Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. "pure"
2. "applied"
1. pure geophysics - study of the physics of the Earth
Examples:
Part 1: Gravity
Assume Earth does not rotate and has uniform density distribution.
Determine acceleration of gravity (usually just called "gravity" by geophysicists) at point on
Earth's surface.
Law of Universal Gravitation:
GMeM
F = ------R2
G = Universal Gravitational Constant = 6.673 x 10-8 dyne cm2/gm2 +/- 0.003 (dyne = 1 gm
cm/sec2)
Newton's 2nd Law: F = Ma
for earth, use symbol "g" instead of "a," so F = Mg
GMeM
GMe
Since F = F; then Mg = ------ and g = ---R2
R2
Complication #1:
Earth rotates
Result: Earth not round but bulges at equator and is flattened at poles.
Equatorial radius is 21 kilometers greater than at poles.
Complication #2:
Earth's mass is not symmetrical about the equatorial plane - Earth is "pear-shaped."
Complication #3:
The equator isn't perfectly spherical but only varies by a few meters.
The regular surface which most nearly approximates the surface of the actual Earth is a surface
called the geoid.
The geoid surface is everywhere perpendicular to a plumb bob.
The geoid corresponds to mean sea level.
In land covered areas, the geoid is the surface that would be determined by the level to which
water would rise in narrow canals cut through the continents.
Since g depends on distance from center of Earth (radius), g varies with latitude.
International Gravity Formula can be used to determine g at a particular latitude:
g = 9.780318 (1 + .0053024 sin2 - 0.0000059 sin2 2 ) where is the latitude; units are m/sec2
Calculated value for g "corrected" for latitude is called the theoretical gravity and abbreviated gt
Now measure actual value of gravity at any spot.
1. can use pendulum
Can get some idea of Earth's density distribution from study of its angular momentum:
Angular Momentum = Moment of Inertia x Angular Velocity
The moment of inertia of any object depends on its mass distribution.
Examples:
solid cylinder revolving about its axis, I = 0.5 MR2; where M is mass and R is radius of
cylinder
sphere, I = 0.4 MR2
To adjust for difference #2, we then add another "correction" to the measured value before
comparing it to the theoretical value by removing the influence of nearby mountains and valleys.
called the Topographic or Terrain Correction
Since this correction rarely exceeds 1 mgal except in mountainous areas, it is frequenty ignored.
To adjust for difference #3, formulas are available to determine the necessary correction. This
tidal correction is very frequently ignored.
Finally, any difference between the "corrected" values of actual gravity and theoretical
gravity should be due to density variations (#4).
Higher than average density rock will cause the measured value of g to be greater than the
theoretical value and produces a positive "anomaly" while less dense rock produces a
negative anomaly.
Consider a plumb bob hanging near a tall mountain.
The mass of the mountain pulls it sideways.
Knowing the density and volume of the mountain allows us to calculate its mass and enables us
to determine how much force it should exert on the plumb bob.
Measurements show mountains exert only about 1/3 of the expected amount.
Question: Why?
Mountain supposedly has low density "roots."
Theory of Isostasy - the total mass of rock (and sea) in any vertical column of unit cross section
is constant
Various models have been developed to describe this root (Airy, Pratt, etc.)
Where sedimentation occurs, the weight of the sediment may cause the crust below
to sink. Similarly, where erosion occurs the crust may rebound.
Questions:
where R is the radius of the sphere, z is the depth to the center of the sphere, x is measured from
a point on the surface directly above the center of the sphere to the location, and
is the density
contrast (difference in densities of body and surrounding material).
There is usually assumed to be a constant density difference between an ore body and its
surroundings and a sharp, well- defined boundary separating them.
Neither assumption is likely to be correct.
Finding the density contrast to use in the formula is very difficult if you don't know what lies
below ground. (And if you knew what was down there, why bother with exploration methods
like gravity surveys?)
Other shapes can be modeled with similar but more complex formulas.
Complex forms can be thought of as combinations of simple forms.
Usually use computers.
Some general rules have been found.
Circular anomalies produced by:
graben
buried folds
buried channels
subduction zones
oceanic ridges
Negative anomalies:
Less dense rock such as in sedimentary basins, batholiths, subduction zones, oceanic
ridges
Positive anomalies:
The deeper the body, the broader and lower in amplitude will be the anomaly profile.
Rapid change in amplitude or gradient should suggest density change in subsurface - such as a
fault or edge of a buried basin.
Decay occurs at constant rate and is not affected by temperature, pressure, chemical combination
or any other known thing
Radioactive isotopes - an element capable of spontaneously changing into another element by
the emission or addition of particles to its nucleus
Stable isotopes - an isotope which is not radioactive
Radiogenic isotopes - an isotope produced by radioactive decay
Non-radiogenic isotopes - an isotope not produced by radioactive decay
Half-life - time for half of element to decay
Parent - the radioactive element which decays
Daughter - an element formed from another by radioactive decay
T (half life) = ln 2/ = 0.6931/
The equation which represents radioactive decay is (derived in most geophysics texts for those
who are interested and know a little calculus):
can measure amounts of parent and daughter accurately (usually use mass spectrometer)
RbSr dating
Rb87 -> Sr87 (could also write 87Rb, etc.)
Rb commonly substitutes for K in minerals; so method used on K-bearing minerals or rocks
which contain them
Decay equation reads:
(Subscript m stands for measured, or in other words, now; o stands for original)
It is easier to measure ratios of atoms rather than absolute numbers so expression usually written:
Now measure Sr87/Sr86 and Rb87/Sr86 ratios and for reaction ( = 1.39 x 10-11/yr)
Then estimate (Sr87/Sr86)o (Can measure this ratio in coexisting undisturbed minerals which
contain no Rb)
Note: Sr86m = Sr86o since Sr86 is stable and non-radiogenic
Sr86, Sr84, and Sr88 are all stable and non-radiogenic.
Any could be used; Sr86 most abundant and therefore most often used.
or:
Must determine ratio (Pb206/Pb204)o and .
Can find original ratio from associated lead minerals (such as galena) or can use mineral for
study that wouldn't have had any original lead (zircon, uraninite, sphene, apatite, monazite, etc.)
By using U238, U235, and Th232, theoretically you get three age determinations and they should
agree (concordant ages).
If disagreement, ages are said to be discordant.
This is probably due to gain or loss of material.
Lead-lead method
If equation for U235 is divided by equation for U238, we get another equation:
Other Pb uses
1. Can measure average amounts of U238 and Pb206, or U235 and Pb207 in rocks at the Earth's
surface (usually use recent marine sediments).
Assume no radiogenic lead to start with, can calculate age of Earth's outer portion.
2. Begin with primeval lead (lead present when Earth formed): Pb204, Pb206, Pb207, Pb208 in certain
ratios for Earth as whole (usually assume this to be same as ratios in meteorites without U, Th).
With time, radiogenic lead increases, thus higher Pb206/Pb204, etc., ratios with time.
Can get age of Earth (4550-4750 my).
3. (variation on 2)
After a time, ore might form (example: galena).
This ore would "sample" the lead at time of formation, which would consist of the primeval lead
plus all radioactive lead formed before the time of ore formation (total lead called the common
lead).
Thus, age of ore can be determined by comparing its lead ratios to the ratios which would have
existed at various times.
4. Stable nuclei atomic weight about 40 and above are present in about same abundance.
Assume when elements formed, same rule applied to unstable elements.
Now U238 is 140 times as abundant as U235.
If both once equally abundant, would take 6 billion years to reach present proportion.
Age of Universe? of our part of Universe? of our Solar System nebula?
Fission-track dating:
U238 spontaneously breaks down by fission (splits into two large parts).
This is a rare occurrence.
These fission particles pass through the surrounding material with very high energy and leave
tube-shaped damage tracks.
These tracks can be counted (etch mineral with HFl, look at under microscope) and thus the
number of spontaneous fissions may be counted.
This gives amount of daughter product in sample.
Can determine (generally from measurement of amount of radiation being emitted) current U238
content in sample.
Essentially have number of daughter atoms and number of remaining parent atoms and can
thus determine age.
Useful because can be used on wide variety of substances of wide range of ages.
Disadvantage which turns out to be an advantage:
Fission tracks are "healed" by prolonged heating (millions of years).
Temperature at which healing occurs is different for each mineral.
Each different mineral thus can yield a different age (apparent disadvantage) because each
mineral has its clock "restarted" by healing at different temperatures and thus different times.
But temperature history of sample can be determined by comparing different minerals in
sample.
Potassium-Argon dating:
K40 undergoes 2 principal kinds of decay, to Ca40 and to Ar40.
Decay to Ca40 not useful, because Ca40 most common isotope of Ca and small amount produced
radiogenically would be undetectable.
Therefore, use K-Ar.
Since 2 separate decay types are possible, decay equation somewhat more complicated.
Let be total decay constant, Ar be decay constant for K-Ar reaction, and
for K-Ca reaction.
Then decay equation can be written:
Ca
be decay constant
Ar40original = 0 for all but very exotic minerals (original Ar a gas, wouldn't survive formation except
under very unusual circumstances, such as enormously high pressures).
Therefore, substituting 0 for original Ar and also substituting decay constants:
t = 1.88 x 109 ln (1+ 9.07 Ar40/K40)
If metamorphism occurs, Ar40 already formed will probably be lost and clock reset.
K-Ar methods can therefore be used to date metamorphic events.
Disadvantage to method:
Advantages to method:
can be applied to very common and abundant rocks and minerals, since K one of major
elements in Earth's crust
Glauconite in sedimentary rocks can be used and other methods not generally useful for
sedimentary rocks
since Rb usually found with K, 2 independent ages can usually be obtained from same
sample and compared
wide range of ages because of length of halflife (from age of Earth to about 5000 years
old); no other methods allow dating of rocks a few tens of thousands of years old
(important for establishing chronology of recent magnetic reversals)
Samarium-Neodymium dating:
Techniques same as for Rb-Sr or K-Ar.
Has advantage that both elements are members of rare-earth group and have virtually identical
chemical properties.
Both similarly affected by weathering and metamorphic processes.
Sm/Nd ratios would remain unchanged, giving reliable date for original crystallization.
Carbon dating:
Carbon 14 dating (also called radiocarbon dating)
C14 formed in upper atmosphere by reaction of N2 with neutrons produced by cosmic rays.
Reaction is: 0N1 + 7N14 -> 6C14 + 1H1
then C14 decays -> 7N14 + -1 0
Thus, total amount of C14 in atmosphere constant.
Carbon in organism has same C14/C12 ratio as air or water does as long as organism alive.
When organism dies, C14 not replenished, disappears, and C14/C12 ratio decreases to zero.
C14/C12 ratio thus gives age since death.
Limited to very young samples (less than 70,000 years) because of short half-life (5730 years).
Instead of measuring C14/C12 ratio in material directly, normally we compare C14 in sample to C14
in air by comparing radioactivity of the 2 samples (number of decays per minute per gram of
carbon).
A is activity of C14 in material to be dated and Ao is activity of air.
(Age of sample) t = 19,035 log Ao/A.
Is % C14 really constant?
Known that C14 content of atmosphere increased 10 % in period 6000 to 2000 years ago.
Found by studying tree rings.
Cause not known.
Now changing because of:
Natural Gamma
Concentrations of radioactive substances such as uranium and thorium can be detected by
measuring the products of their decay, especially gamma rays.
Other minerals such as titanium and zirconium are often associated with radioisotopes so
radioacivity surveying may also be used in their search. Nonradioactive minerals (especially
those formed by mineral replacement processes) are sometimes associated with depletions as
well as with concentrations of radioisotopes.
Measurements may be made from the air, along a ground traverse or in boreholes.
Different rocks often have different radioactivity and these differences can be utilized in
geologic mapping.
Radioactivity is often concentrated along faults.
Radioactivity lows are sometimes associated with oilfields but the reason is not known.
Part 3: Heat
Heat flows from points of high temperature to points of low temperature.
Methods of heat transfer:
convection
50 cm below surface - daily changes are seldom more than 1 degree and are 1/2 to 1 day
late
few meters down - only seasonal changes detectible and arrive months late
few thousand meters down - effects of last ice age still detectible
Pliocene and Pleistocene lavas are warmer than the average lava
recrystallization
chemical reactions, including oxidation at surface and exothermic reactions between sea
water and basalt
Heat flow about the same all over the Earth; average heat flow for continents same as that for
oceans.
However, continental materials much richer in radioactive materials and thus should give off
more heat.
Interesting speculation: Is it a coincidence that oceanic heat flow equals continental heat flow?
Examples of large scale anomalies:
1. lower than average heat flow:
other areas of recent volcanic activity (as high as 7 x 10-6 cal/cm2 sec)
chemical reactions which give off heat (ex. - oxidation of sulfide ores produces detectable
heat)
presence of local radioactive heat sources (ex. - granite intrusions)
Part 4: Magnetism
Speculation:
Do poles always exist in pairs?
Earth is a magnet.
North-seeking pole of a magnet (also called positive) is one that is attracted to the Earth's north
pole.
Earth's north pole is a south-seeking pole.
The Earth's magnetic field is defined by giving its strength and direction.
The magnetic field strength (H) at a point in the field of a magnet is the force per unit of pole
strength which would be exerted on a pole at that point.
Magnetic field strength is also sometimes given in terms of the density of imaginary lines of
force representing the field.
1 Oersted = 1 line of force per cm2 (called a gauss)
Typical laboratory magnet has field strength of 10,000 Oersteds
The field strength of the Earth varies from about 0.3 Oersteds at the equator to about 0.6
Oersteds at the poles.
Direction given by specifying declination and inclination.
Declination - deflection of a north-seeking pole from geographical north; positive if toward east
Inclination or dip - deflection of north-seeking pole from horizontal; positive if down
Some terminology:
Magnetic equator - curve around the Earth connecting points where inclination is
horizontal
Magnetic dip poles - points on the Earth's surface where inclination is vertical (several
in polar region; also occur where strong local fields exist)
Internal field can be mostly accounted for by a fictitious magnetic dipole displaced from the
center of the Earth about 400 kilometers southward (toward Indonesia) and tilted 11 1/2 degrees
with respect to the axis of rotation.
thermal convection?
If so, source of heat?
Why doesn't the convection disturb the layering of the outer core (called fine structure)?
solification of inner core?
rocking of Earth as it moves around Sun (precession) setting liquid in outer core in
motion
try rocking a bottle of liquid to see similar effect
Magnetic fields which will spontaneously reverse polarity can be produced by a combination
of disk generators.
(Will examine significance of this fact later)
Source of external field is mostly circulating electric currents in the ionosphere.
Earth's magnetic field not constant.
Changes:
1. magnetic storms
2. diurnal changes
3. secular variation
4. westward drift
5. reversals
Continuous recordings of changes are called magnetograms.
1. Magnetic storms:
2. Diurnal changes:
produced by:
o
3. Secular variation:
regional changes
occur over decades or centuries
possible cause?
variations in core motions, especially eddies near the core boundary
4. Westward drift:
entire magnetic field "drifts" around Earth in period of about 2000 years
possible cause?
core rotates slower than rest of Earth
5. Magnetic reversals:
North magnetic pole becomes a south pole and vice versa.
There are no reasons why the Earth's field should have a particular polarity and there is no
fundamental reason why its polarity should not change.
Magnetic reversals are known to occur in the Sun and have been observed in other stars.
Major groupings of normal and reversed sequences are called magnetic epochs.
Briefer fluctuations in polarity are called events.
Average of three reversals per million years.
Reversals occurred in the preCambrian and have been found in all subsequent periods except the
Permian.
Question: Why were there no reversals in the Permian?
The most recent period of reversed polarity was about 8000 - 20000 years ago.
Reversal process takes about 5000 years.
In one area in southeastern Oregon, a gradual transition from normal to reverse magnetization
can be observed across a section made up of 6 individual flows.
During a reversal, the dipole field strength decreases to near zero.
The strength is currently dropping 5% per century and has been dropping for the past 2000 years.
We may be approaching a reversal.
Earth's magnetic field shields surface from cosmic radiation.
Cosmic radiation produces mutations.
In general, there is a rough agreement between faunal extinctions and reversals.
The probability of a correlation occurring by chance is 1 in 700.
Other correlations found:
Lenz's law:
When a substance is placed in a magnetic field, little extra currents are generated inside the
atoms by a process called induction.
These currents produce a magnetic field opposite in direction to the applied field.
(For details, look up Larmor precessions in a quantum mechanics book.)
This induced field is called the Intensity of Magnetization (I) and is proportional to the applied
field: I = kH
k is called the magnetic susceptibility of the substance
Examples of direct uses of magnetic susceptibility measurements:
The total new field in the substance is the applied field plus the induced field.
This is called the Magnetic Induction (B): B = H + I
B is usally given in Tesla (104 Oersteds).
Gamma (or nonotesla, 10-9 Oersteds) are usually used in exploration geophysics.
Motions of electric particles (including electron spin and orbital motion) produce magnetic
fields.
Three types of magnetic behavior:
1. diamagnetic
2. paramagnetic
3. ferromagnetic
1. In diamagnetic substances, small magnetic fields produced by particle motions are randomly
oriented and cancel each other out, leaving atoms and ions with no net magnetic field.
Examples: salt, gypsum, marble, quartz, graphite
2. In paramagnetic substances (which include most substances), the small fields don't cancel
each other out but leave the atoms or ions with net magnetic fields.
However, since the atoms are randomly arranged, the substance as a whole has no net magnetic
field.
3. In ferromagnetic substances, the atoms have net magnetic fields and the atoms are arranged
in regions called domains in such a way that each domain has a magetic field.
effect 1 disappears
effect 3 disappears because of thermal agitation
Exceptions:
When temperature of substance is above the Curie Temperature, domains break down;
substance becomes paramagnetic.
Can also remove "permanent" magnetization by reversing applied field.
The strength of the reversed field necessary to reduce the magnetization to zero is called
the coercive force.
The effects of an applied external magnetic field on a ferromagnetic substance are usually shown
by using a plot called a hysteresis curve.
Magnetism remaining in a rock when the applied field is removed is called natural remanent
magnetization (NRM) or paleomagnetism.
Types include:
Thermoremanent magnetization
Depositonal remanent magnetization
1. relative dating
Example: preCambrian dikes in one part of the Canadian Shield all have the same orientations
but 3 different remanence directions, indicating that they are of 3 different ages.
2. Did Japan "bend" during Tertiary?
Tertiary and Quaternary declinations for the north and south ends are the same; pre-Tertiary
declinations vary.
3. Has Spain rotated with respect to Europe?
Late Paleozoic rocks have a declination 35o different from Europe; less difference with time
4. Paleomagnetic correlation of deep-sea cores
5. Paleomagnetic inclinations allow the determination of past latitudes
Examples:
6. Determine former fit of continents and time of plate break-up by use of "polar wandering"
curves which are identical until the time of break-up and then diverge (or convergence of plates
if curves merge)
7. Marine anomalies (will examine later)
Earth's magnetic field shows little relationship to broad features of geography and geology;
no obvious relationship to mountains, oceanic ridges, continents or oceans
However, field strength varies from place to place due to magnetization of rocks beneath the
surface
Can produce local disturbances of 3 Oersteds or more
(remember, Earth's average is much less)
Anomalies due to:
difference in NRM
and because they are bipolar (have associated highs and lows).
However, no major "corrections" are made.
Note: sedimentary rocks usually produce no significant magnetic effect.
Examples of use:
1. depth to basement
measurements close to anomalous bodies show sharp anomalies; distant bodies produce smaller,
broader and smoother anomalies
On maps, the closer the contours, the shallower the source.
2. (Variation on 1) map structural features on basement
sedimentary basins are characterized by smooth contours and low magnetic relief
uplifted areas have steep gradients and high magnetic relief
3. prospect for magnetic minerals or non-magnetic minerals often found associated with
magnetic minerals
(Example: diamonds in kimberlite pipes)
Note: salt (which is diamagnetic) produces negative anomalies
4. Map rock bodies whose magnetic properties are very different from those of surrounding
rocks.
5. (Variation on 4) presence of magnetic anomalies generally means lack of sediments
6. Locate faults
A sudden change in spacing of contour lines suggests a discontinuity at depth.
Offsets of magnetic anomalies may indicate strike-slip faults which extend below the
sedimentary cover.
Magnetic anomalies are commonly interpreted qualitatively.
Sometimes individual magnetic anomalies are found which stand out so clearly that they can
easily be separated from neighboring effects and which are so simple in appearance that they
seem to be due to a single, magnetized body.
In these situations, quantitative methods can be used.
Example of sphere studied in profile:
The vertical component of the magnetic field strength (V) at a location x
The most accepted theory for sulfides suggests that the portion of the ore body above the water
table is being oxidized (losing electrons) while the portion below is being reduced, setting up a
flow of electrons from one end of the ore body to the other.
This theory cannot explain anomalies where the ore body is completely below the water table,
explain why a clay overburden prevents a self-potential from forming, or explain how selfpotentials form in poor conductors.
b. differences in salt concentration in water (called Electrochemical Potential)
c. solutions flowing through permeable rocks (called Streaming Potential)
d. electric activity caused by life processes of plants and animals (such as differences
between open ground and bush) (called Bioelectric Potential)
2. Resistivity methods:
Make use of the fact that some materials are good conductors of electricity and some are poor
conductors
Potential distribution mapped with 2nd set of electrodes to determine potential difference pattern
(voltage distribution) and directions of current flow.
Anomalies (conducting bodies, for example) disturb regular patterns that would normally be
produced
Common methods look for:
1. variation of resistivity with depth
2. variation of resistivity horizontally
1. to measure variation of resitivity with depth:
current penetrates to deeper depths with increasing separation of current electrodes
can determine approximate depths to layers but not thicknesses of layers
problem 1- the deeper you go, the wider the electrodes must be spaced and the more powerful
the current supply necessary.
This limits the method to a few hundred feet.
problem 2- a layer with intermediate resistivity between layers of high and low resistivitywill
not show up.
Example - looking for groundwater where layer of wet alluvium lies between layer of dry
alluvium and layer of shale
Often used for basement depth determinations:
sedimentary section generally has range of resistivities substantially lower than basement rocks,
so can be thought of as a 2-layer problem
Quantitative method for first approximations, rough work:
(gives reasonable estimates for shallow depths; does not give good results on thick beds)
sum all apparent resistivity values up to and including present reading and plot vs electrode
spacing
Example: If readings are 100, 200, 300 ohm m for spacings of 10, 20, 30 m; plot 100, 300, 600
ohm m vs 10, 20, 30 m
then draw segments of straight lines through as many readings as possible
cross-overs of segments gives depths to interfaces
2. to measure horizontal variations in resistivity
place current electrodes great distance apart and move closely spaced potential electrodes along
grid between them
plot resistivity vs. locations of potential electrodes
can use map or profile to display data; profiles are most common.
Interpreting maps:
Can use either current lines or equipotential lines on maps
Lines of current flow always perpendicular to equipotential lines (lines along which potential is
constant)
Usually interpret maps qualitatively to simply identify locations of good conductors or good
resistors
Interpreting profiles:
Estimate of depth to conducting body (to +/- 100%) can be made by the shape of the
profile - depth is half of the width of the curve at half its maximum height.
Steep gradients in resistivity curve are characteristic markers of structures with nearvertical boundaries, such as faults, dikes, veins, stream channels, etc.
A lack of symmetry in the profile implies a dipping body, with steeper slope and
positive tail on the downdip side.
3. Well Logging:
In well logging, both potential differences and resistivities are used.
Example:
High resistivity could be due to limestone or oil bearing sand.
A potential difference indicates flow of water into or out of well and/or difference in salt
concentration.
Therefore indicates oil bearing sand.
Main value of well logging lies in the possibility of correlation between wells.
4. Electromagnetic Methods:
a.
Telluric methods
b. Magnetotelluric methods
c. Electromagnetic Induction methods
d. Induced Polarization methods
a. Telluric methods:
Faraday's Law of Induction: changing magnetic fields produce alternating currents.
Changes in the Earth's magnetic field produce alternating electric currents just below the Earth's
surface called Telluric currents.
The lower the frequency of the current, the greater the depth of penetration.
Telluric methods use these natural currents to detect resistivity differences which are then
interpreted using procedures similar to those described earlier under resistivity methods.
b. Magnetotelluric methods:
The changing magnetic fields of the Earth and the telluric currents they produce have different
amplitudes.
The ratio of the amplitudes can be used to determine the apparent resistivity to the greatest
depth in the Earth to which energy of that frequency penetrates.
Typical equation:
apparent resistivity =
where Ex is the strength of the electric field in the x direction in millivolts
Hy is the strength of the magnetic field in the y direction in gammas
f is the frequency of the currents
Depth of penetration =
This methods is commonly used in determining the thickness of sedimentary basins.
c. Electromagnetic Induction methods:
Changing magnetic fields are produced by passing alternating currents through long wires or
coils.
These changing magnetic fields induce electric currents in buried conductors such as ore bodies
which then produce their own induced magnetic field.
There are a huge variety of techniques which use either the induced electric currents or the
induced magnetic field which these currents in turn produce.
This method is especially important in mineral exploration and surveys are easy to conduct form
airplanes.
(Advantages to using an airplane to conduct geophysical surveys:
When the current is turned off, the separation of charge remains for a short time and the voltage
can be measured.
The total voltage for the formation depends on the percentage of metallic minerals it contains.
Part 6: Seismology
Stress - specifies the nature of the internal forces acting within a mineral
Strain - defines the changes of size and shape (deformation) arising from those sources
An elastic substance is one in which stress is proportional to strain (Hooke's Law)
The constants of proportionality are known as the elastic constants and are different for different
kinds of stress (twisting, compressing, stretching) and for different materials.
Examples:
If wire is stretched and becomes thinner, the proportionality constants are E, Young's
modulus and , Poisson's ratio.
If wire twisted, the proportionality constant is , the modulus of rigidity or shear
modulus.
If a sphere is compressed, the proportionality constant is K, the bulk modulus.
In a plastic substance, under a given stress, strain is not constant but is dependent on time.
The Earth is constantly undergoing stress.
The rocks of the Earth sometimes behave elastically and sometimes plastically.
If the stress becomes large enough (the elastic limit is reached), fracturing will occur, suddenly
releasing stress and producing elastic waves which travel through the Earth (earthquake)
Five most important types of waves:
Free oscillations
P-waves:
usually have the smallest amplitude
Velocity can be calculated from elastic constants of material through which wave is traveling one formula is:
vp =
where is density
S-waves:
If the particles in an S-wave all move in a parallel line, the wave is said to be polarized.
An S-wave with all vertical particle motion is called SV; one with all horizontal motion is SH.
The velocity of S-waves is given by the formula:
Vs =
Question: Why can't S-waves travel through fluids?
In a fluid, rigidity ( ) is zero, therefore Vs must also be zero.
Question: Why are P-waves always faster than S-waves?
Because K and are always positive numbers, the ratio of Vp to Vs will always be greater than 1.
Love waves:
transverse and horizontal
possible only in a low-speed layer overlying a medium in which elastic waves have a higher
speed
Rayleigh waves:
particle motion in circles like water waves, but in opposite direction
travel only along the free surface of an elastic solid
amplitude decreases with depth below surface
slower than Love waves
When there is a low speed layer overlying a much thicker layer of material in which the speed of
elastic waves is higher, the surface wave velocity varies with wavelength.
This variation of velocity with wavelength is called dispersion.
For deep focus earthquakes, surface waves are either non-existent or have very low amplitudes.
Free Oscillations:
motions of the Earth as a whole
Keppler Laws
the rst law are a consequence of the conservation of energy of a planet orbiting the Sun under
the eect of a central attraction that varies as the inverse square of distance. The second
law describing the rate of motion of the planet around its orbit follows directly from the
conservation of angular momentum of the planet. The third law results from the balance between
the force of gravitation attracting the planet towards the Sun and the centrifugal force away
from the Sun due to its orbital speed. The third law is easily proved for circular orbits
The energy of a seismic wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude.
As a wave spreads out from its source, the energy spreads out over a large area and therefore the
amplitude decreases.
There is also a loss of energy due to friction converting the elastic energy into heat, leading to an
additional reduction in amplitude.
The loss of amplitude is called attenuation of the wave.
Need many seismographs to completely record motion of ground during an earthquake,
including one each to record N-S motion, E-W motion and up-down motion.
The relation between the natural period of a seismograph and the period of the waves being
recorded determines whether the instrument will measure the displacement, the velocity or the
acceleration associated with the Earth motion.
If the natural period of a seismograph is much less than that of the earth vibration
(frequency greater), the displacement of the seismograph becomes proportional to the
acceleration of the Earth and the instrument acts as an accelerometer.
If the two periods are approximately equal, the instrument reading will be proportional to
the velocity of the Earth motion.
If the natural period is much greater than the period of Earth vibration, the reading
becomes proportional to the actual displacement of the Earth.
When a wave meets a surface of discontinuity, part of it will be reflected and part refracted
(bent).
Every reflection or refraction generates additional waves, producing an incredibly complex
situation and seismograms which are extremely confusing.
The recognition of the several different arrivals is a skill acquired by long practice.
It is often easier to follow reflected and refracted waves by viewing them as rays moving at right
angles to the wave front.
Review of physics:
When a wave is reflected, the angle to reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
where v1 is the velocity in the 1st medium; v2 is the velocity in the 2nd medium;
is the angle of incidence and ' is the angle of refraction.
A wave which strikes the discontinuity at the particular angle when sin = v1/v2 will not
penetrate into the 2nd medium but will travel along the interface. is known as the critical angle
of refraction when this occurs.
Some applications of seismology:
1. determining location of an earthquake
2. determining magnitude of an earthquake
3. determining direction of motion along a fault
4. locating "liquid" layers inside the Earth
5. determining structure and composition of Earth, both on large scale and small scale
(seismic exploration)
1a. determining epicenter:
Since velocity of P and S waves are different, time interval between arrivals increases with
increasing distance, allowing the calculation of the distance between epicenter and recording
station.
Must have 3 stations to fix location.
Can usually be done to within 15 miles for a moderate earthquake and to within 3 miles in a
well-monitored area such as California.
1b. determining depth of focus:
Consider 2 P-waves produced by an earthquake, one traveling directly through the Earth to a
recording station on the opposite side, the other first bouncing off the Earth's surface at the
epicenter and then traveling to the same recording station.
The "bounced" wave has traveled farther than the direct wave by an amount equal to twice the
depth of focus.
Thus the time interval between the arrivals of these 2 waves can be used to calculate the depth of
focus.
2. determining magnitude:
The magnitude of an earthquake is a quantitative measure of its size.
Magnitude scales were originally determined from the amplitudes of the elastic waves generated.
The Richter Magnitude Scale can be described by the following formula:
M = log10 (a/T) + f ( , h) + C
a is the amplitude of the ground motion for surface waves from a Southern California
earthquake recorded on a Wood-Anderson seismograph (in microns, .001 mm)
T is the dominant wave period (in seconds)
is the distance (measured as the angle subtended at the center of the Earth) between the
earthquake and the seismometer
The Richter Magnitude Scale did not originally specify which wave type used.
Now we commonly use P-waves for deep focus earthquakes and the horizontal component of
Rayleigh waves for shallow focus earthquakes.
One big problem with the Richter Magnitude Scale is that it doesn't directly measure anything
related to fault mechanics.
A relatively new scale, called the Moment Magnitude Scale, which attempts to address this
problem is now becoming widely used.
The seismic moment is defined as: Mo = A u
Transform faults were found to be different from regular strike-slip faults by looking at their
relative movement as determined by First Motion Studies.
4. locating areas of molten or partially molten rock:
The formulas for the velocities of P and S waves indicate
Major regions:
Crustal layers
Low Velocity Zone in upper mantle (discussed previously)
The Earth can be thought of as being made up of an infinite number of layers, each with greater
density than the one above. This results in an infinite number of refractions and is responsible for
the general curved nature of the paths of seismic waves through the Earth.
Diagrams which trace the paths of seismic waves through the Earth usually use symbols as
follows:
reflection at surface of Earth indicated by succession of chief symbols (ex. PP, PS, SS)
reflection at the outer surface of the core is shown by interposing C (ex. PcP, ScS, PcS)
K is used for a P-wave refracted through the outer core (PKP) and is often abbreviated P'
For deep focus earthquakes, a small preceding s or p is used to indicate a wave moving
up from the focus to the surface (ex. pP, pS, pPcP)
Seismic waves traveling down from a source are reflected upward from each interface
encountered.
Interfaces are not necessarily boundaries between layers but could be any of a number of
lithologic changes which cause velocity contrasts.
Reflections from a single shot are usually recorded by groups of geophones - frequently as many
as 96.
When several closely spaced detectors are laid out along a line, each will record a reflection from
each interface.
If the seismograms from these detectors are recorded parallel to each other, the waves
corresponding to a reflection will all line up across the records in such a way that the crests
and troughs on adjacent traces will appear more or less to fit into one another.
To make a record easier to analyse, we usually make a dynamic correction (also called normal
moveout).
The different geophones were at different distances from the shot point and therefore the waves
had longer distances to travel.
The dynamic correction has the effect of mathematically placing all geophones at the same
distance from the shot point.
Other corrections might involve:
elevation variations
removing the effects of the surface layer because it is generally very variable and not of
particular interest
correcting for the fact that we are assuming vertical paths for the incident and reflecting
rays and this would not be true for dipping or irregular surfaces and correcting for
diffraction effects (both corrections called seismic migration)
After reflections have been identified, they are timed, using the trough of the 1st wave.
For horizontal beds, where T is the travel time, x is the distance between the shot point and the
receiver, and V is the average velocity in the section above the interface, the depth to the
interface is:
Changing the distance between the shot point and the geophones gives several readings for the
same reflecting surfaces.
This results in the same reflection signal being recorded but different "noise" signals, enabling
us to remove the noise signals (or at least to minimize them) with the use of various techniques.
Filters used in geophysics can be compared to maps of different scales
One geophysicist's noise is another's music. Rayleigh waves (disparagingly called ground roll)
get in the way of exploration geophysics but are very important in crustal studies.
Noises are due to many things and we could devote an entire course to the techniques used to
deal with them.
Interpretation:
Know thicknesses and know velocities.
Have at least some knowledge of the geology of the area.
In addition to type of rock, several other factors also affect velocity, including porosity and
water content.
Guess a little.
Seismic Tomography
Seismic tomography uses data from hundreds of earthquakes and recording stations to generate
a sort of CAT scan of the Earth in a way that is similar to the whole-body scanning method used
for medical purposes.
The computer modeling methods are very complex. The end result is a three-dimensional
model of the shear-wave velocity within the Earth.
These S-wave variations provide information about temperature conditions and mantle flow.
Earthquake Prediction
Geophysical properties used in earthquake prediction attempts:
1. slowing down of seismic waves
Before an earthquake, the P-wave velocity drops to a minimum and then returns to
normal.
Quake occurs in about 1/10 time that anomaly lasted.
Possible explanation: When cracks first begin to open, P-waves slow down because they
don't travel as fast through open
space as they do through solid rock. Ground water then seeps in and P-wave velocity
returns to normal; also rocks are lubricated.
Problems:
o
2. rock deformation
5. electromagnetic "noise"
6. "earthquake lights"
Due to Snells law, the ray is thus bending at the interface if the two velocities are
different. Since this relation holds for all interfaces, the quantity sin(i)/v will be constant
and the ray parameter is constant. The quantity 1/p is also the apparent velocity along
P:
Compressional wave
S: Shear wave
K:
I:
PPP:
Pg At short distances, either an upgoing P wave from a source in the upper crust or a P wave
bottoming in the upper crust. At larger distances
also arrivals caused by multiple P-wave reverberations inside the whole crust with a group
velocity around 5.8 km/s.
Pb (alt:P*) Either an upgoing P wave from a source in the lower crust or a P wave bottoming in
the lower crust
Pn Any P wave bottoming in the uppermost mantle or an upgoing P wave from a source in the
uppermost mantle
PnPn Pn free surface reflection
PgPg Pg free surface reflection
PmP P reflection from the outer side of the Moho
PmPN PmP multiple free surface reflection; N is a positive integer. For example, PmP2 is
PmPPmP
PmS P to S reflection from the outer side of the Moho
Sg At short distances, either an upgoing S wave from a source in the upper crust or an S wave
bottoming in the upper crust. At larger distances
also arrivals caused by superposition of multiple S-wave reverberations and SV to P and/or P to
SV conversions inside the whole crust.
Sb (alt:S*) Either an upgoing S wave from a source in the lower crust or an S wave bottoming in
the lower crust
Sn Any S wave bottoming in the uppermost mantle or an upgoing S wave from a source in the
uppermost mantle
SnSn Sn free surface reflection
SgSg Sg free surface reflection
SmS S reflection from the outer side of the Moho
SmSN SmS multiple free surface reflection; N is a positive integer. For example, SmS2 is
SmSSmS
SmP S to P reflection from the outer side of the Moho
Lg A wave group observed at larger regional distances and caused by superposition of multiple
S-wave reverberations and SV to P and/or P to
SV conversions inside the whole crust. The maximum energy travels with a group velocity
around 3.5 km/s
Rg Short period crustal Rayleigh wave
MANTLE PHASES
P A longitudinal wave, bottoming below the uppermost mantle; also an upgoing longitudinal
wave from a source below the uppermost mantle
PP Free surface reflection of P wave leaving a source downwards
PS P, leaving a source downwards, reflected as an S at the free surface. At shorter distances the
first leg is represented by a crustal P wave.
PPP analogous to PP
PPS PP to S converted reflection at the free surface; travel time matches that of PSP
PSS PS reflected at the free surface
PcP P reflection from the core-mantle boundary (CMB)
PcS P to S converted reflection from the CMB
PcPN PcP multiple free surface reflection; N is a positive integer. For example PcP2 is PcPPcP
Pz+P (alt:PzP) P reflection from outer side of a discontinuity at depth z; z may be a positive
numerical value in km. For example P660+P is a P
seismic wave used to determine focal depth is the sP phase - an S wave reflected as a P wave
from the Earth's surface at a point near the epicenter. This wave is recorded after the pP by about
one-half of the pP-P time interval. The depth of an earthquake can be determined from the sP
phase in the same manner as the pP phase by using the appropriate travel-time curves or depth
tables for sP.
If the pP and sP waves can be identified on the seismogram, an accurate focal depth can be
determined.
Coulomb's Law
where
is the force
is the permeability of free space, =
+ (north-seeking)
- (south-seeking)
Magnetic Induction, B
force per unit pole strength (force exerted on unit magnetic pole)
(In our analogy with gravity, m here is the Earth's "monopole" field, which is a
fiction; Stacey incorrectly calls B "magnetic field, which is H)
Magnetic Field Strength, H
o
if we only had to deal with a vacuum (or even air, since it has
negligible magnetic susceptibility), we could always deal with H
(magnetic field strength)..
How much bigger and stronger is a 8.7 mag earthquake compared to a 5.7
earthquake
A magnitude 8.7 earthquake is 794 times BIGGER on a seismogram than a magnitude 5.8
earthquake. The magnitude scale is logarithmic, so
(10**8.7)/(10**5.8) =
=
=
OR
=
=
=
(5.01*10**9)/(6.31*10**6)
.794*10**3
794
10**(8.7-5.8)
10**2.9
794.328
Another way to get about the same answer without using a calculator is that since 1 unit of
magnitude is 10 times the amplitude on a seismogram and 0.1 unit of magnitude is about 1.3
times the amplitude, we can get,
10 * 10 * 10 / 1.3 = 769 times
[not exact, but a decent approximation]
The magnitude scale is really comparing amplitudes of waves on a seismogram, not the
STRENGTH (energy) of the quakes. So, a magnitude 8.7 is 794 times bigger than a 5.8 quake as
measured on seismograms, but the 8.7 quake is about 23,000 times STRONGER than the 5.8!
Since it is really the energy or strength that knocks down buildings, this is really the more
important comparison. This means that it would take about 23,000 quakes of magnitude 5.8 to
equal the energy released by one magnitude 8.7 event. Here's how we get that number:
One whole unit of magnitude represents approximately 32 times (actually 10**1.5 times) the
energy, based on a long-standing empirical formula that says log(E) is proportional to 1.5M,
where E is energy and M is magnitude. This means that a change of 0.1 in magnitude is about 1.4
times the energy release. Therefore, using the shortcut shown eartlier for the amplitude
calculation, the energy is,
32 * 32 * 32 / 1.4 = 23,405 or about 23,000
- Seismic sensors: Mechanical and electrical constants, how to measure constants, overview of
main types.
Knowledge of approximate values of generator constants and free period for different types of
sensors.
- Digital instruments: What is an A/D converter, what does number of bits mean, typical units on
the market, anti alias filters, GSN station, SEISLOG station.
- Seismic noise: Generally expected shape of noise curves, noise measured as displacement or
power spectral density of acceleration.
exceeding a normal diode's PIV usually results in destruction of the diode. Special
types of diodes, though, which are designed to break down in reverse-bias mode
without damage (called zener diodes)
Purpose of Rectification
Diodes can perform switching and digital logic operations. Forward and reverse bias switch a
diode between the low and high impedance states, respectively. Thus, it serves as a switch.
LED: emission of specific-frequency radiant energy whenever electrons fall from a
higher energy level to a lower energy level.
An ohmmeter may be used to qualitatively check diode function. There should be low
resistance measured one way and very high resistance measured the other way. When using an
ohmmeter for this purpose, be sure you know which test lead is positive and which is negative!
The actual polarity may not follow the colors of the leads as you might expect, depending on the
particular design of meter.
Some multimeters provide a diode check function that displays the actual forward voltage
of the diode when its conducting current. Such meters typically indicate a slightly lower forward
voltage than what is nominal for a diode, due to the very small amount of current used during
the check.
Maximum DC reverse voltage
Maximum (average) forward current
Maximum total dissipation
Operating junction temperature
Maximum reverse current
Typical junction capacitance = CJ, the typical amount of capacitance intrinsic to the
junction, due to the depletion region acting as a dielectric separating the anode and
cathode connections.
Reverse recovery time = trr, the amount of time it takes for a diode to turn o
when the voltage across it alternates from forward-bias to reverse-bias polarity.
LEDjunctions glow when forward biased. A diode intentionally designed to glow like a lamp is
called a light-emitting diode, or LED.
Forward biased silicon diodes give off heat as electron and holes from the N-type and P-type
regions
SOLAR CELLS operates in photovoltaic mode (PV) because it is forward biased by the voltage
developed across the load resistance
PIN diodes are used in place of switching diodes in radio frequency (RF) applications, PIN diode
is manufactured like a silicon switching diode with an intrinsic region added between the PN
junction layers. This yields a thicker depletion region, the insulating layer at the junction of a
reverse biased diode. This results in lower capacitance than a reverse biased switching diode.
TRIODE :thermionic diode, the heated cathode (either directly or indirectly by means of a
filament) causes a space charge of electrons that may be attracted to the positively charged plate
(anode in UK parlance) and create a current. Applying a negative charge to the control grid will
tend to repel some of the (also negatively charged) electrons back towards the cathode: the larger
the charge on the grid, the smaller the current to the plate. If an AC signal is superimposed on the
DC bias of the grid, an amplified version of the AC signal appears (inverted) in the plate circuit.
Dierence between AC and DC
Alternating Current
Direct Current
Alternating Current
Direct Current
Square.
complex BB sensors? That brings us into the topic of instrument self noise. All
electronic
components as well as the sensor itself generate noise. If that noise is larger than
the signal
generated from the ground motion, we obviously have reached a limit.