJn 3 r i n g .
A f t e r c a r e f u l examination it w a s s e e n t h a t t h i s r i n g was added on at
a l a t e r d a t e . A small round p i l e of s t o n e s was i n t h e c e n t e r and a
2 s q . m. square excavated through i t .
Study of abandoned Gabbra s e t t l e m e n t s - An abandoned Gabbra o r
Four of t h e s e were s t u d i e d , two
Boran s e t t l e m e n t i s c a l l e d an
50
k
m
n
o
r
t
h
of
North
Horr and two w i t h i n t h e
n e a r B a l e s s a about
immediate v i c i n i t y of North Horr. The number of y e a r s s i n c e abandonment was obtained from l o c a l informants and n o t e s were made on t h e
m a t e r i a l remains and two of them were measured and p l o t t e d . The
purpose of t h i s was t o a s c e r t a i n how q u i c k l y an abandoned p a s t o r a l
s e t t l e m e n t d i s i n t e g r a t e s and what might be l e f t f o r a n a r c h a e o l o g i s t
t o study.

s.

Study of occupied Gabbra s e t t l e m e n t s - T h i s phase of t h e p r o j e c t

i n v o l v e s t h e g a t h e r i n g of demographic d a t a and s p a t i a l and d i s t r i b u t i o n a l information on people and m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e w i t h i n s e t t l e m e n t s .
A census was t a k e n of each house i n f o u r o l a s ( s e t t l e m e n t s ) . The
name, a g e , s e x , p h r a t r y and c l a n w a s asked of each person s l e e p i n g i n
a house. The house diameter was measured and t h e door o r i e n t a t i o n s
taken. Some k i n s h i p r e l a t i o n s h i p d a t a were a l s o g a t h e r e d . Two of
t h e o l a s were mapped. An i n v e n t o r y of m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e i t e m s was
t a k e n i n one house and t h e l o c a t i o n of each item w a s p l o t t e d on a
house p l a n . The Gabbra name of t h e o b j e c t , i t s f u n c t i o n , r a w
m a t e r i a l , and methods of manufacture were recorded. Other m a t e r i a l
c u l t u r e items were recorded i n t h e course of s t u d y and i n t e r v i e w s i n
other olas.
I n t e r v i e w s w i t h Gabbra and Wata- The Wata a r e a low c a s t e
s e c t i o n of a l l Galla groups, i n c l u d i n g t h e Gabbra, Boran, Sakuye, and
O r m a . One of t h e aims of- t h e p r o j e c t i s t o s t u d y s u b s i s t e n c e
s t r a t e g i e s , t h e r e f o r e a n a t t e m p t i s b e i n g made t o a s c e r t a i n how t h e
Vata, who t r a d i t i o n a l l y a r e h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s , f i t i n t o t h e economy of
t h e p a s t o r a l i s t s . Wata were i n t e r v i e w e d i n and around North Horr and
i n Maikona. They were asked q u e s t i o n s concerning o r a l t r a d i t i o n s ,
p a s t h u n t i n g a c t i v i t i e s , and t h e i r s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and t r a d i t i o n s .
Gabbra g a s t o r a l i s t s were i n t e r v i e w e d i n f i v e o l a s . Boran were
a l s o i n t e r v i e w e d who came from North Horr. Here q u e s t i o n s c e n t e r e d
more around how t h e y had been u s i n g t h e l a n d w i t h t h e i r v a r i o u s t y p e s
of animals a t d i f f e r e n t s e a s o n s , on d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s , and on how
food i t e m s were o b t a i n e d and used. Some q u e s t i o n s about o r a l t r a d i t i o n s and t h e Wata were a l s o asked.

L i n g u i s t i c d a t a were obtained i n Maikona. An informant was

interviewed about terms r e l a t i n g t o domestic animals (camel, c a t t l e ,
~ h e e ~ / ~ o a and
t s ) milk products.
P o l l e n samples- Lake sediments a r e u s u a l l y good p o l l e n t r a p s
and i n an attempt t o o b t a i n d a t a on p a s t v e g e t a t i o n p a t t e r n s two p i t s
were dug i n t h e Chalbi at North Horr and one near Maikona. The
sediments were very calcareous and hard and t h e p i t s could not be dug
deeper than 2 m. Samples were taken every 40 cm. Remnants of former
Lake Chalbi d e p o s i t s were found i n t h e dune system t o t h e NE of North
Horr, l y i n g as exposed outcrops above t h e ground i n f l a t , low-lying
a r e a s between t h e dunes, capped by a c a l c r e t e l a y e r . Samples were
a l s o taken every 40 cm f o r 2 m from one of t h e s e exposures. The
samples were taken t o t h e CNRS palynology l a b o r a t o r y i n M a r s e i l l e s by
D r . Raymonde Bonnefille.
Carbon-14 samples- Charcoal from s i t e GcJm 3 a t North Horr,
human bone from s i t e s GdJn 1 and 2 and powdered wood from GdJn 3 a t
Kalacha have been s e n t f o r d a t i n g . Samples of human bone have been
taken from GdJn 3 , 4, 5, and 6.
Settlement p a t t e r n s - The l o c a t i o n and some of t h e surrounding
environmental v a r i a b l e s of p r e s e n t and p a s t p a s t o r a l s e t t l e m e n t s have
been recorded. The a r e a l e x t e n t and d e t a i l of t h i s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e
t o t a l study a r e a i s very l i m i t e d a t p r e s e n t due t o problems of t i m e ,
t r a n s p o r t , manpower, and wide and d i s p e r s e d d i s t r i b u t i o n of s e t t l e m e n t s .
Aerial photos were s t u d i e d f o r t h e l o c a t i o n of s e t t l e m e n t s , but nothing
of use could be seen. It i s hoped t h a t t h e funds can be found t o
mount an a i r photo survey of c a i r n s i n s e l e c t e d a r e a s .
Results
Archaeological survey- There a r e numerous s u r f a c e s c a t t e r s on
and at t h e base of dunes around North Horr, but sample excavations
have shown t h e s e t o be of l i m i t e d value because of t h e l a c k of
occupation horizons under t h e s u r f a c e . The m a t e r i a l i s d i f f u s e l y
s c a t t e r e d throughout t h e d e p o s i t s and t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of bone i s very
poor. Gamura Oasis had only very s p a r s e s c a t t e r i n g s of a r t i f a c t s on
t h e s u r f a c e of c h e r t , o b s i d i a n , and p o t t e r y . One r i c h c h e r t f a c t o r y
s i t e w a s found with small f l a t t i s h , i r r e g u l a r c h e r t nodules broken up
and f l a k e d , some q u a r t z p i e c e s , and r a r e bone s p l i n t e r s . Many s t o n e
c a i r n s a r e l o c a t e d a s h o r t d i s t a n c e t o t h e west of Maikona i n a
l a r g e l a v a expanse. A few p o t t e r y and s t o n e h i f a c t s were found
I
around t h e edge of t h e Chew Bahir l a k e f l a t s , but t h e y were n o t &
s i t u . There a r e very few exposures as t h e edge of t h e l a k e f l a t s
r i s e very g r a d u a l l y i n t o a bush covered a r e a .
Excavation- No d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s h a s y e t been done on t h e
m a t e r i a l , but washing, s o r t i n g , and counts have been accomplished.
The North Horr m a t e r i a l is b a s i c a l l y made up of two k i n d s of s t o n e
a r t i f a c t s : m i c r o l i t h i c p i e c e s made on c h e r t , chalcedony, q u a r t z , and

obsidian, and a macrolithic component of choppers, f l a k e s , and f l a k e

s c r a p e r s on fine-grained l a v a . P o t t e r y sherds a r e small, having been
broken up by wind and sand, but t h e r e a r e numerous decorated a.nd r i m
p i e c e s showing a g r e a t d i v e r s i t y i n s t y l e . The bone i s very *ament a r y , but M r . John Kimengitch of t h e National Museum has analyzed it
and t h e r e a r e d e f i n i t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of c a t t l e and ~ h e e ~ / ~ o but
at,
more complete specimens w i l l be necessary f o r p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
The m a t e r i a l was d i s t r i b u t e d mainly i n t h e t o p 20 cm, with decreasing
d e n s i t y below t h a t depth.
Human b u r i a l s were found i n a l l s i x c a i r n s a t Kalacha. Four of
them were i n a t i g h t l y contracted p o s i t i o n l y i n g on a s i d e . One w a s
extended with t h e l e g s p a r t i a l l y contracted and one was represented
by only a long bone frapnent and a couple of t e e t h . They were
g e n e r a l l y t a l 1 , t h r e e b e i n g l g ~ c mi n length. The one i n t h e a t t a c h e d
r i n g was only 167 cm i n l e n g t h and was possibly t h e wife of t h e
i n d i v i d u a l i n GdJn 3. Three of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s c l e a r l y had a l l f o u r
lower i n c i s o r s knocked out at an e a r l y age, and two o t h e r s w i l l have
t o be reconstructed and s t u d i e d i n t h e l a b . A l l of t h e specimens a r e
c u r r e n t l y being cleaned and prepared f o r study i n The I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Louis Leakey Memorial I n s t i t u t e of African P r e h i s t o r y .
The ethnographic d a t a c o l l e c t e d i s much t o o voluminous t o
d i s c u s s here and w i l l be r e p o r t e d elsewhere.
Settlement p a t t e r n s - There seems t o be a g r e a t d e a l of v a r i e t y
i n t h e environmental v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d with Gabbra s e t t l e m e n t s .
Some were l o c a t e d on compact, stony ground with l i t t l e surrounding
vegetation and o t h e r s were l o c a t e d on sand i n t h i c k bush. The
s e t t l e m e n t s l o c a t e d on sand seemed t o be on more s t e e p l y s l o p i n g
ground than those on hard subsurfaces. The p r i n c i p a l v a r i a b l e
guiding s i t e l o c a t i o n w a s a v a i l a b i l i t y of grazing f o r t h e l i v e s t o c k .
Water w a s a secondary c o n s i d e r a t i o n , and some s e t t l e m e n t s brought
water by camel up t o 15 km away from t h e source. It i s hoped i n t h e
f u t u r e t o c a r r y out a survey of s e t t l e m e n t s along t h e l i n e s accomp l i s h e d by Western and Dunne, recording v a r i a b l e s such as s l o p e
g r a d i e n t , vegetation type and coverage, s o i l s u b s t r a t e , and
settlement l o c a t i o n , dimensions, and age w i l l a l s o be noted.
The r e s u l t s of t h e p r o j e c t a r e t h u s far very
Discussion encouraging, but much more remains t o be done. More paleoenvironmental and subsistence d a t a i s needed and more human remains needed
t o conduct a paleodemographic study. P o t e n t i a l s i t e s have been
l o c a t e d t h a t might provide samples of settlement populations.
L i n g u i s t i c evidence suggests t h a t t h e e a r l y p a s t o r a l i s t s were
C u s h i t i c speakers, but lower i n c i s o r evulsion is a N i l o t i c t r a i t .
Dating of t h e s i t e s i s a l s o of c r u c i a l importance. It i s hoped
e v e n t u a l l y t o be a b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t a h i s t o r y of t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s of c l i m a t i c and environmental change t o changes i n s u b s i s t e n c e , demography, and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s and t o i d e n t i f y t h e populat i o n s involved i n terms of t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c and c u l t u r a l a f f i l i a t i o n s .

E
G
m
BOSTON UNIVERSITY EXCAVATIONS AT MAREA, EGYPT.
The Boston U n i v e r s i t y f i e l d s c h o o l a t Marea ( ~ y a m eAkuma No. 1 5 ) ,
on Lake Maryut 45 kms. west of Alexandria, was resumed d u r i n g JuneJ u l y , 1980. Again, about two dozen American c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s
p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e program. The s t a f f c o n s i s t e d of Creighton Gabel,
K a r l P e t r u s o , Fawzi e l Fakharani, and Thomas Boyd. D r . Boyd, a n
experienced a r c h i t e c t u r a l surveyor from t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Texas, w a s
a b l e t o map over h a l f t h e main s i t e a t a 1:500 s c a l e , a l o n g with most
of t h e a s s o c i a t e d b u i l d i n g s . Larger-scale maps and s e c t i o n s were a l s o
made on t h e western end of t h e h a r b o r .
Continued excavation and t e s t soundings appear t o have e s t a b l i s h e d
t h e f a c t t h a t most of t h i s p a r t of t h e s i t e i s wholly Byzantine, with
no underlying d e p o s i t s o r s t r u c t u r e s of g r e a t e r a g e . Where t h e e a r l i e r
p a r t of t h e s i t e - - L a t e Dynastic and Graeco-Roman--may have been
c e n t e r e d i s n o t y e t c l e a r , s i n c e t h i s i s n o t s p e c i f i e d i n contemporary
r e f e r e n c e s i n t h e a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e (from t h e time of Herodotus and
Thucydides onward).
One c l u e , however, may l i e i n t h e d i s c o v e r y of a p r e v i o u s l y
unreported s e t of h a r b o r i n s t a l l a t i o n s 2-3 kms. west of t h e main s i t e .
These c o n s i s t of a 120- meter s t o n e j e t t y , a 30 x 57 meter r e c t a n g u l a r
wharf o r s l i p , and a l a r g e r e c t a n g u l a r platform w i t h a n a t t a c h e d ramp
o r l a n d i n g dock. T h i s l a s t s t r u c t u r e is b u i l t of massive, welld r e s s e d limestone b l o c k s , and both p l a t f o r m and ramp a r e b a t t e r e d
around t h e o u t s i d e s a t about a 30' a n g l e . The b l o c k s , some over two
meters i n l e n g t h a r e c l o s e l y f i t t e d and without mortar. Whether t h i s
was of t h e same d a t e as t h e o r i g i n a l p o r t o r was b u i l t a t a t i m e of
d i f f e r e n t l a k e l e v e l remains t o be determined. One p o i n t of i n t e r e s t
i s t h a t it l i e s on t h e s h o r e below, and j u s t about o p p o s i t e , t h e
excavated p o r t i o n of t h e L a t e Dynastic and Graeco-Roman n e c r o p o l i s .
F u r t h e r s o i l samples were o b t a i n e d f o r p o l l e n e x t r a c t i o n .
P r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s of samples c o l l e c t e d i n 1979 h a s shorn them t o be
r i c h i n p o l l e n c o n t e n t , i n c l u d i n g both n a t u r a l grasses and c e r e a l s .
Two major s e r i e s of samples were c o l l e c t e d t h i s y e a r , one from a deep
sounding beneath a n already-excavated b u i l d i n g on t h e h i g h e s t p a r t of
t h e s i t e and a n o t h e r from i n s i d e , and from a r e f u s e area behind one
of t h e w a t e r f r o n t b u i l d i n g s making up p a r t of a shop a r c a d e w i t h
l i v i n g q u a r t e r s a t t a c h e d . The same t r e n c h e s produced a l a r g e and w e l l
p r e s e r v e d sample of f a u n a t h a t i n c l u d e s s h e l l , f i s h , b i r d s , domestic
a n i m a l s , and r o d e n t s o r o t h e r small animals. These w i l l be examined
by one of our s t u d e n t a s s i s t a n t s i n t h e course of t h e 1980-81 CmRAE
l a b o r a t o r y program at M.I.T. on b i o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l s i n p r e h i s t o r y .
Pamela Vandiver of M.I.T. h a s agreed t o s u p e r v i s e a n a l y s i s of
g l a s s and g l a s s s l a g t h i s f a l l , based on m a t e r i a l s c o l l e c t e d by u s i n

1979 and 1980. This w i l l include study of chemical and elemental

composition, t r a c e element a n a l y s i s , atomic absorption, scanning
e l e c t r o n microscopy, emission microscopy, t h i n s e c t i o n s , and x-ray
d i f f r a c t i o n . Subsequently, we hope t o have ceramics and metals from
t h e s i t e t e c h n i c a l l y analyzed.
I n t h e Nest P o r t (western end of t h e main p o r t ) , survey and
excavation crews discovered what may be a ship-servicing/warehouse
complex, with one o r more broad s l i p s sloping down t h e former shore.
Nearby, excavation began on a s t r u c t u r e whose main f e a t u r e i s a
c i r c u l a r arrangement of limestone blocks e i g h t meters i n diameter.
There i s some suggestion of a covered s t a i r c a s e around t h e o u t s i d e of
t h i s . Whether t h i s was a well o r something e l s e w i l l have t o be
a s c e r t a i n e d by f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Progress t h e r e was hampered i n
t h e last days by t h e uncovering of a n Islamic c i s t , with b u r i a l , near
t h e top.

It has been agreed t h a t more work w i l l be c a r r i e d out i n t h i s

s e c t o r of Marea by our group i n 1981, with t h e expectation t h a t more
information may be gained on ancient maritime a r c h i t e c t u r e i n t h i s
p a r t of t h e Mediterranean.
Creighton Gabel
K a r l Petruso

EXCAVATIONS AT NAZLET KHATER ( ~ i d d l e~ g y ~ t )

During t h e p a s t t h r e e years t h e team of t h e Belgian Middle Egypt
P r e h i s t o r i c P r o j e c t has executed both archaeological and geological
research i n t h e lower d e s e r t at Nazlet Khater, some 20 km West of
Tahta. I n February and March 1980 f o u r s i t e s , NK2, NK3, NKlb and NK4,
were excavated.
The s i t e of NK2 i s an i s o l a t e d h i l l , 8 m above t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n .
Its e n t i r e s u r f a c e i s covered with p r e h i s t o r i c f l i n t a r t e f a c t s , most
of which a r e h e a v i l y e o l i s e d and bear a brown p a t i n a . Among t h e s e
surface-finds t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e implements c e r t a i n l y belong t o
t h e Middle P a l a e o l i t h i c period.
Two main trenches were made i n search f o r undisturbed Middle
P a l a e o l i t h i c a r t e f a c t s , one on t h e North-Western s i d e , t h e o t h e r i n t h e
South-Eastern slope of t h e h i l l . I n each square meter hundreds of
a r t e f a c t s appeared, from t h e s u r f a c e down t o t h e base of t h e wadi
l a y e r s , covering s t e r i l e Nile g r a v e l s at t h e North-Western s i d e of t h e
h i l l and r e s t i n g upon g r a n u l a r sands (equally s t e r i l e ) e l s e x h e r e .
Some of t h e a r t e f a c t s f i t t o g e t h e r which suggests t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l
d i d not move much. The w a i i i rubble contained a few freshwater s h e l l s

and at one p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e i n t h e North-Western t r e n c h some c h a r c o a l

could be c o l l e c t e d .
The r a t h e r l a r g e s i z e d l i t h i c m a t e r i a l i s v e r y s h a r p , h a s no
p a t i n a and r e v e a l s a v e r y e l a b o r a t e f l a k i n g technique. Among t h e
L e v a l l o i s c o r e s t h e Nubian type predominates. The L e v a l l o i s f l a k e s ,
L e v d l o i s p o i n t s and L e v a l l o i s b l a d e s t h a t were produced from t h e s e
c o r e s , a r e l a r g e and t h i n and t h e i r b u t t s show many f a c e t s .
The s i t e of NK3 i s a l s o a s m a l l , i s o l a t e d and i n c l i n i n g h i l l .
It h a s an average a l t i t u d e of 4 m above t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n . A t t h e
South-Eastern s i d e of t h e h i l l one f i n d s a dense c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
a r t e f a c t s , belonging e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e Middle P a l a e o l i t h i c p e r i o d .
The p r o f i l e of t h e excavation t r e n c h r e v e a l s a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n t o
NK2 : wadi m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n i n g a r t e f a c t s r e s t i n g upon N i l e sediments.
It a l s o shows t h a t t h e g r e a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n of implements - up t o 800
each square meter - i s due t o a n accumulation of l i t h i c m a t e r i a l i n a
wadi channel, p a r t of which w a s washed away by p o s t e r i o r wadi g u l l i e s .
The a r t e f a c t s e x h i b i t a white p a t i n a .
Although t h e f l a k e d implements a r e much t h e same as t h o s e from
NK2, somewhat more t o o l s could be c o l l e c t e d h e r e : a few s i d e s c r a p e r s ,
retouched f l a k e s and some specimens of a p o i n t w i t h v e n t r a l r e t o u c h .
On and nearby t h e same s i t e s , c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of L a t e P a l a e o l i t h i c
m a t e r i a l have been found : on t h e Northern s i d e of NK2, E a s t of N K 1 :
NKlb and South of NK3, on a h i g h e r l e v e l : NK4. On NKlb we o n l y took
samples of t h e i n d u s t r y from both t h e s u r f a c e and from t h r e e t e s t p i t s
whereas t h e s i t e of NK4 was excavated.
A huge q u a n t i t y of a r t e f a c t s and some c h a r c o a l , l e n s e s of b u r n t
sands and b u r n t f l i n t were recovered. The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l material i s
found w i t h i n f o u r superimposed g r a v e l y l a y e r s ; i n between t h e l a y e r s
e o l i a n sands were d e p o s i t e d . The l o w e s t sand and g r a v e l l a y e r i s
s l i g h t l y consolidated.

A great d e a l of small f l i n t r i v e r cobbles were used as r a w

m a t e r i a l , u n l i k e t h e e a r l i e r Middle P a l a e o l i t h i c i n d u s t r i e s . The
L a t e P a l a e o l i t h i c i n d u s t r y i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a m a j o r i t y of b l a d e l e t
c o r e s , f l a k e s and b l a d e l e t s . The L e v a l l o i s technique does n o t seem
t o be p r e s e n t at NK4, although u i t h i n t h e L a t e P a l a e o l i t h i c i n d u s t r y
of NKlb a few p o o r l y shaped L e v a l l o i s c o r e s a r e found. Except f o r a
f e w denticulates, t o o l s a r e absent.

Two g r a v e s we came a c r o s s by chance were excavated on NK2. The

s k e l e t o n s - one of a younger person and one of an e l d e r l y one - l a y
i n u n d i s t u r b e d tombs t h a t were deepened i n t h e g r e y s i l t y matrix of
t h e wadi; one of them had a ~ e o l i t h i c ( ? )axe as a burial g i f t . The
g r a v e s were f i l l e d up w i t h l o o s e yellow sands between huge s t o n e s
which were i n t e n t i o n a l l y p l a c e d upon t h e c o r p s e s .

P.M. VERMEERSCH, E, PAULISSEN, M, OTTE, G , GIJSELINGS, D . DRAPPIER,

P, VAN PEER.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS I N THE NAGADA REGION

DURING THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD

Eighty-five years have elapsed s i n c e t h e Predynastic period i n Egypt has

come t o l i g h t .

Yet t h e c u l t u r a l processes responsible f o r t h e emergence of

a g r i c u l t u r e during t h a t period and t h e mechanisms by which Egypt was t r a n s formed i n t o a s t a t e s o c i e t y remain i n t h e dark.

Most of t h e excavations were

undertaken before WWI and only a few d a t e l a t e r than W W I I .

Luckily, new excavations have been i n i t i a t e d a t Merimda Beni Salama,
Maadi, Hierakonopolis, and by our team a t Nagada.

We a r e f o r t u a n t e t o have

been a b l e t o l o c a t e seven Predynastic s e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e region between Danfig

and B a l l a s

i n addition t o t h e s i t e s already discovered by P e t r i e .

A d e t a i l e d systematic survey of t h e region based on i n v e s t i g a t i n g

t h e region i n 50x200 meter

t r a n s e c t s provides t h e f i r s t r e g i o n a l map of

Predynastic s e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e region.

Topographic maps a t a s c a l e of 1:1000

have been completed f o r t h r e e s i t e s and we plan t o map a l l o t h e r s i t e s a t t h e

same scale.

A Geomorphological map a t a s c a l e o f 1:50,000 f o r t h e region has

been completed from a e r i a l photqs,and fieldwork, and a study of s u r f i c i a l

d e p o s i t s and P l e i s t o c e n e s t r a t i g r a p h y i n t h e region provide t h e b a s i s f o r an
understanding o f t h e geologic and geographic s e t t i n g of Predynastic settlements.
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f sediments, pollen, fauna, and p l a n t s have been undertaken
providing a b a s i s f o r r e c o n s t r u c t i n g palaeoclimate and palaeoecology.
were i n i t i a t e d a t t h r e e s i t e s .

Excavations

L i t h i c a r t i f a c t s , ceramics, o t h e r f i n d s , and

bioarchaeological remains have been analyzed, and 14 radiocarbon d a t e s have so

far been obtained on charcoal samples.

We hypothesize t h a t an understanding o f t h e emergence and evolution of

Predynastic c u l t u r e s cannot be achieved without comprehending t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
between t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of Egypt and t h e N i l o t i c environment.

The work by

Huzayyin (1939,1950) and more r e c e n t l y by Karl Butzer on p r e h i s t o r i c , pred y n a s t i c , and Pharaonic Egypt
s t r e s s e s t h i s viewpoint, and i t i s inconceivable t h a t anyone who v i s i t s

--

Egypt would n o t be impressed by t h e organic l i n k between t h e Egyptians and

t h e Nile.
Available radiocarbon d a t e s from Nagada i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e t t l e m e n t s
span about 900 years from 5270 t o 4400 u n c a l i b r a t e d radiocarbon y e a r s before
p r e s e n t o r about 80% o f t h e time d u r a t i o n o f t h e

re dynastic Period i n Upper

Egypt (The Delta and Fayum s e t t l e m e n t p r e d a t e t h e Predynastic s i t e s of

Upper Egypt by about one millennium).

Our i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e Nagada region

r a i s e d sheep/goats, c a t t l e , and p i g s , and t h a t they c u l t i v a t e d emmer wheat and
barley.

There i s perhaps nothing new about t h i s information.

What i s new i s

our c o n t r o l of t h e temporal v a r i a t i o n i n t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e frequency of c u l t i g e n s

and animals.

Excavations a r e conducted i n 5 centimeter l e v e l s providing a

'

t i g h t c o n t r o l over changes through time i n bioarchaeological and a r t i f a c t u a l

remains.

Interim r e s u l t s on t h e faunal remains i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e i s a

d e f i n i t e and dramatic change i n t h e r a t i o o f sheep/goats t o c a t t l e from t h e

lower l e v e l s t o t h e younger l e v e l s .

The r a t i o drops from 11.7:

o l d e s t l e v e l s t o 1.1:l i n t h e youngest l e v e l .
i n t h e r a t i o o f sheep/goat t o pigs.
t o c a t t l e i n Egypt today i s 1.5:1,

1 i n the

This i s p a r a l l e l e d by a decrease

It i s noteworthy t h a t t h e r a t i o of sheep/goat

a s compared w i t h 11.3:l

among t h e Kababish

Arabs

Data from Pharaonic Egypt, and we a r e indebted t o

Professor Klaus Baer (The O r i e n t a l I n s t i t u t e ) f o r information on t h a t i s s u e ,

a r e s c a n t and dubious, but they a r e i n t h e range of 1.5:l

s i m i l a r t o t h a t of

modern Egypt and t h e l a t e Predynastic.

This temporal v a r i a t i o n suggests t h a t t h e e a r l y i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e Nagada
region were most probably involved i n a p i t t e r n o f s u b s i s t e n c e emphasizing
u t i l i z a t i o n o f d e s e r t resources s i n c e g o a t and sheep a r e b e t t e r adapted t o t h e
d e s e r t than e i t h e r c a t t l e o r pigs.

Evidence from t h e work of Professor Wendorf

i n t h e southern p a r t of t h e Western Desert and t h e work conducted by F. A.

Hassan a t Siwa and Baharia oases has documented a phase of moist conditions
from 9500 t o 6700 B.P.

This period was a s s o c i a t e d

with human occupation of almost a l l Egyptian oases by terminal P a l a e o l i t h i c

hunters and g a t h e r e r s and by herders of c a t t l e and sheep/goats.

Two v a r i e t i e s

of barley, one of them domestic and perhaps sorghum were a l s o i d e n t i f i e d i n

a Neolithic c o n t e x t a t Nabta i n t h e south of t h e Western Desert.

The moist phasewas followed by a period of severe a r i d i t y which has

most l i k e l y l e d t o t h e gradual depopulation of t h e d e s e r t and an i n f i l t r a t i o n

of t h e Nile Valley by i n d i v i d u a l s and f a m i l i e s not u n l i k e t h e modern d i s p e r s a l
o f t h e Sahel peoples following t h e r e c e n t droughts i n t h e a r e a .

Similar

a r i d i f i c a t i o n seems t o have a f f e c t e d t h e S i n a i and t h e Negev and a s i m i l a r

movement o f population toward t h e Nile i s p l a u s i b l e .

This was no mass invasion,

but a gradual i n f i l t r a t i o n by d r i f t e r s and refugees over a span of about 500

y e a r s o r more.

These groups intermingled e a s i l y with t h e l o c a l i n h a b i t a n t s

of t h e N i l e Valley who were a t t h e time hunters, g a t h e r e r s , and f i s h e r s

(Hassan, 1980) w i t h a f l e x i b l e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and presumably exogamous

marriage p a t t e r n a s most hunter-gatherers a r e .

Agriculture t h e r e f o r e d i d not

d i s p l a c e t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g subsistence p a t t e r n s but supplemented it.

The

change i n subsistence was almost imperceptible, peaceful, and gradual.

This

model e x p l a i n s why a g r i c u I t u r e was introduced t o Egypt when it d i d and how it

-*

was introduced without assuming any d e l i b e r a t e choice o n ' t h e p a r t of t h e

Nilotic inhabitants.

The people o f t h e N i l e who must have been aware o f t h e

a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s i n t h e d e s e r t a r e a s and i n t h e Near East, and who

occasionally u t i l i z e d wild g r a i n and may have i n f a c t tended some p l o t s of
b a r l e y a t t h e edge o f t h e f l o o d p l a i n perhaps a s e a r l y a s 18,000 y e a r s ago a s
r e c e n t f i n d i n g s by Professor Wendorf a t Wadi Kubanyia
i n d i c a t e were engaged i n a p r o f i t a b l e and p r e d i c t a b l e s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n
o r i e n t e d toward hunting c a t t l e , h a r t e b e e s t , capturing hippos, c a t c h i n g Nile
f i s h , and gathering N i l o t i c p l a n t s .

The s u f f i c i e n c y of t h e ~ i l he a b i t a t
and t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e N i l o t i c resources

compared t o those o f t h e Near Eastern metastable rain-governed r e s o u r c e s was

probably nonconducive t o a change toward c u l t i v a t i o n a s a means of s e c u r i n g

a d d i t i o n a l food o r a f u r t h e r s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e economic base.

Once t h e new elements of s u b s i s t e n c e and o t h e r c u l t u r a l t r a i t s were
incorporated i n t h e N i l o t i c c u l t u r e s t h e y d i f f u s e d along t h e N i l e .

There a r e

i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e spread o f a g r i c u l t u r e was m u l t i d i r e c t i o n a l with a d e f i n i t e

d i r e c t i o n from t h e D e l t a southward and perhaps another from Nagada toward Hierakonpolis

. m e Khartoum N e o l i t h i c

seem t o have been e i t h e r indigenous

o r from a d j a c e n t sources of t h e Sahelian b e l t .

The r e s u l t s of b o t a n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h e b a r l e y was t h e most
dominant c u l t i g e n

w i t h a frequency twice t h a t of wheat.

T h i s i s i n marked

c o n t r a s t with t h e p r e s e n t dominance of wheat over barley.

I n 1950-1954, t h e

acreage under barley was 7.2% o f t h e combined acreage f o r wheat and b a r l e y .

This compares with 30.9% i n 1899-1900

I n 1875, b a r l e y amounted t o 31,8% of t h e combined produce of wheat and b a r l e y .

Data on e a r l i e r perioda has not been c o l l e c t e d y e t , b u t Girard
i n ~ g s c r i p t i o nd ' ~ g y p t el i s t s barley a s t h e most common c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t i n
Egypt.

The minimal emphasis on b a r l e y today r e f l e c t s thus a progressive

replacement of b a r l e y with wheat, most probably i n a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e advances

i n perennial i r r i g a t i o n and o t h e r water c o n t r o l s .

Under c o n d i t i o n s of n a t u r a l

i r r i g a t i o n t h e predominance of barley i s understandable given t h e g r e a t e r

r e s i s t a n c e of b a r l e y t o drought and s a l i n i t y .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t

t h e only o t h e r q u a n t i t a t i v e estimate of c e r e a l s from t h e Fayum N e o l i t h i c

c l o s e l y matches t h a t from Nagada.

Barley

a t t h e Fayum r e p r e s e n t s 72.3% compared with 70.7% a t Nagada.

We a r e a t p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e frequency of f i e l d weeds of which
s e v e r a l s p e c i e s have been i d e n t i f i e d a s a means o f determining weeding p r a c t i c e s .
The v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e l e n g t h and width o f t h e r a c h i s of c e r e a l g r a i n s seem t o
be a l s o g r e a t e r than i n t h e l a t e r s t a g e s and may r e f l e c t t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s
i n t h e adaptation of t h e c e r e a l s under c u l t i v a t i o n t o t h e N i l o t i c h a b i t a t .
O u r work on Predynastic a g r i c u l t u r e , a s I have mentioned e a r l i e r ,

r e p r e s e n t s a b a s i s f o r higher l e v e l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e causes of t h e emergence

of p o l i t i c a l hierarchy and c e n t r a l i z a t i o n t h a t culminated u l t i m a t e l y i n t o t h e
emergence of t h e Egyptian S t a t e .

I n a few words, once a g r i c u l t u r e became t h e

dominant mode o f s u b s i s t e n c e with an a t t e n d a n t reduction of s p a t i a l mobility,

and enlargement o f group s i z e , and a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e e c o l o g i c a l network by

focusing on a few r e s o u r c e s t h e economic system became vulnerable t o p e r i o d i c

fluctuations i n a g r i c u l t u r a l yield.

Given t h e u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y of Nile floods

and t h e f a c t t h a t about one of every f i v e floods i s a "bad flood" emergence of

i n t r a r e g i o n a l and i n t e r r e g i o n a l networks of food exchange f o s t e r e d t h e emergence
o f a managerial e l i t e , formal s o c i a l organization, and a m i l i t i a .

The

emergence o f r e g i o n a l p o l i t i c a l u n i t s with d i s t i n c t group e t h n i c i t y paved t h e

way toward t h e enlargement of t h e p o l i t i c a l framework t o i n c l u d e o t h e r u n i t s
through a l l i a n c e s and conquest t o ensure t h e r e g u l a r flow of resources.

I t must

be a l s o noted t h a t once a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d e l i t e emerged with g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o

wealth and power it began t o guard i t s own i n t e r e s t s and aggrandize i t s own gains.
The expansion of t r a d e i n non-food goods was t h u s a t t e n d a n t upon t h e r i s e of an
e l i t e and s t a t u s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n .
The emergence o f t h e relrigious component i n Predynastic c u l t u r e s may be
a l s o viewed a s a n expression of t h e psychological and metaphysical response
t o t h e g r e a t e r a n x i e t y a s s o c i a t e d with t h e u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t i e s of t h e i n c i p i e n t
a g r i c u l t u r a l system.

I n summing up, t h e emergence o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n Predynastic Egypt was a

r e s u l t o f demographic f u s i o n with neighboring groups who i n f i l t r a t e d t h e N i l e
Valley from ca. 7000 t o 6000 B.P.
practices.

and t h e subsequent d i f f u s i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l

The subsequent evolution o f Predynastic c u l t u r e was e s s e n t i a l l y an

expression of a t r e n d toward g r e a t e r i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e r e s o u r c e s of food

producers w i t h i n and among N i l o t i c c m m u n i t i e s i n o r d e r t o s t a b i l i z e t h e
economic base and maintain the wlefare of t h e people.

F.A. Hassan, T.R. Hays, A .A. Hassan, J. Gallagher, A . G a u t i e r , and

W. Wetterstrom
This paper was presented a t t h e Annual Meeting of t h e American Research
Center i n Egypt, 13-15 April 1980, San Francisco.

THE 1980 EXCAVATIONS AT QASR IBRIM, LOWER NUBIA

Roger C . Allen
Boyce N. Driskell
From January 15, t o March 10, 1980, the Egypt Exploration
Society conducted i t s 10th season of excavations a t Qasr I t r i m i n
Egyptian Nubia.

Assistance was a l s o received f m m the American

Research Center in Egypt, the University of Kentucky and the Smithsonian Foreign Cwrency Program.

The expedition was under the over-

a l l d i r e c t ion of D r . W i l l i a m Y Adams.

Work focused on two main areas.

The major e f f o r t concentrated on

the clearing of Late Islamic o r "Bosniant' structures which form t h e

uppermost levels of this deeply s t r a t i f i e d s i t e .

These levels d a t e

from between the middle of the 16th century ard the early 19th century
they comprise the remains of a f o r t i f i e d town occupied by an

A.D;

Ottoman military garrison.

A l e s s e r e f f o r t was devoted t o c l e w i n g

a s e r i e s of f o r t i f i c a t i o n walls along the southwest and northwest

portions of t h e s i t e , dating between -tian

New Kingdan and R a n a n

times.

The Late Islamic town at Qasr Ibrim consists of a s e r i e s of

rooms b u i l t largely of rough stone, s e t i n smll t o moderate amounts
of mud mortar.
whitewashed.

Many of t h e structures are plastered with mud ard

Their preservation i s excellent a i d portions of at

l e a s t one two-story building were standing at t h e beginning of our excavations.

The remains cleared i n 1980 were generally similar t o

those encountered in previous seasons.

I n t e r i m deposits were

r e l a t i v e l y shallow and contained between one and four wet-laid mud

floors.

F i r e hearths, storage p i t s , buried pots and standing mud

s i l o s were also uncovered.

One portion of the s i t e contained a s e r i e s of structures which
were substantially more elaborate than those fourld elsewhere.

They

tended t o be l a r g e r , had been reconstructed several times an3 contained deep i n t e r i o r deposits.

A t l e a s t m e room had been decorated

by t h e painting of r e l a t i v e l y simple geanetric designs in red, yellow

and black over the whitewashed walls.

These s t r u c t u r e s a l s o pro-

duced quite large amounts of documentary material, sane of it cont a i n i n g t h e names of c i v i l and m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l s .

It thus seems

reasonable t o conclude t h a t this was the e l i t e portion of the town.

Overall, t h e picture emerging *om

our excavations in t h e upper-

most l e v e l s of t h e s i t e i s one of a c o m i t y engaged i n most of

t h e a c t i v i t i e s associated with town l i f e .

M a n y of the t e x t s re-

covered demmstrate t h a t the inhabitants maintained themselves as a

m i l i t a r y garrison thrcetghcett most, i f not

2ll

of t h e i r s t a y .

How-

ever, numerous other dmuments along with t h e architecture and

various domestic m t i f a c t s c l e a r l y show t h a t t h e l o c a l c i t i z e n r y were
organized i n t o familial u n i t s ard were concerned with r e l i g i o u s , subsistence, ar?d t r a d e a c t i v i t i e s .

This evidence argues against t h e

c m o n assmption t h a t t h e Ottoman danination of Lower Nubia was primarily m i l l t a r i s t i c .

Excavations along t h e northwestern and sauthwestern flanks of t h e
s i t e revealed a s e r i e s of f a r t i f i c a t i m w a l l s and r e l a t e d deposits
dating frm New Kin@mt o Late Islamic times.

The walls were

corlstructed of larage blocks of well-shaped sandstone enclosing a rubble

core.

Nuch of t h e f i l l removed from around and between the walls con-

s i s t e d of deep, trashy deposits containing straw, t e x t i l e s , pottery

and an abundance of fragment my t e x t s i n Demotic, Meroit i c , Latin

aid Greek. The Roman levels were capped by a deposit of water-warn

cobbles sporadically intermixed with c l u s t e r s of roughly pecked
spherical stones t h a t may have served as b a l l i s t a m u n i t i o n .

The

expedition recovered over 900 of t h e b a l l i s t a st ones, approximately

40 of which were inscribed with Latin, Greek or Demotic monograms.
As a r e s u l t of t h e 1980 excavations we a r e now reasonably

confident t h a t the i n i t i a l occupation at Qasr Ibrim d a t e s t o tk

Egyptian New Kingdom.

We a l s o have construct ion episodes a t t r i b u t a b l e

t o t h e Napatan and Ptolemaic periods.

The Ramans made extensive modi-

f i c a t i o n s t o the f o r t i f i c a t i o n walls and there were subsequent rebuildings during t h e Late Christian and Islamic occupations.
A s usual, Qasr Ibrim prcriuced a l m g e amount of c u l t u r a l

material.

It includes whole and fragnentary t e x t s in Hieroglyphic,

Demotic, Greek, Latin, Memitic, Old Nubian and Arabic.

Arabic

daminated the collection with uver 2400 specimens, several hurdred of

which were complete or nearly so.
range of domestic t o o l s , w e q m y ,
30,000 Pagments of t e x t i l e s .

Other objects included pottery, a

jewelry

, basketry

and over

ETHIOPIA
D r . Desmond Clark sends t h i s n o t e :

" The N a t i o n a l Science Foundation h a s made a g r a n t f o r t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n of a s t o r e and l a b o r a t o r y i n Addis Ababa, E t h i o p i a , t o
house t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and p a l a e o n t o l o g i c a l c o l l e c t i o n s made by
United S t a t e s - based e x p e d i t i o n s t h a t have worked i n t h a t country
mostly i n t h e R i f t V a l l e y and a d j a c e n t p a r t s of t h e P l a t e a u , s i n c e
1968. The important c o l l e c t i o n s from t h e Omo, Hadar, Gadeb, t h e
Middle Awash and t h e G a l l a Lakes a r e a w i l l be housed h e r e and s o be
a v a i l a b l e f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y . It i s hoped t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n w i l l be
under way on t h i s b u i l d i n g d u r i n g t h e coming summer.
D r . Donald Johanson of t h e Cleveland N a t u r a l H i s t o r y Museum,
Cleveland, Ohio and P r o f e s s o r J . Desmond Clark w i l l be l e a d i n g two
teams t o work a g a i n i n t h e Afar R i f t a t Hadar and i n t h e Middle Awash
a r e a s d u r i n g t h e f a l l and w i n t e r of 1980/1981; t h i s work i s b e i n g
f i n a n c e d by a g r a n t from t h e N a t i o n a l Science Foundation, Washington.
These teams w i l l work i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n with a n o t h e r i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y
group l e d by D r . Maurice T a i e b of CNRS, Centre Luminy, M a r s e i l l e s ,
Work w i l l i n c l u d e g e o l o g i c a l mapping of sediments and v o l c a n i c s of
l a t e Miocene t o Holocene a g e , p a l a e o - e c o l o g i c a l s t u d y of s p e c i f i c
l o c a l i t i e s and s i t e s , t h e recovery of palaeo-environmental sequences
and m a t e r i a l f o r d a t i n g as w e l l as d e t a i l e d s t u d y of land-use p a t t e r n s
a t s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n s and excavation t o r e c o v e r f u r t h e r animal and,
h o p e f u l l y , hominid f o s s i l s and c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l i n primary, d a t e d ,
contexts".

GHANA
ARCHAEOLOGY I N GHANA, 1978-79
T h i s i s t h e first number of a c y c l o s t y l e d n e w s l e t t e r produced by
t h e Department of Archaeology, U n i v e r s i t y of Ghana. It r e p l a c e s t h e
J o u r n a l Sankofa which h a s had t o be suspended f o r f i n a n c i a l and
p r a c t i c a l reasons.

A s a n e w s l e t t e r , ArcheGhana i n c l u d e s n o t e s and news n

o
t
a
r t i c l e s - on Ghanaian a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a s c h planned, i n
p r o g r e s s and completed, as w e l l as on radiocarbon d a t e s , new
l i t e r a t u r e , seminars e t c . T h i s first number i n c l u d e s n o t e s on t h e
l a t e s t work on t h e Accra P l a i n s I r o n Age, on P r o f e s s o r Merrick
Posnansky's final season at Begho and b r i e f survey i n Togo, on t h e
Kintampo c u l t u r e , on P r o f e s s o r S h i n n i e ' s and M r . F. Kense's e x c a v a t i o n s
at Daboya, on M r . R . Gerharz' s t u d y of ironwork, on new work on t h e
Ghanaian c o a s t l i n e , etc. It i s b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d t o a number of
l i b r a r i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s and t o a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w i t h a n a c t i v e involvement i n Ghana.

Information f o r subsequent numbers - it i s hoped t o produce

annually - should be s e n t t o t h e E d i t o r a t t h e Department of Archaeol o g y , University of Ghana, P.O. Box 3, Legon, Ghana.

The Kintampo and Daboya: a preliminary note

by Francois J

. Kense

Archaeplogical i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t t h e s i t e of Daboya i n northern

Ghana (9'31 N , lo22' W) have produced evidence of occupation extending
over t h e l a s t two thousand years. Although t h e a c t u a l s e t t l e m e n t
appears t o have s h i f t e d from one l o c a l i t y t o another a c r o s s t h e s i t e ,
both t h e radiocarbon d a t e s and t h e ceramic m a t e r i a l demonstrate t h a t
t h e occupation was f a i r l y continuous throughout t h e period from t h e
middle t o l a t e f i r s t millenium bc. t o t h e p r e s e n t day.
Two p o t t e r y groups have been defined at t h e s i t e which appear t o
have c l o s e resemblance t o t h e m a t e r i a l i d e n t i f i e d as Kintampo by
Davies from Ntereso and by F l i g h t from t h e Kintampo s i t e s . One of
t h e s e Daboya groups, c a l l e d Ware A , c o n s i s t s of r i m s and body sherds
which a r e h e a v i l y decorated by t h e tooth-combed technique (some by
walking comb). The r i m s a r e e i t h e r i n v e r t e d ( a s f o r bowls) o r very
s l i g h t l y e v e r t e d . Some have tooth-combed decoration on t h e l i p s as
w e l l . A l l t h e sherds a r e unslipped and g e n e r a l l y orangy t o l i g h t
brown i n colour. Ware A i s known from t h e a r e a designated Db K a t
t h e s i t e and appeared a t a depth of about t h r e e metres below s u r f a c e .
It formed t h e last c u l t u r a l component before s t e r i l e w a s reached i n
t h a t p a r t i c u l a r a r e a . There a l s o appears t o have been an abandonment
of t h a t a r e a before an i n t r u s i v e group b u r i a l was introduced which
c o n s i s t e d of an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p o t t e r y s t y l e and form. This l a t t e r
f e a t u r e i s d a t e d from about ad 500-1000.
The second group, Ware B , occurred a t t h e lowest l e v e l s i n a
number of a r e a s a c r o s s t h e s i t e . Although it undergoes changes i n
s t y l e and form through time, its e a r l i e s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s at Daboya
c l o s e l y resemble some of t h e examples provided by Davies from
Ntereso. The d e c o r a t i v e technique most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s Ume
c o n s i s t s of a p l a i t e d grass r o u l e t t e which o c c a s i o n a l l y gives t h e
appearance of combing. The most common v e s s e l forms a r e i n v e r t e d r i m
bowls. Many sherds have a wavy groove extending p a r a l l e l t o t h e r i m
about a t h i r d of t h e way down from t h e l i p . While at first p l a i n ,
t h e s e grooves l a t e r become p a i n t e d r e d (again as recorded by ~ a v i e s ) .
A second r i m form i s a s h o r t necked, s l i g h t l y e v e r t e d r i m with
rounded l i p with no decoration on t h e a t t a c h e d body p o r t i o n s .

The radiocarbon d a t e s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e Ware B p o t t e r y a r e

as follows:
S-1856
S-1858

GX-6133
SFU-

12

2710
2340
2010

1670

'-

245
100
140
l9O

BP
BP
BP
BP

(1005
( 490

- 515
- 290

bc.)
bc. )

( ad
200bc
90 - 470
ad 80]

DbClOO
DbF135
DbWAlO
DbP2

Level 15
Level 40
Level 27
Level 26

The p o t t e r y of Ware B d i s p l a y s c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f u r t h e r more, which continue i n t o t h e succeeding group, designated Ware C .

These include a similar f a b r i c , a predominance of r o l l e d r i m s with a
heavy r e d s l i p t h a t does not extend t o t h e body p o r t i o n of t h e
v e s s e l s and a deeply impressed t w i s t e d grass r o u l e t t e . The main
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e of Ware C is t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of i n t r i c a t e
p a t t e r n s of body sherd decoration- r e l i e f s , knobs, applique, wavy
bands, and p o s s i b l e carved r o u l e t t e motifs.
The evidence of t h e s e p o t t e r y groups a t Daboya, t h e r e f o r e , has
t h r e e important implications f o r t h e archaeology of northern Ghana.
F i r s t , we have good evidence f o r t h e most n o r t h e r l y known Kintampo
m a t e r i a l i n Ghana. Along with t h e p o t t e r y , f i v e " t e r r a c o t t a c i g a r s "
were found from t h e s i t e (although not i n s i t u with t h e presumed
a s s o c i a t e d ceramic m a t e r i a l ) , grinding s t o n e s , and lumps of h a r d ,
orangy c l a y at t h e base of u n i t DbK which resembles F l i g h t ' s "burnt
daub". Second, t h e d a t i n g of t h i s m a t e r i a l demonstrates t h a t t h e
Kintampo t r a d i t i o n l a s t e d f o r a considerably longer period than
previously suggested, extending a c r o s s a phase i n Ghanaian p r e h i s t o r y
about which l i t t l e w a s h i t h e r t o known. This period w a s c r u c i a l f o r
t h e t r a n s i t i o n from small n e o l i t h i c communities (herding, f i s h i n g and
farming?) t o i r o n using v i l l a g e s f u l l y adapted t o an a g i c u l t u r a l
subsistence p a t t e r n . The v i r t u a l complete absence of any worked
l i t h i c m a t e r i a l from t h e s i t e s t r o n g l y suggests t h a t i r o n w a s a l r e a d y
i n common use by t h e m i d - f i r s t millenium bc. i n northern Ghana. The
e a r l i e s t d i r e c t evidence of i r o n appears by t h e second century bc.
And t h i r d , t h e m a t e r i a l from Daboya shows t h a t t h e l a t e n e o l i t h i c /
e a r l y I r o n Age t r a d i t i o n s i n northern Ghana d i d s h a r e i n a common
t r a d i t i o n with t h e l a t e r I r o n Age c u l t u r e s t h a t a r o s e , of which Begho,
New Buipe and Daboya formed a p a r t .

NIGERIA

Ekpo Eyo and Frank W i l l e t t have been involved w i t h an

e x h i b i t i o n ' T r e a s u r e s o f Ancient N i g e r i a ' which i s c u r r e n t l y
c i r c u l a t i n g i n North America.
The p i e c e s a l l come from t h e
N i g e r i a n n a t i o n a l c o l l e c t i o n s and most of them have n o t been
seen before o u t s i d e Nigeria.
The e x h i b i t i o n and i t s t o u r were
o r g a n i z e d by Michael Kan, Deputy D i r e c t o r of t h e D e t r o i t
I n s t i t u t e o f A r t s , and Ekpo Eyo was Guest C u r a t o r .
The s c h e d u l e o f showings h a s been extended beyond t h e t h r e e
venues i n i t i a l l y a r r a n g e d and i s now:
The D e t r o i t I n s t i t u t e
of A r t s :

J a n u a r y 1 7 t h t o March 16th 1980

The C a l i f o r n i a P a l a c e of
t h e Legion of Honor, San
Francisco:

A p r i l 28th t o June 29th 1980

The M e t r o p o l i t a n Museum
of A r t , New York:

August 1 1 t h t o October 1 2 t h 1980

The Corcoran G a l l e r y o f
A r t , Washington, D . C .

December 8 t h 1980 t o J a n u a r y 2 7 t h
1981

The Glenbow Museum,

Calgary, A l b e r t a :

March 9 t h

t o May 10th 1981

The High Museum,

A t l a n t a , Georgia:

June 1 5 t h

t o August 2nd 1981

The Los Angeles Museum o f

S c i e n c e and I n d u s t r y :

September 1 5 t h t o November 9 t h 1981

An i l l u s t r a t e d c a t a l o g u e h a s been p u b l i s h e d by A l f r e d A. Knopf,
New York i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e D e t r o i t I n s t i t u t e o f A r t s t o
accompany t h e show: T r e a s u r e s o f Ancient N i g e r i a , Text by Ekpo Eyo
and Frank W i l l e t t , 17z pages w i t h 53 c o l o u r and 123 b l a c k and w h i t e
illustrations.
Paperback $11.95; h a r d cover $18.95.
The a u t h o r s
would l i k e t o r e c o r d t h e i r g r a t i t u d e t o Dirk Bakker whose s u p e r b
photographs o f t h e o b j e c t s i n t h e e x h i b i t i o n were t a k e n i n h a s t e
i n N i g e r i a and t o Rollyn Krichbaum who d i d a v e r y p r o f e s s i o n a l job
o f e d i t i n g o u r h u r r i e d l y w r i t t e n t e x t s and taped c o n v e r s a t i o n s i n t o
a c o h e r e n t form and made s u r e t h a t a l l t h e d e a d l i n e s were met
d e s p i t e h e r own s e r i o u s i l l n e s s .
Frank W i l l e t t ,
H u n t e r i a n Museum,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Glasgow,
Scotland.

D r . Eluyemi of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of I f e r e p o r t s :
The Egbejoda Culture i s a s t u d y i n p r e h i s t o r i c p o t t e r y
technology.
The c u l t u r e covers a geographical r e g i o n with t h e town of I k i r e
as i t s Western boundary, Aponmu ( n e a r ~ k u r e )its e a s t e r n boundary,
I l e s a i t s n o r t h e r n l i m i t and Mefoworade v i l l a g e i n Oranmiyan Local
Government of Oyo S t a t e of N i g e r i a as i t s Southern boundary. A s at
now, t h e c u l t u r e h a s been known t o e x i s t on about s i x t e e n s i t e s .
An e x c a v a t i o n conducted i n 1978 a t Egbejoda s i t e I11 gave t h e
f o l l o w i n g d a t e s : ( a l l d a t e s a s s o c i a t e d with t e r r a c o t t a s c u l p t u r e s . )
NE. 1, Unit
NE. 8 , Unit
NE. 9, Unit
NE. 5, Unit

2 , 1792

100
7 , 1737 4 100
7 , 1427 100
7 , 1326 - 100

27

..

A.D. l a y e r 3. (end of
.)
A.D. Layer 3. (beginning of
A.D. Layer 2.
A.D. Layer 1.

...)

M r . K e i t h N i c k l i n of t h e Powell-Cotton Museum, B i r c h i n g t o n ,
Kent, U .K sends t h i s note :

My r e c e n t u s e of t h e e x p r e s s i o n "weaving skeuomorph" ( ~ y a m e
Akuma, No. 1 6 , 1980: 17-23) i n r e s p e c t of p o t t e r y from t h e Cross
River r e g i o n of S .E ~ i ~ e r i Wa / Cameroun i s somewhat i m p r e c i s e .
Terms more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h i s mode of d e c o r a t i o n a r e " g u i l l o c h e "
and " i n t e r l a c e d strapwork", as used by P i t t - R i v e r s f o r Benin m a t e r i a l .

Readers of Nyame Akuma might a l s o be i n t e r e s t e d t o l e a r n t h a t a

mid-17th c e n t u r y TL d a t e and metal a n a l y s i s d a t a f o r a bronze from
Oron, Cross River S t a t e , have r e c e n t l y been p u b l i s h e d ( ~ i c k l i n ,K. &
S . J . Fleming 1980 "A Bronze 'Carnivore S k u l l ' from Oron, Nigeria."
MASCA J o u r n a l , Vol. 1, No .4. ) , and t h i s i s t o be followed by a f u r t h e r
a r t i c l e r e l a t i n g t o a group of t h r e e Cross River bronzes i n MASCA
J o u r n a l i n 1981.

D r . Nwanna Nzewunwa who is now at t h e School of Humanities

U n i v e r s i t y of P o r t Harcourt sends t h i s note:
The School of Humanities, U n i v e r s i t y of P o r t Harcourt h a s now
e s t a b l i s h e d a n archaeology u n i t . With a g r a n t from t h e U n i v e r s i t y
we a c q u i r e d b a s i c e x c a v a t i o n hardware. Working s p a c e h a s a l s o been
provided i n t h e School block f o r p r o c e s s i n g and s t o r i n g a x t i f a c i s .
Our newly a c q u i r e d equipment w a s p u t i n t o t h e f i e l d i n an excavation
i n t h e months of February and March 1980 at t h e Freshwater Niger
b o tuh e l a r g e i s l a n d ( f o r m e r l y
D e l t a s i t e of ~ ~ a d a ~ b a b o u / ~ r u a m aon

c a l l e d ~ i l B e r f o r c e )c r e a t e d by t h e Nun River and I g b e d i Creek i n t h e

Yenegoa Local Govt. Area of t h e R i v e r s S t a t e of N i g e r i a . I w a s
a s s i s t e d i n t h i s excavation by M r . A . A . Derefaka with whom I a m
compiling a r e p o r t .
The School i s a l s o undertaking a r e s c u e d i g at Wiaakara i n t h e
Bori Local Govt. Area of R i v e r s S t a t e , exposed by a r e c e n t r o a d
c o n s t r u c t i o n . On t h e i n v i t a t i o n of t h e Emir of Yauri, Sokoto S t a t e
of N i g e r i a , t h e School of Humanities s e n t a team made up of P r o f . E . J .
Alagoa ( ~ i s t o r i a n )and D r . N. Nzewunwa ( ~ r c h a e o l o g i s t )t o v i s i t t h e
Emirate. The team i n s p e c t e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d s i n t h e E m i r ' s
keeping, numbered and catalogued them and t r e a t e d t h o s e a t v a r i o u s
s t a g e s of d e t e r i o r a t i o n . Beyond t h i s t h e team v i s i t e d some s i t e s .
A ressessment survey i s planned f o r t h e first f o r t n i g h t of June a f t e r
which d e c i s i o n w i l l be made on t h o s e t o be excavated, Excavation may
begin i n J u l y .

D r . Effah-Gyamfi sends i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e
The Archaeology Unit O f The Department of H i s t o r y
Ahmadu B e l l o U n i v e r s i t y , Z a r i a .
The need f o r a s e p a r a t e Department of Archaeology a t A.B.U. had
f o r a l o n g time been s t r e s s e d by v a r i o u s members of t h e U n i v e r s i t y
Community, However, it w a s not u n t i l 1977 t h a t s e n a t e approved t h e
mounting of a B.A. Hons programme i n Archaeology. T h i s approval
marked t h e b i r t h of a n Archaeology U n i t i n t h e Department of H i s t o r y
and t h i s u n i t h a s s i n c e been o f f e r i n g a B.A. course i n Archaeology.
Senate and Council have a l s o approved t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s e p a r a t e
Archaeology Department and t h i s i s scheduled t o start i n t h e 1980/81
session.

A t t h e undergraduate l e v e l s 2 t h r e e - y e a r degree c o u r s e s are

o f f e r e d : B .A. Hons and B . A . Combined Hons ( ~ i s t o r ~ / ~ r c h a e )o l o ~ ~
programmes. The former, which w a s s t a r t e d 3 y e a r s ago, w a s o f f e r e d
by our first batch of g r a d u a t e s ( ~ u n e ,1980). The l a t t e r w i l l be
o p e r a t i o n a l i n t h e 1980/81 s e s s i o n . The main c o u r s e u n i t s b e i n g
offered are:

AR.
AR.
AR.
AR.
AR.

101
102
201
202
204

AR. 301
AR. 302

World P r e h i s t o r y
Foundations of A f r i c a n C u l t u r e and C i v i l i z a t i o n
Theory and P r a c t i c e of Archaeology 1.
P r e h i s t o r y of West A f r i c a and t h e Sahara
The N e o l i t h i c and Metal Age of A f r i c a and South-Nest
Asia.
Theory and P r a c t i c e of Archaeology: I1
Dissertation

AR.
AR.
AR.
AR.

306 308 303

304.

Archaeology of t h e Nigerian Region

The Nile Valley and E t h i o p i a before 600 AD
The Archaeology of T r a d i t i o n a l I n d u s t r i e s
The Pre-Hispanic Americas.

An M.A. degree programme has a l s o been approved and i s scheduled

t o start i n t h e l980/81 s e s s i o n . Under t h i s programme t h e first year
is devoted t o course work i n Advanced methodology (compulsory) and
one
of : The Stone Age i n Africa; The African I r o n Age; 'Prehistory of
t h e Nigerian RegiontArchaeology of t h e C i v i l i z a t i o n s of Pre-Hispanic
Americas: The Neolithic and Early C i v i l i z a t i o n s of t h e Near East.
The second year is devoted t o t h e s i s work based on candidates' own
o r i g i n a l f i e l d r e s e a r c h , followed by an o r a l examination.
The s i z e of our s t u d e n t in-take i n t h e l a s t 3 y e a r s has v a r i e d
f r o n betweeri 8 and 10. Students who go on t o r e a d t h e B.A. degree
( ~ o n s )have i n t h e last t h r e e years been small, 3 each yeax. This
s i t u a t i o n w a s due t o t h e new nature of t h e s u b j e c t , but now t h a t a B.A.
combined Hons programme h a s been introduced ( l a r g e l y a t t h e demand of
our f i r s t - y e a r s t u d e n t s ) and much p u b l i c i t y has been made, t h i s number
w i l l g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e from t h e 1980/81 s e s s i o n .
The Archaeology s e c t i o n of t h e Centre f o r Nigerian Cultinxd
S t u d i e s of t h i s University h a s , i n l i n e with its s t a t u t e , provided
both s t a f f and equipment f o r teaching i n t h e last t h r e e years. So fax
between 2 and 3 research fellows have each year been engaged i n t h e
teaching of some of the course u n i t s r e f e r r e d t o above. I n a d d i t i o n ,
however, e f f o r t s are being made t o have more permanent, f u l l - t i m e
l e c t u r e r s . So f a r 2 l e c t u r e r s a r e on t h e Archaeology teaching
establishment, on f u l l - t i m e . 1 o r 2 a r e l i k e l y t o j o i n t h i s e s t a b l i s h ment i n October, t h i s year. (vacancies a r e s t i l l a v a i l a b l e from
l e c t u r e r s h i p t o Professorship. I n t e r e s t e d persons may apply d i r e c t
t o t h e Head of U n i t . ) The s t a f f i n g s t r e n g t h i s as follows:
, K . Effah-Gyamfi
, J . Boachie-Ansah

. D. Aiyedun
, J

5.

.F. Jemkur

A .G. Hooper

B.A., M.A., PhD.( ~ e ~ o Head

n ) of Unit.
- B.A. ; M.A. ( ~ e ~ o n )
- B.A. ( A . B . u . ) ; Msc (1bada.n)-on
secondment from Centre f o r Nigerian
Cultural Studies (C N C S )
- B.A. ondo don) Head of Archaeology
s e c t i o n of Centre f o r Nigerian Gu1tura.l
S t u d i e s - on secondment.
- B . A . ; M.Phi1. ondo don) - J o i n i n g as
from September, 1980.

....

Research ~ r o g r a m m e ( P r o ~ o s eand
d ongoing)

(i)

. Effah-Gyamf i - Area

of study: Archaeological C o n t r i b u t i o n
t o t h e is tor^ of U r b a n i s a t i o n i n Hausaland.

Reconnaissance surveys a r e b e i n g made of some of t h e key a n c i e n t

urban s i t e s of t h e r e g i o n . An examination of t h e s t y l e s , p a t t e r n ,
s i z e s and p o s s i b l e f u n c t i o n s of t h e town/city w a l l s , i s being made.
P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i s being p a i d t o t h e s i t e of Turunku b e l i e v e d t o
be a n c e s t r a l t o t h e probably 15th/16th century Z a r i a c i t y . A t Turunku,
a more i n t e n s i v e s t u d y of t h e p a t t e r n i n g of t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
f e a t u r e s and o b j e c t s w i t h a view t o understanding t h e i n t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , r e a s o n s f o r , and p a t t e r n of development of t h e complex
w a l l i n g system found at t h e s i t e , both i n time and s p a c e , i s being
made. Already over a t h i r d of t h e s i t e h a s been covered through
ground surveys and a s y s t e m a t i c c o l l e c t i o n of t h e s u r f a c e p o t t e r y
f i n d s h a s been made on t h i s site-segment. The r e s u l t of t h e p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s has r e v e a l e d u s e f u l s p a t i a l and temporal c o n f i g u r a t i o n s
which w i l l enable a more c o n f i d e n t and meaningful choice of s e c t o r s
f o r excavation.
For a more r e g i o n a l assessment however, it h a s been found
n e c e s s a r y t o begin a s t u d y of s u r f a c e p o t t e r y from t h e Z a r i a r e g i o n .
The i n i t i a l r e s u l t i s v e r y encouraging i n terms of s p a t i a l and
temporal development of s e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e r e g i o n . Following t h e
a n a l y s i s , and supplementary t o S u t t o n ' s excavation of i r o n - s m e l t i n g
f u r n a c e s a t Samaru-West, a t e s t - e x c a v a t i o n of a temporary occupation
s e c t o r of t h i s 7 t h / 8 t h c e n t u r y A . D . s i t e was r e c e n t l y completed. The
a n a l y s i s of p o t t e r y from t h i s s i t e compared with o t h e r s from neighbouring s i t e s h a s a i d e d a t e n t a t i v e chronology.
( i i ) J . Boachie-Ansah - Proposes t o begin a s t u d y of some of t h e
E a r l y I r o n Age s e t t l e m e n t s i t e s , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o s t a t e
formation p r o c e s s e s i n Hausaland, from October, 1980.
(iii)A.G. Hooper - Who w i l l be j o i n i n g t h e Archaeology staff i n
September 1980, h a s i n t e r e s t i n cave and r o c k p a i n t i n g s and engravings,
and it i s hoped t h a t he w i l l s t u d y t h e few e x i s t i n g r o c k p a i n t i n g s and
engravings i n Northern N i g e r i a . When embarked upon, it i s hoped t h a t
such a s t u d y w i l l throw l i g h t on t h e connections between t h e Sahara
and t h e Northern p a r t of t h i s country i n terms of f l o r a , f a u n a , populat i o n movement and t r a d e r e l a t i o n s i n t i m e p a s t .

SENEGAL
D r . D e s c h a m p s o f IFAN, D a k a r p u b l i s h e d a n a r t i c l e i n t h e p a p e r
'Le S o l e i l ' , 9 January 1980 o u t l i n i n g r e c e n t achievments i n
S e n e g a l - h e h a s p e r m i t t e d a p p r o p r i a t e e x t r a c t s (Made b y P . L . S . )
t o be published-

~ ' a n n 6 eq u i v i e n t d e s e t e r m i n e r a u r a 6 t S u n e T ' b o n n e
ann6e1' p o u r l e s r e c h e r c h e s a r c h g o l o g i q u e s a u S6n6ga1, e t
il n e p a r a f t p a s i n u t i l e d ' e n d r e s s e r un r a p i d e b i l a n ,
I1 f a u t t o u t d ' a b o r d s o u l i g n e r q u e l a r e c h e r c h e
archgologique d e v i e n t de p l u s en p l u s l e f a i t d e s S 6 n 6 g a l a i s
eux-mSmes.
En 1 9 7 7 M a s s a m b a LAME r e j o i g n a i t l ' g q u i p e
d u d 6 p a r t - e m e n t d e Pr6histoire-Protohistoire d e l l I F A N , e t
e n 1 9 7 8 I b n o u DIAGNE, q u i v e n a i t d e s o u t e n i r u n e t h 6 s e
remarquke s u r l e Ngolithique, 6 t a i t a f f e c t 6 au d6partement
d f H i s t o i r e de l a Facult6 des L e t t r e s pour y enseigner l a
Prghistoire.
En 1 9 7 9 , d e u x n o u v e a u x c h e r c h e u r s s o n t v e n u s
renforcer l'6quipe enseignante de l a Facult6 des Lettres,:
M . Y o r o FALL, s p g c i a l i s t e d ' a r c h g o l o g i e m 6 d i k v a l e e t Adama
DIOP, q u i $ c o n s a c r 6 s e s t r a v a u x a u P a l g o l i t h i q u e o u e s t africain.
Ces d e u x c h e r c h e u r s o n t s o u t e n u e n F r a n c e d e s
thsses qui ont resues l e s plus grands 6loges.
Notons e n f i n
q u e M . A b d o u l a y e CAMARA, b o u r s i e r d e l a F o n d a t i o n S e n g h o r ,
a c h s v e 'a M a r s e i l l e u n e t h b e s o u s l a d i r e c t i o n d u P r o f e s s e u r
d e LUMLEY, n o u v e a u t i t u l a i r e d e l a C h a i r e d e P r g h i s t o i r e
d u Mus6e N a t i o n a l d V H i s t o i r e N a t u r e l l e .
La F a c u l t 6 d e s L e t t r e s
se d6clarent l e s vocations,
d16tudiants s e sont i n s c r i t
pour l a prgmiere f o i s - l e f a

demeure l e c r e u s e t d a n s l e q u e l
e t en 1979 une demi-douzaine
en maftrise de Prghistoire dont
i t est 2 noter- des gtudiantes.

V o y o n s m a i n t e n a n t c e q u i p e u t S t r e c o n s i d 6 r 6 comme
marquant pour l f a r c h 6 0 1 0 g i e s 6 n 6 g a l a i s e dans l ' a n n 6 e q u i
s ' e s t achev6.
En d 6 c e m b r e 1 9 7 8 - n o u s p r e n d r o n s u n p e u d e
r e c u l - c ' e s t t e n u 2 Bamako l e s e c o n d c o l l o q u e d e 1 ' A s s o c i a t i o n
o u e s t - a f r i c a i n e d1Arch6010gie.
T r o i s chercheus venus de
Dakar o n t p a r t i c i p g 2 c e t t e r e n c o n t r e , e t y o n t p r 6 s e n t G
au t o t a l c i n q communications.
L ' u n d ' e n t r ' e u x , M . Massamba
La
LAME, 2 6 t 6 6 l u a u s e c r g t a r i a t d e 1 ' A s s o c i a t i o n .
d 6 1 6 g a t i o n d u S 6 n g g a l e s t a p p a r u e comme l ' u n e d e s p l u s
d y n a m i q u e s du c o l l o q u e , e t l ' a n n 6 e 1 9 7 9 p o u v a i t commencer
sous l e s m e i l l e u r e s auspices.

Dss l e m o i s d e j a n v i e r l e s p r o s p e c t i o n s r e p r e n a i t d a n s
l e s I l e s du Saloum, e t a b o u t i s s a i e n t 2 l a m i s e en Gvidence
d ' u n nombre i m p o r t a n t d e t u m u l u s c o q u i l l i e r s : p l u s d ' u n
m i l l i e r ont 6 t 6 recensgs s u r une v i n g t a i n e d e s i t e s ,
c o n s t i t u a n t a i n s i une nouvelle " a i r e d e c i v i l i s a t i o n "
protohistorique.
Ces t u m u l u s s o n t a s s e z b i e n d e p u i s l e s
f o u i l l e s , m e n g e s a u d 6 b u t d e l a d g c e n n i e , d e D i o r o n Boumak.

I1 s ' a g i t d ' i n h u m a t i o n s c o l l e c t i v e s a c c o m p a g n g s d ' u n

r i c h e mobilier (cgramiques, o b j e t s de parure) e t dat6es
d ' e n v i r o n un m i l l i e r d q a n n 6 e s a v a n t l e p r 6 s e n t .
I1 e s t h e u r e u x q u ' u n e p a r t i e d e c e p a t r i m o i n e s o i t
pr6serv6 au t i t r e des Parcs Nationaux, c a r l ' e x p l o i t a t i o n
d e s amas c o q u i l l i e r s p a r d e s e n t r e p r i s e s d e t r a v a u x p u b l i c s
f a i t progressivement d i s p a r a f t r e l e s gisements.
Celui de
Faboura, p r s s de Palmarin, d 6 j 2 2 demi-d6truit par l a
c o n s t r u c t i o n d e l a r o u t e d e Ndangane, l ' e s t m a i n t e n a n t aux
9/10sme p a r c e l l e de D j i f z r e .
Heureusement un p e t i t s e c t e u r
de l'amas a 6t6 respect6
e t v i e n t de f a i r e , en d6cembre,
l ' o b j e t d'une f o u i l l e de sauvetage.

Des c o l l a b o r a t e u r s b g n 6 v o l e s d u d g p a r t e m e n t d e P r 6 h i s t o i r e d e 1'IFAN s o n t 2 l ' o r i g i n e de l a d 6 c o u v e r t e d e

deux nouveaux s i t e s d e l ' g g e d e l a p i e r r e .
-Ltun,
p a l 6 o l i t h i q u e , e s t s i t u 6 s u r l a P e t i t e CGte, p r g s d e
Ngaparou, e t a f o u r n i d e s p l e n d i d e s a r m a t u r e s d e l a n c e s e t
d e f l s c h e s en s i l e x t a i l l 6 .
Des f o u i l l e s o n t 6 t 6 p r a t i q u g e s
e t s e poursuivront en 1980.
- L f a u t r e , n 6 o l i t h i q u e , s e t r o u v e s u r l a Grande C c t e ,
d a n s l e s e c t e u r d e Mboro.
Les p r o s p e c t i o n s o n t d 6 j $
livrg
d e s o b j e t s d e b e l l e f a c t u r e comme c e g r a n d h a r p o n e n o s , e t
l e s f o u i l l e s programmges d o n n e r o n t c e r t a i n e m e n t une m o i s s o n
d'informations sur ces
a n c i e n s pscheurs du l i t t o r a l du
Cayor.

Une f o u i l l e a 6 t 6 e x 6 c u t 6 e d a n s l e s i t e m g g a l i t h i q u e
d e Kodiam.
E l l e a permis de r a t t a c h e r c e s i t e importantil c o n t i e n t l e p l u s g r o s m o n o l i t h e connu d e l ' a i r e sgnggambienneau groupe de Ti6kSne-Boussoura 2 inhumation c e n t r a l e simple.
Enfin l e s prospections ont 6t6 poursuivies dans l a
v a l l 6 e d u F l e u v e oG s e s i t u e u n e i m p o r t a n t e a i r e d e
civilisation prothhistorique, attribuge par l e s populations
a c t u e l l e s aux S e r e r q u i l e s a u r a i e n t prgc6d6 s u r c e s l i e u x .
La m o n o g r a p h i e d u T o g g 6 r 6 d e S i n t i o u B a r a , q u i a f a i t l ' o b j e t
de f o u i l l e s annuelles depuis 1973, e s t achevge e t s a p u b l i c a t i o n
e s t prgvue.
Sur c e c h a p i t r e des p u b l i c a t i o n s , il f a u t n o t e r que l a
premizre thzse consacrge 2 l a Prghistoire s6n6galaiseY e t
s o u t e n u e en 1 9 7 2 s u r e x e m p l a i r e d a c t y l o g r a p h i g e p a r l ' a u t e u r
de ces l i g n e s , a 6t6 6dit6e dans l a c o l l e c t i o n travaux e t
d o c u m e n t s d u D g p a r t e m e n t d f H i s t o i r e ( ~ a c u l t 6d e s L e t t r e s d e
Dakar) e t d i f f u s 6 e dans t o u s l e s c e n t r e s de documentation du
S6n6gal e t dans l e s principaux i n s t i t u t s a f r i c a n i s t e s d e
l ' g t r a n g e r . P a r a i l l e u r s , la thsse ds M . LAME, q u i t r a i t e e l l e
d u " ~ 6 o l i t h i q u e m i c r o l i t h i q u e d a n s l a p r e s q u V i l e d u Cap V e r t
e t s e s e n v i r o n s " e s t a c h e v g e e t u n e s u b v e n t i o n a 6tG demand6e
pour q u ' e l l e p u i s s e S t r e publige:
C e t t e t h g s e ~ r g s e n t e r ad e s

r6sultats ingdits concernant les premiers cultivateurs des

environs de Dakar, Rufisque et Thi6s. Une datation a pu
Etre effectuge par l e Pr. Cheikh Anta DIOP sur les
charbons provenant de l a carrizre Diakit6 et a donng 2,322'
1 3 0 annges avant l'sre chrgtienne, soit plus de quatre
millgnaires avant l e prgsent.
La coopgration fransaise doit accorder des crgdits
qui vont permettre de publier l'ensemble des fouilles
protohistoriques rgalisges par les chercheurs de 1'IFAN
depuis 1971. L e tome consacrg aux sites mggalithiques
est prEt et sa parution n'attend plus que le dgblocage
de ces crgdits. Tous les documents qui gtaient
conservgs dans les dossiers des chercheurs vont donc
Etre accessibles au plus large public,
Un mus6e est en cours de rgalisation avec l'amgnagement,
dans l'ex Fort d1Estr6es de Gorge, d'un Musge historique
de S6n6gal 02, sur 1 3 salles d'expositions prgvues
pas moins de 6 seront consacrges 2 ltArch6010gie (deux
salles pour l a Prghistoire et quatre pour l a Protohistoire).
Une "Association des Amis du Musge Historique du ~ 6 n g g a l "
vient d'ailleurs d l S t r e constituge et se propose de
coordonner l'action de toutes les bonnes volontgs dgcidkes
2 aider ceux qui ont en charge ce projet ambitieux.

SIERRA LEONE
AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PROTOHISTORIC DEFENSIVE SITES
I N SIERRA LEONE
bY
C h r i s t o p h e r R.

DeCorse

T h i s survey was conducted d u r i n g my spare t i m e between December

1978 and J u l y 1980, w h i l e my p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s were w i t h t h e
S i e r r a Leone M i n i s t r y o f A g r i c u l t u r e and F o r e s t r y . The areas covered
by t h e survey a r e a l l l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h e a s t p a r t o f S i e r r a Leone
i n Koinadugu D i s t r i c t .
Included a r e t h e Limba chiefdoms o f Yagala
and Bafodia, t h e Yalunka chiefdoms o f Musaia, S i n k u n i a and Sulima,
and, t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , t h e Koranko chiefdoms o f Mongo and Sengbe.
T h i s focus was i n p a r t due t o my j o b r e s t r i c t i o n s and p a r t l y t o my
personal i n t e r e s t i n t h e d e f e n s i v e s i t e s o f these areas.
Eventually,
I hope t o c o n t i n u e t h e p r o j e c t f u l l - t i m e and f i l l o u t some o f t h e
numerous gaps i n my data. A summary o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n gathered t o
d a t e i s g i v e n below.
The h i s t o r y o f t h e n o r t h e a s t p r i o r t o e f f e c t i v e government c o n t r o l
by t h e B r i t i s h d u r i n g t h e 1900's was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n t e r m i t t e n t warf a r e between t h e v a r i o u s t r i b a l groups. One o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s
f i g h t i n g was t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f towns and v i l l a g e s t h a t were e a s i l y
p r o t e c t e d by n a t u r a l and man-made defences. The r e c e n t h i s t o r y and
Sofa War p e r i o d o f a number o f t h e towns s t u d i e d has been d e a l t
w i t h i n p u b l i s h e d and unpublished works, b u t o n l y one a r t i c l e (John
A t h e r t o n , 1972) d e a l s w i t h t h e archaeology o f t h e s i t e s .
In this
survey an a t t e m p t has been made t o l o c a t e t h e "war towns" i n t h e area.
Where p o s s i b l e t h e defences a r e mapped, t h e a r t i f a c t u a l remains a r e
noted, and o r a l h i s t o r i e s a r e c o l l e c t e d . Some s u r f a c e c o l l e c t i o n
and a l i m i t e d amount of e x c a v a t i o n has a l s o been done.
Archaeo 1 og ica 1 s i t e s have been ca t a 1 ogued us ing t h e Standard ized
A f r i c a n S i t e Enumeration System (SASES).
T h i s i s a s i g n i f i c a n t improvement o v e r p a s t years when v i s i t i n g a r c h a e o l o g i s t s d e v i s e d t h e i r own
c a t a l o g u e systems.
SASES f i l e s and a r t i f a c t s have been p l a c e d i n a
s m a l l l a b area a t t h e Fourah Bay C o l l e g e I n s t i t u t e o f A f r i c a n S t u d i e s .
The archaeology l a b i s u n d e r s t a f f e d b u t ample s i t e r e p o r t forms a r e
a v a i l a b l e f o r use.
The defences employed by t h e Limba, Koranko and Yalunka v a r i e d
due t o t o p o g r a p h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and perhaps some c u l t u r a l b i a s .
The Limba i n p a r t i c u l a r u t i l i z e d a v a r i e t y o f defences i n c l u d i n g w a l l s
o f mud and stone, t h i c k e t s of t h o r n bushes, and n a t u r a l p r o t e c t i o n
p r o v i d e d by h i l l t o p s and caves.

The t e r r a i n o f t h e Limba chiefdoms o f Yagala and B a f o d i a i s

marked by s t e e p g r a n i t e mountains and massive r o c k o u t c r o p p i n g s .
The
v e g e t a t i o n i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y secondary f o r e s t and farm bush i n t e r spersed w i t h areas o f savanna grass.
Many towns have been moved
d u r i n g t h e p a s t t h r e e decades t o l o c a t i o n s more e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e by
road. T h i c k v e g e t a t i o n has c l a i m e d t h e o l d towns making mapping and
surface c o l l e c t i o n d i f f i c u l t .
Simon O t t e n b e r g ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington) who c a r r i e d o u t a
s t u d y o f t h e Limba between August 1978 and 1980 p r o v i d e d much a s s i s t a n c e
i n l o c a t i n g o l d towns and o b t a i n i n g o r a l h i s t o r i e s i n t h e B a f o d i a and
Yagala chiefdoms.
The o l d town o f BAFODIA, occupied u n t i l t h e 19501s, l i e s i n a
narrow v a l l e y t o t h e e a s t o f t h e p r e s e n t town. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,000
f e e t o f mud mortared s t o n e w a l l s a r e s t i l l v i s i b l e today. A 500 f o o t
l o n g t t e n c h w h i c h may a l s o have been p a r t o f t h e d e f e n s i v e system can
a l s o be d i s c e r n e d .
Informants of O t t e n b e r g ' s s a i d t h a t s t o n e w a l l s
once e n c i r c l e d t h e e n t i r e town and t h a t t h e t o p o f t h e w a l l s was
covered w i t h t h a t c h t o p r e v e n t t h e mud m o r t a r from washing o u t .
Rock
she1 t e r s and caves near t h e o l d town were used f o r s t o r a g e and as
p l a c e s of r e f u g e d u r i n g war time.
House mounds a r e s c a t t e r e d o v e r
much o f t h e s i t e .
Few a r t i f a c t s were d i s c o v e r e d a t B a f o d i a Old Town.
P o t t e r y sherds
found a t t h e s i t e a r e f o r t h e most p a r t undecorated a s i d e f r o m a few
w i t h s i m p l e p u n c t a t e and c o r d marked p a t t e r n s . A c o n c e n t r a t i o n of i r o n
s l a g was noted on t h e f a r e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e s i t e b u t no s m e l t i n g
furnaces were l o c a t e d . Three E n g l i s h g u n f l i n t s and a c r u d e l y formed
c l a y s p i n n i n g w e i g h t were a l s o found.
The s i t e o f KAWOYA, t h e f i r s t p l a c e occupied by t h e p e o p l e of
B a f o d i a , was a l s o v i s i t e d .
Kawoya i s l o c a t e d on f l a t h i l l t o p more
t y p i c a l o f Yalunka and Koranko s e t t l e m e n t s t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Limba
town.
Many examples o f p o t t e r y were c o l l e c t e d around t h e edge of t h e
h i l l t o p . A l l o f these sherds were h e a v i l y decorated.
Simple r e c t i 1 i n e a r i n c i s i n g was most common b u t examples o f stamping, c u r v i l i n e a r
i n c i s i n g , and two f a i n t examples of c o r d m a r k i n g were a l s o found.
Some
d i s t i n c t i v e v e s s e l forms a r e represented.
Most o f t h e p o t s a r e f a i r l y
s m a l l ; many w i t h a d i a m e t e r between 14-20 cm.
The m i d s e c t i o n s o f t h e
p o t s a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y t h i c k e n e d . No o t h e r a r t i f a c t s were found
e x c e p t f o r v e r y r e c e n t d e b r i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Wesleyan M i s s i o n t h a t
was e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e h i l l i n t h e 1950's.
The o l d town o f KAKOYA i s s i t u a t e d on a s t e e p r o c k y h i l l s i d e a t
t h e base o f a g r a n i t e c l i f f .
One s e c t i o n o f t h e town a c t u a l l y r e s t s
on a r o c k ledge.
T h i s town, now unoccupied, i s d i s t i n c t i v e i n t h a t
t h e houses were c o n s t r u c t e d o f s t o n e and, due t o t h e s t e e p s l o p e , t e r r a c i n g i s q u i t e canmon. T h i c k s t o n e w a l l s , once p r o b a b l y o v e r 6 ' i n

h e i g h t guard a narrow passage w h i c h once was t h e o n l y e n t r a n c e t o

t h e town. As a t Bafodia, t h e stones were h e l d i n p l a c e w i t h mud.
The stones used i n b u i l d i n g a t Kakoya v a r i e d i n s i z e from under a
f o o t t o s e v e r a l f e e t i n l e n g t h . The lower h i l l s i d e l e a d i n g up
t o t h e town was p r o t e c t e d by t h o r n bushes w h i c h t h e Limba c a l l
" i n t h i ri". These t h o r n bushes have spread o v e r p a r t s o f t h e o l d
town making mapping v e r y d i f f i c u l t .
The s i t e was v i s i t e d a numb e r o f times and e v e n t u a l l y o v e r 70 houses and numerous t e r r a c e s
we r e 1 oca t e d

Areas c l e a r e d by e r o s i o n o r f i r e were examined f o r a r t i f a c t s b u t n o t many were found.

P o t t e r y was, f o r t h e most p a r t ,
s i m i l a r t o t h e n o n d e s c r i p t undecorated p o t s produced by Limba
and Yalunka p o t t e r s today, b u t examples o f s i m p l e p u n c t a t e ,
stamped, i n c i s e d , and c o r d marked designs were p r e s e n t . A l s o
found were two p i e c e s o f i r o n s l a g and two i r o n k n i v e s o r spear
points.
P a r t o f a c l a y p i p e bowl, a h e a v i l y retouched E n g l i s h
g u n f l i n t , a g l a s s bead, and fragments o f 1 9 t h c e n t u r y g l a s s a t t e s t
t o t h e i n f l u x o f European t r a d e goods.
The o r i g i n a l town o f YAGALA i s p o s i t i o n e d a t o p a s t e e p r o c k y
1 1 , j u s t s o u t h of t h e p r e s e n t town. Access t o t h e o l d town i s
t u r a l l y b l o c k e d by r o c k faces on some s i d e s . " l n t h i r i " bushes
a l s o make t h e a s c e n t d i f f i c u l t i n p l a c e s . The town i t s e l f i s
i m p r e s s i v e w i t h c l o s e t o 100 s t o n e houses s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e
r o c k ledges. Many b u i l d i n g s were a c t u a l l y b u i l t on t o p o f t h e
l a r g e r b o u l d e r s . S e c t i o n s o f a few o f t h e house w a l l s a r e s t i l l
f a i r l y i n t a c t and adobe beds o r s h e l v e s can s t i l l be d i s c e r n e d .
The stones used i n t h e w a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e much more r e g u l a r i n
s i z e t h a n those used a t Kakoya. T h i s i s p r o b a b l y due t o t h e t y p e
of m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e .
Some r o c k she l t e r s on t h e southwest s i d e o f
t h e h i l l may have been used as h i d i n g p l a c e s d u r i n g war time.
S u r f a c e c o l l e c t i o n a t Yagala Old Town has y i e l d e d a w i d e v a r i e t y
o f p o t t e r y . A1 though most
a r e undecorated, t h e r e a r e examples
o f s i m p l e l i n e and c u r v i l i n e a r i n c i s i n g , stamping, and c o r d marking.
Many vessel forms and s i z e s a r e represented.
Nineteenth century
European stoneware, c r o c k e r y and glassware were n o t e d .
T e s t e x c a v a t i o n s a t a r o c k s h e l t e r i n t h e o l d town o f Yagala
y i e l d e d numerous p o t sherds, b u t none o f s p e c i a l note.
Over h a l f
a r e undecorated and t h e r e s t have s i m p l e 1 i n e i n c i s i n g o r c o r d
marking.
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n s seemed e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h a l l
l e v e l s . One v e r y o r n a t e l y stamped p i e c e t u r n e d up i n t h e s u r f a c e
level.
Charcoal was comnon i n t h e lower l e v e l s and t h e l a s t l e v e l
excavated y i e l d e d what m i g h t be a fragment from a f o r g e f u r n a c e
tuyere.
Hopeful l y e x c a v a t i o n w i 1 l be c o n t i n u e d h e r e a t a l a t e r
date.

Several a d d i t i o n a l Limba war towns have been l o c a t e d b u t t h e y

have o n l y been b r i e f l y s t u d i e d .
CAGO, a Limba town t h a t was annexed
b y a Yalunka chiefdom was p a r t i a l l y p r o t e c t e d by s t o n e w a l l s though
these a r e n o t w e l l preserved. KAYAK0 appears t o have been p r o t e c t e d
p r i m a r i l y by t h i c k e t s o f " i n t h i r i " w h i l e t h e town of KAPONPON i s t h e
o n l y Limba town i n t h i s d i s t r i c t w h i c h appears t o have been e n c i r c l e d
by mud w a l l s . Other s i t e s t h a t a r e marked f o r f u t u r e s t u d y i n c l u d e
SAKUTA, SEREKUDE, and SIAMAMAIA.
To t h e e a s t o f t h e Limba chiefdoms l i e those o f t h e Koranko
and Yalunka. The t e r r a i n d i f f e r s s l i g h t l y i n t h a t i t i s h i l l y b u t
n o t marked by t h e massive g r a n i t i c o u t c r o p s w h i c h d o t t h e Limba areas.
As one moves n o r t h and e a s t , t h e f o r e s t becomes t h i n n e r and l a r g e
s t r e t c h e s o f savanna grass a r e more common. Trans i t i o n a l savanna
v e g e t a t i o n such as t h e baobab t r e e appear.
Both t h e Yalunka and t h e Koranko s e l e c t e d f l a t h i l l tops o r low
p l a t e a u s f o r t h e i r town s i t e s . As t h e y a r e n o t as i n a c c e s s i b l e as t h e
Limba o l d towns, t h e y can be reached by road and many a r e s t i l 1 occupi ed
today. D u r i n g war t i m e t h e l a r g e r Koranko and Yalunka s e t t l e m e n t s were
p r o t e c t e d by mud w a l l s and d e f e n s i v e trenches.
C o t t o n t r e e p o s t s used
i n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e w a l l s sometimes s p r o u t e d and t h e t r e e s were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e defences.
Today many o f these t r e e s remain and mark
t h e e x t e n t of t h e o l d w a l l s .
As c o t t o n t r e e s a r e such v i s i b l e markers, a e r i a l photographs were
used t o l o c a t e some o f t h e tcwns. S t e r e o s c o p i c e x a m i n a t i o n o f b l a c k and
w h i t e and f a l s e c o l o r photographs a t t h e Land Resources Survey O f f i c e i n
Freetown r e v e a l e d r i n g s o f c o t t o n t r e e s around t h e Yalunka towns o f
SONKONIA, SOKORIA, MUSAIA, MANAKON, FALABA, GBERIA TIMBAKO and GBERIA
FOTUMBU. S i m i l a r p a t t e r n s were a l s o found around t h e Koranko towns of
MONGO BENDUGU, MASADUGU, KOINADUGU, KALKOIA and BAMBUKORO. The o l d
Yalunka towns of KAMBA, MAMUDIA, and SlNKUNlA have some l a r g e c o t t o n t r e e s ,
b u t they d o n o t form c l e a r l y d e f i n e d r i n g s around t h e towns. The t a m s
v e r y l i k e l y were surrounded by mud w a l l s b u t t h e t r e e s have n o t s u r v i v e d
t o mark t h e i r l o c a t i o n .
P r e l i m i n a r y work on s k e t c h maps, o r a l h i s t o r i e s , and a r t i f a c t
c a t a l o g u i n g has been s t a r t e d a t Kamba, Musaia, S i n k u n i a and Falaba.
Much o r a l h i s t o r y has p r e v i o u s l y been gathered on t h e Yalunka.
Research
done by C e c i l F y l e and Leland H. Donald has been p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l .
A r t i f a c t u a l remains a t these s i t e s a r e common. H i s t o r i c a r t i f a c t s ,
i n c l u d i n g E n g l i s h g u n f l i n t s , stoneware, case b o t t l e s and h a r d w h i t e
earthenware have been found a t a l l f o u r s i t e s . These f i n d s d a t e f r o m t h e
1 9 t h c e n t u r y o r l a t e r . N a t i v e p o t t e r y n o t e d i s m o s t l y l a r g e (40
50 cm.
i n d i a m e t e r ) bulbous ware w i t h s t r a i g h t necks, 5
10 cm. i n h e i g h t .
D e c o r a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y c o n f i n e d t o i n c i s e d l i n e s r u n n i n g around t h e
neck, b u t some s i m p l e i n c i s e d and p u n c t a t e designs have been found on
body sherds. T h i s t y p e o f p o t t e r y i s n o l o n g e r produced today, b u t
examples s t i l l i n use can be seen i n a few homes.

Stone house b u i l t on a rock outcrop a t t h e h i l l t o p

v i l l a g e of YAGALA.

W a l l s a t t h e entrance t o KAKOYA OLD TOWN.

Fragments of iron slag were scarce at Kamba and Falaba while

large amounts were noticed at Sinkunia and Musaia. In both of the
latter cases the scatter extended some distance outside the
boundaries of the old tams. At Sinkunia nine iron smelting furnaces
in fairly good shape were located within ten minute walking distance
to the northwest of the town. As yet no oral history has been collected on the furnaces but their state of preservation suggests they
were in use until relatively recent times.
Musaia and Sinkunia also provided examples of a number of stone
artifacts. Quartz pieces included steep edge scrapers, small chopperlike tools, retouched flakes, cores, and flakes. At both sites flaking
debris and cores appeared much more frequently then reworked specimens.
In addition to the quartz artifacts a few ground stone celts or adzes
were found at both sites.
The recent fieldwork in Koinadugu District provides useful information on Limba, Koranko, and Yalunka defensive sites of the protohistorichistoric period and gives an insight into the end of the archaeological
sequence in modern times. As many of the toms were located on the
trade routes between the Sierra Leone coast and the upper Niger, further
investigation would provide information on the growth of 19th century
inland trade centers in the marginal forrest region. This research
would be particularly valuable as so much oral history is available.
The presence of stone tools and iron slag at some sites indicates
that earl ier segments of the archaeological record are present. More
work would certainly be beneficial.

SOUTH AFRICA
This anonymous news item comes from the University of Cape
Town.
John E. Parkington is visiting a number of American campuses

ale , Harvard, U-Mass Boston, SUNY-Binghamton, Chicago, UC-Santa

Barbara, Berkeley, etc) during April-May 1980 to lecture and compare

notes with colleagues.
Andrew B. Smith and 3rd year students of the department axe
excavating a cave near Upington on the Orange River, hoping to pin
down the arrival of pastoralists. The same group is also excavating the summer cottage of Lady Anne Barnard, wife of the
secretary to the first British governor of the Cape of Good Hope
( ca, 1797) as a class project

Nikolaas J. van der Merwe will be at the Oxford Laboratory for

Archaeology and the Histor of Art for the first half of 1981, working with the high energy C mass spectrometry team. Attempts will
be made to date samples older than 50,000 years from various South
African sites and to date microsamples like scrapings from rock
paintings.

T h i s i t e m i s mentioned i n c a s e SUNY-Binghamton does n o t :

Alice J . Hausman completed a 1980 Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n at SUNYBinghamton e n t i t l e d "Holocene human development i n Southern A f r i c a :
t h e b i o c u l t u r a l development of t h e Khoisan." She concludes, on t h e
b a s i s of m u l t i v a r i a t e s t a t i s t i c s on s k u l l s t h a t LSA h u n t e r - g a t h e r e r s
an) of t h e Cape c o a s t v a r i e d b u t l i t t l e d u r i n g t h e Holocene, but
d i f f e r e d a n a t o m i c a l l y from t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e
country. A f t e r 2000 B.P. a t h i r d p o p u l a t i o n ( ~ h o hi e r d e r s ) became
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t h e i n t e r i o r , probably as a r e s u l t of n u t r i t i o n a l
changes due t o p a s t o r a l i s m .
Tim Maggs of t h e Natal Museum w i l l t e a c h a t UCT as a v i s i t i n g
s e n i o r l e c t u r e r f o r t h e p e r i o d J u l y 1980 - June 1981. B r i a n M . Fagan
( ~ a n t a~ a r b a r a )w a s a v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r d u r i n g J u l y - August 1980.

SUDAN
Sedeinga :
En Novembre 1979, l a mission f r a n ~ a i s ede l a SEDAU ( ~ e d e i n ~ a
Archaeological u n i t ) , d i r i g g e p a r J e a n L e c l a n t q u ' a s s i s t a i e n t
Catherine Berger e t Audran Labrousse, a me& une deuxiGme campagne
de f o u i l l e s s u r l e s i t e de Sedeinga, en Nubie s o u d a n a i s e , en a v a l
de l a I I I e C a t a r a c t e .
Dans l'immense ngcropole rn6rortique, oG a v a i t t r a v a i l l g nagugre
l a mission Michela S G i o r g i n i , l e s premigres i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o n t
s u r d e s v e s t i g e s s i t u g s dans l a zone Nord, ceux de p l u s i e 2 r s
pyramides en b r i q u e s c m e s d ' e n v i r o n une d i z a i n e d e mztres de c o t 6 .
C e r t a i n e s comportaient s u r l e u r f a c e E s t une longue d e s c e n d e r i e .
Dans l ' u n e (I T l ) ,l a d e s c e n d e r i e a b o u t i s s a i t
une chambre t a i l l g e
d a n s l e bed-rock, de 3 m d e l a r g e u r e t 4 m de longueur, avec a u
c e n t r e une b a n q u e t t e . Dans l e s tombes I T 2 , I T 3 e t I T 6 , l a
s g p u l t u r e g t a i t r g d u i t e 5 une simple tombe-sabot
Tout c e s e c t e u r
d e l a n&ropole a 6t; l ' o b j e t d ' u n p i l l a g e r a d i c a l ; l e s fragments
d ' u n p e t i t a u t e l en -5s o n t 6t6 r e c u e i l l i s .

P r o f e s s o r Donadoni of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Rome sends t h i s ;

The Archaeological Mission i n t h e Sudan of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Rome
h a s had i t s y e a r l y p e r i o d of e x c a v a t i o n s at t h e J e b e l Barkal from 6 t h
t o 27th October 1980.
These weeks of f i e l d work have been d e d i c a t e d t o t h e e x p l o r a t i o n
of t h e b u i l d i n g t o which t h e d e s i g n a t i o n B 1500 had a l r e a d y been
a t t r i b u t e d . If t h e y have not been s u f f i c i e n t t o understand t h e whole
of t h e s i t u a t i o n , we had anyhow t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of making a s e r i e s of
new o b s e r v a t i o n s . We have once more t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e
group of b a s e s and f a l l e n columns at t h e Southern end of t h e a r e a , and
on t h e o t h e r s i d e we have dug j u s t at t h e o p p o s i t e p o i n t , w i t h t h e
purpose of g e t t i n g a first i d e a of t h e r e a l dimensions and of t h e
s t r m t u e of t h e s e r u i n s .
The bottom of t h e temple shows a t h i c k ( 2 , 30 m) conglomerate of
mud b r i c k s , l i n e d on t h e o u t e r f a c e w i t h r e d o n e s , and covered w i t h a
c o a t of white p l a s t e r . A t t h e d i s t a n c e of about 9, 1 0 m, a n o t h e r
conglomerate of mud b r i c k s , 1, 20 m t h i c k , e n c l o s e s a space once
p i l l a r e d as is proved by t h e presence of f o u r sandstone b a s e s 0 , 40 m
i n h e i g h t and with a s i d e of 0 , 90 m.
Only t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e E a s t e r n w a l l h a s been i d e n t i f i e d , i n
o r d e r t o o b t a i n an element of measurement i n connection w i t h t h e main
a x i s (roughly S - N) : it r e s u l t s hence t h a t t h i s h a l l must measure
9 , 1 0 m on 9 , 60 m , and t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e b a s e s of t h e columns
i s 1 , 90 c a , while t h e i r d i s t a n c e from t h e g i r d l e w a l l i s of 2 , 20 m.
Although t h i s i s v e r y t h i c k (m. 1 , 9 0 ) , one h a s t o assume t h a t t h e
r o o f i n g of s o wide a space c o n s i s t e d of a timber s t r u c t u r e ,
We know from e a r l i e r excavations t h a t a n o t h e r p i l l a r e d h a l l
preceded t h i s one, but we have n o t made o u t t h e connection between
them d u r i n g t h i s season. Some remarks about t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s could
t a k e p l a c e . The most c u r i o u s i s t h e f i n d i n g of some f a i n t t r a c e s of
extremely t h i n gold l e a f a p p l i e d t o a white l a y e r of p l a s t e r on mud
b r i c k : a t h i n g t h a t g i v e s t h e i d e a t h a t t h e b u i l d i n g w a s of some
p r e t e n t i o n s although r a t h e r p o o r l y b u i l t . The f i n d i n g i n t h i s room
of a s l a b w i t h p a r t of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a d i v i n e ram's head
p o i n t s probably t o t h e c u l t h e r e p r a c t i s e d .
On
we have
between
fallen,
torus.

t h e o u t e r s i d e of t h i s p a r t , l e a n i n g on its e x t e r n a l f a c e ,
c l e a r e d two p a r a l l e l w a l l s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o i t , l e a v i n g
them an empty space of about 1, 1 0 m i n which r e d b r i c k s have
some of them i n t h e p e c u l i a r shape employed t o c o n s t i t u t e a

The e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e p e r i s t y l e i n f r o n t of t h e b u i l d i n g
h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of a s e r i e s of column drums,
c a p i t a l s , s c r e e n - w a l l s , s t i l l r e t a i n i n g tk p o s i t i o n i n which
t h e y f e l l and t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h a t of t h e i r p r e v i o u s
s i t u a t i o n i n t h e e d i f i c e . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s e somewhat
dramatic documents i s n o t automatic, owing t o t h e f a c t t h a t a
l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s d i s a p p e a r e d , probably
because of t h e u s e of t h e robbed m a t e r i a l s somewhere e l s e . What
h a s been l e f t i s probably o n l y what h a s f a l l e n down d u r i n g t h i s
o p e r a t i o n of d i s m a n t l i n g .

It i s t o o e a r l y t o make conclusions from our o b s e r v a t i o n s .

We can n o t i c e a c e r t a i n amount of a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e t a i l s , such as
t h e presence of a s m a l l basis with a p r o t r u d i n g c o r n i c h e r u n n i n g
a l l around t h e i n n e r series of columns, o r t h e employment of an
o v u l i d e c o r a t i o n i n s t u c c o t o g i v e some movement t o a n Egyptian
frieze.
From h e r e we had fragments of g l a z e d t i l e s , some of them
b e i n g of a t y p e a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d , w h i l e one (a fragmentary head)
exhibits rather hellenistic features.

Karima, October 1980.

LA MISSIONE ARCHEOLOGICA I N SUDAN

DELL'UNIVERSITA Dl ROMA

Work a t t h e Northern Group of Pyramids at

Begrawiya ( ~ e r o e ) ,1979/80
F .W. Hinkel
Reconstruction and r e s t o r a t i o n work at Meroe continued f o r t h e
f o u r t h season from 25th Dec., 1979, t o 7 t h March, 1980. The reconst r u c t i o n work a t Suakin which was c a r r i e d o u t f o r s e v e r a l weeks each
y e a r s i n c e 1977 w a s suspended f o r t h i s season.
D w i n g t h e season a t Meroe e v e r y e f f o r t was made t o c a r r y o u t
t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of pyramid Beg. N 19 i in^ Tarekeniwal, about end
of 1st c e n t . A .D.)
A s already reported ( ~ ~ a m
Akuma
e
Nos. 11,14, & 15)
t h e s t r u c t u r a l remains of t h e pyramid were found without i t s western
f a c e which had c o l l a p s e d i n t h e p a s t and t h e r e b y rendered t h e b u i l d i n g
a hollow s h e l l . The dangerous s t a t e of t h e pyramid was t h e r e a s o n f o r
i t s complete d i s m a n t l i n g i n 1976/77 when more t h a n 800 blocks of t h e
o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e were s t o r e d f o r f u t u r e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n work. A f t e r
l a y i n g new f o u n d a t i o n s and r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p l i n t h (1977/78) t h e
f i r s t 3 s t o n e course of t h e pyramid were r e - e r e c t e d i n 1978/79.

T h i s y e a r ' s t a s k demanded new b u i l d i n g technology compared w i t h

t h e p r e v i o u s work of r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of b r i c k pyramids ( ~ e g .N 26, N 27,
N 3 2 ) . Pyramid Beg. N 19 belonged t o t h e t y p e of s t r u c t u r e b u i l t of a
mantle of casing-stone blocks with i n t e r n a l f i l l i n g and was t h e r e f o r e
t h e first pyramid of t h i s kind t o be r e - b u i l t . Its h e i g h t w i t h 12.50 m
above f o u n d a t i o n exceeded t h e p r e v i o u s l y r e c o n s t r u c t e d b r i c k pyramids
by about 3 m . Thus, t h e t a s k i n c l u d e d t h e t r a n s p o r t and l i f t i n g of t h e
o r i g i n a l sandstone blocks - weighing up t o 300 kg - as w e l l as o t h e r
b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l up t o 1 2 m h e i g h t . Furthermore, modern l i f t i n g
d e v i c e s and o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s were n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e work. Therefore
t h i s s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d a chance t o t e s t a n c i e n t b u i l d i n g technology
and f o r t h i s r e a s o n work on Beg. N 19 was earmarked f o r employing o l d
methods. Evidence of t h e methods used d u r i n g t h e o r i g i n a l b u i l d i n g
o p e r a t i o n had been p r e v i o u s l y found.
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s from t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l and t e c h n i c a l p o i n t of view
had shown t h a t ramps of e a r t h , s t o n e e t c . were n o t t h e p r i n c i p a l means
i n b u i l d i n g t h e pyramids a t Meroe. The l o c a t i o n , t h e s i t u a t i o n and t h e
dimension of t r e e t r u n k s ( e .g. Cedrus l i b a n i ) found v e r t i c a l l y i n t h e
c e n t r e of s e v e r a l pyramids gave perhaps some evidence as t o t h e method
of l i f t i n g t h e blocks by means of a k i n d of shaduf whose e x i s t e n c e i s
w e l l a t t e s t e d i n t h e N i l e Valley a t l e a s t s i n c e t h e New Kingdom as a
l i f t i n g d e v i c e f o r w a t e r i n g gardens and small p a t c h e s of l a n d . It was
found t h a t employing a shaduf-like system f o r t h e l i f t i n g o p e r a t i o n i n
c o n s t r u c t i o n work demanded s e v e r a l l i m i t a t i o n s i n d e s i g n i n g t h e b u i l d i n g , such as:

t h e t e c h n i c a l c a p a c i t y of such a d e v i c e is b e s t u t i l i z e d
by c o n s t r u c t i n g i n t o t h e h e i g h t o r - i n c a s e of a pyramidshaped s t r u c t u r e - by b u i l d i n g with s t e e p i n c l i n a t i o n s .

- t h e range of t h e l i f t i n g beam demands a small and l i m i t e d

ground p l a n of t h e s t r u c t u r e i n c a s e t h e d e v i c e i s placed
i n its centre.

- t h e d e v i c e demands a n upper platform where a t t h e utmost a

small capstone could be placed.
These r e s e r v a t i o n s a r e shown i n t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e of t h e M e r o i t i c
pyramids which r e p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r e s with a s t e e p i n c l i n a t i o n (600 t o
750) and which were found t o be t r u n c a t e d pyramids crowned by a
capstone.
Work on pyramid Beg. N 19 s t a r t e d on 1 9 t h J a n . , 1980, and
continued u n t i l 7 t h Masch, 1980 a f t e r having f i n i s h e d t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e o f f e r i n g chapel and i t s pylon d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s 20 days.
To s t a b i l i s e t h e s t r u c t u r e two c r o s s w a l l s of brickwork were
e r e c t e d i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e pyramid. They formed 4 compartments
which were f i l l e d with t h e o r i g i n a l r u b b l e of t h e i n n e r f i l l i n g . The
first 15 l a y e r s of t h e c a s i n g - s t o n e s were e r e c t e d w i t h t h e h e l p of a
s t r a i g h t ramp b u i l t out of s t o n e s and e a r t h . It was n o t p o s s i b l e t o
r a i s e t h e ramp f u r t h e r without burying two c o r n e r s of t h e pyramid and
t h e r e b y h i n d e r i n g t h e survey of t h e r e q u i r e d a n g l e of i n c l i n a t i o n and
i t s c o n t r o l measurements.
I n t h i s s t a g e of work t h e simple l i f t i n g d e v i c e i n form of a
shaduf w a s c o n s t r u c t e d and e r e c t e d i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e pyramid, The
s u p p o r t i n g p o s t was i n s t a l l e d - according t o t h e t r e e t r u n k found i n
a n o t h e r pyramid - i n a s h a f t h o l e which was t h e n f i l l e d with sand.
T h i s arrangement allowed u s t o l i f t and a d j u s t t h e shaduf t o t h e
p r o g r e s s of work up t o t h e end of t h e o p e r a t i o n . With t h e h e l p of
t h e shaduf a l l f u r t h e r blocks of t h e pyramid were l i f t e d w i t h o u t any
d i f f i c u l t i e s and i n a s h o r t time.
Those p a r t s of t h e pyramid where t h e o r i g i n a l blocks were
missing were completed w i t h new b l o c k s from t h e o l d q u a r r i e s o r - i n
c a s e of t h e western f a c e and t h e t o p - i n brickwork which l a t t e r was
p l a s t e r e d t o r e p r e s e n t i t s o r i g i n a l appearance i n lime mortar. A
number of f a l l e n blocks from t h e chapel w a l l s were found and incorpor a t e d i n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d w a l l s . The chapel w a s r o o f e d and c l o s e d
by a door t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r damage by a c t i o n of c l i m a t e and man.
The two columns which o r i g i n a l l y s t o o d i n f r o n t of t h e pylon and
which formed t h e small p o r t i c o were earmarked t o be r e c o n s t r u c t e d
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a r c h i t r a v e s d u r i n g n e x t s e a s o n ' s work.
The chance t o t e s t a n c i e n t technology w a s a l s o used t o s u r v e y
and c o n t r o l measurements of t h e i n c l i n a t i o n a n g l e d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n
work. A method w a s adopted where no modern o p t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t w a s
needed and where t h e a n g l e on t h e f o u r s i d e s of t h e pyramid could be
k e p t without any c a l c u l a t i o n .

The s t u d y of a n c i e n t methods w a s a l s o extended t o t h e work of

t h e mason and covered t h e whole o p e r a t i o n between e x t r a c t i n g t h e
s t o n e s i n t h e q u a r r i e s t o t h e f i n a l h a n d l i n g of t h e masonry and
t h e execution of t h e f i n e and narrow j o i n t s between t h e b l o c k s .
The time needed f o r d i f f e r e n t u n i t s of work, e . g . t r a n s p o r t ,
l i f t i n g , s e t t i n g and f i t t i n g of blocks e t c . was r e c o r d e d and t h i s
information a l l o w s f o r a c a r e f u l e s t i m a t e of t h e p e r i o d of time
needed f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of M e r o i t i c pyramids.

The r e c o n s t r u c -

t i o n work of pyramid Beg. N 19 above foundation was completed i n

70 days with a n average l a b o u r f o r c e of 20 workers d a i l y , i . e . i n
1400 d a y ' s work.
C o n s t r u c t i o n work i n t h e method d e s c r i b e d proved t o be v e r y
e f f i c i e n t and provided new i n f o r m a t i o n and understanding of
M e r o i t i c a r c h i t e c t u r e and b u i l d i n g technology.

A detailed report

and i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i o n and t h e i r problems involved

w i l l be p u b l i s h e d i n Z e i t s c h r i f t f i i r i g y p t i s c h e Sprache

F u r t h e r work i n t h e Northern Group of pyramids at Begrawiya

c o n s i s t e d of r e c o r d i n g newly d i s c o v e r e d r e l i e f blocks and r e l i e f s ,
t a k i n g measurements of pyramids and c h a p e l s and r e c o r d i n g of c h a p e l
w a l l s c e n e s i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r f u t u r e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n work.

A B r i e f Report on S u r f a c e L i t h i c s from Meroe

J a n e H. K e l l e y
I t seems t o be g e n e r a l l y t r u e t h a t , a s a l t e r n a t i v e
d a t a c a t e g o r i e s become a v a i l a b l e , l e s s a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d t o
l i k h i c s , e s p e c i a l l y n o n - d e s c r i p t specimens. And t h i s i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n h i g h c i v i l i z a t i o n a r e a s such a s t h e
N i l e v a l l e y where monumental a r c h i t e c t u r e , major a r t s t y l e s ,
w r i t i n g , c e r a m i c s and m e t a l working p r o v i d e f a r more v i s i b l e
and seemingly more i n f o r m a t i v e d a t a c a t e g o r i e s .

F l a k e s w i t h and w i t h o u t r e t o u c h , c o r e s , p e b b l e s and
s p l i t p e b b l e s , and c o b b l e t o o l s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s a r e
found on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e two l a r g e d o m e s t i c mounds a t
t h e I r o n Age s i t e o f Meroe i n t h e ~ u d a n . These
~
aspects
o f a l i t h i c i n d u s t r y a t Meroe were n o t o t h e r w i s e c o l l e c t e d 2
and have n o t been r e p o r t e d , a l t h o u g h l i t h i c p r o j e c t i l e
p o i n t s and o t h e r more d e f i n i t i v e l y shaped specimens were
c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g P r o f e s s o r S h i n n i e ' s e x c a v a t i o n s and w i l l
be r e p o r t e d by P e t e r S h i n n i e and Rebecca B r a d l e y .
The f i r s t and most s e r i o u s problem r e l a t e d t o t h e s e
s u r f a c e l i t h i c f i n d s c o n c e r n s t h e i r t e m p o r a l and c u l t u r a l
association.
Are t h e y M e r o i t i c ? No comparable l i t h i c
remains have been n o t e d i n t h e e x c a v a t i o n s conducted i n
t h e d o m e s t i c mounds, b u t t h i s i s n o t wholly c o n v i n c i n g
n e g a t i v e e v i d e n c e b e c a u s e such c r u d e l i t h i c s were n o t
p e r c e i v e d t o r e p r e s e n t a form o f r e l e v a n t d a t a t o be
systematically collected.
I attempted t o confirm t h e apparent absence of t h o s e
a s p e c t s o f t h e l i t h i c i n d u s t r y w i t h which I was concerned by
examining t h e slumped w a l l s o f p r e v i o u s l y dug t r e n c h e s and
excavation u n i t s
i n t h e n o r t h d o m e s t i c mound; a s w e l l ,
t h e f i l l from a 2 m e t e r s q u a r e e x c a v a t i o n u n i t on t h e s o u t h
end o f t h e mound was c a r e f u l l y checked f o r l i t h i c s .
None
were found i n e i t h e r o p e r a t i o n .
This again i s n o t e n t i r e l y
c o n v i n c i n g n e q a t i v e e v i d e n c e - g i v e n t h e s i z e of t h e d o m e s t i c
mounds, t h e f a c t t h a t P r o f e s s o r S h i n n i e e s t i m a t e s t h a t h i s
extensive excavations s t i l l represent only 1 percent of t h e
mound a r e a , a n d , of t h a t , o n l y former e x c a v a t i o n e x p o s u r e s
and t h e f i l l from a s m a l l e x c a v a t i o n u n i t were s c r u t i n i z e d .
A c a s e of i n c o m p l e t e d a t a can c e r t a i n l y be a r g u e d .
But
a l t h o u g h I can make such a n argument, t h e e v i d e n c e
a v a i l a b l e s u g g e s t s w i t h e q u a l f o r c e t h a t l i t h i c s c a n n o t be
v e r y common i n t h o s e e x c a v a t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e mound where

1.
Under t h e a u s p i c e s o f P r o f e s s o r P e t e r S h i n n i e ' s 1975-76
p r o j e c t (funded by Canada C o u n c i l ) , I made a s m a l l c o l l e c t i o n
o f s u r f a c e l i t h i c s upon which t h i s r e p o r t i s b a s e d .
2.
Ole C h r i s t i a n s o n e a r l i e r n o t e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f s u r f a c e
l i t h i c r e m a i n s , b u t i f he made a c o l l e c t i o n , i t h a s been l o s t .

observations were made. On the other hand, it would not

be unreasonable to expect the lithic undustry to be
localized, particularly if it was related to some specialized
form of production. I might argue that such an activity or
production area has not been located or recognized.
But then I have to offer a consistent hypothesis to account
for the sporadic but rather continuous distribution of the
surface finds; and this is difficult to do.
A second line of reasoning takes notice of the erosion
of the domestic mounds. There appears to be an entire
occupation level that has been eroded away, leaving the
heavier objects (previously incorporated in fill) on the
modern surface. In this occupation level, fired brick
was used for construction; no sub-surface fired brick
structures have been found in excavations in the north
domestic mound. The surface sherds are apparently Meroitic.
It may be that the lithic industry is associated with this
late and presumably Meroitic occupation.

If the apparent absence of this lithic industry in the

sub-surface parts of the mounds should be confirmed by
futufe research, and if an a~sociationof the lithic
industry with the eroded later occupation of the mound were
also supported, other hypotheses about the implications
might be formulated. Is the presence of a crude lithic
correlated with a decline in iron working? Does it relate
to the increased importance of another industry?
A third line of reasoning would attribute the lithic
industry to a post-Meroitic occupation, and this too would
be of considerable theoretical importance, but for this
alternative, we lack an archaeological context.

It is clearly premature to choose between these or

other alternatives, but I might note that the second line
of reasoning appears to have somewhat more support at the
present time.
The lithic study collection at the University of
Calgary cannot be considered to be representative in any
sense. Rather, it represents a selection from the surface
finds at Meroe based on acquiring diversity in form and
technology in a sample small enough to be shipped to Canada.
In these circumstances quantification would be misleading,
and unsatisfactory terms such as "most" or "the majority"
must be used in the following discussion.
The most common raw materials are quartzite and
quartz, and this is true both of the study collection and
more generally for the surface lithics. There are, as well,
yellow ochre colored and brown colored cherts, banded chert,
basalt, granite, nephrite and fossil wood.

Some o f t h e f l a k e s e x h i b i t advanced s t a t e s o f p o s t production p o l i s h i n g such a s can be achieved through t h e

a c t i o n o f s a n d and wind o r s a n d and w a t e r .
Some o f t h e s e
p i e c e s have s p a l l s removed from p o l i s h e d s u r f a c e s s u g g e s t i n g
l a t e r reworking.
The p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e reworked f l a k e s , t h e
p o l y h e d r a l c o r e s and c e r t a i n o t h e r f l a k e s t h a t a r e r e m i n i s c e n t
of o l d e r l i t h i c i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e N i l e v a l l e y r a i s e t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e M e r o i t e s o r p o s t - M e r o i t e s who u s e d t h e s e
specimens were sometimes c o l l e c t i n g o l d e r P a l e o l i t h i c p i e c e s .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , o t h e r h y p o t h e s e s a r e p o s s i b l e , and p o l y h e d r a l
c o r e s f o r f l a k e p r o d u c t i o n may have formed a n i n t e g r a l ,
a l b e i t a m i n o r , component o f t h i s i n d u s t r y .
Most o f t h e s p e c i m e n s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e p o l y h e d r a l c o r e s and c e r t a i n f l a k e s , c a n be d e s c r i b e d a s
b e l o n g i n g t o a c o b b l e o r p e b b l e i n d u s t r y which i n c l u d e s
hammerstones o f q u a r t z and b a s a l t , b a s a l t g r i n d i n g t o o l s ,
p e b b l e s m o d i f i e d i n v a r i o u s ways by f r a c t u r i n g and t h e
r e c i p r o c a l f l a k e s . The f r a c t u r e d p e b b l e s f o r t h e l a t t e r c a t e g o r y
a r e m o d i f i e d i n v a r i o u s ways b u t a l w a y s r e t a i n i n g a g r e a t
deal of cortex.
The m a j o r i t y o f f l a k e s a r e p r i m a r y o r c o r t e x
f l a k e s s u c h a s would b e produced i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f t h e
pebble t o o l s .
Some o f t h e s e f l a k e s have s u s t a i n e d f u r t h e r
m o d i f i c a t i o n and some show what c a n b e c a l l e d e d g e " b i t e s "
t h a t may i n d i c a t e u s a g e .
I n some p e b b l e t o o l s , o n l y o n e
f l a k e h a s been d e t a c h e d from a p e b b l e ; t h e s e and o t h e r s c a n
be d e s i g n a t e d a s having u n i f a c i a l edges, whereas o t h e r s
have b i f a c i a l e d g e s .
Some o f t h e s e t o o l s e x h i b i t t h o r o u g h
b a t t e r i n g and c r u s h i n g o f t h e t o o l e d g e s . The same s o r t o f
b a t t e r i n g and c r u s h i n g i s a l s o found on n a t u r a l (unworked
c o r t e x s u r f a c e s ) r i d g e s and e d g e s o f t h e t o o l s .
P e r h a p s t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g t o o l s a r e what may be
c a l l e d wedges.
These have a u n i f a c i a l o r b i f a c i a l c h i p p e d
end showing u s a g e w h i l e t h e o p p o s i t e end o r e d g e i s
battered.
I n f u n c t i o n a l t e r m s , t h e s e c o u l d s e r v e more o r
l e s s t h e same p u r p o s e a s t h e N e o l i t h i c gouges a n d c e l t s from
S h a h e i n a b ( A r k e l l 1953:25-55 and P l a t e s 1 2 - 1 4 ) , b u t t h e r e i s
no t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y between t h e e a r l i e r N e o l i t h i c
l i t h i c r e m a i n s and t h i s p e b b l e i n d u s t r y t h a t i s a p p a r e n t i n
t h e m a t e r i a l s a t hand.
Numbers o f s p l i t q u a r t z p e b b l e s o c c u r on t h e s u r f a c e
o f t h e d o m e s t i c mounds. Mostly q u i t e s m a l l ( 1 + 3 cm i n
l e n g t h ) , t h e y a r e made u s i n g a b i p o l a r t e c h n i q u e .
A s b r i e f , d e s c r i p t i v e and i n c o m p l e t e a s t h i s r e p o r t
i s , i t r a i s e s i s s u e s o f t h e o r e t i c a l and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l
importance.
F i r s t , it documents a c r u d e p e b b l e t o o l
industry i n Meroitic o r post-Meroitic t i m e s i n t h e N i l e
valley.
Second, i t r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n a l r e a d y t o u c h e d
upon above a s t o what c o n s t i t u t e s r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e .
It is not, I believe, e n t i r e l y without significance t h a t
t h e s e l i t h i c s were o n l y p e r c e i v e d t o b e man-made and
r e l e v a n t by two a r c h a e o l o g i s t s ( m y s e l f and O l e C h r i s t i a n s o n )
who had c o n s i d e r a b l y more e x p e r i e n c e i n n o n d e s c r i p t l i t h i c s

t h a n o t h e r p r o j e c t members. T h i r d , t h e s e t o o l s must be
r e l a t e d t o some p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i t y which, h o p e f u l l y , f u t u r e
r e s e a r c h can i d e n t i f y .
S h a h e i n a b . An Account o f t h e E x c a v a t i o n o f
Arkell, A.J.
1953
a ~ e o l i t h i cO c c u p a t i o n S i t e C a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e
Sudan A n t i q u i t i e s S e r v i c e i n 1949-50.
Published
f o r t h e Sudan Government by G e o f f r e y Cumberlege,
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press.

P o l i s h Excavations at Kadero
The e i g h t h season of excavations a t Kadero l a s t e d from t h e 18
February u n t i l March 22, 1980. The aim of t h e season was t o t e s t
t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e i n two l o c a t i o n s : i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e mound
and i n t h e n o r t h e r n s e t t l e m e n t d e p o s i t . 120 square metres of t h e s i t e
were excavated t h i s season.
The t r e n c h , 52 metres i n l e n g t h , w a s excavated a c r o s s t h e c e n t r a l
p a r t of t h e s i t e , between t h e n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n s e t t l e m e n t
d e p o s i t s . It w a s composed of 26 s q u a r e s of 2 x 2 m e t r e s each
( s q u a r e s Nos. B: 111-136). The e x c a v a t i o n s were e f f e c t e d i n t h i s
t r e n c h t o t h e depth of 0.6 metre. No s e t t l e m e n t remains were found
i n t h i s t r e n c h ; o n l y on i t s s u r f a c e few t y p i c a l s t o n e implements p l u s
marginal q u a n t i t i e s of p o t s h e r d s were r e c o r d e d but t h e s e undoubtedly
o r i g i n a t e d ( i e , were washed o u t ) from t h e h e a v i l y eroded n o r t h e r n
s e t t l e m e n t d e p o s i t s i t u a t e d nearby.

..

raves

S i x N e o l i t h i c inhumations were found i n t h i s t r e n c h

Nos. 48-50 and 52-54). A l l s k e l e t o n s were r e s t i n g i n a c o n t d a c t e d
p o s i t i o n , heads t o t h e west. Only two g r a v e s contained f u r n i s h i n g :
i n Grave No. 50 a p a r t of a l a r g e d e c o r a t e d cooking p o t (preserved
i n fragments) w a s found a t t h e back of t h e s k e l e t o n (used as a l i n i n g
of t h e g r a v e - p i t ? ) , and i n Grave No. 54 a small d e c o r a t e d bowl ( a l s o
preserved i n fragments) w a s found a t t h e f a c e of t h e dead, The
s k e l e t o n s were found a t d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s , r a n g i n g from j u s t under t h e
s u r f a c e of t h e t r e n c h t o c a . 50 cm.
One i s o l a t e d grave - No.51 - w a s seen on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
s i t e o u t s i d e t h e t r e n c h and w a s a l s o explored. Human bones, found
i n c h a o t i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n and undoubtedly o r i g i n a t i n g from t h e
h e a v i l y eroded s k e l e t o n , were t h e s o l e remains of t h i s grave of most
probably N e o l i t h i c age.
I n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of t h e mound, and w e l l w i t h i n t h e n o r t h e r n
s e t t l e m e n t d e p o s i t , a test p i t of 16 square metres (4 x 4 m e t r e s ) w a s
excavated. It rras s i t u a t e d i n t h e c e n t r e of a heavy c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
t h e s e t t l e m e n t r e f u s e v i s i b l e on t h e s u r f a c e i n t h i s p a r t of t h e

N e o l i t h i c s i t e . Rich c u l t u r a l remains were found i n t h i s t e s t - p i t .

They were composed of numerous animal bones, s h e l l s of r i v e r and
l a n d molluscs, potsherds and l i t h i c implements. I n t h e l i g h t of t h e
p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d i e s pursued s o f a r it seems t h a t t h e frequency and
typology of t h e s e a r t e f a c t s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e s e found i n t h e s o u t h e r n
s e t t l e m e n t d e p o s i t a t Kadero i n t h e course of p r e v i o u s seasons.
I n c o n c l u s i o n , it seems, at t h i s s t a g e of r e s e a r c h , t h a t t h e
e a r l i e r formulated h y p o t h e s i s about t h e f u n c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
of t h e N e o l i t h i c s i t e at Kadero, which i s t o have been composed of
two h a b i t a t i o n a r e a s : a k r a a l t o accommodate t h e domestic h e r d s
d u r i n g t h e wet season and d i f f e r e n t b u r i a l grounds, i s f u r t h e r
s u b s t a n t i a t e d i n t h e l i g h t of t h e r e s u l t s of t h e e i g h t h season.
Lech Krzyzaniak
Muzeum Archeologiczne
u l , W odna 27
61-781 Poznan , Poland.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE GASH DELTA, KASSALA PROVINCE

S i l v i o Durante
( ~ s t i t u t op e r il Medio ed Estremo O r i e n t e , ~ o m a )
Rodolfo F a t t o v i c h
( ~ s t i t u t oU n i v e r s i t a r i o O r i e n t a l e , ~ a ~ o l i )
Marcello Piperno
( ~ u s e oP r e i s t o r i c o Ethnografico L P i g o r i n i , ~ o m a )

From January 22nd t o February 6 t h 1980 t h e I t a l i a n Archaeological

Mission sponsored by t h e Department of African S t u d i e s , I s t i t u t o
U n i v e r s i t a r i o O r i e n t a l e , Naples, c a r r i e d o u t a p r e l i m i n a r y s u r v e y of
t h e Gash D e l t a i n Kassala Province t o check t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
i n t e r e s t of t h e a r e a and t o choose s i t e s t o excavate i n t h e f u t u r e .
The team i n c l u d e d two a r c h a e o l o g i s t s ( ~ rRodolf o F a t t o v i c h ;
D r . Marcello ?iperno) and one geomorphologist ( D r S i l v i o Durante)
To them w a s joined t h e I n s p e c t o r of t h e Sudan A n t i q u i t i e s S e r v i c e ,
M r . E l t a y e b K h a l i f a Mohammed Al-Amin.

T h i s b r i e f account i s based on a first l o o k a t t h e m a t e r i a l s

t a k e n d u r i n g t h e f i e l d work and must n o t be regarded as t h e f i n a l
r e p o r t of t h e survey.

1. I n v e s t i g a t e d areas.
Two main a r e a s i n t h e Gash D e l t a were surveyed d u r i n g t h e 1980
f i e l d work: i ) t h e apex of t h e d e l t a , n e a r K a s s a l a , and t h e a l l u v i a l
p l a i n s West and E a s t of i t : i i ) t h e n o r t h e r n end of t h e d e l t a , West of
Amm Adam and E r i b a S t a t i o n s . West of t h e Gash i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e
Kurmut and Urnm Ddhan a r e a s , n e a r K a s s a l a , were e x p l o r e d ; e a s t of it
t h e a r e a up t o J e b e l Tukulabab (named J . Takoilabab on t h e Sudan ~ a
and J e b e l Timbieri T i e were i n v e s t i g a t e d . A reconnaisance w i t h i n t h e
d e l t a w a s a l s o done by c a r a l o n g t h e Kassala-Port Sudan paved r o a d .

2.

Geomorphology.

One of t h e aims of t h e 1980 survey was t h e p r e l i m i n a r y reconst r u c t i o n of t h e palaeo-geography of Kassala a r e a , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e hydrographic system and t h e
r e l a t i o n s between Atbara and Gash r i v e r s .
No g e o l o g i c a l s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l sequence was observed, f o r o n l y
P l e i s t o c e n e and Holocene formations a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e a r e a , save f o r
t h e Basement Complex Gneiss of J e b e l Kassala and t h e o t h e r r e l i e f s
going back t o t h e Palaeozoic. The c l a y p l a i n s a r e t h e most s t r i k i n g
f e a t u r e of t h e country. They a r e a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t s l a i d down
d u r i n g t h e m o i s t e r phases of P l e i s t o c e n e and Holocene. T h e i r c o l o u r ,
g e n e r a l l y r e d d i s h , changes i n correspondence with "weathering a u r e o l e s "
round t h e j e b e l s .
The Gash D e l t a d e p o s i t s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g . To-day t h e
volume of water i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o r e a c h t h e Atbara r i v e r , b u t it
p o s s i b l y happened d u r i n g t h e wet p e r i o d s o f P l e i s t o c e n e and Holocene.
On t h e b a s i s of a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s of t h e geomorphology of t h e
whole a r e a , it seems t h a t t h e Gash r i v e r had i n t h e l a t e Q u a t e r n a r y
a n e v o l u t i o n w i t h some changes i n t h e last p a r t of i t s course from
E t h i o p i a t o t h e Atbara r i v e r . I n t h e p a s t t h e amounts of c l a y must
have been remarkable, causing a change i n t h e l e v e l of t h e a l l u v i a l
p l a i n and a p r o g r e s s i v e s h i f t of t h e r i v e r ' s course from E-W t o t h e
p r e s e n t EES-WNN t r e n d which o r i g i n a t e d a s u c c e s s i o n of d e l t a s
towards North. The last d e p o s i t s must correspond t o t h e wet p e r i o d s
of Holocene.
The p r e l i m i n a r y geomorphological reconnaisance of t h e Gash a r e a
a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t s e v e r a l o r d e r s of f l u v i a l t e r r a c e s a r e p r e s e n t :
t h e one a t 1,5 - 2 m above t h e p l a i n r e p r e s e n t s t h e l e v e l of t h e
s e t t l e m e n t s , r e l a t e d t o t h e a n c i e n t c o u r s e s of t h e r i v e r system. A t
t h e p r e s e n t s t a g e of r e s e a r c h it seems t h a t t h e s e a n c i e n t t e r r a c e s
may be r e l a t e d t o t h e l a s t a g g r a d a t i o n a l phases of t h e N i l e i n t h e
Nubian sequence, l i k e t h e most r e c e n t H a l f a U n i t , t h e Qadrus U n i t
(3,650 t 200 B.c.) and t h e Arkin U n i t (7,440 t 180 B.c.).
They
correspond t o i n t e r v a l s of a g g r a d a t i o n of t h e ~ i l eand i t s a f f l u e n t s ,

with s i l t s t o a maximum of 5 m above t h e p r e s e n t f l o o d p l a i n and with

a subsequent i n t e r v a l of e r o s i o n followed by aggradation of t h e modern
f l o o d p l a i n . It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e 1 , 5 - 2 m t e r r a c e of t h e Gash
a r e a i s r e l a t e d t o t h e Qadrus Unit of Sudanese Nubia, but it w i l l be
confirmed only a f t e r more p r e c i s e s t u d i e s .

3.

Recorded s i t e s .

T h i r t y s i t e s were discovered and examined i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d

a r e a s with t h e following l o c a t i o n s :

- 5
- 5

s i t e s around J e b e l Kassala (K 1 , K 2 , K 3, K 4, K 5 ) ;
s i t e s on t h e E s i d e of J e b e l Mokram (J.M. 1, J.M. 2 ,
J .M. 3, J .M. 4 , J .PI. 5 ) and some s c a t t e r e d potsherds on t h e
NW s i d e of i t ;
6 s i t e s i n t h e Kurmut a r e a , S
W of J . Kassala (G.s. 2 , G .S .3,
G.S. 4, G.S. 5, G.S. 6 ) ;
1 s i t e i n t h e Umm Dahan a r e a , about 5 kms Nlv' of t h e Umm
Dahan h i l l (u.D. 1 ) ;
2 s i t e s a t t h e W end of J e b e l Tukulabab ( J .T 1, J .T 2)
and many s c a t t e r e d s t o n e c a i r n around i t ;
1 s i t e near J e b e l Timbieri Tie (J.T.T. 1);
1 s i t e at c . 6 kms S
W of Aroma S t a t i o n ( A . 1 ) ;
1 s i t e a t c. 1 km NW of Am Adam S t a t i o n (A.A.s. 1 ) ;
6 s i t e s W of Am Adam S t a t i o n , approximately i n t h e a r e a
i n d i c a t e d with 'mounds' on t h e s h e e t 45 P of t h e Sudan Map,
36' 58' E , 16' 36' N (M 1, M 2, M 3, M 4, M 5, M 6 ) ;
2 s i t e s a t about 3 kms S
W of k . i b a S t a t i o n (E.s. 1 ; E.S. 2 ) .

Only one s i t e (K. 1 ) was a l r e a d y recorded i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e under

t h e name of Mahal Teglinos. The E.S. 1 and 2 s i t e s were i n d i c a t e d on
t h e Sudan Map ( s h e e t 46 M ) , but they were s t i l l unrecorded.
The surveyed s i t e s include both remains of s e t t l e m e n t s and
cemeteries. I n many cases t h e tombs a r e s t r i c t l y connected t o t h e
s e t t l e m e n t s and may be regarded as contempormy with them. The
s e t t l e m e n t s o f t e n appear l i k e small mounds between 500 m2 and 5,000 m2,
but i n few cases they exceed such dimensions s t r e t c h i n g up t o 10,000
m2 o r more. The l a r g e s t s i t e s a r e K . 1, K . 4, J.M. 3, G.S. 4, M. 1,
E. E. S. 1. The tombs mainly a r e o v a l o r c i r c u l a r c a i r n s . The oval
c a i r n s have v a r i a b l e dimensions between 220 x 120 ems. and 120 x 70 crns;
t h e c i r c u l a r ones have g e n e r a l l y a diameter of 250-300 crns, but sometimes
t h e y have a diameter of c . 1 0 - 15 m.
The remains of s e t t l e m e n t s a r e l o c a t e d along t h e c l i f f s of t h e
mountains and i n open p l a i n . The first ones have been found on t h e
E s i d e of J . Kassala, J . Mokran and J . Tukulabab while no s e t t l e m e n t
w a s discovered on t h e W s i d e of them. A t K . 1 and K . 4 p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e
s e t t l e m e n t s a r e l o c a t e d i n l a r g e b a s i n s enclosed by t h e mountain's
c l i f f s . The second ones a r e s c a t t e r e d i n t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n , u s u a l l y

not very f a r from t h e khors o r t h e r i v e r ' s bed. I n any case p o t t e r y

and l i t h i c evidence seem t o suggest t h a t t h e same populations were
l i v i n g i n both kinds of s e t t l e m e n t s .
The oval c a i r n s a r e always b u i l t near t h e s e t t l e m e n t s , a t G.S. 4,
A.A.S. 1, E.S. 1, E.S. 2, where they probably formed t h e graveyards of
t h e s e t t l e m e n t s themselves. The c i r c u l a r c a i r n s on t h e c o n t r a r y a r e
s c a t t e r e d o r grouped i n small cemeteries along t h e c l i f f s of t h e
mountains a t J . Kassala, J . Tukulabab and J . Timbieri Tie. A t J .
Kassala only they a r e i n proximity t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t s . A t M. 3 about
30 tumuli with a diameter of c . 1 0 -15 m a r e grouped i n one cemetery
l o c a t e d i n t h e open p l a i n , while a t J.M. 1 and M . 2 two b i g i s o l a t e d
c a i r n s , with a diameter of 25 and 20 m , were b u i l t . A t J.M. 4, J.M. 5
and K 5 moreover some c i r c u l a s s t r u c t u r e s with a diameter of c. 5 m ,
made with small v e r t i c a l s l a b s of s t o n e and one rough s t e l a , were found.
F i n a l l y at M.4 f o u r p o t t e r y k i l n s and at M.6 one C h r i s t i a n s i t e
were found. I n t h e C h r i s t i a n s i t e p a r t i c u l a r l y baked b r i c k s , engraved
with Greek l e t t e r s (mainly t h e P l e t t e r ) and C h r i s t i a n symbols includi n g f i s h e s , were c o l l e c t e d . S i m i l a r b r i c k s , but without engravings,
were a l s o seen at K . 5 on t h e W s i d e of J. Kassala.
The most impressive s i t e i n t h e Gash D e l t a i s K . 1 ( ~ a h a ~
l e~linos).
It was discovered by J.W. Crowfoot i n 1917 and v i s i t e d again by him i n
1926, S i r Henry Wellcome i n an unrecorded y e a r , S i r Lawrence Kirwan i n
1938, P. J . Sandison i n 1941, G .M. Murdock i n 1946 and R . F a t t o v i c h i n
1978. Collected m a t e r i a l s from t h i s s i t e a r e kept i n t h e Sudan National
Museum.
The s i t e i s l o c a t e d i n a l a r g e basin at t h e NE s i d e of J , Kassala
and probably s t r e t c h s a l s o o u t s i d e , covering a s u r f a c e of at l e a s t
100,000 m2. Within t h e basin t h e s i t e i s well preserved, same f o r a
sand quarry a t t h e W s i d e of i t , while outside it i s completely
destroyed by t h e garbage heap of t h e modern town. A t t h e b a s i n ' s
e n t r y some badly preserved c i r c u l a r c a i r n s a r e v i s i b l e . Within it
t r a c e s of w a l l s , h e a r t h s and some tombs can be recognized. A t t h e same
time a t l e a s t two archaeological l a y e r s a r e v i s i b l e i n some n a t u r a l
s e c t i o n s opened by small streams.

4.

Pottery.

Large m o u n t s of potsherds a r e present i n almost a l l s i t e s .

A t K. 1 a t l e a s t 22 d i f f e r e n t kinds of ware can be described. The most
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c axe orange combed ware, dask brown ware, v l q l e t s l i p p e d
ware, brown ware, reddish brown r i p p l e d ware, orange w a r e .
The orange combed ware i s t h e most common kind of p o t t e r y a t t h e
s i t e . It has orange p a s t e - sometimes with a gray core - few mineral
f i l l e r s , smooth surface and combed decoration with rhomboidal p a t t e r n s
covering t h e whole surface of t h e s h e r d s on both s i d e s ; t y p i c a l a r e
wavy r i m s .

The dark brown ware h a s brown p a s t e , many m i n e r a l f i l l e r s , b l a c k

s l i p a l o n g t h e t o p of t h e r i m , impressed d e c o r a t i o n a l o n g t h e r i m with
h o r i z o n t a l s t r i p s of t r i a n g l e s e n c l o s i n g oblique rows of d o t s .
The v i o l e t s l i p p e d waxe h a s brown p a s t e -sometimes with g r a y c o r e f e w mineral f i l l e r s , v i o l e t s l i p on t h e o u t s i d e s u r f a c e , b l a c k s l i p on
t h e i n s i d e one, i n c i s e d o r impressed d e c o r a t i o n with s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s
l i k e t h e p r e v i o u s one.
The brown ware h a s brown p a s t e - sometimes with g e o m e t r i c a l
p a t t e r n s - few mineral f i l l e r s , smooth s u r f a c e , i n c i s e d d e c o r a t i o n
w i t h g e o m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n s a l o n g t h e r i m (commas, v e r t i c a l wavy l i n e s ,
etc.).
The r e d d i s h brown r i p p l e d ware h a s brown p a s t e - sometimes w i t h
g r a y c o r e , few mineral f i l l e r s , r e d d i s h brown s l i p on t h e o u t s i d e
s u r f a c e and b l a c k s l i p on t h e i n s i d e one, r i p p l e d o u t s i d e s u r f a c e ,
d e e p l y i n c i s e d d e c o r a t i o n . It i s n o t v e r y f r e q u e n t on t h e s u r f a c e of
t h e s i t e and seems t o be p r e s e n t o n l y a t i t s western s i d e .
The orange ware h a s orange o r l i g h t brown p a s t e , few c o a r s e
m i n e r a l f i l l e r s , p l a i n s u r f a c e , i n c i s e d , impressed o r moulded decorat i o n w i t h complex p a t t e r n s ( g r i d s , h e r r i n g bone, r e c t a n g u l a r d o t s ,
t r i a n g l e s , round d o t s , moulded zig-zag, e t c ,) l i k e Crowfoot 1928,
p l XI11 a , f , g .
F i n a l l y one fragment of E a r l y Khartoum wavy l i n e p o t t e r y was
c o l l e c t e d a t t h e base of a n a t u r a l s e c t i o n . A s i m i l a r s h e r d on t h e
o t h e r hand w a s found by Sandison i n 1941 (SNM3783).
On t h e b a s i s of t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s made by F a t t o v i c h i n 1978 t h e
v i o l e t s l i p p e d ware seems t o be p r e s e n t i n t h e lower a r c h a e o l i g i c a l
l a y e r of t h e s i t e , while t h e orange combed one i s common i n t h e upper
layer.

A t J.M. 3 two main k i n d s of ware have been found. The first one
h a s brown o r r e d p a s t e , many mineral f i l l e r s , p l a i n s u r f a c e and no
d e c o r a t i o n . The second one h a s brown p a s t e and i s d e c o r a t e d w i t h m a t l i k e impressions covering t h e whole s u r f a c e of t h e s h e r d s . No
specimen of t h e K 1 p o t t e r y was c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s s i t e .
A t A.A.S. 1 two main k i n d s of w a x e were observed: brown o r r e d
undecorated ware; g r a y i s h brown ware. No specimen of K 1 p o t t e r y was
c o l l e c t e d i n t h i s s i t e . The brown o r r e d ware i s e x a c t l y l i k e t h e
J.M. 3 one. The g r a y i s h brown w a r e h a s g r a y i s h brown p a s t e , few
mineral f i l l e r s , rough o r p l a i n s u r f a c e , impressed d e c o r a t i o n
c o v e r i n g t h e whole s u r f a c e of t h e s h e r d s ( r e c t a n g u l a r , t r i a n g u l a r o r
round d o t s ) .

Potsherds of probable h i s t o r i c a l age have been moreover c o l l e c t e d

a t K 4. They include fragments of bowls s i m i l a r i n shape t o t h e
Meroitic N I bowl 9 of Adams c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and one fragment of white
Mediterranean amphora with wavy s u r f a c e of l a t e age.

K 1 potsherds have been found a l s o a t M 1 and E.S. 1, where t h e y

a r e not mixed with J.M. 3 and A.A.S. 1 ware. J . M . 3 p o t t e r y w a s found
a t J.M. 1 , J.M. 2 , J.T. 1, J.T. 2, A . 1, A.A.S. 1 potsherds were
c o l l e c t e d at E.S. 2. Mixed assemblages with both K 1 - mainly orange
combed p o t t e r y - and J .M. 3 sherds were found a t K 2 , K 3, J .M. 4,
J.M. 5, G.S. 2 , G.S. 4, G.S. 5 s i t e s . A t K 4 t h e orange combed p o t t e r y
w a s mixed with p o s s i b l e h i s t o r i c a l s h e r d s .

5. L i t h i c I n d u s t r y .
D i f f e r e n t amounts of l i t h i c i n d u s t r y were recorded i n most s i t e s .
They show a g e n e r a l t e c h n o l o g i c a l and t y p o l o g i c a l uniformity, which i s
i n c o n t r a s t with t h e more d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p i c t u r e suggested by t h e
p o t t e r y and c o n s t i t u t e s t h e common f e a t u r e l i n k i n g all s i t e s .
On t h e b a s i s of t h e r a w m a t e r i a l s f o u r main groups of l i t h i c
a r t e f a c t s can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d .
The f i r s t group i s formed by small chips of v a r i e g a t e d chalcedony.
They a r e d e b r i s of s t o n e working and i n some s i t e s t h e y a r e very
numerous. T h e i r presence i s s t i l l i n t r i g u i n g , as no d e f i n i t e t o o l
made with such m a t e r i a l w a s found. It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e v a r i e g a t e d
chalcedony was used i n t h e manufacture of beads and ornaments as i n
o t h e r c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s , but up t o now none of them have been discovered.
The second group i n c l u d e s ground s$ope t o o l s of g r a n i t e , s e r p e n t i n e
and s i m i ' ~ rocks: grinding s t o n e s , g l o d u l a r g r i n d s t o n e s , c y l i n d r i c
p e s t l e s , f l a t d i s c o i d a l r u b b e r s , axes a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of manufacturi n g , r i n g s t o n e s with l e n t i c u l a r s e c t i o n and b i c o n i c a l h o l e . They a r e
very f r e q u e n t , being i n some s i t e s t h e most abundant l i t h i c a r t e f a c t s .
with them is a l s o a s s o c i a t e d a g r e a t number of narrow pebbles, r e p e a t e d l y
f l a k e d a t one extremity of one s i d e , perhaps used as small p o l i s h e d adzes.
The t h i r d group i s formed of q u a r z i t e a r t e f a c t s i n c l u d i n g unretouched o r used f l a k e s , core on pebbles and m i c r o l i t h i c c r e s c e n t s . The last
ones were mainly c o l l e c t e d a t K 1 and G.S. 2 and r e p r e s e n t t h e most
t y p i c a l l i t h i c a r t e f a c t i n the area.
The f o u r t h group i s formed of f l i n t a r t e f a c t s . It i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by a l a r g e amount of d e b i t a g e and by a lower frequency of f i n i s h e d t o o l s .
The retouched f l a k e s , u s u a l l y with p a r t i a l retouch along t h e edge o r
sometimes t r u e s i d e - s c r a p e r s , a r e t h e most common specimens, but backed
p i e c e s , d i s c o i d a l s c r a p e r s , notches and d e n t i c u l a t e s a r e p r e s e n t i n many
s i t e s . A t G.S. 2 some c o r e s f o r microblades were a l s o c o l l e c t e d .

P r o v i s i o n a l remarks.

A t t h e c u r r e n t s t a g e of r e s e a r c h any attempt t o i n t e r p r e t t h e
d a t a i s premature. Nevertheless some p o s s i b l e remarks can be suggesred.
F i r s t l y it seems p o s s i b l e t o recognize d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of
peopling i n t h e a r e a of Gash D e l t a and J e b e l Kassala from t h e VIth Vth millenium B.C. up t o t h e 1st millenium A.D. o r l a t e r . It i s
a l s o probable t h a t t h e e a r l i e r s i t e s were l o c a t e d near t h e hypothetic a l a n c i e n t branches of t h e d e l t a , westwards of t h e p r e s e n t course,
where t h e s i t e s with an higher r a t e of l i t h i c a r t e f a c t s were recorded.
The e a r l i e s t remains a r e t h e wavy l i n e potsherds c o l l e c t e d a t
K 1, suggesting t h a t t h e J e b e l Kassala a r e a w a s a l r e a d y i n h a b i t e d i n
E a r l y Khartoum times. The l a t e s t remains a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e
C h r i s t i a n s i t e at M 6, which might be r e l a t e d t o t h e C h r i s t i a n
a n t i q u i t i e s a t Goz Regeb, and probably by t h e f i r e d b r i c k s a t K 5.
Most s i t e s however can be a t t r i b u t e d t o some c u l t u r a l u n i t s ,
probably l i n k e d i n one sequence, which might be regarded as t h e r e a l
Gash C u l t u r a l Complex d i s t i n c t from both t h e N i l e Valley and
Ethiopian c u l t u r a l complexes.
The f i r s t c u l t u r a l u n i t i s well documented by t h e K 1, M 1 and
E.S. 1 s i t e s . Its more s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e i s t h e orange combed ware,
but o t h e r t y p i c a l kinds of ware a r e t h e r i p p l e d r e d d i s h and orange
ones. The age of such u n i t i s u n c e r t a i n because of t h e absence of
comparable f e a t u r e s with o t h e r c u l t u r e s . I n t h e N i l e Valley combed
potsherds l i k e t h e Gash ones a r e s p o r a d i c a l l y documented s i n c e t h e
V~th/Vth m i l l e n i a B. C . i n E a r l y Khartoum, Khartoum N e o l i t h i c and
E a r l y Kerma assemblages. I n t h e Atbara v a l l e y a gray combed ware
with d e c o r a t i v e p a t t e r n s l i k e t h e orange combed one i s t y p i c a l of
t h e Butana I n d u s t r y , discovered i n Khashm elGirba a r e a and going
A t t h e same time
back t o t h e end of t h e I I I r d millenium B.C.
potsherds with prominent r i m and moulded d e c o r a t i o n similar t o t h e
orange ones a r e p r e s e n t i n Kerma assemblages. It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t
such c u l t u r a l u n i t y was contemporary, at l e a s t i n p a r t , with t h e
To t h e
Kerma c u l t u r e and goes back t o t h e 11nd/Ist m i l l e n i a B. C
same u n i t y moreover we can r e l a t e t h e m a t e r i a l s found a t Agordat,
a t t r i b u t e d o r i g i n a l l y t o a l o c a l f a c i e s of t h e Nubian C Group,
and t h e ones from J e b e l Malad e l Barak i n Baraka v a l l e y , Shurab e l
Gash and J e b e l Ofreik, where orange combed p o t t e r y w a s c o l l e c t e d .
Such f i n d i n g s might suggest t h a t t h i s c u l t u r a l u n i t y s t r e t c h e d
from J e b e l Ofreik t o Baraka Valley. F i n a l l y t h e discovery of
obsidian and marine s h e l l s might suggest a connexion with t h e
ahiopian Highlands and t h e Red Sea c o a s t .

..

The second c u l t u r a l u n i t y i s documented by J.M. 3 and r e l a t e d

s i t e s . It i s characterized by p l a i n r e d ware and 'mat' impressed
ware. The f i r s t one i s very similar t o some kinds of Ethiopian
pre-aksumite ware. The second one might be compared t o J e b e l Moya
specimens.
The t h i r d c u l t u r a l u n i t y i s documented at A.A.S. 1 and E.S. 2
s i t e s . It i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by grayish brown ware. Similar potsherds were a l s o found at J e b e l e l Ukheiderat. They may be compared
t o some J e b e l Moya specimens and suggest a d a t i n g back t o t h e 1st
millennium B C /1st millennium A . D m

..

F i n a l l y t o a d i f f e m t c u l t u r a l horizon might be a s c r i b e d t h e
c i r c u l a r c a i r n s observed i n t h e Gash D e l t a . They might be compared
t o s i m i l a s s t r u c t u r e s described i n t h e Butana and u s u a l l y d a t e d back
t o C h r i s t i a n age o r t o some c a i r n s of u n c e r t a i n age found i n E r i t r e a
and Tigre. It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t they can be a t t r i b u t e d t o nomadic
peoples, perhaps r e l a t e d t o t h e Beja group, spreading i n t o t h e a r e a
during t h e 1st millennium A.D.

SWAZILAND
This r e p o r t has been received from D r . P r i c e Williams.
The Swaziland Archaeological Research Association has been
working under t h e auspices of and with t h e support of t h e Swaziland
National Trust Commission s i n c e 1977. The a i m of t h e p r e s e n t
research i s t o t r a c e as d e t a i l e d an account of t h e archaeological
record as p o s s i b l e . The programme a l s o s t r o n g l y emphasized t h e study
of a n c i e n t environment and of c l i m a t i c change. The work i s being
d i r e c t e d by D r . David P r i c e W i l l i a m s who co-ordinates t h e e f f o r t s of
t h e o t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i s t s and s c i e n t i s t s who a r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e
p r o j e c t both i n t h e f i e l d and at a number of u n i v e r s i t y l a b o r a t o r i e s .
The r e s u l t s of t h e s i t e surveys and i n i t i a l excavations have
r e c e n t l y appeared i n an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d 'Archaeology i n Swaziland',
1980 South African Archaeological B u l l e t i n 35, 13 - 18. T h i s a r t i c l e
reviews t h e h i s t o r y of a r c h a e o l i g i c a l research i n t h e country as w e l l
as s e t t i n g out r e c e n t f i n d i n g s .
Following f o u r y e a r s work, it i s now p o s s i b l e t o d r a w c e r t a i n
conclusions about t h e archaeo-environmental background of Swaziland,
a b r i e f sketch of which i s given h e r e . The s t r o n g environmental
d i v e r s i t y of Swaziland make it most amenable t o paleoenvironmental
r e s e a r c h . The country v a r i e s topographically from Highveld sour
grassland at 1300 m. and above i n t h e west which a t t r a c t s a r a i n f a l l

of between 1100 and 2000 mm., through Middleveld broad-leaved t r e e

savannah a t 400 - 800 m i n t h e c e n t r e with a r a i n f a l l of between 500
and 1000 mm, t o t h e Bushveld a t 150 - 300 m w i t h a r a i n f a l l below
500 mm. i n t h e rainshadow of t h e e a s t e r n escarpment of t h e Lubombo.
The ground d i s t a n c e i s o n l y 100 km. from e a s t t o west. I n t h e s e zones
p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n h a s been p a i d t o r i v e r and s l o p e sedimentary
sequences, e s p e c i a l l y where t h e s e a r e r e l a t e d t o a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
occurrences. Geomorphological f i e l d survey and a e r i a l r e c o n n a i s s a n c e
h a s been followed by a comprehensive a n a l y t i c a l programme a t t h e
School of Geography, U n i v e r s i t y of Oxford, both p r o j e c t s under t h e
l e a d e r s h i p of D r s . Andrew Goudie and Andrew Watson. From our c o l l e c t i v e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and geomorphological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s we would now
suggest a p r e l i m i n a r y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of seven s e q u e n t i a l phases of
c l i m a t i c change coupled with a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence.
Phase I - High l e v e l g r a v e l s occur i n most of t h e r i v e r systems
i n t h e c o u n t r y , e s p e c i a l l y t h e Mkhondvo, L u s u t f u , Komati, Mhlatuzane,
Komati and t h e Ngwempisi. These t e r r a c e s a r e up t o 60 m. above
p r e s e n t r i v e r l e v e l . Only t h e l e a s t weatherable r o c k s now remain s o
t h a t t h i s t e r r a c e i s not everywhere p r e s e r v e d . The cobbles a r e
d e e p l y p a t i n a t e d and s t a i n e d and it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e g r a v e l s a r e
much d i s t u r b e d by l a t e r e r o s i o n . Heavily s t a i n e d a r t e f a c t s a r e
commonly found i n a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e s e g r a v e l s , g e n e r a l l y
u n i f a c i a l and b i f a c i a l choppers and p r o t o b i f a c e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h waste
d e b r i s , r e p r e s e n t i n g an a r c h a i c E a r l y Stone Age i n d u s t r y . Acheulian
material common elsewhere i n Swaziland i s n o t found w i t h t h e s e g r a v e l s .
Phase I1 - P a r t of t h e l a t e r r i v e r i n e h i s t o r y i s r e p r e s e n t e d by
younger g r a v e l s p o s s i b l y d e r i v e d from t h e reworking of t h e o l d e r
m a t e r i a l , Low cobble t e r r a c e s occur i n t h e Komati, Mbuluzi and o t h e r
r i v e r v a l l e y s which c o n t a i n abundant u n p a t i n a t e d Acheulian a r t e f a c t s handaxes and c l e a v e r s i n p a r t i c u l a r . A Middle P l e i s t o c e n e d a t e i s
indicated f o r these gravels.
Phase I11 - I n p a r t s of t h e lower Middleveld between 200 and 400 m.
above mean s e a l e v e l an ' e a r l y ' colluvium i s found which h a s been
d e r i v e d from t h e surrounding preweathered bedrock. Downslope movement
of t h i s u n s o r t e d d e b r i s mantles t h e lower pediments of a l l t h e r i v e r
v a l l e y s . T h i s e a r l y colluvium o v e r l i e s Acheulian m a t e r i a l and r a r e l y
a l s o c o n t a i n s such m a t e r i a l i n what a p p e a r s t o be a non-archaeological
c o n t e x t . The a n t i q u i t y of t h i s d e p o s i t , p o s s i b l y e a r l y i n t h e L a t e
P l e i s t o c e n e , h a s meant t h a t i s it o n l y preserved i n f a v o u r a b l e l o c a tions.
Phase IV - S t u d i e s of t h e e a r l y colluvium show t h a t a f t e r d e p o s i t i o n
a s u b s t a n t i a l p e r i o d o f t i m e e l a p s e d d u r i n g which s o i l f o r m a t i o n t o o k
p l a c e . Most f r e q u e n t l y t h i s h a s caused deep reddening o f t h e colluvium
due t o i r o n enrichment and t h e r e i s evidence f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n of
i n c i p i e n t and a c t u a l l a t e r i t e s . The t e r m i n a t i o n of t h i s p e r i o d is

marked by deep cracking, p a r t i a l t r u n c a t i o n and d i s s e c t i o n . The d a t e

f o r t h i s terminal a c t i v i t y i s thoughtto be a t o r before 30,000 BT'
( s e e below). A coarse Middle Stone Age i n d u s t r y i s sometimes r e l a t e d
t o t h i s pedogenic surface.
Phase V - A widespread episode of ' l a t e ' c o l l u v i a t i o n has r e s u l t e d
i n sediments t h a t now o v e r l i e t h e Middleveld v a l l e y pediments and
hence a l s o o v e r l i e t h e o l d e r red-stained colluvium where t h i s i s
preserved. This younger colluvium i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y grey i n
colour, up t o 6 m t h i c k and s t i l l reasonably i n t a c t . I n every
i n s i t u knapping f l o o r s occur within t h i s colluvium
i n s t a n c e , -e x h i b i t i n g a Middle Stone Age i n d u s t r y dominated by l a r g e and small
b i f a c i a l and u n i f a c i a l p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t s . Sidescrapers and end
s c r a p e r s accompany t h e s e , t o g e t h e r with waste f l a k e s , cores and
hammer s t o n e s . Imported i r o n o r e , a n v i l s and grindstones a r e a l s o
found at t h e s e s i t e s and although r a r e , some f a u n a l remains have been
recovered. Successive horizons of nodular c a l c r e t e have been used t o
provide a radiometric chronology f o r t h i s event which suggests t h a t
t h i s phase of c o l l u v i a t i o n began about 30,000 BP and ended about
12,000 BP and t h a t t h e archaeological m a t e r i a l d a t e s between 30,000
and 20,000 BP.
Phase V I - Postdating t h e younger colluvium, a high sandy a l l u v i a l
r i v e r t e r r a c e occurs throughout t h e Swaziland r i v e r systems. Named
t h e Winn Terrace, it i s seen t o o v e r l i e t h e uppermost s e c t i o n s of t h e
younger colluvium i n numerous places and i n some a r e a s it a t t a i n s
h e i g h t s of up t o 20 m above present r i v e r l e v e l . Whilst i t c l e a r l y
p o s t d a t e s t h e s e sediments containing Middle Stone Age a r t e f a c t s , t h e
Winn i t s e l f i s archaeologically s t e r i l e though it i s o v e r l a i n by
s p a r s e Late Stone Age a r t e f a c t s . An Early Holocene d a t e i s i n d i c a t e d
f o r t h i s terrace.
Phase V I I - After d e p o s i t i o n , t h e Winn has been deeply i n c i s e d and
a low modern sandy t e r r a c e , t h e Yebo, now a b u t s t h e base of t h e Uinn.
It i s thought t o be r e c e n t i n age.
DATING - Four 1 4 C d a t e s a r e mentioned here which have been derived
from horizons of nodular c a l c r e t e a s s o c i a t e d with c o l l u v i a l phases.
S o i l s here contain no primary a n c i e n t cazbonates as t h e r e i s no
calcareous rock i n t h e a r e a . The calcium i s derived from t h e weatheri n g of p l a g i o c l a s e (calcium f e l d s p a r ) i n t h e l o c a l g r a n i t e . S t a b l e
i s o t o p e measurements f o r t h e samples suggest t h a t i s o t o p i c enrichment
caused e i t h e r by r e c e n t growth o r by b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l f r a c t i o n a t i o n is
not s i g n i f i c a n t . Petrographic a n a l y s i s i s a l s o being undertaken.
G r N 9680 11,660 + 50 BP Near t o p (lm) of t h e younger colluvium
G r N 9Oll 13,430
60 BP Within t h e younger colluvium
G r N 9681 17,070 80 BP Near t h e base of younger colluvium
G r N 9012 30,620 - 350 BP Beneath younger colluvium

+t

These d a t e s would bracket t h e younger colluvium sequence.

INTERPRETATION
E a r l y a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y may be s e e n i n t h e E a r l y P l e i s t o c e n e
g r a v e l s of Phase I , followed by t h e Acheulian g r a v e l s of Phase 11. The
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Phase 111, I V and V i n d i c a t e s o s c i l l a t i n g c o l l u v i a t i o n and s t a b i l i z a t i o n . We f e e l t h a t c o l l u v i a t i o n i s t h e r e s u l t of
c o o l e r , l e s s moist c o n d i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e g l o b a l l y c o l d
c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d elsewhere as p l e n i g l a c i a l s , t h e younger colluvium
c o i n c i d i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h t h e last such p e r i o d . I n t e r v e n i n g s o i l
formation i s t h e r e s u l t of warmer, more moist c o n d i t i o n s . We a r e
f u r t h e r i n c l i n e d t o suggest t h a t t h e Winn i s a s s o c i a t e d with a moist
phase of t h e E a r l y Holocene. The sequence d e s c r i b e d above h a s a l s o
been observed over a wide p a r t of s o u t h e r n A f r i c a , f o r example i n
Zululand and Natal, i n t h e Transvaal and n o r t h of t h e Limpopo. It i s
hoped t h a t f u r t h e r work i n hand w i l l c l a r i f y some of t h e obvious
q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d by t h i s d a t a and t o throw l i g h t upon i t s connection
w i t h c o a s t a l and d e s e r t margin sequences.

TOGO
Merrick Posnansky (UCLA)and B .K. Swartz, J r .

a all

State

u n i v e r s i t y ) a z e planning t h e f i r s t c o n t r o l l e d e x c a v a t i o n s i n t h e
Togolese Republic d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r of 1980 - 81.

Posnansky w i l l

excavate a p o r t i o n of t h e w a l l of Notse and t e s t s a t Tado, t h e s e

two s i t e s b e i n g t h e legendary o r i g i n c e n t e r s of t h e Ewe.

w i l l be a s s i s t e d by Swartz and P h i l i p de B a r r o s .

Posnansky

Swartz's

independent excavation w i l l a t t e m p t t o d e f i n e a Stone Age stratig r a p h i c s u c c e s s i o n i n c l u d i n g p e r i s h a b l e remains.

ZAMBIA
T h i s r e p o r t comes from M r . Musonda of U.of C . , Berkeley.
Excavations at t h r e e r o c k s h e l t e r s i t e s i n t h e Copperbelt Province
of Zambia
Excavations have been s u c c e s s f u l l y conducted a t t h r e e r o c k s h e l t e r
s i t e s i n Zambia's Copperbelt Pronvince. These e x c a v a t i o n s were
f i n a n c e d from t h e r e s e a r c h g r a n t provided by t h e Livingstone Museum.
The excavations a r e aimed at t r a c i n g t h e changing s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e t e r r i t o r i e s occupied by t h e d i f f e r e n t p r e h i s t o r i c
groups a s w e l l as e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l sequence. There i s
a gap i n our knowledge of t h e c u l t u r a l sequence i n Zambia between
communities t h a t predominantly depended on h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g and
t h o s e t h a t p r a c t i s e d a g r i c u l t u r e . A s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y of t h e i n t e r f a c e
between stone- age communities and i r o n - u s i n g f a r m e r s who a r e assumed
t o have s u r v i v e d by l i v i n g side-by-side i s however e n v i s i o n e d .
The excavated s i t e s had been chosen d u r i n g a p r e l i m i n a r y archaeol o g i c a l reconnaissance i n 1977. The a r e a covered by t h e survey l i e s
between 13O20' and 1400' South L a t i t u d e and 28O00' and 2q030' E a s t
Longitude. The survey w a s mainly c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e Kapirimposhi and
~alamba/Musofu a s e a s where t h e presence of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s h a s
been r e p o r t e d by amateur a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , and o t h e r s . During t h e
s u r v e y , twenty nine r o c k s h e l t e r s were i n v e s t i g a t e d . More t h a n e i g h t y
p e r c e n t of t h e s e o f f e r l i t t l e p o t e n t i a l f o r excavation. Among t h o s e
few t h a t were found t o be s u i t a b l e f o r e x c a v a t i o n , t h r e e were
excavated between June 1977 and J u l y 1978.
Our first e x c a v a t i o n s were undertaken a t C h i l i l a m u l i l o rocku l ~
The C h i l i l a m u l i l o
s h e l t e r (28'53' E , 1J024' S) i n ~ u n e / ~ 1977.
h i l l i n which t h e s h e l t e r i s l o c a t e d i s s i t u a t e d a t t h e source of t h e
Mpulabushi stream which i s d r y d u r i n g most p a r t of t h e y e a r . The
r o c k s h e l t e r i s s i t u a t e d halfway up t h e h i l l on t h e s o u t h e r n - s i d e .
It i s formed by a n overhang of a sandstone b l u f f t h a t i s more t h a n
t e n metres h i g h . The e x c a v a t i o n exposed a 2.0 metre t h i c k d e p o s i t
o v e r l y i n g bedrock. Four d i s t i n c t c u l t u r a l l a y e r s were i d e n t i f i e d .
The upper two l a y e r s contained a m i c h r o l i t h i c i n d u s t r y , p o t t e r y , i r o n
t o o l s , bored s t o n e s , p o l i s h e d s t o n e a x e s and g r i n d i n g equipment w h i l e
t h e lower l a y e r s y i e l d e d o n l y a m i c r o l i t h i c i n d u s t r y . A few animal
bones and a s h e l l b e a d were a l s o c o l l e c t e d . Charcoal samples f o r
r a d i o c a r b o n d a t i n g were c o l l e c t e d from a l l t h e l a y e r s . D r . J . C . Vogel
of South A f r i c a k i n d l y processed t h e c h a r c o a l f o r C-14 d a t e s (see
d a t e s below). However, two of t h e samples t h a t came from t h e lower
c u l t u r a l u n i t s were n o t only inadequate f o r C-14 a s s a y b u t were
f e a r e d t o have been contaminated by r o o t s and c a r b o n a t e s i n t h e limet y p e d e p o s i t . Disturbance w a s n o t e v i d e n t though t h i s cannot be
completely r u l e d o u t .

A one by one metre t e s t p i t sunk i n F i l a t o r o c k s h e l t e r (28'45" E ,

1324' 30" S) exposed a one metre t h i c k d e p o s i t c o n t a i n i n g a m i c r o l i t h i c
i n d u s t r y and a few p o t s h e r d s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e e n t i r e s h e l t e r f l o o r
i s covered with bedrock. The t e s t p i t could have only been l o c a t e d a t
t h e d r i p l i n e where t h e r e was a shallow c u l t u r a l d e p o s i t . A t o t a l of
5,185 s t o n e a r t e f a c t s , a l l made on v e i n q u a r t z , were c o l l e c t e d . More
t h a n f i v e p e r c e n t of t h e s e were backed f l a k e s .

Excavations at Mwambacimo r o c k s h e l t e r (28'45 ' E , 13'24' S ) were conducted

i n June and J u l y 1978. A c u l t u r a l d e p o s i t 2.0 metres deep was exposed
r e v e a l i n g t h r e e c u l t u r a l h o r i z o n s . A l a r g e q u a n t i t y of c h a r c o a l w a s
c o l l e c t e d from each horizon. Two samples each from t h e t o p two h o r i z o n s
and f o u r from t h e lower horizon were submitted f o r C-14 d a t i n g . I n
a d d i t i o n t o c h a r c o a l , a l a r g e q u a n t i t y of m i c r o l i t h i c i n d u s t r y , p o t t e r y ,
i r o n t o o l s , g r i n d i n g equipment, p o l i s h e d s t o n e t o o l s and bored s t o n e s
were c o l l e c t e d . P o t t e r y , i r o n t o o l s and g r i n d i n g equipment were
r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e topmost l a y e r .
The C-14 d a t e s a r e as follows:
C h i l i l a m u l i l o Rockshelter
Lab.
Pta
Pta
Pta
Pta

#
2176
2178
2180
2181

B.P. yrs.
1 2 5 + 30
930
35
420 f: 35
220 & 35

Layer
I

I1
I11
IV

Mwambacimo R o c k s h e l t e r
Lab. #
P t a 2409
P t a 2410

Pta
Pta

2454
2453

Layer
I
I
I1
I1
I11
111
111

I11

Level
30 cm
40 cm
70 - 80 cm
100 cm
130 cm
14.0 - 150 cm
190 (190)cm
200 cm

B.P. yrs.
350 5 45
1050
75
5980 _t 70
5840 k110
9830
90
12900 .fixlo
12000 f 90
18080 5 8 0

These d a t e s a r e i n s e v e r a l ways comparable t o t h o s e d a t i n g t h e

Nachikufan i n d u s t r i e s of Zambia. h b a t now remains t o be accomplished
i s t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l s i n o r d e r t o determine t h e
degree of c u l t u r a l resemblances. T e n t a t i v e a n a l y s i s however p o i n t s t o
a high degree of occurrence of backed f l a k e s , c r e s c e n t s and a l l forms
of s c r a p e r s . P o i n t e d backed b l a d e l e t s which c h a r a c t e r i z e Nachikufan I
seem t o be a b s e n t . S i n c e a n a l y s i s i s n o t completed y e t , it would be
r a s h t o d i s c u s s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s e d a t e s i n t h e L a t e Stone Age
framework.

N o t i c e s of New P u b l i c a t i o n s
The volume e d i t e d by V . J . Maglio and H.B.S. Cooke "Evolution of
A f r i c a Mammals" w a s p u b l i s h e d by Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s at t h e end
of 1978 and may be of some i n t e r e s t t o your r e a d e r s , d e s p i t e t h e
h o r r i f i c p r i c e of $60.

M r . Derricourt says:

My s t u d y of t h e archaeology of n o r t h e r n Zambia, i n c o r p o r a t i n g
t h e f o r m a l r e p o r t on t h e I r o n Age e x c a v a t i o n s a t Samfya F o r e s t , h a s
now been p u b l i s h e d i n monograph form. It i s a v a i l a b l e under t h e
t i t l e People of t h e Lakes: Archaeological S t u d i e s i n Northern Zambia
i n paperback as Zambia Paper No. 13, and can be o r d e r e d from:
The I n s t i t u t e of A f r i c a n S t u d i e s ,
U n i v e r s i t y of Zambia,
P . O . BOX 900,
Lusaka, Zambia.

The f i r s t volume of a new s e r i e s of monographs h a s j u s t been

published.
The s e r i e s i s The Cambridge A f r i c a n A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Monographs
and i s b e i n g p u b l i s h e d by BAR ( o x f o r d ) Banbury Road, Oxford a t
10.
No. 1 ( p u b l i s h e d June 1980) i s

N . Nzewunwa:

The economic p r e h i s t o r y of t h e Niger D e l t a .

Coming s h o r t l y :
No. 2

E a r l y urbanism i n Mali.
(~enn6)
R.& S . McIntosh.

F u t u r e volumes i n 1981 w i l l be by R . F o l e y ( ~ e n ~ a A) 1, Abbas

Mohammed ( ~ u d a n ) ,Yosef e l Amin ( ~ u d a n )

JOURNAL OF AFRICAN HISTORY

Triennial review of archaeology and new radiocarbon dates
for West Africa
The next article and list of dates for West Africa (as far east
as Cameroon and Lake had) is due to be published in late 1981. It
is being prepared by Professor J.E.G. Sutton, Archaeology Department,
University of Ghana, Box 3, Legon, Ghana.
In order that the review and list should be as comprehensive as
possible, the author requests that materials be sent to him now.
Further information on new or continuing work and on the latest
laboratory results should be sent to him promptly during this year
and into early 1981; and he will endeavour to ensure that the article
is as up-to-date as possible at the time of going to press.

The following has been received from Mrs. Shaman the Assistant
Editor of Azania:
In future, articles concerning the Sudan will be considered for
publication in Azania, the Journal of the British Institute in Eastern
Africa, excluding however material concerning the Pharaonic period, and
language studies in Meroitic and Old Nubian.

The first number of a new archaeological newsletter was

published in January 1980. It is concerned primarily with Egyptian
pre-history and is titled 'L'Egy-pte avant l'histoire'.
It is published on behalf of the newly formed Association
Internationale Pour 1'Etude de la PrGhistoire Egyptienne
whose address is:
~usgede 1'Homme
Lab. de PrGhistoire
Place du Trocadero
75016 Paris, France.
The editorial secretary is Mlle. F. Braunstein-Silvestre at the
above address. Those wishing to join the association or to receive
the newsletter should write to Mlle. Braunstein-Silvestre.