Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ShearStrength of Soil
The shear strengthof a soil massis the internal resistanceper unit area that the soil
masscan otTerto resistfailure and sliding along any plane inside it. One must understand the nature of shearingresistancein order to analyzesoil stability problemssuch
as bearing capacity,slope stability,and lateral pressureon earthretainingstructures.
11.1
r1: f@)
( 11 .1 )
(11.2)
where c : cohesion
d : angle of internal friction
o : normal stresson the failure plane
r/ : shear strength
The preceding equation is called the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
In saturated soil, the total normal stress at a point is the sum of the effective
stress(n') and pore water pressure(tt), or
o : o ' l t t
311
312
Chapter 11
d'(des1
Sand: Rr,tundedgrains
Loose
Medium
Dense
27-30
30-35
35-38
30-35
3.5- 4t)
40-45
34,48
Sl/ts
26-35
The effectivestressa' is carried by the soil solids.The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, expressedin terms of efTectivestress,will bc clf the form
T | - ,'' * tr' tan <['
(11.3)
(a)
313
the plane ab be o' and r, respectively.Figure 11.1bshowsthe plot of the failure envelope defined by Eq. (11.3).If the magnitudesof o' and r on planeab are such that
they plot as point,4 in Figure 11.1b,shear failure will not occur along the plane. If
the effective normal stress and the shear stress on plane ab plot as point B (which
falls on the failure envelope), shear failure will occur along that plane. A state of
stresson a plane representedby point C cannot exist,becauseit plots above the failure envelope,and shear failure in a soil would have occurrcd alreadv.
11.2
0:45+9
2
( r1 . 4 )
A g a i n . f r o m F i g u r e1 1 . 3 .
ad
(r1.-s)
fa:stna
01,
(11.6a)
O'I
Ef1'ectivenormal stress
314
aa:
o t - o l
( l 1.6b)
sin@' :
c ' c o t $ '+
o,, _f o,.
tcos6'\
/l+sind'\
/
'i -.'1[r
sind/*"\r
,ino,/
( 11.7)
However,
I + sin@'
1 - sin q5'
^/
d'\
:tan'145*
Z)
and
(b' \
cos d'
/
"
t
*
,
t
t
a
n
\
4
5
+
2)
I
Thus,
. +)
. +) * ,r',^n(ot
o\: o\,un'(+s
(11.8)
rr)
u t - . t t u n ' ( + . s , r r , , " " ( 0 , - -f )
1t.3
( l l.e)
315
The direct shear test and the triaxial test are the two commonly used techniques for
determining the shear strength parameters. These two tests will be described in detail in the sections that follow.
11.4
Normal force
Porousstone
Shear
force
Porousstone
316
directsheartestequipmcnt(courtesyof Soiltest,Inc.,Lake
Figure 1?.5 Strain-controllcd
Bluff, Illinois)
in a manner similar to that in the stress-controlledtests.Figure 11.5showsa photograph of strain-controlleddirect shear test equipment.
The advantageof the strain-controlledtests is that in the caseof dense sand,
peak shear resistance(that is, at failurc) as well as lessershear resistance(that is, at
a point after failure called ultimate streng,th)can be observed and plotted. In stresscontrolled tests,only the peak shear resistancecan be observed and plotted. Note
that the peak shearresistancein stress-controlledtestscan be only approximatedbecausefailure occurs at a stresslevel somewherebetween the prefailure load increment and the failure load increment.Nevertheless,compared with strain-controlled
tests,stress-controlledtestsprobably model real field situationsbetter.
For a given test, the normal stresscan be calculatedas
o : Normal stress:
Normal force
Cross-sectionalarea of the specimen
(11.10)
r : Shearstress:
Resistinsshear force
Cross-sectionalarea of the specimen
(1 1 . 1 1 )
Figure 11.6 shows a typical plot of shear stressand change in the height of the
specimen against shear displacement for dry loose and dense sands.These observations were obtained from a strain-controlled test. The following generalizationscan
317
E
a
Sheardisplacentent
.='c
u)T
r )
o
a
o
U
318
40
20
150
20
z
/
too
ca
<rl
6' = 42"
0
50
100
150
200
2-50
Efl'ective
norntalstress,
o' (kN/rn:,1
300
Figure 11.7 Determination of shear strcngth parameters for a dry sand using the results of
direct shear tests
Figure 1 1.7 shows such a plot for tests on a dry sand. The equation frlr the average
line obtained from experimental results is
(1 1 . 1 2 )
/ r'\
d' : tan-'[\ -i
I
o /
It is important to note that in slla cemented sandsmay show a c' intercept.
11.5
319
80
Peak shear strength
;i 400
E
z
P
6
<
)oo
20
Residualshearstrength
o
0
2
Horizonttl
dclirnnation
(t/')
'e
d
O v e r c o n s o l i d a t ecdl a y
6
c^
-r
I
t"
j
N o r m a l l yc o n s o l i d a t ecdl a y
T J= o ' t a n Q ' ( r ' ' =0 )
v
Elfective normal stress.o'
Figure
77,9 Failure envelope for clay obtained from drained direct shear tests
11.6
c ' r+
, ottan6
( 11 . 1 3 )
Shear
fbrce
R e l a t i v ed e n s i t y ,/ ) , .( 7 o )
75
-s0
25
Nornral stress
o ' - 1 0 0k N / n r 2
( |4.5 lb/in:)
IIe
Figure 11.12 Yariationof tan @'and tan 6 with 1/e.fNote:e: void ratio, o' : 100kN/m2
(14.5lb/in.'z),quartzsand(after Acar, Durgunoglu,and Tumay,1982)]
322
E x a m p l e1 1 . 1
Followingare the resultsof four draineddirect sheartestson an overconsolidated
clay:
Diameter of specimen: 50 mm
Height of specimen: 25 mm
Test
no.
1
2
4
Normal
forca, lV
(Nl
Shear force at
failure, So."p
{N}
150
250
3s0
550
Residualshear
forc6, 5r""16961
(N}'
44.2
56.6
102.9
157.5
199.9
257.6
363.4
r44.5
'SeeFigure11.t3
Determine the relationshipsfor peak shear strength (r) and residual shear
strength(r ).
Solution
/ so \2
: 0.0019634
m2.Now the following
Area of the specimen(A) : (rrl+)l #
)
\ luuu/
tablecanbe prepared:'
Residual
Test
no.
Normal
force, N
(Nl
1
2
J
150
250
350
550
Normal
sttesg, (''
(kN/m2)
76.4
127.3
178^3
280.1
Peak shear
force, Souul
'
{Nl
$residuat
tt*:l
, Sreriauat
4
(kN/m'l
(Nl
.. = -sr1*
A
{kN/m'?l
r57.5
199.9
257.6
JOJ.4
80.2
101.8
131.2
185.1
44.2
56.6
102.9
1.44.5
22.5
28.8
52.4
73.6
The variationsof rland r, with c' areplotted in Figure 11.13'From the plots,
we find that
Peak strength:
250
tr )oo
z
.: 150
T/ VS. O'
!a loo
21' = Q'
= 40 kN/nr:
r / .v s . o '
r = 11.6"
50
11.7
t(x)
I 50
200
2-50
Effbctivc
norrralstress,
o' (kN/nt:)
300
350
Figure 11.13
Variationsof z7
andr, with (''
324
Air relelse
---,^
valve
I
Loading ram
: ,,.
Top cap
Porousdisc
S p e c i m e ne n c l o s e d
in a rubbcr
mcmbrane
Pressuregauge
"
*--Flexihle
tuhc
.1lr)..1-..
-'\
'...1
'.
Rubhcr'
t
| ilrl
\
''
.,":,,.r,..,.i
i,-- ...' :' :l:,.:.-',.-.-...,'....
l
tr'-',..r:,*l
.il, ...-..-.....,..-'ri,
I
Connectionstirr drainageor I
porc pressuremeasuremenI
Figure 11.14 Diagram of triaxial test equipment (al'terBishop and Bjerrum, 1960)
The general proceduresand implications for each of the tests in saturatedroils are
describedin thc followins sections.
11.8
u.
B = --:C3
(1r.14)
pore pressureparameter(Skempton,1954).
whereB : Skempton's
For saturatedsoft soils,-Bis approximatelyequalto 1; however,for saturated
stiff soils,the magnitudeof B canbe lessthan 1.Black and Lee (1973)gavethe theo-
325
lo"'
l"
lo,
I
+
i;' ;':
.:
--+,1
oj
:.
i.":.."":
'.1=-9:rt,
I:.:'r:::l':':
i.'r
U I
',:, ,i
U]
lor
I
l"'
1o",,
(a)
(b)
Figure 11.15
Consolidated-drainedtriaxial test:
(a) specimcnundcr chambcr confining
pressure:(b) deviator strcssapplication
Type of soil
Normally consolidatedsoft clay
Lightly overconsolidatedsoft clays anclsilts
Overconsolidatcdstil'l'claysand sands
Very densc sandsand very stiff clays at high
confining prcssures
0.9998
0.998u
0.987'7
0.9I30
x l
?l
> < 5
i.t
9 l
o *
O '
Axial strain
Axial strain
c l
o l
a l
a l
x l
;'l
"::
f < 6
frl
al
trI
6 {
U '
59
O '
(d)
(c)
by
caused
triaxialtest:(a) volumechangeof specimen
Figure 11.76'Cbnsolidated-draincd
(b) plot ol deviatorstressagainststrainin the verticaldirection
chamberconfiningpressure:
clay;(c) plot of deviatorstressagainststrainin the
for looscszrndand normallyconsolidated
clay;(d) volumechangein loosesand
verticaldirectionfor densesandandoverconsolidated
(e) volumechangein
clayduringdeviatorstrcssapplication;
and normallyconsolidated
clayduringdeviatorstressapplication
densesandandoverconsolidatcd
In a triaxial test, oi is the major principal effectivestressat failure and o! is the minor principal effcctivestressat failure.
Severaltests on similar specimenscan bc conducted by varying the confining
pressure.With the major and minor principal stressesat failure for each test the
Mohr's circlescan be drawn and the failure envelopescan be obtained.Figure 11.17
shows the type of effective stressfailure envelope obtained for tests on sand and normally consolidated clay. The coordinates of the point of tangency of the failure envelope with a Mohrb circle (that is, point A) give the stresses(normal and shear)on
the failure plane of that test specimen.
Overconsolidation results when a clay is initially consolidatedunder an allaround chamber pressure of o. (: oi.) and is allowed to swell by reducing the chamber pressure to oj (: o1). The failure envelope obtained from drained triaxial tests
of such overconsolidated clay specimens shows two distinct branches (ab and bc in
327
Eflective
stressiai lure
envelope
Tr = o'tan 0'
a
o:=o:
ot = o'l
Normal strcss
l.-(Ao,i)/--'-*l
l.+tlo")'--*]
Figure 11.17 Effcclive stressfailure cnvclope I'rom drained tests
on sand and normally
consolidatedclay
Figure ll.1tt). The portion ab has a flatter slopc with a cohesion
intercept, and the
shear strength equation for this branch can be written as
(11.1-5)
ala
T
c'
+
o3=O3
Figure
11'18
Or=o't
O;.
Normal stress
clav
328
o Undisturbedsoil
. '.-.'.
..:
r Remolded soil
t,
" -5
l0
l5
.10
20
30
P l a s t i c ritnyd c xP. I ( % )
60
t30 l(x)
l-so
Figure 11.19 Yttrialion ol'silr r,6'with plasticity indcx lor a number of soils (after Kcnney,
rese)
Comments on Drained and Residual Friction Angles of Clay
'fhe
drained angle of friction, d;', gencrallydccreascswith the plasticityindex of soil.
This fact is illustrated in Figure I 1. l9 for a number of clays from data reported by
Kenncy (19-59).Although the data are considerablyscattered,the general pattern
seemsto hold. ln Figure I l.tt, the rcsiclualshear strength of clay soil is defined.Also
is shown.
in Example I I .1, thc proccdure to calculateresidual friction angle <75i
Skempton ( 1964)provided the resultsof the vzrriationof the rcsidual angleof
friction, $',, of a number ol'clayey sgils with the clay-sizctraction ('2 pm) present.
The followins tzrbleshowsa summary ol'these rcsults:
Clay-size
fraction
l/.1
Sclset
Wiener Tcgel
Jackfield
Oxford clay
Jari
London clay
Walton'.sWood
Weser-Elbe
Little Belt
Biotite
17.7
22.8
-J).4
41.9
46.5
54.9
67
63.2
7'7.2
100
Residual
frictionangle,
d. (deg1
29.8
25.1
19.I
16.3
Iu.6
16.3
t -1.L
9.3
11.2
7.5
At a very high clay content. @iapproachesthe value of the angle of sliding friction for sheet minerals.For highly plastic sodium montmorillonites, the magnitude
of dl mav be as low as 3 to 4o.
329
Example11.2
For a normallyconsolidatedclay,the resultsof a drainedtriaxial testareasfollows:
Chamberconfiningpressure= 16lb/in.2
Deviator stressat failure : 25lblin.z
a. Find the angleof friction, g'.
b. Determinethe angle0 that the failure planemakeswith the major principal plane.
I
E , f l e c t i v sc t r c s s
l u i l u r ee n v o l o p e
o'r= 16lb/inr
N o r r n a ls t r e s s
$olution
For a normallyconsolidated
soil,thefailureenvelope
equationis
rf : o' tan+'
(sincec' = 0)
For thetriaxialtest,theeffective
majorandminorprincipalstresses
at failureare
(rl = (rt = ui * (Aou)r * L6 + 25 = 41lb/in.2
and
o\ : ct:
1 6l b / i n . 2
AB
oA=
(ry)
(*#)
330
or
sind' :
cri - o'^
01+03
47-16 =
0.438
41+16
Q' * 26o
b.9:45 *
a
L
Refer to Example1L.2.
a. Find the normal stresso.' and the shearstressrlon the failure plane.
b. Determinethe effectivenormal stresson the planeof maximumshear
stress.
Solution
a. From Eqs.(9,8)and (9.9),
a' (on the failure plane)
o 1 * o ' 3 . o t - c :
'- cos20
--:-;---i
+ "
and
ot - cr5
r, * J
,rsin20
Subsitutingthe valuesof oi = 41 lb/in'z,a\: I6lblin'2, and 0 : 58"into
the precedingequations,we get
4 l + 1 6 4 I - 1 . 6- , - ,
, j;i
x 58) = 23.61b/in.2
* ?cos(2
o, :
and
::
"t
4I_T6
sin(2x 58) = 11'2lb/in.z
Z:
u
.,o
,.
o, :4i9
. rycos
tbtin.z
eo: 28.s
331
E x a m p l e1 1 . 4
The equation of the effective stressfailure envelopefor normally consolidated
clayeysoil is 11: o' tan 25'.A drainedtriaxial test wasconductedwiththe same
soil at a chamberconfiningpressureof 80 kN/m2.Calculatethe deviatorstressat
failure.
Solution
For normally consolidatedclay,c' = 0. Thus,from Eq. (11.8),
.
at: oitun'(+s
+)
6' :25o
oi : 8otun'(+sr
(Loo)r = {r't - o\:
T)
: 197 kN/m2
197* 80 : 117kN/m2
E x a m p l e1 1 . 5
The resultsof two drainedtriaxial testson a saturatedclay are asfollows:
ot : o\:
SPecimen
I:
70 kN/m2
(Ao,r)r : 130kN/m2
ct * 6\ = 160kN/m2
SPecimenII:
(Aoir :223.5kN/m?
Determinethe shearstrengthparametersc' and$' .
Solution
For specimenI, the principalstressesat failure are
c ' t : a z : 7 0k N / m 2
and
o't = or : c3 t (Lrit:
70 + 130= 200kN/d2
Similarly,the principalstresses
at failurefor specimenII are \
n\ = oz:
160kNlm2
and
rr\: ot:
givenUy& t 11.8)
Usingtherelationship
, we get
dr'\
o\ * o\tan2( 45 + . l
\
+ zc'tan(4t.
+)
:.orun'(+s
- +)
2oo
/
6',\
+2c'tan(45*t)
383.5=
+ 2c'tan(4t- y)
.
tootan'z(+s
+)
6' :20o
11.9
Consolidated-UndrainedTriaxial Test
The consolidated-undrainedtest is the most common type of triaxial test. ln this test,
the saturatedsoil specimenis first consolidatedby an all-around chamber fluid presSUre,trj, that results in drainage (Figures 11.21aand 11.21b).After the pore water
pressuregeneratedby the application of confining pressureis dissipated,the deviator stress,Ao,7,on thc specimenis increasedto causcshear failure (Figure fl .2Ic).
During this phaseol the test,the drainageline from thc specimenis kept closed.Becausedrainage is not permitted, the pore water pressure,Au,1,will increase.During
the test, simultaneousmeasurementsof Ao,1and Au,yare made. Thc increasein the
pore water pressure,Atr,1,can be expressedin a nondimensionalform as
A:
Au"
-------:Lo,t
(11.16)
333
A x i a ls t r a i n
( c)
4 - ao
'a
(,c
(b)
lno.,
t "
lo.
".:,,'.
-+.:
<l-O1
. ,.t,,.
+l o ,
I
lAo,r
I
(c)
o3 -f (L,o,1)1: o1
Aj
o',
Total stress
irilr.a envelope
Tt- 6 tan q
o3
oj
o1
o1
l*l
l.-l
(Lutt)|
(Lu,ll
Nortnal stress
'l't't|ltl
and ef1cctivcstressfailureenvelopcsfor consolidatedundrainedtriaxial
Figure 11.22
that no backpressurcis applied.)
tests.(No1c:'l'hcfigureassumcs
: pore water prcssure at failure. The preceding derivaIn thcse equations, (Arz,1)1
t
h
a
t
tionsshow
art
tr; - tr\ -
tr'.
Testson scvcralsimilar specimenswith varying conllning prcssuresmay be conducted to determinc the shear strength parameters.Figure I1.22 showsthe total and
cffectivestressMohr'.scirclesat failure obtained from consolidated-undrainedtriaxial tcsts in sand and normally consolidtrtcdclay. Note that ,4 and B are two total
stressMohr\ circlesobtaincd from two tests.C and D are the effectivestressMohr's
circlcs correspondingto total stresscirclesA and B, respectively.The diametersof
circlesA and C are the same;similarly,thc diametersof circlesB and D are the same.
In Figure ll.22,the total stressfailure envelopecan be obtained by drawinga
line that touches all the total stressMohr's circles.For sand and normally consolidated clays,this will be approximately a straight line passingthrough the origin and
may be expressedby the equation
ry:otanQ
( 11.17)
1=c+OtanQl
U)
6j
Nurn'ii,,r"r,
Figure 11.23Totalstressfailureenvelopeobtainedfrom consolidatcd-unclrained
testsin
over-consolidatcd
clay
*otirnd1
(ll.llt)
A:
A '' :
(Lur),
---( a o , tf)
(11.1e)
336
Seven Sisters,Canada
Sarpborg
Lilla Edet, Sweden
Fredrikstad
Fredrikstad
Lilla Edet, Sweden
Cdta River, Sweden
Gota River, Sweden
Oslo
Trondheim
Drammen
Liquid
limit
Plastic
limit
Liquidity
index
r27
69
68
59
-)/
63
60
60
48
36
35
28
30
22
22
30
27
30
25
20
0.28
0.6ri
t --)z
0.58
0.63
1.58
1.30
1.50
0.87
0.50
1.08
1u
-)-l
Drained
friction angle,
Sensitivity"
@'(degl
19
25.5
26
28.5
27
5
50
5
6
50
12
40
4
2
8
LJ
28.5
24
-{1.)
34
28
Al
0.72
1.03
1.10
0.87
1.00
1.02
1.05
1.05
1.00
0.75
1.18
E xa mp l e1 1 .6
test on a normally consolidatedclay yielded the folA consolidated-undrained
lowingresults:
ot : 12lblin.2
Deviatorstress,(Ar)t
: 9.1lb/in.2
Porepressur
e. (L,u) 1 = 6.8lb/in.2
friction angleandthe consolidated-drained
Calculatethe consolidated-undrained
frictionangle.
Solution
<Yt: 12lblin'2
or:
;
i
:
^/
d\
21.1: 12tan'( 45 + a )
z /
\
l-
. / 2 t . 1\ o s - . - l
d : 2ltan-r(.;/
4 s l: 1 6 "
11.10 Unconsolidated-UndrainedTriaxialTest
337
Again,
n5 : oz * (Lu)r = 12 * 6.8 : 5.2lb/in.2
oi : ct - (&uir : 21.I - 6.8 : 14.3lblin.z
From Eq. (11.8),for normally consolidatedclay with c' : 0,
o\:o\t"n,(+s.t)
74.3:s.ztan'z(+s.+)
11.10
( 11.20)
L,u,1
B o j a n c l A r r , ,: 7 A , r , , ,
s.''
(lr.2r)
This test is usually conductedon clay specimensand dependson a very imporl.antstrength concept for cohesivesoils if the soil is fully saturated.The added axial
stressat failure (Arlr)r is practically the same regardlessof the chamber confining
pressure.This propcrty is shown in Figure 1l.24.The failure envelope for the total
stressMohr's circlesbecomesa horizontal line and henceis called a rb : 0 condition.
F r o m E q . ( 1 1 . 9 )w i t h O - 0 , w e g e t
r1:c-c,,
(1I.22)
where c,, is the undrained shear strength and is equal to the radius of the Mohr's
circles.Note that the @ : 0 concept is applicableto only saturatedclaysand silts.
The reason for obtaining the same added axial stress(Loitregardless of the
confining pressurecan be explained as follows. If a clay specimen(no. l) is consoli-
338
Total strcss
M o h r ' sc i r c l e s
at tailure ---
FailureenvelopeQ=0
61
o1
63
o1
N,,,.,i,lLl"r,
circlesandfailurcenvekrpe(.D- 0) obtainedfrom unconFigure 11.24TotalstrcssMohr'.s
soil
lriaxiallcstsot"tI'ullvsaturltcclcohcsivc
solidated-undrained
:
ltrl + (Arr,i)1j (Ar,,)r (rt
(Ar,,)r
and
0\ -
ro1-
(Att,1)7
Totalstrcss
M o h r ' sc i r c l e
at fai lurc
------------1
l<-
01
O r O:
O'3
-*-l
(Ao,1)1
F-
--=">l
(Ao,7),
l<__
(Ao/,
Normal stress
339
Now let us consider another similar clay specimen(no. II) that has been consolidated under a chamber pressure o3 with initial pore pressure equal to zero. If the
chamber pressure is increased by Aoj without drainage, the pore water pressure will
increaseby an amount A4,..For saturatedsoilsunder isotropic stresses,the pore water pressureincreaseis equal to the total stressincrease,so Aa,. : Acr: (B : 1). At
this time, the effective confining pressure is equal to oj * Ao. - LJr,.: o7 * Ao3 Ao-, : o.,. This is the same as the effectiveconfining pressureof specimenno. I before the application of deviator stress.Hence, if specimenno. II is shearedto failure
by increasingthe axial stress,it should fail at the samc deviator stress(Ao,,)rthat was
obtained for specimenno. I. The total stressMohr's circle at failure will be R (see
Figure 11.25).The added pore pressureincreasecausedby the application of (An,1)1
will be (Lu)r.
At failure, the minor principal effectivestressis
[(oj + Arrj)]
[Arr, * (Lu,,)r]: ct
( L u , 1 ) 1: c \
I1.11
_F
I
o.r=0
Total stressMohr's
c i r c l ea t l a i l u r e
6t=4,
Normal stress
Chapter 11
ton llt2
Consistency
Very soft
Soft
Medium
stiff
Very stiff
Hard
0-25
25-50
-s0,100
100-200
200-400
>400
0-0.25
0.25-0.-5
0.5-1
1
2-4
>4
4"
': T:,,
(lt.23)
where q,, is the unconJined compression strength. Table 11.4 givcs the approximate
consistenciesof clayson the basisof their unconfinedcompressionstrength.A photograph of unconfined compressiontcst equipment is shown in Figure 11.27.
Theoretically, for similar saturated clay specimens.the unconfined compression testsand the unconsolidated-undrainedtriaxial testsshould yicld the samevalues of ci,.In practice,however,unconfinedcompressiontestson saturatedclaysyield
slightly lower valuesof c,,than those obtained from unconsolidated-undrainedtests.
11.12
Sfress Path
Results of triaxial testscan be representedby diagramscalled stresspaths. A stress
path is a line that connectsa seriesof points, each of which representsa successive
stressstate experiencedby a soil specimenduring the progressof a test. There are
severalways in which a stresspath can be drawn. This section covers one of them.
Lambe (1964) suggesteda type of stress path representation that plots q'
againstp' (wherep' and q' are the coordinatesof the top of the Mohr's circle).Thus,
relationshipsfor p' and q' are as follows:
tn
.1 *
^f
o\ * o\
2
"
oi*o"
___:-*-__r__-:
(rr.24)
(i 1.2s)
This type of stress path plot can be explained with the aid of Figure 11.28. Let
us consider a normally consolidated clay specimen subjected to an isotropically
11.12 StressPath
341
Figure 11.27
LJnconfined compression test
equipment (courtesyof Soiltest,
Inc.. Lake Bluff. Illinois)
6:=or
i.+(Ao,1)1-,,-,-----------
Figure 77.28 Stresspath - plot of q' against p' for a consolidated-drained triaxial test on a
normally consolidatedclay
rr'.' -f o'"'
2
U 1
(rt.26)
U 1
and
o\q
o\
: U
(11.27)
For this condition, p' and q' will plot as a point (that is, 1 in Figure 11.28).At some
o t h e r t i m e d u r i n g d e v i a t o r s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n , -o i o t * L , o , -1 c j l L , o , 1 ; o \ : o t .
The Mohr's circle marked A in Figure 11.28correspondsto this state of stresson the
soil specimen.The valuesof p' and q'for this stresscondition are
(rri * Aa,) * oi
- t r ' r + Lo , - ( r : +
2
2
c', I o',
P'-
Lo ,
2"
(11.28)
and
(o1 *
L,o,1) -
o1
Ltt,t
(tr.2e)
q' - p'tana
where rr : the angle that the modified failure envelope makes with the horizontal.
The relationship between the angles S' and a can be determined by referring
to Figure 17.29,inwhich, for clarity, the Mohr's circle at failure (that is, circle B) and
lines OF and OF' as shown in Figure 11.28have been redrawn. Note that O' is the
center of the Mohr's circle at failure. Now.
DO', :
Iana
gO
1 1 . 1 2 S t r e s sP a t h
343
\
c
or=O't
O,o',or/l
l.+(Ao,1),+l
Figure 17.29 Relationshipbetwccn ry''ancla
and thus, wc obtain
ni -qt
,
tana -
2
ct*o't
*--;/.
o't*rt5
o\+o,
(11.31)
Again,
CO'
- stn Q
o(y
0\-:L
sind,:_:__o\-ct
o\
tr'1
tr'1 | tr'1
(11.32)
2
C o m p a r i nE
g q s .( 1 1 . 3 1a) n d( 1 1 . 3 2 w
) , e s e et h a r
sin {' : 14no
(11.33)
r ( t a na )
{' - sin
(11.34)
Figure 11.30showsa q'-p' plot for a normalry consolidatedclay specimensubjected to an isotropicallyconsolidated-undrainedtriaxial test.At the beginningof the
Total stress
M o h r ' sc i r c l e
Effective stress
M o h r ' sc i r c l e
s
6
a't
o , o ' , o r/ '
o'1
0.Thisrelationa p p l i c a t i o n o f d c v i a t o r s t r e s s , o l - t r \- o j . H e n c e , p ' : o r a n d q ' ship is representedby point 1. At some other stageof the deviator stressapplication,
rr\ - tra * Arr,l
Ltr,,
and
o\ :oj-
Lu,1
So
p -
oi*o\
2
: c1 *
Ao.,
1'-
1,u,,
(il.3s)
and
'
c\
t
c3
2
L.tr,1
2
( 11.36)
The precedingvaluesof p' and q' will plot as point U' in Figure 11.30.Pointssuchas
U" representvaluesof p' and q' as the test progresses.At failure of the soil specimen,
p' - (r1+
(Atr,,),
2-
(Arr,1),
( 11.37)
and
(Lor)r
,
, l 2
( 11.38)
T h e v a l u e so f p ' a n d 4 ' g i v e n b y E q s . ( 1 1 . 3 7 )a n d ( 1 1 . 3 8 )w i l l p l o t a s p o i n t U
Hence, the effective stresspath for a consolidated-undrained test can be given by the
curve IU'U. Note that point U will fall on the modified failure envelope, OF' (see
Figure I1.29), which is inclined at an angle a to the horizontal. Lambe (1964) proposed a technique to evaluate the elastic and consolidation settlements of foundations on clav soils bv using the stresspaths determined in this manner.
11.12 StressPath
o-r o,
z
oj
*r'' cotQ'-l-
Norntrl stress
o'r I o'r-------..-----*l
Figure | 1.31 Derivationof a asa functionof d' and n asa function of c, and
$olution
FromFigure11.31,
Sln@ E
AB
AC*
+:z
(ry)
AB
CO+OA
c ' c o t S '*
(*#)
(a)
Q':m+p'tana
(b)
or
ComparingEqs. (a) and (b), we find that
m = c'cos@'
and
tana: sin4'
a = tan-1(sind')
1t.13
VaneShear Test
Fairly reliable results for the undrained shear strength, c,, (S : 0 concept), of very
soft to medium cohesive soils may be obtained directly from vane shear tests. The
shear vane usually consistsof four thin, equal-sizedsteel plates welded to a steel
torque rod (Figure 11.32).First, the vane is pushed into the soil. Then torque is applied at the top of the torque rod to rotate the vane at a uniform speed. A cylinder
of soil of height ft and diameter r/ will resist the torque until the soil fails. The
undrained shear strength of the soil can be calculatedas follows.
If I is the maximum torque applied at the head of the torque rod to causefailure, it should be equal to the sum of the resistingmoment of the shear force along
the side surfaceof the soil cylinder (M.) and the resistingmoment of the shearforce
at each end (M,,) (Figure I I .33):
7':M,+M,,+M,,
'l'wo
cnds
(d12)
\ _ J \ - _ ' Y J
Surlacc
arca
Moment
arm
I a2n r/rI
,:rr',,1 +B;l
"
L
cu:
I a2n+ ^a31
lrl
t
( 11.41)
a - j
lsTl
(rr.42)
1 1 . 1 3 V a n eS h e a r T e s t
I
I
h
I
k-,1
--+l
Figure 11.32
Diagram ol'vane shear
test equlpm(jnt
T r i a n g u l a rn t o b i l i z a t i o n
of shearstrength
I
I
1
' , - 4
l<-f
U n i f b r mm o b i l i z a t i o n
0f shearstrergth
'i-t
2
Parabolicfbrm of
m o b i l i z a t i o no f
shearstrength
I
I
I
-------------*1---
--,
t
348
( 11.43)
and
(11.44)
t
(in )
I n t h e f i e l d .w h c r e c o n s i d c r a b l cv a r i a t i o ni n t h c u n d r a i n e ds h e a rs t r e n g t hc a n
be found with depth, vane sheartcstsare extrcmcly useful.In a short period, one can
establisha reasonablcpattern ol'thc changeof c',,with depth. However,if the claydeposit at a given site is more or lessunif'orm,a few unconsolidated-undrainedtriaxial
Figure 1 1.34 Laboratory vane shear test devicc (courtesy of Soiltest, Inc., Lake Bluff, Illinois)
|
I
I
+s)
<
I
II
:f
ll
.lr"
-+;t
ri++
.ii
+i+*i1.i,..t:i*-
iil
I
Rectangularvane
li
Taperedvane
Diameter
of rod
mm (in.)
Diameter,
mm (in.)
Height,
mm (in.)
76.2(3)
101.6(4)
127.0
(s)
16(+)
32(i)
1 a ? / l \
t1.t \t)
NX
3 8 . r( r j )
-50.8
(2)
$5 (2))
1 0 r . 6m m ( 4 i n . ) 1 '
9 2 . 1( 3 ; )
1 8 4 . 1( 7 1 )
3 . 2( * )
1 a 1 t ! \
LL.t \2)
Casingsize
AX
BX
1 6 (*r)
LL.t \1)
( +)
t2.7
ca(dcsign) :
iCr(uane shear)
(11.4s)
where
i : correction factor : l.l - 0.54 log(P1)
(11.46)
P7 : plasticity index
More recently,Morris and Williams (199a)gave the correlations of ,\ as
i :
i ' l )0 ' 5 7
1 . 1 3 n{ ) { ) n ( +
(11.47)
(11.48)
and
1 9.57
n : 7.01e tttts(r'r')
where LL : liquid limit (%).
| 1.14
11.15
351
Figure 11.36
Torvane (courtesy of
Soiltcst,Inc., Lake Bluff,
Illinois)
Figure 11.37
Pocket penetrometer
( c o u r t e s yo f S o i l t e s t l. n c . .
Lake Bluff, Illinois)
Mrdiutnquic*
E
l6
"l
..;
;
'5a
Slightly quick
d
Very sensitive
Mediurr sensitive
S l i g h t l ys e n s i t i v e
Inscns
itivc
Axlal straln
t h e m o i s t u r ec o n t e n t ,a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e I 1 . 3 UT. h i s p r o p c r t y o f c l a y s o i l si s c a l l e d
sensitivity.The degree of sensitivitymay bc defined as thc ratio of the unconfined
comprcssionstrength in an undisturbedstate to thettin a remolded statc, or
4a(undisturhc,J)
^
Jr:-._.-4rr(remolded)
( I 1.4e)
The sensitivityratio of most claysrangesfrom about 1 to 8; however,highly flocculent marine clay depositsmay have sensitivityratios ranging from about 10 to 80.
Some clays turn to viscousfluids upon remolding. These clays are found mostly in
the previously glaciatedareasof North America and Scandinavia.Such claysare referred to as quick clays.Rosenqvist(1953)classifiedclayson the basisof their sensitivity. This general classificationis shown in Figure 1 1.39.
The loss of strength of clay soilsfrom remolding is causedprimarily by the destruction of the clay particle structurethat was developedduring the original process
of sedimentation.
353
If, however, after remolding, a soil specimenis kept in an undisturbed state (that
is, without any change in the moisture content), it will continue to gain strength with
time. This phenomenon is referred to as thixotropy. Thixotropy is a time-dependent,
reversible processin which materials under constant composition and volume soften
when remolded. This loss of strength is gradually regainedwith time when the materials are allowed to rest. This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 11.40a.
Most soils,however,are partially thixotropic - that is, part of the strength loss
causedby remolding is never regained with time. The nature of the strength-time
variation for partially thixotropic materials is shown in Figure 11.40b.For soils,the
differencebetween the undisturbedstrength and the strength after thixotropic hardening can be attributed to the destruction of the clay-particlestructure that was developed during the original processof sedimentaticln.
,\.
= 4-a ( u n d i s t u r b e d )
{a(renrolded)
Initial
undi sturbed
strength
{u( undisturbed)
clJ
6"'&
E
E
/---"
$t
E
d,
./a(re Irolded )
6*
,/***
!
c
r,b"
g
+
(b)
Figure
thixotropic
material
354
Relationship
Reference
(1957)
Skempton
L rrlVSTl
+CO: 0 . 1 1 + 0 . 0 0 3 7 ( P l )
P/ : plasticity index (%)
c,(VSr)- undraincd shear
strength frcnt vane shear tcst
1+:
C h a n d l c r( l 9 t t t t )
(f
',
o.u + o.oo37(p1)
rri : preconsolidationpressurc
:1 -0.23+0.04
(f
',
;(fo:
Mesri ( 19t39)
o.zz
/.,\
\ - /,,",,,,,,,.,,,,,,
,,,, : ( o c R ) ' i E
/(;,\
\a/,,,,,,,,,",ons.,i(r,,c(r
O C R : o v c r c o n s o l i d a t i o rna t i o
11.16
OCR
o,,
tt6
( 11.s0)
pressure.
whereoj. : preconsolidation
10.8
Its liquid
A soil profile is shownin Figure11.41.The clayis normallyconsolidated.
compression
strength
plastic
limit
Estimate
the
60
and
its
is
25.
unconfined
limit is
from the groundsurface.UseSkemptonb
of the clayat a depthof l0 m measured
from TableI L6 andEqs.(11.45)and(lL46).
relationship
Dry sand
Y = 1 5 . 5k N / m :
Clay
ty - 30Vc
G, = 2.68
Figure 11.41
Solution
For the saturatedclay layer,the void ratio is
: 0.8
e = u)Gs: (2.6BX0.3)
The effectiveunit weight is
(2.68-l)(e.81)
.
/c.-l\
:9.r6kN/mr
Tiroy:\,*"i,,:__
The effectivestressat a depth of 10m from the groundsurfaceis
qb : 37"ond
+ Tylrov: (3X15.5)+ (7X9.16)
= 1 1 0 . 6k2N / m 2
From Table11.6.
ca(vST)
o'p
Ca(VST)
n'Sr=
* 0.11+ 0,0037(P1)
- 25)
0.11+ 0.0037(60
and
ca(vsr): 26.49 kN/m2
From Eqs. (11.45)and (11.46),we ger
C, :
,\cr,y51,
* lL.7 - 0.54log(Pl)1c,,y5.r1
* 2s)J26.49
: 11.7- 0.54lo9(60
: 22.95kN/mz
Sotheunconnned
"T':';;:',;eT;:,
: 45.e
kN/m2
356
11.17
(r':
where o' :
o :
rt. :
u?i,:
X(uu- uu,)
(11.s1)
effective stress
total stress
pore air pressure
pore water pressure
When the expression for o' is substituteclinto the shear strength equation
_
[Eq. ( I 1.3)1,which is bascd on effectivestressparameters,we get
r[ : c' + [rr - u,,* y(u,,- rr,,,)]tan
{'
( r r.s2)
r'f otanrp
Normal stress(total)
Figure 1 1.42
'fotal
(11.53)
357
o (lb/in2)
160
1000
320
160
Inorganicclay (CL)
? 8oo
z
Degrceof saturation=
tr 600
Rfl
_
'
; .+00
.<
,+0
5, 200
0d
500
1000
2(XX)22(X)
Totalnonlalstrcss.
o (kN/rnrt
F i g u r e 1 1 . 4 3Y a r i a t i < r n o
t l f. t c t o t aslt r e s fsa i l u r e e n v e l o p c w i t h c h a n gienoi tfi a d
l egrecol'
s:lturationobtaincdfrttmundrainedtcstsof an inorganicclay(al'te
r Casagranclc
alcl
Hirschfeld,1960)
F i g u r e 1 1 . 4 3s h o w st h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h c t o t a l s t r e s sc n v e l o p e sw i t h c h a n g eo f
t h e i n i t i a l d e g r e eo f s a t u r a t i o no b t a i n c d f r o m u n d r a i n e dt e s t so n a n i n o r g a n i cc l a y .
Note that for these teststhe specimcnswerc prepared with approximately the same
i n i t i a l d r y u n i t w e i g h to f a b o u t 1 6 . 7k N / m r ( 1 0 6I b i m r ) . F o r a g i v c nt o t a l n o r m a l s t r c s s ,
tl.reshear stress needed to cause failure dccreascsas the dcgrce of saturalion inc r e a s e sW
. h e n t h c d e g r e co f s a t u r a t i o nr e a c h e s1 0 0 ' 2 ,t.h e t o t a l s t r e s sl ' a i l u r ce n v e lope becomesa horizontal line thzrtis the samc as with thc r/ : 0 conccpt.
In practical caseswhere a cohesivcsoil dcposit may bccome saturateclbccause
o f r a i n f a l l o r a r i s e i n t h c g r o u n d w a t c rt a b l c , t h e s t r e n g t ho f p a r t i a l l ys a t u r a t c dc l a y
s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d f o r d e s i g nc o n s i d e r a t i o n sI.n s t e a d ,t h e u n s a t u r a t e ds o i l s p e c i mens collectedfrom thc field must bc saturatedin the laboratorv and the undraincd
strength determined.
| 1.18
3s8
. Saturated
ciay , ,r..,
(a)
Problems
11.1 A direct shear test was conductedon a specimenof dry sand with a normal
s t r e s so f 2 0 0 k N / m 2 . F a i l u r eo c c u r r e cal t a s h e a rs t r e s so f 1 7 5k N / m 2 .T h e s i z e
of the specimentested was 75 mm x 75 mm x 30 mm (height). Determine
the angle of friction, @'.For a normal stressof 1-50kN/m2, what shear force
would be required to cause failure in the specimen?
Problems
359
ll.2
rt.4
Normal
force
{N}
Shear
force at
failure(N}
200
300
400
500
1.5-5
230
3l0
385
Draw a graph for the shear stressat failure againstthe normal stressand determine the drained angle of friction (r/->')
from the graph.
Following are the resultsof four drained direct shcar testson a normally
consolidatedclay:
S p e c i m e ns i z e : d i a m e t e ro f s p e c i n t e n: 2 i n .
- I in.
hcight of spccir.r.ren
Test
no.
Normal
force
(lb)
I
2
3
60
90
ll0
3'7.5
-5-5
70
lll
u0
Shear
force at
failure (tbl
Draw a graph for shear stressat failure againstthe normaI stressand determine the drained angle of friction ({,) from the graph.
11.5 The equation of the effectivestressfailure envelopefor a loose sandysoil was
obtained from a direct shear test as r 1.: c' tan 30o.A drained triaxial test
was conductedwith the samesoil at a chamber confining pressureof 10 lb/in.2
a. Calculate the deviator stressat failure.
b. Estimate the angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal
plane.
c. Determine the normal stressand shear stress(when the specimenfailed)
on a plane that makes an angle of 30'with the rnajor principal plane. Also.
explain why the specimendid not fail along the plane during the test.
11.6 The relationship between the relative density D, and the angle of friction,
@,,
of a sand can be given as Q'" : 28 + 0.18 D, (D,is in %). A drained triaxial
test on the same sand was conducted with a chamber confining pressure of
120 kN/m2. The relative density of compaction was 65%. Calculatethe maior
principal stress at failure.
360
Problems
361
Sand
Q'= 42"
e =0.6
Gs =2.67
Figure 11.45
11.17 The shear strength of a normally consolidatedclay can be given by the equation 11- o' tan 31'. A consolidated-undrainedtest was conductedon the
clay.Following are the resultsof the tcst:
C h a m b e rc o n f i n i n gp r e s s u r e: 1 1 2k N / m r
Deviator stressat failure - 100kN/m2
Determine
a. The consolidated-undrainedfriction angle,{
b. The pore water pressuredcveloped in the clay specimenat failure
11.18 For the clay specimendescribedin Problem I L 17,what would have been the
deviator stressat failure if a drained test would have been conductedwith
t h e s a m ec h a m b e rc o n f i n i n gp r e s s u r e( i . e . ,o j : 1 1 2k N / m 2 ) ?
11.19 A silty sand has a consolidated-undrainedfriction angle of 22" and a drained
friction angle of 32" (c' : 0). If a consolidated-undrainedtest on such a soil
is conducted at a chamber confining pressureof 1.2tonlft2, what will be the
major principal stress(total) at failure? Also, calculatethe pore pressure
that will be generatedin the soil specimenat failure.
11.20 Repeat Problem 11.19,using the following values:
4>: t9'
6' - 28'
o.r = f35kN/m2
11.21 The following are the resultsof a consolidated-undrainedtriaxial test in a
clay:
Specimen
no.
a3
(kN/mr)
rr, at failure
(kN/mr)
t92
384
375
636
Draw the total stressMohr's circles and determine the shear strength parameters for consolidatedundrained conditions (i.e.,d and c).
362
Test no.
u\ (lb lin.2l
I
2
z7
I L
(lb/in.'zl
4n
Use thc failure envelopeequation givcn in Example I 1.7- that is, 11': v11a
p ' L a na . ( D o n o t p l o t t h c g r a p h . )
a. Findrr anda
b. Find c' and 6' .
11.26 A 1,5-m-thicknormally consolidatedclay laycr is shown in Figure 11.46.The
plasticity index of the clay is 18.Estimate the undrained cohesionas would
bc determined from a vane shear test at a depth of 6 m belclwthe ground
surface.Use Skempton'scquation in Table 11.6.
''""1,3m
*
't'
l,'].
:"
l
.'
Figure 11.46
References
363
References
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.lournal oJ'the Geotechnicol Ettgineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 108, No. GT4, 648-654.
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ClsnNttt-ut<,R. J. (l9lJlJ)."The irr .r'i1a
Mcasurementof thc Undraincd Shcar Strengthof Cilays
lJsing tlrc Ficld Vane," S7'P1011,VuttcSheurStrengthTestingin Soils:Field and Luborutory Studics, ASTM, l3 44.
C o t r t . c l v t t ,C . A . ( 1 7 7 6 ) ." E , s s asi u r u n c a p p l i c a t i o nd c s r e g l e sd e M a x i m u m s e t M i n i m i s h
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